EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF A POSITIVE EDUCATION PROGRAM ON THE WELLBEING OF ADOLESCENT GIRLS

Madonna Ahern Diploma Arts/Humanities (Griffith University), Bachelor Education (Griffith University), Graduate Diploma Religious Education (Australian Catholic University), Master of Education (QUT).

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education

Office of Education Research

Faculty of Education Queensland University of Technology

2017

Keywords

Female adolescents; positive education program; positive psychology; positive psychology program; transition; wellbeing.

Abstract

Positive psychology is a relatively new science, still in its formative stages with limited studies on female adolescents as well as studies on adolescents in general. Researchers in the area of positive psychology are calling for more empirical studies in this area, particularly in the area of adolescent wellbeing, as there is a gap in this area with mostly non-quantitative evidence available to date. This study contributes to lessening the gap by providing evidence from a longitudinal study on five evidence-based positive psychology constructs used in a wellbeing program for adolescent girls in their first two years of secondary school.

Australian secondary schools in the 21st century are being called on by governments, parents and educators to adopt a paradigm for education which includes wellbeing alongside academic pursuits. The 21st century is emerging as the century of the preventative approach to disease, compared with the treatment of disease being the focus in the 20th century. This preventative approach, which is also viewed as a strengths approach, is a major tenet of the relatively new science of positive psychology. This new branch of psychology focuses on the scientific enquiry into the factors that promote wellbeing and assist people in leading lives that are flourishing rather than languishing. Positive education can be described as the application of positive psychology to education. There is increasing global interest in the application of positive psychology and positive education to the area of wellbeing. In Australia, there is also a growing interest in the science of positive psychology and how it can be applied to achieve more successful educational and wellbeing outcomes for students.

This study examines the impact of a wellbeing program taught to adolescent girls in their transition year of secondary school (Year 8) and the following year (Year 9). The researcher is the author of the program and female adolescents were chosen as participants because the all girls’ school is the researcher’s workplace. The study is underpinned by the theoretical frameworks of positive psychology and constructivism. The purpose of implementing a positive education program is to equip students with skills and strategies to assist their wellbeing, while placing them at the centre of their learning, thus allowing them to construct new knowledge by

building on their existing knowledge and experiences. This study’s wellbeing program is based on positive psychology and is known as the positive education program (Pos-Ed). It was implemented in a single sex girls’ Catholic school in Brisbane, Australia. It comprised five main positive psychology constructs: character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring and mindfulness. There were three central research questions for the current research project:

1) What are the short-term and long-term changes in the level of wellbeing that adolescent girls experience in the Pos-Ed program?

2) What are the experiences of adolescent girls in the Pos-Ed program at the end of the first and second years of the program?

3) Have any observed changes been consistent, or strengthened, over the two years of the program (Years 8 and 9)?

In order to gather responses to these questions, a mixed-method, multiphase research design was chosen and conducted over a two-year period. There were seven phases in this study which comprised the collection of quantitative data at three different time points and qualitative data at two different time points to evaluate the positive education program over a two-year period. The quantitative data comprised phases one, four and seven. Participants completed a survey before, immediately after, and one year after completing the program. The survey used was the online Social Emotional and Health Survey (SEHS-S) for secondary school students (Furlong, 2014). This survey was developed as an instrument to investigate the social and emotional wellbeing of adolescents. The qualitative data comprised phases three and six and consisted of two focus groups. The phases are listed below:

Phase 1 Pre-Test SEHS-S Survey Beginning Year 8

Phase 2 Pos-Ed program Year 8

Phase 3 Focus Group 1 End Year 8

Phase 4 Post-Test SEHS-S Survey End Year 8

Phase 5 Pos-Ed program Year 9

Phase 6 Focus Group 2 End Year 9

Phase 7 Post Post-Test SEHS-S Survey End Year 9

The focus groups were used to gather the participants’ experiences of the Pos-Ed program. The first focus group was conducted at the end of the transition year (Year 8) with six students, and the second group was conducted with five students at the end of the second year of secondary school (Year 9). Seven questions formed the basis of the discussion in each group. The data from each group was analysed using Creswell’s (2009) Eight Steps Model (discussed in Chapter 5).

The researcher examined both sets of data results, and additionally examined both sets together to arrive at the results discussed in Chapter 8. The results indicated that the participants in this study transitioned to secondary school with existing high levels of wellbeing, and these high levels remained stable for the transition year (Year 8). There was, however, a small dip revealed in the quantitative data for the second year (Year 9), although still within an acceptable range. In contrast, both sets of qualitative data revealed that the participants transitioned successfully to secondary school and the Pos-Ed program was contributing to their wellbeing. This study offers secondary schools considering adopting a positive psychology approach valuable information on a positive education program as a program to assist student wellbeing.

Table of Contents

Keywords ...... i Abstract ...... ii Table of Contents ...... v List of Figures ...... ix List of Tables ...... x List of Abbreviations ...... xi Statement of Original Authorship ...... xii Acknowledgements ...... xiii Chapter 1: Overview ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Female Adolescent Wellbeing ...... 3 1.3 The Current Positive Psychology Program ...... 4 1.4 Positive Psychology Constructs chosen for the Positive Education Program ...... 6 1.5 Research Program Outline ...... 6 1.5.1 Phase 1: Pre-test...... 7 1.5.2 Phase 2: Year 8 program implementation...... 8 1.5.3 Phase 3: Focus group 1...... 8 1.5.4 Phase 4: Post-test...... 8 1.5.5 Phase 5: Year 9 program implementation...... 8 1.5.6 Phase 6: Focus group 2...... 9 1.5.7 Phase 7: Second post-test...... 9 1.6 Significance of the Research Program ...... 9 1.7 Contributions of the Research Program ...... 10 1.8 Synopsis of Chapters ...... 12 Chapter 2: Literature Review Part 1 ...... 15 2.1 Introduction ...... 15 2.2 Adolescence ...... 15 2.3 Early Adolescence ...... 16 2.4 Female Adolescent Wellbeing ...... 21 2.5 The Emergence of Positive Psychology ...... 26 2.6 Exploring Positive Psychology ...... 29 2.6.1 Learned helplessness...... 30 2.6.2 Positive psychology...... 30 2.6.3 Challenges and critics of positive psychology...... 33 2.6.4 Positive psychology and the PERMA model...... 36 2.6.5 Covitality and the Social Emotional Health Survey – Secondary (SEHS- S). 37 2.7 Positive Psychology and the Current Research Project ...... 40

2.8 Character Strengths and Virtues ...... 42 2.8.1 Definition...... 42 2.8.2 Classification...... 43 2.8.3 Ways to enhance using strengths with adolescents...... 44 2.9 Gratitude...... 46 2.9.1 Definition...... 46 2.9.2 Gratitude and student wellbeing...... 46 2.9.3 Ways to enhance gratitude in adolescents...... 47 2.10 Flow ...... 48 2.10.1 Definition...... 48 2.10.2 Ways to enhance flow in adolescents...... 49 2.10.3 Flow and teachers...... 50 2.11 Savouring ...... 51 2.11.1 Definition...... 51 2.11.2 Ways to enhance savouring in adolescents...... 52 2.12 Mindfulness ...... 52 2.12.1 Mindfulness research...... 53 2.12.2 Ways to enhance mindfulness in adolescents...... 54 2.13 Summary ...... 55 Chapter 3: Literature Review Part 2 ...... 57 3.1 Introduction ...... 57 3.2 Wellbeing and Schools ...... 57 3.3 Positive Psychology: Wellbeing and Schools ...... 58 3.4 Positive Psychology Programs ...... 60 3.5 Programs that Address Adolescent Wellbeing from a Preventative, Proactive Approach ...... 61 3.5.1 Positive Educational Practices (PEPs)...... 61 3.5.2 AEIOU: Academic, Emotional Intelligence, Optimising performance, Understanding you...... 62 3.5.3 Evidence-based life coaching for senior high school students: Building hardiness and hope...... 62 3.5.4 The Resourceful Adolescent Program (RAP)...... 64 This 64 3.5.5 The Geelong Grammar School Project...... 65 3.6 Summary ...... 67 Chapter 4: The Positive Education Program ...... 69 4.1 Introduction ...... 69 4.2 Positive Education ...... 69 4.3 Pos-Ed: A Positive Psychology Program ...... 71 4.4 Pos-Ed: A Positive Education Program For Adolescent Girls ...... 71 4.4.1 Program Origin...... 71 4.5 Program Planning ...... 72 4.5.1 Researcher as the author of the program...... 72 4.5.2 Program design...... 74 4.5.3 Training for teachers implementing the program...... 76 4.6 Program Implementation ...... 77

4.6.1 Program delivery...... 79 4.6.2 Examples of lessons...... 80 4.6.3 Examples of activities...... 81 4.7 Summary ...... 83 Chapter 5: Research Design and Theoretical Framework...... 85 5.1 Introduction ...... 85 5.2 Research Questions ...... 85 5.3 Research Design ...... 86 5.3.1 Mixed methods approach: Strengths and challenges...... 86 5.4 Phases of the Study ...... 88 5.4.1 Quantitative phases...... 88 5.4.2 Qualitative phases...... 95 5.4.3 Procedure...... 96 5.4.4 Participants...... 97 5.4.5 Participant selection...... 97 5.4.6 Positive psychology program (Pos-Ed)...... 101 5.4.7 Quantitative and qualitative data analyses...... 102 5.4.8 Longitudinal results...... 103 5.5 Issues in Data Collection ...... 104 5.5.1 Researcher at the research site...... 104 5.6 Ethical Issues ...... 106 5.7 Theoretical Framework ...... 107 5.7.1 Early adolescence: The trajectory point for the program...... 107 5.7.2 Positive psychology: A theoretical position...... 107 5.7.3 Constructivism...... 108 Chapter 6: Analysis of the Quantitative Survey Data ...... 111 6.1 Introduction ...... 111 6.2 Results ...... 111 6.2.1 Data screening...... 111 6.2.2 Correlational analyses...... 111 6.2.3 One-way repeated measure ANOVA...... 112 6.3 Developmental Changes ...... 115 6.3.1 Self-Esteem issues...... 115 6.3.2 Depression rates...... 117 6.3.3 Transition to secondary school...... 118 6.4 Challenges Associated with Being a Year 9 Student: The Year 9 Factor...... 120 6.5 Reference Bias ...... 124 6.6 Summary ...... 125 Chapter 7: Analysis of Focus Groups ...... 126 7.1 Introduction ...... 126 7.2 Data Analysis Time 1 ...... 126 7.3 Results Time 1 ...... 127 7.4 Wellbeing ...... 128 7.4.1 Gratitude...... 130 7.4.2 Strengths...... 131

7.4.3 Mindfulness...... 133 7.4.4 Savouring...... 134 7.4.5 Transition...... 136 7.5 Summary of Focus Group 1 ...... 139 7.6 Data Analysis Time 2 ...... 140 7.7 Wellbeing ...... 141 7.7.1 Confidence...... 142 7.7.2 Gratitude...... 143 7.7.3 Strengths...... 145 7.7.4 Mindfulness...... 146 7.7.5 Savouring...... 148 7.7.6 Transition...... 149 7.8 Summary of Focus Group 2 ...... 150 7.8.1 Application of strategies to current and future lives...... 151 7.8.2 The Pos-Ed program: Suggestions for changes to the program...... 152 Chapter 8: Discussion and Conclusion ...... 153 8.1 Introduction ...... 153 8.2 Research Program ...... 153 8.3 Research Questions and Findings ...... 155 8.4 Implications for Practice ...... 158 8.5 Contributions of the Study ...... 162 8.6 Proactive Positive Education Programs ...... 164 8.7 Methodological Contributions ...... 165 8.8 Limitations ...... 166 8.9 Future Studies ...... 168 8.10 A Final Word ...... 170 References ...... 173 Appendices ...... 187 8.10.1 Appendix A: Notes of visits to schools...... 187 8.10.2 Appendix B: Years 8 to 9 Overview of Positive Education Program 2013, 2014 ...... 190 8.10.3 Appendix C: Term Planner Year 8 ...... 192 8.10.4 Appendix D: Term Planner Year 9 2014 Term 1...... 193 8.10.5 Appendix E: Year 8 Strengths Lesson ...... 196 8.10.6 Appendix F: Lesson- Year 8 Strengths Revisited ...... 197 8.10.7 Appendix G: Lesson- Year 9 Strengths ...... 198 8.10.8 Appendix H: Activity Year 8 Gratitude Activity ...... 199 8.10.9 Appendix I: Year 9 Gratitude Activity ...... 200 8.10.10 Appendix J: Quantitative Survey ...... 203 8.10.11 Appendix K: Consent Form ...... 224 8.10.12 Appendix L: Principal’s Approval ...... 225 8.10.13 Appendix M: Focus Group 1- Information and Consent Form ...... 226 8.10.14 Appendix N: Focus Group 2- Information and Consent Form ...... 229 8.10.15 Appendix O: Parent Letter- Focus Group 1 ...... 233 8.10.16 Appendix P: Parent Letter Focus Group 2 ...... 234

List of Figures

Figure 5.1. Data analysis in qualitative research adapted from Creswell (2009). ... 103 Figure 7.1. Themes that emerged in the focus group discussion at Time 1...... 128 Figure 7.2. Themes that emerged in the focus group discussion at Time 2...... 141 Figure 8.1 Phases of the current study ...... 153

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Seven Phases of the Current Study ...... 7 Table 2.1 The VIA Classification of Character Strengths and Virtues adapted from Peterson and Seligman (2004) ...... 44 Table 4.1 Research and Training for Staff ...... 74 Table 4.2 The Pos-Ed program (Current Study) ...... 78 Table 5.1 Research Timeline for the Current Study ...... 88 Table 6.1 Correlations for the Four Underlying Co-vitality Components and Co-vitality ...... 112 Table 6.2 Summary of Scores...... 113 Table 6.3 Percentages of Participants in Each Level of Covitality Scores ...... 114 Table 6.4 Transition Expectation and Experience by Gender as a Percentage of the Sample as Adapted from Waters et al. (2014) ...... 119

List of Abbreviations

AEIOU Academic Emotional Intelligence Optimising Performance Understanding You ANOVA One-way repeated measure CBT Cognitive Behaviour Therapy CHKS California Healthy Kids Survey CoVi Covitality GGS Geelong Grammar School PEP Positive Educational Practices PERMA Positive Emotion Engagement Relationships Meaning Accomplishment Pos-Ed Positive Education PPI Positive Psychology program PRP Penn Resilience Program PSFL Problem Solving for Life RAP Resourceful Adolescent Program RYDM Resilience/Youth Development Module SEHS Social Emotional Health Survey SEHS-S Social Emotional Health Survey-Secondary VIA Values in Action VIA-IS Values in Action-Inventory of Strengths VIA-Youth Valued in Action-Youth

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Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to a number of people who assisted me in the completion of this doctoral thesis:

I offer a very special thank you to my two supervisors, Professor Peter Boman and Dr Amanda Mergler. They have both been outstanding in their professional guidance, help, support and encouragement. They were always available for assistance, and their prompt responses enabled me to keep progressing this study in what, at times, seemed a long and challenging journey.

I am grateful to the principal of the school, Ms Alison Terrey, for allowing this study to go ahead, and for her support and encouragement throughout.

To the middle leaders of the school who assisted me in gathering data, I offer my thanks: Ms Deborah Lonsdale Walker, Mrs Madonna Kelly, Mrs Alison Larkings, Ms Jo Brash-McPhee and Mrs Madonna Potter. I also offer my thanks to the college psychologist, Ms Kathy James for her guidance, wisdom and support in relation to assisting me in the development of the Positive Education program. I also thank Ms Leanne Sorbello for her assistance. I am grateful to the students at school who participated in the surveys and focus groups, and their parents for being supportive of this study.

I am especially grateful to my husband, Mr Brad Ahern, for his support, understanding, encouragement and patience throughout this time. I thank my son, Nathan Ahern, and my daughter, Carmel Quinn, for their interest, support and encouragement during this time.

Further afield, I am grateful to Professor Michael Furlong of the University of California Santa Barbara for the online Social Emotional Health Survey-Secondary that I used for the quantitative section of the study.

At QUT, I am appreciative of the help given to me by Dr Emma Caukill in the final stages of completing this study. I acknowledge that my thesis had the benefit of structural/developmental editing and copyediting by Dr Karleen Gwinner, Senior Research Assistant, QUT, following the Australian Standards of Editing Practice. I am also very grateful for assistance by Ms Paege Bellett with final checking.

Chapter 1: Overview

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Australian secondary schools in the 21st century are being entreated by parents, educators and concerned citizens to adopt a new paradigm for education (Gill, 2009; Huitt, 2011; Ryff, 2003; Waters, Lester, & Cross, 2014). For too long, academic models alone have dominated the education landscape, and success has been associated with academic excellence (Norrish, 2015). 21st century education has been conceptualised in a multi-dimensional way, and includes new technologies, new pedagogies, a nationalised curriculum, open learning spaces and enhanced teacher training. In addition, it is argued that schools play an important role in assisting adolescents to develop cognitive, social, and emotional skills (Waters, 2011; Waters, et al., 2014). As a result, a core component of 21st century schooling in both the private and state sectors is the call for education to develop the whole student through social, emotional, moral, and intellectual development (Cain & Carnellor, 2008; Huitt, 2011). The desire to educate the whole student has emerged out of a 21st century world that is complex and challenging. Increasingly, the literature on adolescent wellbeing suggests that a significant number of adolescents in the 21st century struggle with mental health issues (Chaplin, Gillham, & Seligman, 2009). Therefore, the wellbeing of adolescents is increasingly a salient concern for educators in the 21st century.

The term wellbeing is contentious with diverse definitions available. Equally challenging is finding consensus about what constitutes adolescent wellbeing, also referred to as student wellbeing (Roffey, 2012). Despite this, Roffey (2012) offers this working definition:

Optimal student wellbeing is a sustainable emotional state characterised by (predominantly) positive mood, attitude and relationships at school, resilience, self-optimisation and a high level of satisfaction with learning experiences. (p. 19)

Another definition of wellbeing is that it is simply the combination of feeling good and functioning well (Huppert & Johnson, 2010). This definition resonated with the

researcher in examining this concept. In the current study, wellbeing is examined through the constructs of an increasingly important branch of psychology, namely, positive psychology.

Positive psychology is a relatively new branch of psychology that is strength-based and seeks to promote optimal development across a full range of human functioning from disorder and distress to health and fulfilment (Linley & Joseph, 2004). It was initiated by Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi in 1998, with the aim of shifting the focus of psychology from a deficit approach to a proactive one. An impetus for shifting the focus was Seligman’s realisation that psychology since World War II, and had concentrated much of its efforts on human problems with a focus on pathology (Peterson, 2006). Peterson (2006) argues that while great achievements have been made in treating psychological disorders, an area that has been neglected is the study of what can go right with people. The positive psychology approach provided new knowledge about the ways in which individuals can work towards positive outcomes for themselves in order to lead productive and meaningful lives. The emphasis of positive psychology on wellbeing, flourishing, character, meaning and virtue aligns strongly with the call for whole student learning in 21st century education (Waters, 2011). The nexus between positive psychology and wellbeing in adolescents is now starting to be explored.

In particular, adolescents today face an ever-changing, ever-complex world and this complexity is taking its toll on adolescent mental health (Waters, 2011). For example, recent research from America (Gilman, Huebner, & Furlong, 2009) indicated that between 10 and 20 percent of young people will have had some form of anxiety or depression by the age of 18. In 2008 in Australia, 25 percent of adolescents self-reported experiencing symptoms of depression (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008). More recently, these rising rates of anxiety and depression in adolescents have been documented in the Report on the Second Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (2015). This Australian government survey revealed that one fifth (19.9%) of adolescents had high or very high levels of psychological distress, which was almost twice as high for females (25.9%) compared with males (14.8%) (Lawrence et al., 2015). During early adolescence, rates of depression begin a steady climb (Angold & Rutter, 1992; Cohen et al., 1993; Hankin et al., 1998). What this data demonstrates is that while

many adolescents are not in the clinical range for poor mental health, a substantial proportion are reporting mental health issues (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009). There is a need to investigate strategies and identify skills to build positive wellbeing and hope in adolescents. Therefore, the research reported in this thesis examined a program called the Positive Education program (Pos-Ed) that aims to equip female adolescents with skills from a proactive approach to assist their wellbeing.

1.2 FEMALE ADOLESCENT WELLBEING

The wellbeing of female adolescents in schools is important, as research has identified that levels of stress, anxiety, depression, psychological distress and other mental health issues in adolescent girls is increasing (Deak, 2002, 2010; Lawrence, et al., 2015; Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002). In relation to female adolescent development, researchers have identified higher levels of worry and oversensitivity among girls compared to boys during early adolescence (Chaplin, et al., 2009). In Australia, it was found that a low level of emotional wellbeing in adolescent females was a risk factor for major depression, substance abuse and self-harm behaviour (Patton et al., 1997). As mentioned above, a more recent Australian government survey on mental health and wellbeing revealed that 25.9 percent of female adolescents are experiencing high levels of distress and this is a concern (Lawrence, et al., 2015). Considerable research attention has been given to negative changes in wellbeing and increases in self-consciousness among girls during early adolescence (Galambos, 2004; Graber & Sontag, 2004; Peterson et al., 1993). Clearly, more needs to be achieved to address the mental health of female adolescents and rather than treating the symptoms alone, more research needs to be completed on preventative approaches that are strengths-based such as positive psychology.

The main impetus for the current study was a desire to examine the area of female adolescent wellbeing from a proactive rather than a deficit approach, and to contribute to the research available on female adolescent wellbeing. Rather than reacting to anxiety, depression and other social disorders as they emerge, this research explored a preventative program to build wellbeing and assist in preventing psychological distress in girls before they develop symptoms of the above mentioned conditions. That is, it is important that preventative programs be explored to equip girls with strategies and skills that promote resilience. This study focused on building wellbeing skills in mainstream adolescent girls. The participants in the study were a

group of adolescent girls from a Catholic single sex girls’ school transitioning into secondary school, that is, the first year of secondary school.

1.3 THE CURRENT POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM

The program examined in the current study began when girls were in their transition year from primary to secondary school, Year 8, between the ages of 12-14 years. This transition year to secondary school was chosen for the research sample, as wellbeing has been shown to dip markedly for girls around this time in early adolescence, 13 to 14 years of age (Roeser et al., 2008). There was a change in 2015 post this study, when Year 7 girls also joined the college as a result of Queensland state legislation mandating that Year 7 move to secondary school. In this 2013 to 2014 study, the transition year to secondary school was Year 8. To determine if the program successfully assisted the students with their wellbeing, the positive education program was assessed at the end of each of the first two years of secondary school (Years 8 and 9). The evaluation of the program comprised student surveys and focus groups to ascertain the impact of the program in assisting student wellbeing. Roeser et al. (2008) argue that this early period of adolescence is a pivotal trajectory point where programs to build confidence can work to enhance wellbeing. Thus, this developmental period was chosen as a suitable time to embed a program to assist wellbeing. As stated above, it was envisaged that the program would assist adolescent girls build a repertoire of skills that could carry them through this challenging time and possibly into adulthood.

The current study aligned with Seligman and his colleagues’ assertion that wellbeing can be taught in schools, as there is now evidence from controlled studies that skills that increase resilience, positive emotion, engagement and meaning can be taught to school children (Seligman, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich, & Linkins, 2009). Seligman and his team incorporated a whole school approach to positive psychology by teaching these skills to an entire secondary coeducational school, including administrative and facilities management staff, in Australia in 2008 (Seligman, et al., 2009). The current study was influenced by the researcher visiting this school in 2010 to study how positive psychology was adopted as a whole school approach. While not a replication of the positive psychology program at this school, the current study draws on elements of this approach that the researcher argues are suitable for female adolescent education. The researcher visited this school and was able to talk with the

staff involved in the positive psychology program. This secondary school was the only school in Australia using positive psychology in their wellbeing program at this time in 2010.

Another motivation for this study was to explore further aspects of positive psychology. Positive psychology constructs and programs have gained increasing attention in the last five years in education, as they aim to add to, rather than replace, approaches to wellbeing that seek to reduce negative factors. A positive psychology ‘construct’ is a term used to refer to one area within positive psychology, for example, gratitude. Positive psychology programs in schools tend to use more than one positive psychology construct, as wellbeing programs generally cover a number of areas, (e.g. resilience, hope, health, identity, relationships), and therefore more than one construct is usually incorporated. Positive psychology interventions (PPIs) can be defined as programs, practices, treatment methods or activities “aimed at cultivating positive feelings, positive behaviours or positive cognitions” in young people (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009, p. 467). The controlled study of an Australian life coaching program for female senior secondary students discussed in Chapter 3 is an example of positive psychology intervention or PPI. What has emerged as a result of the growth in interest in positive psychology is the area of positive psychology being utilised in the education area.

Positive education is regarded as applied positive psychology in education. Seligman et al. (2009) define positive education as an approach to education that fosters traditional academic skills and skills for happiness and wellbeing. Positive education also works on the shared belief that the skills and mindsets that promote positive emotions, positive relationships and character strengths also promote learning and academic success (Seligman, et al., 2009). In a recent paper, Waters (2011) examined 12 school-based PPIs and, in order to qualify for review, her paper had to meet three criteria; it needed to be: 1) aimed at building positive factors; 2) implemented with students in schools; and 3) evaluated using valid research designs and methods (Waters, 2011). More and more schools are now investigating and considering applications of positive psychology and are moving to create customised positive education programs. Pioneering schools in Australia that have adopted whole school positive education programs are Geelong Grammar and Knox Grammar. Green (2014) argues that educators should create programs to meet the individualised needs

of their school. The way individual schools approach positive education is diverse (White & Murray, 2015). Thus, the author of this study created a positive education program specifically for female adolescents in secondary school and this program will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

However, most of the research on positive psychology programs has been carried out using adult samples (Gilman, et al., 2009), and researchers suggest that more work is needed to investigate the potential benefits of positive psychology programs in schools (McCabe, Bray, Kehle, Gelbar, & Gelbar, 2011). Although further research using adolescent samples is required, there is already a small body of accumulating evidence for using positive psychology programs with adolescents, and the demand for such programs is high (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009).

1.4 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY CONSTRUCTS CHOSEN FOR THE POSITIVE EDUCATION PROGRAM

Some researchers assert that within Australia, there is increasing recognition that schools are important places for the adoption of positive psychology in regard to student wellbeing (Green, Oades, & Robinson, 2011). Researchers are calling for more empirical evidence on multiple constructs and whole school programs (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012; Waters, 2011). The current study examines a positive education program for female adolescents based on multiple constructs. The number of constructs is five, and they were chosen by the researcher because they are evidence-based, relevant to female adolescent education, and have a synergy and alignment that works across all of them. The five constructs are: character strengths, gratitude, mindfulness, flow and savouring. These constructs are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.

1.5 RESEARCH PROGRAM OUTLINE

The impact of the Pos-Ed program was examined in this study, with the hope it would add to the currently limited theoretical and empirical literature around positive psychology in the education area, and provide increased understanding about female adolescent wellbeing in relation to positive psychology. The program of research comprised seven phases using a multiphase, mixed method design over two years, outlined in Table 1.1, to address the following three research questions:

1) What are the short-term and long-term changes in levels of wellbeing that adolescent girls experience in the Pos-Ed program?

2) What are the experiences of adolescent girls in the Pos-Ed program at the end of the first and second year of the program?

3) Have any observed changes been consistent, or strengthened, over the two years of the program (Years 8 and 9)?

Table 1.1 Seven Phases of the Current Study

Phase Participant Data Collection Method Date Administered Information Phase 1 149 year 8 students Social Emotional Health February 2013 Pre-test Survey Secondary (Furlong et al., 2012) Phase 2 170 year 8 students Positive education program February to November 2013 program Year 8 Phase 3 6 year 8 students Focus Group 1 data February 2014 Focus Group 1 Phase 4 151 year 8 students Social Emotional Health October 2013 Post-test Survey Secondary Phase 5 168 year 9 students Positive education program February to November 2014 program Year 9 Phase 6 5 year 9 students Focus Group 2 data October 2014 Focus Group 2 Phase 7 163 year 9 students Social Emotional Health October 2014 Post Post-test Survey Secondary

1.5.1 Phase 1: Pre-test. Phase 1 consisted of a pre-test online survey questionnaire to be completed by all consenting Year 8 students at the beginning of their transition year to secondary school in 2013. The pre-test was the online Social Emotional Health Survey- Secondary (SEHS-S) designed by Professor Michael Furlong (2012) at the University of California Santa Barbara. This questionnaire was conducted at the transition point to secondary school at the beginning of the year. Parent and student permission were gained for the questionnaire. There was a small number of students who did not consent to completing the questionnaires, but they were still taught the program.

1.5.2 Phase 2: Year 8 program implementation. Phase 2 centred on the year-long implementation of the positive education program during Year 8. The Pos-Ed program’s positive psychology constructs were explicitly taught to students by home room teachers (teachers who teach the students every day). These teachers had been trained to teach the program.

1.5.3 Phase 3: Focus group 1. Phase 3 involved focus group interviews with six Year 8 students of 2013 at the beginning of 2014 before the participants began the second year of the program. Ethics approval was gained. Focus groups have been described in the literature as useful ways to collect a shared understanding from several individuals, as well as a method to gain specific views from individuals (Creswell, 2012b). Focus groups are seen as a way of gathering valuable perceptions of the program from participants. This knowledge contributed to addressing all three research questions.

1.5.4 Phase 4: Post-test. Phase 4 involved the second administration of the Social Emotional Health Survey- Secondary. The post-test was administered in late October 2013, before the pressures and stresses of the end of year (late November) exams could have affected the data more readily. A fundamental aim of the pre-test and the first post-test data was to assess what type of changes in wellbeing adolescent girls were experiencing after one year of the Pos-Ed program.

1.5.5 Phase 5: Year 9 program implementation. Phase 5 involved delivering the second year (2014) of the program (the Pos-Ed program) with the same group of students who entered Year 9 in 2014. In the second year, students were exposed to the same first year positive psychology constructs but with a ‘deepening’ and ‘strengthening’ of these constructs. It was anticipated that this would be achieved by teachers using the foundation work established in Year 8, and building on this to extend and deepen the students’ knowledge and understanding of the constructs. For example, in Year 8 students completed a strengths test as part of the program which allowed them to identify their particular strengths. It would not be until Year 9 however, that students would revisit this test and be encouraged by their teachers to explore their individual strengths and consider how they might use and maximise these.

1.5.6 Phase 6: Focus group 2. Phase 6 consisted of conducting the second focus group interviews with five Year 9 students. The students in the second focus group were the same students who participated in focus group 1. Conducting the second focus group towards the end of the two-year project was important in gathering information and opinions about the program from the students’ perspectives; this assisted in the examining the overall impact of the program. As students had completed the two years of the program by this stage, it was hoped that students would share specific, detailed information as to what they learnt from the program as well as aspects that they felt were more and less useful.

1.5.7 Phase 7: Second post-test. Phase 7 was the final stage of the current study and consisted of the second post-test, the third implementation of the Social Emotional Health Survey-Secondary undertaken at the end of Year 9 in October 2014. This step concluded the tracking of the Year 8 transition group over two years. Combining this quantitative data with the qualitative data from the focus groups provided a valid platform to make an assessment about whether the positive psychology program was assisting or not assisting the wellbeing of early adolescent girls in the first two years of secondary school.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH PROGRAM

There are those who contend that we have progressed little in matters of wisdom and living well (Roffey, 2012). Some researchers claim that even though there have been many advances in modern times, many individuals and communities are ‘languishing’ rather than ‘flourishing’ (Keyes & Haidt, 2003). Flourishing is a term that in the last five years has become of more interest to researchers working in the wellbeing area. In fact, it can be argued it has garnered more attention than ’happiness’ as happiness has come to be regarded as an emotion that is episodic and fleeting, while flourishing covers a broader wellbeing spectrum. Keyes (2002) defines flourishing as comprising the three components of emotional wellbeing, social wellbeing and psychological wellbeing. Rather than three components, Seligman asserts there are five components: positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement; these components form his PERMA model

which is discussed in Chapter 2. Similarly, other researchers define flourishing as a psychosocial construct that includes having positive relationships, feeling competent and confident and believing that life is meaningful and purposeful (Diener et al., 2010). While each of these definitions takes a slightly different approach, the common element is that recent conceptualisations of flourishing acknowledge that optimal wellbeing is a multi-dimensional and holistic concept and, as Norrish, Williams, O’Connor and Robinson (2013) state, includes both hedonic (i.e., positive emotions) and eudemonic (i.e., giving meaning) components. Flourishing is a combination of elements. In relation to schools, flourishing can exist on a number of levels. For example, individual students may be considered to be flourishing when they are happy, healthy, achieving their goals, have good friendships and think of others. On the other hand, a class may be flourishing when the teacher is competent, confident, values students, engages students and is committed to learning. It is clear that flourishing is multi-faceted and can work on different levels. For this study, the researcher regards Seligman’s definition of flourishing as the one that underpins what the researcher is aiming to achieve with the positive education program. The researcher posits that wellbeing, like flourishing, is a broad term and positive wellbeing contributes to a state of flourishing.

As previously stated, in the past the discussion of wellbeing has often been framed within a deficit model (Fraillon, 2004). There is a growing trend to reframe wellbeing to incorporate more positive states of wellbeing (Frydenberg, Care, Freeman, & Chan, 2009). The current study contributes empirical data about positive psychology in schools. Positive psychology is a relatively new science, and research studies are steadily progressing in this area. While positive psychology in education has gained increasing attention over the last few years (Vella-Brodrick, 2011), there are few available programs of positive psychology related to adolescents that have been scientifically evaluated. A number of researchers in this area have recommended that further studies on positive psychology in schools might reveal more about adolescent wellbeing (Furlong, Gilman, & Huebner, 2014; Kristjansson, 2012; Rusk & Waters, 2013; Vella-Brodrick, 2011; Waters, 2011).

1.7 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RESEARCH PROGRAM

To date, much of the interest in positive psychology has focused on adults, with the areas of child and adolescent development receiving less attention (Gilman, et al.,

2009). Of significance to this study are the recommendations from researchers to investigate the potential benefits of positive psychology programs in schools as a way to increase wellbeing among adolescents.

In particular, this study contributes new knowledge on how well adolescent girls transition to secondary school. Considerable research attention is given to negative changes in wellbeing, self-esteem, self-consciousness and internalising distress among girls in early adolescence (Peterson, Compas, et al., 1993). Early adolescence is a period of risk for girls as identified by research examined in later chapters, and the researcher believes this period is a significant trajectory point for a program. This study takes this trajectory and examines it closely at a point in time with a program to enhance wellbeing.

The current study contributes more data on how the combination of positive psychology constructs impact on wellbeing. While other schools such as St Peter’s, Adelaide have examined the use of a single construct using Peterson’s strength-based approach with students, this study explores the impact of using multiple constructs (White & Waters, 2015). The multiple constructs used in combination with each other form the Pos-Ed program. While research literature in this area talks about ‘combining positive psychology constructs’, it is not specific about which constructs and how to combine them, and empirical evidence is lacking in this area (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012). The current study offers empirical evidence on the impact of five constructs used in combination with each other over a two-year period in a girls’ secondary school.

Additionally, this study contributes longitudinal empirical data in the positive psychology area. The study tracked students over a two-year period, beginning in Year 8 (their transition year into high school) to the end of Year 9. This was achieved through the use of a quantitative survey administered at three different points in time (pre-program beginning of Year 8, 2013; post-program end of Year 8, 2013; post post-program end of Year 9, 2014), in combination with two focus groups held with students before they began Year 9 and at the end of Year 9. The focus groups explored the nuances of the program and determined whether, and in what ways, students perceived the program had affected their wellbeing. The combination of these data allowed the researcher to determine what effects, if any, the positive

psychology program (the Pos-Ed program) had on students’ wellbeing and how the program was experienced by those who undertook it.

Finally, the positive psychology program examined in this study is a wellbeing program comprised of evidence-based constructs, and can be used by other schools. Evidence-based positive psychology programs that are applied in a systematic and considered manner are gaining increasing interest as “positive psychology has the potential to make a valuable contribution to adolescent mental health” (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009, p. 277). Increasingly in the 21st century, schools are searching for programs to enhance student wellbeing and develop resilience in students. Schools play a significant part not only in the formal and informal education of young people, but also in their wellbeing (Huitt, 2011).

1.8 SYNOPSIS OF CHAPTERS

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the research project and a synopsis of the chapters. Following the chapter synopses, the significance and contributions of the current study are discussed.

Chapter 2 presents part one of the literature review by initially defining the area of positive psychology and then examines the emergence of this new branch of psychology and the key positive psychology constructs that are the subject of the research: character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring, and mindfulness. This chapter also explores the newly developed wellbeing model initiated by Seligman (2011) and its relevance to the research project. Current research on early adolescent wellbeing is presented and, in particular, on early adolescent female wellbeing.

Chapter 3 presents part two of the literature review. This chapter explores the concept of teaching wellbeing explicitly in schools, and discusses recent research in this area. Wellbeing programs currently taught in schools in a global context are examined with a particular focus on programs using proactive and preventative approaches.

Chapter 4 provides a detailed description of the positive psychology program called Pos-Ed using five evidence-based constructs. It was created by the researcher and examined in the research. Details of the origin, design, and implementation of the program are explained. Examples of lesson plans and activities are also provided.

Chapter 5 is a discussion of the methodological choices made for the current research project. This chapter presents issues of sampling, ethics, and the mixed method longitudinal design. A breakdown of each study is provided in which a justification of selected research methods is discussed.

Chapter 6 presents the results of the quantitative survey data gathered for this study using the Social Emotional Health Scale-Secondary (SEHS-S). It outlines the methodology, analysis, and findings of this part of the study.

Chapter 7 details the process of undertaking two focus groups with students who shared their experiences of the Pos-Ed program. The qualitative data from the participants in the focus groups provided specific comments about the program, as part of a mixed methods research design.

Chapter 8 provides a discussion of the findings and conclusions of this study. Along with the findings and conclusions, this chapter describes the contributions and limitations of the study, as well as implications for practice and possibilities for future studies.

Chapter 2: Literature Review Part 1

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is the first of two chapters that comprise the literature review. The period of early adolescence and in particular early female adolescence is examined. This first chapter will examine the area of positive psychology as it fits within the domain of psychology. Positive psychology and the five specific positive psychology constructs used in this study are defined and explored. The second chapter will examine positive psychology, wellbeing, and the links between the two in an educational setting. Additionally positive psychology programs are defined and explained as this study is examining a positive psychology program. It will also explore adolescent wellbeing programs from proactive, preventative approaches.

2.2 ADOLESCENCE

Adolescence is a notable time of development. It is also a time that can be frustrating and debilitating, with a considerable number of adolescents experiencing mental health and wellbeing issues. A large scale study in Sydney Australia involving over 400 secondary students revealed that over 50 percent of respondents had levels of anxiety, depression and stress that were above the ‘normal’ range (Smith & Sinclair, 2000). This is a disturbing find. A later online study of 600 Australian young people (aged 10 to 14 years) found that 46 percent of respondents did not feel confident or secure in themselves, 54 percent were worried about not fitting in, and 40 percent felt like they were not performing well enough (Tucci, Mitchell, & Goddard, 2007). It would appear that there was only a minor level of improvement between 2000 and 2007, with close to half the adolescent population not functioning at a reasonable standard.

The findings of a more recent study completed in 2015 are equally disturbing. As mentioned in Chapter 1, it reveals that one in seven young people experienced a mental disorder in the last year. For teenage girls aged 16 to 17 years, the figures were more worrying with nearly one in five found to meet the clinical criteria for depression based on their own report (Lawrence, et al., 2015). This data highlights that, while many adolescents are not in the clinical range for poor mental health, a

large proportion are reporting some level of a mental health issue. These results should be of concern to educators as almost half of the adolescent population are experiencing mental health issues. Equally of concern is this number of adolescents moving to adulthood with these mental health issues not addressed. We need to look at adolescent wellbeing from a preventative approach, where strategies are implemented to arrest the disturbing increase in mental health issues. It was this disturbing situation of growing mental health issues that prompted the researcher to explore and research programs to enhance adolescent wellbeing, and to seek a proactive rather than a deficit model, and this led the researcher to positive psychology. Positive psychology programs can assist adolescents who experience mild to moderate mental health problems to pursue a more optimal approach to wellbeing (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009). While such programs can assist students with mild to moderate mental health problems, it should not be seen as a panacea for eliminating mental health problems, including depression. What these programs can provide are skills that adolescents can use to prevent mental health problems escalating to clinical levels.

2.3 EARLY ADOLESCENCE

The period of early female adolescence is the focus of the current study. Developmental success during this period has implications throughout adulthood (Gilman, et al., 2009). The years that incorporate early adolescence (ages 10 to 15) are generally understood to represent a critical stage of adolescent development (Frydenberg, et al., 2009). The years of early adolescence have been identified with both opportunities and risks to young people’s school achievement and wellbeing (Carnegie Council of Adolescent Development, 1995). Many have labelled the early adolescent period as one of transition, and there is general consensus that this is a period of physical and cognitive change. There are researchers who have argued that the morphological changes associated with puberty and societal beliefs about adolescent development lead adults and peers to structure the social environments of early adolescents differently than the social environments of either older or younger people, making early adolescence a time of transition between different social cultures (Higgins & Parsons, 1983). This unique transitional nature of early adolescence is, at least in part, from an interaction between social environments (in particular schools) and developmental changes that individuals pass through as they

move from childhood into adulthood (Montemayor, Adams, & Gullotta, 1990). It is, therefore, a period that can present significant personal challenges for some students. Equally, it can be viewed as a time when a program may have more success than if introduced to older adolescents, as early adolescents are often more open and less sceptical of learning than older adolescents.

As mentioned above, adolescence is also a time of cognitive development, of mushrooming intellectual and emotional growth, and it results in an acute and unprecedented self-awareness for the young person (Strauch, 2003). Early adolescent development is characterised by increases in the following: desire for autonomy from adult control, especially from one’s parents’ control; peer orientation, self-focus, self-consciousness, and salience-of-identity issues; concern over sexual relationships; and capacity for abstract cognitive activity (Eccles, Lord, & Midgley, 1991). Simmons and Blyth (1987) have argued that adolescents need a reasonably safe, as well as an intellectually challenging, environment to meet these developmental tasks—an environment that provides a ‘zone of comfort’ as well as challenging new opportunities for growth. In light of these needs, the environmental changes often associated with the transition to junior high school seem especially harmful if they emphasise competition, social comparison, and ability self-assessment at a time of heightened self-focus. That is, they decrease decision making and choice at a time when the desire for control over one’s own life is growing; they emphasise lower- level cognitive strategies at a time when the ability to use higher-level strategies is increasing; and they disrupt social networks at a time when adolescents are especially concerned with peer relationships (Eccles, et al., 1991). This ‘zone of comfort’ is therefore useful for adolescents in dealing with these multiple changes. Changes in their own views of self are significant at this time.

Researchers have noted developmental declines in constructs such as self-concepts and self-perceptions in early adolescence (Eccles, et al., 1991). Self-esteem can be defined as a broad, global construct that includes all aspects of self-evaluation while also being related to wellbeing in general (Gilman, et al., 2009; Neff, 2011). The development of positive self-esteem in adolescents is pivotal to a successful transition to adulthood. Bandura (1997) emphasised that ‘belief in self’ is a key component that enables individuals to exercise control of their situations, promotes personal agency, and increases motivation. Individuals develop self-efficacy beliefs

over time as they come to understand and judge their abilities to execute and succeed at a variety of tasks. Children’s orientation toward school achievement and confidence in their own ability to master schoolwork declines as they move from childhood to adolescence (Montemayor, et al., 1990). These early years of adolescence represent a developmental crossroads between life paths leading towards educational success, wellbeing, and productive participation in adult society on the one hand, or towards curtailed educational attainments, stress and distress, and marginalisation from adult society on the other (Roeser, et al., 2008). This period of early adolescence is then a critical period of development as young people move from childhood into adulthood. Early adolescence usually coincides with the transition to secondary school.

The transition from primary school to secondary school is particularly significant in relation to these structural, physiological, and social changes and there are often new and increased expectations at school (Eccles, et al., 1991; Williams & Boman, 2002). Structurally, students in Australia move from one teacher for the whole day in primary school to having multiple teachers in secondary school. Undoubtedly, it is in the interests of schools to act to ensure successful transitions for adolescents to secondary school. Australian students who experience a positive transition to secondary school report lower levels of depression, anxiety, and loneliness than those who have a difficult transition (Waters, Lester, Wenden, & Cross, 2012).

There is no question that the transition from primary to secondary school marks a significant period in adolescents’ lives: academically, physiologically, structurally and socially. However, with a range of positive strengths, students can have some protection from the issues that arise in the transition to secondary school. A study involving 102 Australian students in 2001, found higher levels of optimism can help facilitate a more successful transition to secondary school (Boman & Yates, 2001). This is possible if educators pay more attention to the wellbeing area.

Adolescent wellbeing is important in the area of education. As noted by Roffey, “Over the last 10 years there has been a gradual shift in both research and community and school practices away from the concept of youth welfare, with its focus on supporting young people in distress, and towards the concept of youth wellbeing and resilience” (Roffey, 2012, p. 17). Educators are interested in promoting adolescent wellbeing as part of the academic journey of secondary school. Positive mood is a

key component of student wellbeing. Positive mood produces broader attention, more creative thinking, and more holistic thinking (Seligman, 2011).

The science of positive psychology has transformed thinking around wellbeing. “Wellbeing is an overarching term that encapsulates an individual’s quality of life, happiness, satisfaction and experience of good mental and physical health” (Roffey, 2012, p. 17). Several researchers undertook a detailed review of the research literature on ‘wellbeing’ in order to identify common characteristics of the construct. The most common characteristics identified included positive affect, resilience, perceived satisfaction with relationships, and maximising one’s potential (Noble, McGrath, Roffey, & Rowling, 2008). This aligns with Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model of wellbeing which includes the elements of positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and purpose, and accomplishment. Each of these five elements has three properties which include: 1) it contributes to wellbeing, 2) many people pursue it for its own sake; and 3) it is defined and measured independently of the other elements (Seligman, 2011). As stated in Chapter 1, this researcher defines wellbeing as “the combination of feeling good and functioning well” (Huppert & Johnson, 2010, p. 264). Adolescents who generally have positive functioning are less likely to develop mental health issues. This positive functioning includes the first part of the definition—feeling good—which is their emotional wellbeing. Therefore, it would be logical to assume that educators should be interested in this aspect of adolescent development.

Consequently, particularly in the last decade, some schools are starting to play an important role in equipping adolescents with social and emotional skills to build resilience and hope to prevent rising levels of depression and distress (Waters, 2011). In order to achieve this, schools are increasingly exploring more proactive approaches to adolescent wellbeing (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012). A compelling reason for this increasing interest by schools could possibly be that research is continuing to emerge that suggests that student wellbeing and academic performance are connected (Green, et al., 2011). Clearly, the majority of schools are interested in forming reputations as high performing academic schools.

This emphasis on academic performance has contributed to increased levels of stress for adolescents. The last two decades have been characterised by increasing pressure to improve student achievements with emphasis on standards, league tables, tests,

and results. As a result, curriculum goals have become more academic and skill- oriented, with the social and emotional elements of education viewed as less important than rigorous academic pursuits (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014). Additionally, it is this pressure to succeed academically that contributes to students developing anxiety and depression. In the United States, nearly one in every 10 children has a depressive episode before they turn 14, and there are similar statistics worldwide. In Australia, one in seven will have experienced a mental disorder in the last year (Lawrence, et al., 2015). Chinese children experience an equal or even higher level of depression in comparison to their Western counterparts (Kwok, Gu, & Kit, 2016). It appears likely these issues related to academic performance and pressures to achieve are global concerns.

Evidence continues to mount showing that student wellbeing is positively related to academic performance (Waters, 2011). “More wellbeing is synergistic with better learning” (Seligman, et al., 2009, p. 294). Increased wellbeing contributes to more positive mood; positive mood produces broader attention (Bolte, Goschke, & Kuhl, 2003; Fredrickson, 1998) and more creative thinking (Isen, Rosenzweig, & Young, 1991). This evidence suggests that if wellbeing is increased, then it is likely to produce better learning. In 2011, a meta-analysis of 213 studies involving 270,034 students from kindergarten through high school (186 programs in the United States and 27 outside of the United States) showed that, on average, school students enrolled in a social and emotional learning program ranked 11 percentage points higher on achievement tests than school students who did not participate in such programs (Durlak, Weissberg, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011). While the results of this study indicate that increased wellbeing resulted in higher academic achievement, there needs to be more studies like this to further strengthen this connection. As it stands now, if enhanced wellbeing results in improved academic results, this is a salient issue for those who work in education.

Not only is the research into student wellbeing related to academic performance increasing, researchers such as Roffey (2015) claim that whole school approaches to student wellbeing promote resilience, prosocial behaviour, student engagement, as well as academic learning. This is very similar to what Seligman asserts, in his recent articles, which is that schools play an important part in developing and promoting the wellbeing of students. Waters (2011) also believes that wellbeing is important for

adolescents and she argues that evidence shows that positive psychology programs are significantly related to student wellbeing, relationships, and academic performance. Noble and her colleagues (2008) found that when wellbeing is a central part of the core business of school, students of all levels are more likely to become more engaged with learning; academic outcomes improve, pro-social behaviour increases, and there are better levels of mental health and resilience.

Over the last 10 years, there has been a gradual shift in both research and community and school practices away from the focus on supporting young people in distress, towards the concept of wellbeing and resilience. The trend towards wellbeing and resilience is consistent with a positive psychology approach (Roffey, 2012). A focus on wellbeing in schools is a different way of conceptualising and responding to pastoral care issues, and Green (2014) asserts that this is a global trend in schools. Wyn (2007) argues that every teacher should be concerned about student wellbeing, where all students are supported in their social and emotional development as well as their learning, not just the students who come to the attention of teachers because of emotional or learning difficulties. Wellbeing should be universal.

There is evidence that wellbeing programs and positive psychology programs can assist in promoting positive mental health of adolescents. The social and emotional wellbeing of students should be a concern for all educators. Waters (2011) conducted a review of 12 school-based positive psychology programs or interventions that were systematically evaluated and the results showed these programs were significantly related to student wellbeing. More such studies would strengthen this link. It would appear that wellbeing is a growing area in education with many schools looking for suitable programs to implement.

2.4 FEMALE ADOLESCENT WELLBEING

An important focus of this study is the wellbeing of early adolescent girls as they transition from primary school to secondary school (Year 8). When primary school concludes, two transitions occur simultaneously: the transition to secondary school and the transition to adolescence. These changes and challenges may make early adolescence a vital time for a positive psychology program as they may be more receptive to adult advice than in later adolescence, when it is common for adolescents to express cynicism and be more resistant to information from parents

and teachers. In fact, some researchers suggest that if early adolescents learn social, emotional, and problem-solving skills they may be better equipped to deal with the stressors and challenges of secondary school, which for some is a time of increased vulnerability for depression (LeCroy & Mann, 2008).

As well as a time of rapid change, adolescence is often described as a period of significant risk with many social and developmental changes occurring at the same time, such as: daily challenges including mood and behavioural changes (Arnett, 1999); academic related stress (Deb, Esben, & Jiandong, 2014); difficulties with autonomy (Spear & Kulbok, 2004); and conflict with parents (Wadsworth & Compas, 2002). Moreover, some will face major life events such as parental divorce or the death of a relative (Seiffge-Krenke, 2000). Overall, researchers have identified that the developmental issues for early adolescent females are likely to include transition to secondary school and puberty, as well as body image, relationship, and friendship issues.

Adolescent girls face multiple self-image challenges in our changing world. One of the biggest development challenges for girls during puberty is the physical changes that occur. For female adolescents, the transition to adolescence involves physical changes, which for some females can affect their image of themselves. Girls are more affected by the physical changes occurring at puberty than boys, and their self- concepts are more volatile than those of boys during this time period (Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991). Further, research shows female adolescents are significantly more likely than boys to have a negative body image and the link between poor body image and low self-esteem is more of a problem for girls than boys (Brown, 1993). For some, these concerns appear to be closely connected with depression (LeCroy & Mann, 2008). It appears that self-image, identity formation, and self-esteem are critical for girls in early adolescence. While low self-esteem can have negative effects, there are positive effects for female adolescents with high self-esteem. In another study of Year 8 students, it was found that early adolescents with higher levels of self-esteem are more likely to have higher grades, succeed in their studies, and have better rates of attendance than adolescents with lower levels of self-esteem (Weiss & Kipnes, 2006). Furthermore, there is some evidence that puberty brings increased pressures for girls to conform to gender-role

stereotypes such as being demure, beautiful, and not too smart intellectually (Roeser, et al., 2008).

With the changes at puberty come changes to male and female self-reporting in relation to wellbeing. During primary school, girls report feeling competence a little less often than boys, but a big gap opens up and seems to increase through secondary schooling (Eccles et al., 1993). However, the research on gender differences in relation to wellbeing is mixed. Some studies have shown girls report higher levels of wellbeing in school (Gutman, Brown, Akerman, & Obolenskaya, 2010), whereas other studies show a decline in girls’ wellbeing during adolescence (Tomyn & Cummins, 2011). Girls overall report experiencing negative emotions more frequently than boys (McLellan & Steward, 2015). This suggests that wellbeing is concerning and educators should be aware of and attend to these issues. Even in adulthood, studies have shown that women report experiencing less wellbeing that men (Stevenson & Wolfers, 2009). As well as female adolescents coping with changes at puberty, concomitant with this are the ever present pressures to conform to gender stereotypes.

The pressure to conform to these gender-role stereotypes is constant and promoted heavily in the media. The media glamorises the ultra-thin ideal for females, which negatively affects how female adolescents see themselves. This concurrence of puberty and the media attention given to super slim female models can cause distress for some female adolescents. This is partly due to the physical changes at puberty where girls develop more fatty tissues and begin to look less like the idealised thin image of women portrayed in the media (Aalberg, Lindberg, Makinen, Puuko- Viertomies, & Siimes, 2012). This is in contrast to boys, as puberty shifts them closer to the ideal of masculinity, as exhibited by increased height, voice deepening, and muscle mass development. More and more research shows images of gender-role stereotypes particularly in the western world impact negatively on how adolescent women see themselves (Clay, Vignoles, & Dittmar, 2005). Females as early as age 11 can experience negativity in their self-perceived attractiveness, which can also result in decreased self-esteem. In a study of 500 girls between the ages of nine and 16 and the media influence on self-esteem, 70 percent of girls reported that magazines relate directly to perceptions of body shape, and 47 percent girls reported wanting to lose weight (Clay, et al., 2005). In another study, researchers wanted to

better understand why some females are more negatively affected than others by images in the media. What they found is that females with a positive body image had protective thoughts which assisted them in being critical of what is presented in the media. This is not surprising, but not all females have a capacity to sustain a positive body image of themselves. These researchers assert that programs utilising strengths that act as a buffer against unhappiness should be explored for at risk female adolescents (Holmquist & Frisen, 2012).

In addition to the physical changes and pressure to conform to stereotypes, self- esteem issues can present challenges during early adolescence for some girls. Considerable research attention has been given to negative changes in self-esteem among girls during early adolescence (Galambos, Leadbeater, & Barker, 2004; Graber & Sontag, 2004; Peterson, Compas, et al., 1993). A meta-analysis found that, while men tend to have higher self-esteem than women during their lifespan, the difference between genders seems to be largest during early adolescence, from age 11 to 14. Not only female adolescents, but also for adult females, women’s self- esteem tends to be lower than men’s (Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999).

In adolescence, low self-esteem often leads to negative mood states and even depressive behaviours (Moore, 2013). There are some researchers who assert that, for some adolescent girls, self-esteem peaks at the end of primary school where girls are in the tween-years, aged 10-12 years, and then dips markedly in early adolescence aged 13 to 14 years (Galambos, 2004; Graber & Sontag, 2004; Peterson, Compas, et al., 1993). In other studies of boys and girls in early adolescence, boys often report higher self-esteem than girls at the same age (Rosenberg & Simmons, 1975; Simmons & Blyth, 1987). Simmons and Blyth (1987) found the greatest disruptive effects of junior high school were on girls’ rather than boys’ self-esteem. Some researchers suggest that those in media, schools, families, and communities should promote diverse ways of being a ‘successful woman’ to females navigating early adolescence (Roeser, et al., 2008). Globally, girls and women are at higher risk than boys and men for many psychological disorders, particularly depression and anxiety. Research suggests that compared with boys, adolescent girls experience greater stress, are twice as likely to be depressed, and attempt suicide four or five times as often (Debold, 1995). Indeed, this is evident in the research on adult depression discussed earlier in this chapter, which found that rates for females are 50

percent higher than males. Recent meta-analyses have documented that gender differences in both self-esteem (Kling, et al., 1999) and depression (Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002) emerge during early adolescence.

Obviously, rates of depression for female adolescents and female adults are a concern, and any measures that can be put in place to ameliorate this situation for female adolescents should be considered. As stated earlier, much of the research points to higher levels of depression occurring in female adolescents compared with male adolescents (Abela & Hankin, 2011). This gender difference in depression may be associated with a difference in coping styles as, generally speaking, female adolescents are more likely to ruminate in response to stress, and ruminating has been linked to depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001). This should be a concern for all involved in working with adolescent females and should result in increased effort to enhance female wellbeing.

For adolescent females, statistics tell a story of a population at risk both physically and emotionally, with one in four girls showing signs of depression. Compared with males, twice as many females attempt suicide; by age thirteen, 53 percent of girls are unhappy with their bodies, eight million American women suffer from eating disorders and 90 percent of them are adolescents (Deak, 2002). Eight years later in 2010, this same author recounts that stress is still a cause for concern, “because stress is incredibly painful, debilitating and downright dangerous if it is pervasive and continues over long periods of time, especially if there is no perceived light at the end of the tunnel” (Deak, 2010, p. xvi). As mentioned in the previous section, recent data on depression in female adolescents is concerning. One fifth (19.9%) of adolescents had very high of high levels of psychological distress and this was almost twice as high for females at 25.9% and 14.85% for males (Lawrence, et al., 2015). Depression, anxiety, and mental disorders can be debilitating. Therefore, it is important to equip girls with social and emotional skills and skills in resilience, so they can carry these skills into adulthood. Schools can be one of the vehicles for this skill development.

Another factor that early adolescent females tend to struggle with is the importance of relationship. As an example, Gilligan and Attanucci (Gilligan & Attanucci, 1996; 1990) have argued that some adolescent girls around age 11 enter a period of crisis as they struggle to resolve the conflict between the external pressure to become more

independent and the internal pressure to please others (such as parents or family). She asserts that this conflict could occur at the expense of their own wishes in order to preserve relationships. For adolescents who experience this, the result is that girls often take the route of independence at the cost of damaging their relationships, or they ignore their own desires to maintain connections. With either of these scenarios, it is likely to lead to low self-esteem. Other researchers concur with this view that adolescent females are torn between seeking their own identity and fulfilling the expectations of from parents, teachers, peers, and others. It is these pressures that, as Gilligan and Attanucci (1996) claim, can create an imbalance which can increase a sense of inadequacy; moreover, this can affect mood and, if left unchecked, can result in anxiety and depression (Larsson, Sundler, & Ekebergh, 2013). Overall, wellbeing for early adolescent females can be a time of diverse challenges and a time where evidence-based positive psychology programs should be considered to assist in their wellbeing.

2.5 THE EMERGENCE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology has been a formal discipline for little more than one hundred years, but the central issues were formed centuries before by philosophers, theologians, and ordinary people (Peterson, 2006). There are those who work in this area who identify with a particular area of psychology, such as educational psychologists and psychologists from the humanistic tradition. It is not unusual for psychologists to identify with several areas of psychology. Humanistic psychology originated in the 1950s and articulated the need for psychology to emphasise the ‘fully functioning individual’ (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012). With its emphasis on positive self-fulfilment and self-education, humanistic psychology had a strong influence on psychology from the 1950s to the 1970s (Kristjansson, 2012) and it continues to be criticised for a lack of scientific validity. However, humanistic psychology has left a legacy on which positive psychology has drawn and further developed.

Much of psychology has historically worked from a deficit model. Seligman realised that a predominant focus of psychology since World War II was a deficit approach focusing on human problems and how to remedy them. There are some who now view the 20th century as the century of treating symptoms, while the 21st century has begun with a greater focus on preventative approaches to wellbeing. “For the last half century psychology has been consumed with a single topic, mental illness, and

has done fairly well with it” (Seligman, 2002, p. xi). During the twentieth century, the science of psychology made significant progress in understanding what goes wrong in individuals, families, groups, and institutions. In the area of clinical psychology, excellent progress has been made in treating mental illnesses and personality disorders (Gable & Haidt, 2005). However, these advances have come at a cost of understanding the positive aspects of human functioning. What has not been taken into consideration is what has happened in the sixty years since World War II. It can be argued that during this period positive psychology has, in part, emerged in response to the deteriorating social indicators in many advanced countries, because the progress of their economies, while resulting in the growing wealth of its citizens, is not matched by an increase in life satisfaction, that is, mental wellbeing (Pluskota, 2014). Not all would agree with this view, but it is one that continues to be of interest to researchers.

Even though technology in the modern world has developed far beyond our imaginings in the last two centuries, humanity has progressed much less in areas of wellbeing and living in harmony (Roffey, 2012). There are still significant conflicts that continue across the globe, and these include family breakdown and dysfunction, anti-social behaviour, and violence. More recently, rising unemployment, global financial instability, and the rise of terrorism have given rise to an increased feeling of global uncertainty (White, 2016). Ryff (2003) calls for a proper mapping or audit of the area of “human optimal functioning” (p. 158). He suggests this information could assist people in leading more fulfilling and purposeful lives. The aforementioned advances in technology have resulted in a fast-paced style of living in the western world. While it can be argued these advances have resulted in better conditions overall for people, they have not necessarily increased life satisfaction. In fact, the growing number of people worldwide experiencing depression is concerning.

There are some researchers who claim that depression and anxiety disorders will soon outstrip heart disease and cancer as the most prevalent concerns in public health in the world (Jones, You, & Furlong, 2012). This is confirmed by the World Health Organisation which reported that depression had become the fourth gravest health problem throughout the world in 2000 and estimated that depression will be the second largest health problem in the world by 2020 (Pluskota, 2014). Furthermore as

stated in the Overview in Chapter 1, recent statistics on adolescent anxiety and depression in Australia, revealing that one fifth (19.9%) of adolescents have very high or high levels of psychological distress, show that this is indeed a concern for all those who work with Australian adolescents (Lawrence, et al., 2015). Seligman (2011) was worried about the epidemic of depression as far back as 1998. The prevalence of depression and related mental disorders among young people should be a priority for all those who work with young people and, as is the focus of this study, with female adolescents.

Furthermore, focusing solely on treating disorders can be perceived as a narrow approach to wellbeing and, while significant progress has been made in treating people with mental illness, the study of the psychological aspects of what makes life worth living has receded to the background (Gable & Haidt, 2005). Not that this appears to be deliberate, but the focus was simply on treating the disorder, not preventing it. Peterson (2006) argues that much of scientific psychology has neglected the study of what can go well in people’s lives, and this has created an imbalance in psychological research and practice. There are those who argue we are in a new era with a focus on how to achieve and sustain happiness and wellbeing. This includes how to make life more fulfilling, more productive, and more enjoyable (Lyubomirsky, 2007). It stands to reason that what can go well in people’s lives will vary enormously depending on multiple variables. This study explores wellbeing as related to female adolescents and this is examined later in this chapter. Seligman (2002) asserts that positive psychology should not be seen as opposition to earlier psychology. There are now psychologists who believe that a complete science and a complete practice of psychology should include the study of suffering and happiness, including their interaction, and examine validated programs that both relieve suffering and increase happiness (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). In fact, some psychologists now see themselves with two identities, the primary area in which they were trained (e.g., clinical, counselling, educational), as well as their identification with positive psychology (Joseph, 2015). This is supported by Csikszentmihalyi and Nakamura (Sheldon, Kashdan, & Steger, 2011) who state that the majority of positive psychologists hold ‘dual citizenship’, belonging to the positive psychology community and to the community of specialist psychology in

which they were trained. This could be a result of a common interest in what makes for a good life as research continues to unfold.

Moreover, positive psychology is a branch of psychology that has moved away from the deficit approach largely as a response to a lack of focus on what works well in people’s lives. Positive psychology focuses on solving human problems by adopting a positive, proactive approach that encourages people to lead ‘flourishing’ lives which will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. This interest in positive functioning is why positive psychology has garnered interest from various domains, including business, health, organisations, institutions, and education.

2.6 EXPLORING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

In examining the progress of positive psychology, the following areas will attempt to show the progression of the thinking behind positive psychology and where it is currently. As noted by Krueger and Casey, “The increasing momentum of the positive psychology movement has seen burgeoning research in positive mental health and adaptive functioning” (Krueger & Casey, 2009, p. 147). Seligman (2002) also realised the potential of focusing on living a pleasurable, engaging and purposeful life from his research on ‘learned helplessness’. Even though there are those who are critical of this area, and this will be explored later in this chapter, the interest continues to grow. Perhaps this is partly due to its global appeal; unlike many of the traditional areas of psychology, positive psychology has direct applications to everyday life and appeals to people from all walks of life (Joseph, 2015).

Now 15 years on, no longer a fledgling discipline, positive psychology is established as a science that examines how to best facilitate individual, community, organisational, and societal flourishing. In fact, its rapid development has resulted in nearly 20 new graduate programs across the world, as well as a significant number of scholarly books and journals including the new Journal of Positive Psychology. The ideas of positive psychology have firmly taken root within professional practice. While it shares thinking from other branches of psychology, this relatively new field provides a fresh lens through which to examine human behaviour in various aspects of work and non-work life across the entire human lifespan (Donaldson, Dollwet, & Rao, 2015). Clearly, given the already rapid growth and interest in this area in the last 15 years, this area has much to offer the broader discipline of psychology, as

well as people and organisations aiming for optimal functioning. The following section provides information on how positive psychology as a sub-area of psychology emerged.

2.6.1 Learned helplessness. Learned helplessness is the theory that led Seligman and other researchers to examine happiness and, most recently, flourishing. The theory of learned helplessness developed after an accidental discovery when Seligman was researching depression at the University of Pennsylvania in the 1970s (Peterson, Maier, & Seligman, 1993). Experiments were conducted where dogs were repeatedly exposed to an adverse stimulus, in some cases an electric shock that was inescapable. Ultimately, the dogs would stop trying to avoid the pain and revert to utter helplessness. When opportunities to escape the pain were presented in subsequent tests, the development of learned helplessness prevented the dogs from trying to escape. It was this discovery about helplessness that led Seligman to develop the concept of ‘learned optimism’ and wonder about its application to humans. In contrast to learned helplessness, the central tenet of learned optimism is that people can embrace optimism and enhance the quality of their lives through adopting a more positive internal monologue (Seligman, 2006). Seligman (2006) found that learned helplessness did not explain all situations, as not everyone became helpless in similar circumstances. He further examined Weiner’s attribution theory as well as Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy model, and created the theory of ‘attributional style’ where a person attributes the cause of situations to either optimistic or pessimistic explanations (Seligman, 2002). This, ultimately, became the basis of positive psychology.

2.6.2 Positive psychology. In 1998, positive psychology was an initiative of Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi who attempted to shift the focus of psychology away from a deficit or disease model to a preventative and proactive model. They were interested in bringing back into psychology some of the concepts they found to be so important for a life worth living, yet were rarely addressed in psychology, such as creativity, joy, and gratitude. So began a move towards positive psychology (Sheldon, et al., 2011). Moreover, Seligman thought that in adopting a strength-orientation rather than a deficit orientation, psychologists could contribute more to their particular psychological

area than they were at the time. Positive psychology sits within the domain of psychology and is evidence-based (Seligman, et al., 2005). It has gained popularity within many areas of the behavioural sciences including applied psychology (Gilman, et al., 2009). It now enjoys a growing identity of its own. Positive psychology can be described as the science of the good life (Seligman, et al., 2005). It is the study of positive emotions, full engagement in activities and paths to fulfilment and meaning in life. It focuses on areas such as contentment and satisfaction, hope and optimism, flow and happiness. It also encompasses areas such as self-determination, character strengths, resilience, gratitude, mindfulness, creativity, forgiveness and savouring (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009). Linley and Joseph (2004) define positive psychology as a strength-based psychology that works to promote optimal functioning across the full range of human functioning, from disorder and distress to health and fulfilment. “It is the scientific study of what goes right in life from birth to death and all stops in between” (Peterson, 2006, p. 4).

Positive psychologists do not claim to have ushered in a new field of scientific study, but claim that positive psychology has united what had been scattered and disparate lines of theory and research about what makes life most worth living (Seligman, et al., 2005). Some researchers claim it is an umbrella term for work that investigates optimal functioning and wellbeing in people (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009). Within psychology it seems that the notion of positive psychology existed before 1998. Peterson (2006) claims that the basis for positive psychology as it currently exists was humanistic psychology as proposed by Rogers (1951) and Maslow (Maslow, Frager, Fadiman, McReynolds, & Cox, 1970). Both believed that people strive to make the most of their potential in a process called self-actualisation (Maslow, et al., 1970; Rogers, 1951). In what is now a major paradigm shift, many psychologists are embracing positive psychology, focusing their research and practice toward a focus on positive constructs such as optimism, hope, and wellbeing (Gable & Haidt, 2005).

Positive psychology does not imply that the rest of psychology is negative nor does it ignore the negative or distressing aspects of life; rather it fully acknowledges the existence of human suffering and distress (Gable & Haidt, 2005). This is supported by Fredrickson (2009) who studied the value of and benefit of positive feelings in optimising aspects of wellbeing, such as creativity and problem solving, and he also

acknowledged that we need to have sad or negative feelings to experience life fully. Positive psychology seeks to “direct scientific attention to aspects of human experience that are not yet well understood, for example, how individuals can become happier” (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009, p. 271). It appears that for Seligman happiness may have been limiting in its application. There are researchers who now claim that happiness and wellbeing are discrete concepts, and that while happiness may contribute to wellbeing, wellbeing takes into account a number of different aspects of life (Raibley, 2012). This can be confusing as some researchers use the terms happiness, wellbeing, satisfaction and other terms as interchangeable. Seligman (2011) in his most recent book Flourish continues to move away from a predominant focus on ‘happiness’, to building the enabling components of wellbeing throughout the life span.

This desire to embrace and understand the positive and negative experiences of people can be viewed as a whole person orientation and is associated with the emergence of interest in positive psychosocial experiences, and how they are related to the prevention of mental illness and the promotion of mental health. In particular, child and adolescent psychology research has primarily focused on problematic behaviours and negative life outcomes, with little attention to promoting positive development (Marques, Pais-Ribeiro, & Lopez, 2011). Thus, a whole person orientation responds to this negative experience in psychological research. The emergence of positive psychology has seen a redirection towards the scientific exploration of human wellbeing and optimal functioning (Gable & Haidt, 2005). In the field of educational research, this redirection towards wellbeing is underpinned by specific positive psychology constructs.

Initially positive psychology research focused on examining specific constructs, for example, ‘optimism' (a general expectation for good outcomes in the future) (Scheier & Carver, 1985), ‘hope’ (ability to clearly conceptualise, strategise, and reach goals) (Snyder et al., 1991), ‘self-efficacy’ (belief in one’s ability to attain their goals) (Bandura, 1997), and ‘gratitude’ (feelings of appreciation that result from perceived fortune of the kindness of others) (McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002). Positive psychology research looked at these constructs and their individual relations with positive adaptation, coping and general resilience plus many other health related

outcomes. As researchers built an understanding of various individual positive traits, others initiated investigations into how these traits relate to each other (Rand, 2009).

Examining specific constructs and individual traits such as optimism, hope, gratitude and others continue to be of interest. It seems that the two directions of research and program, the first focusing on the person, the second on the conditions of life will be considerations for future developments in positive psychology (Sheldon, et al., 2011). However, despite the many recent articles on positive psychology which clearly convey that this area is burgeoning, positive psychology is not without its critics.

2.6.3 Challenges and critics of positive psychology. There are critics and researchers who argue for further investigation into positive psychology itself, and also positive psychology constructs used on their own, as well as in combination with each other. Some critics claim it is too strongly focused on subjective wellbeing and risks people being blamed (or blaming themselves) for their situations (Roffey, 2012). While those who support positive psychology argue that it is “heralding a new era, the opponents consider it exaggerated in its claims and cult like in its aspirations” (Kristjansson, 2012, p. 86).

Criticism seems to focus on both the theoretical (Fineman, 2006) and the methodological rigour used in the research (Lazarus, 2003). Those who argue about the theoretical area have concerns regarding the lack of novelty in positive psychology concepts and claim there is nothing conceptually new. This view is shared by Kristjánsson who states that purported findings and outcomes from positive psychological approaches risk being exaggerated and that the work done in this area is not new (Kristjansson, 2012). Although this researcher shared a softer view one year later when he argued that as positive psychology is in a state of flux with views still changing and evolving, it would seem fair in the interim to give it the benefit of the doubt (Kristjánsson, 2013). This view may have been due to Kristjánsson’s curiosity and interest regarding how positive psychology would continue to develop. While at times he has been critical, his more recent articles have revealed a more open-minded, hopeful view that positive psychology may indeed have something to offer. Another criticism in the theoretical area is that there is an overemphasis on the positive alongside a lack of attention to the negative aspects of certain constructs. There are also those who assert that the individualistic bias of

many concepts within positive psychology may not be universally applicable and transferable into collectivist cultures (Becker & Marecek, 2008). From a theoretical viewpoint, it would seem that there is a measure of validity in these concerns, which if addressed by researchers may add to the rigour of the field.

From a methodological standpoint, critics claim there is a lack of scientific rigour specifically concerning the operationalisation validity of variables and scales, as well as the design of program studies (Sugarman, 2007). Additionally, there are critics who call for a review of the complete peer-reviewed scientific literature in this area, as they doubt the claims made about the effectiveness of positive psychology programs increasing happiness and decreasing depressive symptoms (Donaldson, et al., 2015). While there is an increase in the volume of positive psychology-related publications (Donaldson & Ko, 2010; Rusk & Waters, 2013), there are some who argue that these articles do not address concerns about the peer-reviewed empirical foundations of positive psychology (Donaldson, et al., 2015). What may be useful to infer from these criticisms is that positive psychology as a discipline may benefit from a tighter definition of what constitutes a positive psychological approach. In addition, this bourgeoning area of research would benefit from rigorous systematic literature reviews seeking to identify what works and what does not (Donaldson & Ko, 2010).

Scholars who are not involved in positive psychology tend to be sceptical about the rapid growth in the attention it is now receiving, especially as courses in positive psychology are emerging in many universities (Gable & Haidt, 2005). What is not clear currently is how positive psychology relates to educational psychology; very little has been explicitly written about this relationship to date. Kristjánsson (2012) asserts that positive psychology has eluded discussion in educational psychology stating that a comprehensive literature search of more than 200 articles published in the area of educational psychology in the last decade failed to locate the term ‘positive psychology’.

There is evidence, however, that positive psychology is increasing in its breadth of influence in areas other than psychology and education. A recent study tracking the size, reach, impact, and breadth of positive psychology revealed that positive psychology covers many different research topics, from a range of different disciplines, and that positive psychology literature has been growing rapidly. Rusk

and Waters (2013) used semantic and bibliographic methods to analyse over 1.7 million documents in 700 PsycINFO journals covering the fields of psychology, psychiatry, neuroscience, management, business, public health, and sport science for references to positive psychology. Over 18,000 documents were identified as belonging to positive psychology, with 2,300 published in 2011. This demonstrates that the field has grown substantially within the 15 years since its establishment. This growth in positive psychology literature contributes to an understanding of a new paradigm for wellbeing, and is currently influencing education, in particular adolescent wellbeing.

Positive psychology can be considered as an emerging science that is just beginning to have a significant impact on schools and school-based programs (Gilman, et al., 2009). Future research should continue to investigate the potential benefits of positive psychology programs in schools as a way to increase life satisfaction among children and adolescents (McCabe, et al., 2011). Norrish and Vella-Brodrick (2009) assert that if evidence-based positive psychology programs are applied in a systematic manner, positive psychology has the potential to make a valuable contribution to adolescent wellbeing.

One of the challenges in trying to assess positive psychology in schools is that the positive psychology constructs (either single or multiple) used in programs are rarely assessed. This is significant as there has been more research conducted on adults using positive psychology constructs. As stated earlier, there is little available evidence on the effect of positive psychology programs used with adolescents (McCabe, et al., 2011). Studies of using positive psychology constructs in children and youth remain in the early stages of development (Gilman, et al., 2009). However in recent years, evidence is steadily accumulating in relation to the effectiveness of positive psychology programs (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009). Regardless of the limited evidence available, there seems to be more positive than negative literature emerging from researchers in relation to positive psychology and adolescents (Peterson, 2006). The researcher has noticed in the five years working on this study, there definitely has been an increase in empirical evidence on positive psychology programs relevant to the education area. While there are critics who challenge positive psychology, in this current global milieu of uncertainty mentioned earlier in

this chapter, the enhancement of individual wellbeing should be a concern, where people can lead lives that are fulfilling and flourishing.

2.6.4 Positive psychology and the PERMA model. In Seligman’s (2002) book Authentic Happiness he claims that relieving the states that make life miserable has made building the states that make life worth living less of a priority. In this book, he posits that positive psychology has three pillars: 1) the pleasant life or positive emotions contributing to increased happiness; 2) the engaged life or the study of positive traits which focuses on strengths and virtues as well as natural abilities; and 3) the meaningful life or study of positive ideals and institutions, such as democracy, communities, families, which in turn support positive emotions.

However, in Seligman’s (2011) most recent book Flourish he moves away from happiness as the centrepiece of positive psychology and focuses instead on wellbeing. His most recent model for wellbeing is known by the acronym of PERMA: positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment which he claims are the significant building blocks for a life where one thrives and flourishes:

Positive emotion (pleasant life) is a cornerstone of wellbeing theory and happiness and life satisfaction are important aspects Engagement is the experience of being completely absorbed by the task Relationships is the experiences that take place around other people Meaning is the experience of belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than the self Accomplishment is the experience of mastery. (Seligman, 2011, p. 24)

Building on the three pillars pertaining to happiness espoused in Authentic Happiness namely positive emotions, positive engagement and positive meaning, Seligman added two new concepts: positive relationships and accomplishment. Seligman now suggests that while certainly a part of wellbeing, happiness alone does not give life meaning. The researcher was influenced by the PERMA model in relation to researching this area. There are some influential independent Australian schools such as Geelong Grammar School, Knox Grammar, and St Peter’s Adelaide that have implemented the PERMA model in their schools. The researcher, while influenced

by this model, chose to implement specific constructs rather than implementing the PERMA model as a whole.

In exploring options to gather data on the program that is the subject of this study, the researcher wanted an option that would evaluate wellbeing rather than using instruments from a deficit approach, such as the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS). The researcher chose to use the covitality model to evaluate the wellbeing program and this is discussed below.

2.6.5 Covitality and the Social Emotional Health Survey – Secondary (SEHS-S). A valuable perspective on wellbeing is offered by Jones et al. (2012) who assert that, currently, no single term is used to describe the co-occurrence of human strengths in the positive psychology literature, as with comorbidity and psychopathology, but that co-occurrence should be explored by researchers. Comorbidity was initially a term conceptualised in the medical area; however, it has now been adapted by psychologists to describe the co-existence of mental disorders, substance use disorders, physical illness, and developmental disabilities (Massimiliano, 2009). Comorbidity is a term used to explain the fact that often, when one is experiencing depression, it is likely that one will also experience anxiety. The existence of these two variables occurring alongside each other is termed comorbidity. Furlong and others argue that it is similarly likely that when people experience a positive state, such as gratitude, they are more likely to also experience other positive states, such as resilience. The co-occurrence of these positive states has been coined covitality (Jones, et al., 2012). Seligman (2005) indicated that less attention is given to the combination of many individual positive traits (such as self-esteem, gratitude, hope) and their effect on wellbeing and positive outcomes. More attention and recognition is required to fully comprehend the combinations of positive traits.

Covitality is a relatively new concept that has only been explored in the last few years and, as such, there is limited research available. Covitality is defined as the co- occurrence of positive intrapersonal assets and interpersonal resources that increase the possibility of positive life outcomes for individuals (Jones, et al., 2012). In contrast to comorbidity, the term covitality was developed by researchers who investigated the heritability and genetic relationship between subjective wellbeing

and dominance in chimpanzees and found that there was a genetic component to subjective wellbeing (Weiss, King, & Enns, 2002).

Further exploration of covitality was carried out by several researchers who examined the relationship between the K-factor, covitality, and personality. (Figueredo, Vasquez, Brumbach, & Schneider, 2007). The K-factor is defined as a single latent common factor that underlies a variety of life history indicators, which are connected to sexual, reproductive, parental, and social behaviours. The indicators of the K-factor included the quality of an individual’s relations with his or her parents, spouse and child; the support an individual gives to and receives from friends and relatives; and a variety of cognitive indicators of life history strategy associated with long-term planning, impulse control, relationship stability, and degree of community organisation or involvement (Figueredo, et al., 2007). These researchers used the Midus scale, a comprehensive self-report survey to identify behavioural factors that contribute to covitality, and these factors were subjective wellbeing, negative affect, positive affect, general health, and medical symptoms. Results revealed that covitality was positively correlated with the K-factor. This led to the understanding that individuals who had parents who were invested in their wellbeing and individuals who invested more somatic assets in their own survival experienced enhanced physical and mental health (Figueredo, et al., 2007). Later research resulted in the development of the covitality model.

Aspects of the CHKS (California Healthy Kids Survey) and RYDM (Resilience/Youth Development Module) were used in developing the covitality model (CoVi) and the Social and Emotional Health Survey- Secondary (SEHS-S) (Furlong, Renshaw, Smith, & Dowdy, 2013). CoVi, as measured by the Social Emotional Health Survey, is a better predictor of subjective wellbeing and quality of life than each individual component considered separately (Furlong, et al., 2013). The construct of covitality and the use of the SEHS-S to measure this construct is of interest to the current study as the positive psychology program that is being explored aligns with the notion of a combination of positive psychology constructs, namely character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring, and mindfulness.

A number of researchers have focused on how these traits are associated synergistically with psychological wellbeing. A recent study by Jones, You, & Furlong (2012) investigated the role of positive psychology constructs in predicting

mental health and academic achievement of 528 psychology students from a university in southern California. In this study, researchers examined the co- occurrence of selected positive psychological traits (self-efficacy, optimism, hope, life satisfaction, happiness, and gratitude) and explored their association with a proposed second-order latent construct called covitality in terms of psychological wellbeing. Findings from this study suggest that covitality is associated with lower levels of psychological problems and higher levels of wellbeing. They posit that programs that aim to bolster psychological characteristics in combination may have additive effects and suggest this should be explored in further research (Jones, et al., 2012). Results support the notion that a combination of positive psychological traits is associated with higher levels of wellbeing.

A more recent example of covitality constructs used as predictors of psychological wellbeing and depression for secondary school students was a study including 361 Australian secondary students (75 males and 286 females). The overall aim of this study was to further explore the phenomenon of covitality and its relationship with psychological wellbeing and depression. It examined the strength of connection among covitality and its underlying constructs of belief-in-self, emotional competence, belief-in-others and engaged living, as well as two outcome variables, subjective wellbeing and depression (Pennell, Boman, & Mergler, 2015). The results of the first multiple regression revealed that the most significant predictor of subjective wellbeing was engaged living. Other results highlighted that belief-in-self and belief-in-others were significant predictors of subjective wellbeing in adolescents. The second multiple regression highlighted that belief-in-self is the most significant predictor of lower levels of depression. The combined effect of each of the covitality components on depression was greater than the effect of each trait individually. This provides further support for the concept of covitality. Covitality showed a large amount of variance (25%) in depression which demonstrates its strength in relation to mental health outcomes in adolescence. The findings helped provide a more recent picture of adolescent wellbeing in Australia from a wellbeing focus rather than a deficit focus using covitality constructs.

Recent research shows that positive psychology continues to grow. An extensive review identified 1336 articles published between 1999 and 2013 with more than 750 of these including empirical tests related to the theories, principles and programs

(Donaldson, et al., 2015). Aligned with this growth, there has been in interest in what positive psychology can offer education. With this in mind together with the whole person orientation as well as specific evidence-based constructs, the researcher was interested in developing a program in the education area.

2.7 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND THE CURRENT RESEARCH PROJECT

A recent paper by Waters (2011) reviewed 12 school-based positive psychology programs designed to foster student wellbeing. The author drew from international studies across different school systems (public and private) and examined the constructs of gratitude, hope, serenity, resilience, and strengths. Participants across the studies ranged in age from five to nineteen years of age and came from various ethnicities. One of these programs examined was a social, emotional resilience program in Australia called ‘You Can Do It’. Researchers compared students in Year 5 from six government schools implementing the program with students in six government schools not implementing the program. Over the one-year period, the self-report data for the schools implementing the program showed significant improvements in: student morale; stimulating learning; connectedness; student motivation; learning confidence; connectedness to peers’ classroom behaviour; student safety; and a reduction in student distress. The results for students in the schools who did not have the program only showed improvement in two of these areas, classroom behaviour and student safety (Waters, 2011). Taken together, the evidence demonstrated that positive psychology programs were significantly positively related to student wellbeing and academic performance.

Covitality can be viewed as a conceptual organiser for the combination of positive psychology constructs linked to enhanced wellbeing. Recent research indicates that covitality, defined earlier in this chapter, appears to be important in understanding not only positive wellbeing outcomes for adolescents, but also the reduction of levels of depression for adolescents (Pennell, et al., 2015). As adolescence is a critical time in human development, as outlined in Chapter 1, it is crucial that more research explores helping adolescents to navigate this time in a proactive rather than a reactive way. Utilising positive psychological programs is one way of achieving this, and there are those who recommend further development of positive psychology programs in schools (Green, et al., 2011; Vella-Brodrick, 2011; Waters, 2011).

The current study addressed this need for more research in the area of positive psychology programs, particularly in relation to adolescents. A meta-analysis conducted by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) found that a ‘shotgun’ approach, in which multiple constructs (such as gratitude, grit, optimism and hope) are used within one school program, might be more effective than utilising a single construct only. While there may be a growing number of schools globally utilising single constructs or multiple constructs in their programs, the majority are not being empirically evaluated. There is a need for further research on multiple constructs and whole school programs (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012). This study, while it is not a program embedded in all aspects of the school setting, does address the call for data on a program using multiple constructs.

The positive education program (Pos-Ed) used in this study incorporated a range of positive psychology constructs: character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring, and mindfulness. The constructs were chosen by the researcher as a result of completing research on positive psychology, and from visits to schools which utilised these concepts in their wellbeing programs. This study examined whether changes resulted in the wellbeing of adolescent girls after being exposed to these constructs in a positive psychology program. In this research, the researcher was cognisant of positive psychology not being a ‘one size fits all’ approach to wellbeing. With all of the constructs, the approach was to assist adolescents to discern what strategies would make their lives ‘flourishing’ ones. Flourishing is a term Seligman (2011) used to describe the notion of wellbeing using the PERMA model, and this was discussed earlier in this chapter. Seligman adopted this term in his recent work as it more fully explains the notion of wellbeing. Other researchers such as Gaffney (2011) talk about flourishing as the state of feeling one’s life energy stretch and fill every corner of one’s life to reach some high point of self-realisation. She further asserts that this emotional vitality that comes with flourishing helps people be happier, more productive, live more satisfying lives, and help create flourishing organisations (Gaffney, 2011). Thus, flourishing can be regarded as a multi-faceted concept and more complex than the concept of happiness. The author of this study focuses on wellbeing in this study and asserts that the concept of flourishing is a product of higher levels of wellbeing.

Nurturing qualities that are authentic to the individuals is especially important in work with adolescents where flexibility is needed as adolescents transition into adulthood (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009). For example, as long as adolescents are practising the construct of gratitude on a regular basis (e.g., writing in in their gratitude journals daily, weekly, or monthly), students will be able to benefit from this regular practice in relation to their personal wellbeing, giving it the potential to reach its full expression (Howells, 2012). All of the five constructs chosen for the current study are evidence-based, and all on their own have been shown to contribute to wellbeing. The researcher wanted to use constructs that were well researched. The researcher was aware that the construct of gratitude is also one of the VIA character strengths and it is a construct that can be taught and practised (Howells, 2012); further, gratitude had a significant level of research associated with it. These five constructs are now explored in detail. The first positive psychology construct for exploration is character strengths and virtues.

2.8 CHARACTER STRENGTHS AND VIRTUES

2.8.1 Definition. One of the important constructs of positive psychology focuses on character strengths. Indeed, some researchers assert that “among the pillars of positive psychology, character may occupy the most central role” (Gilman, et al., 2009, p. 66). Peterson and Seligman (2004) define character strengths as a ubiquitously recognised subset of personality traits that are morally valued. A practical, working definition is that strengths are ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that come naturally and easily to a person and that enable high functioning and performance (Linley, Joseph, Harrington, & Wood, 2006). Strengths are proposed to have important benefits for wellbeing and to contribute to success in important life domains (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Strengths enable individuals to exhibit increased flexibility and adaptability to different circumstances, have a sense of affirmation in life, compassion, and an increased depth and satisfaction in relationships (Seligman, 2002).

Character strengths, while similar to talents, can be generally defined as morally valued ways of thinking and behaving that are intrinsically part of who a person is, and enable a high level of operating. A strength is valued for moral and intrinsic

reasons whereas talents are valued for their tangible outcomes (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). For example, a sportsperson has natural abilities that may be considered talents, whereas the persistence to practice and determination to improve may be considered strengths.

2.8.2 Classification. Within positive psychology there are several ways of conceptualising strengths, and one of the most well researched is the Values in Action (VIA) framework that was created by Peterson and Seligman (Peterson & Seligman, 2004)see Table 2.1). A historical study of strengths was undertaken by researchers with the aim of identifying strengths that had been valued across time and cultures. They undertook a historical study drawing on the philosophies underpinning the traditions of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Athenian philosophy, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity to determine which strengths were consistently discussed. These strengths and values were then included in the VIA framework if they met the following ten criteria: (1) the strength contributes to a good and full life; (2) the strength is valuable in its own right not just because of its outcomes; (3) the use of the strength does not negatively impact on others; (4) the strength has a negative opposite; (5) the strength is relatively stable and impacts a wide range of thoughts, feelings and actions; (6) the strength is distinct from other strengths; (7) the strength is represented in culture through stories, myths and songs; (8) there are role models that exemplify the strength; (9) some people do not demonstrate the strength; and (10) there are structures and institutions in society that aim to promote the strength. There may be other positive traits that are not included, for example, patience and ambition, but all traits included in the classification had to meet the ten criteria listed above (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).

In order to classify the results of this extensive study, Peterson and Seligman (2004) devised the Character Strengths and Virtues Handbook. This became known as the VIA Classification which identifies 24 character strengths under six broad virtues (Table 2.1). Peterson and Seligman (2004) argue that each strength is morally valued in its own right. The VIA framework has been used in adult and youth samples (Park, Peterson, & Seligman, 2004). The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) was developed for adults and the VIA Inventory of Strengths for Youth (VIA-Youth) was developed for young people aged 10 to 17. Both these instruments are questionnaires

that measure the degree to which respondents endorse items reflecting each of the 24 strengths (Peterson, 2006, p. 150). These questionnaires are freely available online (www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/).

2.8.3 Ways to enhance using strengths with adolescents. The VIA-Youth is a 198 item self-report survey that students complete online (www.viacharacter.org) and provides a comprehensive assessment of the 24 character strengths (Gilman, et al., 2009). This instrument was used with the participants in this study to enable them to identify their individual strengths. The assessment takes 45 minutes on average to complete. Once the survey is completed, students are provided with feedback on their strengths, and the strengths are ranked from one to 24, one being the strongest and 24 being the lowest. The top five strengths are known as signature strengths or the student’s top five strengths. The description of signature strengths acts as a starting point for individuals to explore ways of using these strengths more frequently (Park & Peterson, 2008).

Table 2.1 The VIA Classification of Character Strengths and Virtues adapted from Peterson and Seligman (2004)

Virtues Character Strengths Wisdom and knowledge Creativity Curiosity Love of learning Open-mindedness Perspective

Courage Authenticity Bravery Persistence Zest

Humanity Kindness Love Social intelligence

Justice Fairness Leadership Teamwork

Temperance Forgiveness/mercy Modesty/humility

Prudence Self-regulation

Transcendence Appreciation of beauty and excellence Gratitude Hope Humour Religiousness/spirituality

Peterson (2006) believes people possess signature strengths, and these are strengths of character that a person owns, celebrates and frequently exercises. Signature strengths are strengths that are intrinsically linked to the essence of the ‘real person’. A signature strength has the following characteristics:

A sense of ownership and authenticity (“this is the real me”); A feeling of excitement while displaying it, particularly at first; A rapid learning curve as the strength is first practised; A sense of yearning to find new ways to use it; A feeling of inevitability in using the strength (“Try to stop me”); Invigoration rather than exhaustion while using the strength; The creation and pursuit of personal projects that revolve around it; [and] Joy, zest, enthusiasm… while using it. (Seligman, 2011, pp. 38-39)

There are many activities that can be used with adolescents to learn about strengths, as well as learning about their own signature strengths. Students should be encouraged to view all of their strengths as important, not just their signature strengths. According to a strengths approach, each individual has unique qualities that can be used to enhance wellbeing, overcome challenges, and nurture relationships (Park, et al., 2004). According to Seligman (2002), it is essential to build strengths and virtues and understand positive emotion, as well as provide guideposts for finding what Aristotle termed the ‘good life’. The second positive psychology construct that is an important part of the positive education program is gratitude.

2.9 GRATITUDE

2.9.1 Definition. Gratitude is a key part of the positive education program in the current project. Gratitude has the potential to enhance adolescent wellbeing, social development and achievement (Gilman, et al., 2009). Gratitude is defined as “a sense of thankfulness and joy in response to receiving a gift, whether the gift be a tangible benefit from a specific other or a moment of peaceful bliss evoked by natural beauty” (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p. 554). They further assert that it as an enjoyable experience that leads to feelings of happiness, hope, and satisfaction. A general definition of gratitude that can be applied to adults and adolescents is that it consists of feeling a sense of wonder, thankfulness and appreciation for life (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). While gratitude is identified as one of the 24 VIA character strengths within Peterson and Seligman’s (2004) model, it is also highlighted as one of the central tenets of positive psychology (Howells, 2012). Expressing gratitude is a lot more than saying ‘thank you’. Emerging research shows that people who are consistently grateful have been found to be happier, more energetic, more hopeful and report more frequent positive emotions (Lyubomirsky, 2007). Lyubomirsky (2007) also claims there are eight reasons to practise gratitude: 1) grateful thinking promotes the savouring of positive life experiences; 2) expressing gratitude bolsters self-worth and self-esteem; 3) gratitude helps people cope with stress and trauma; 4) the expression of gratitude encourages moral behaviour; 5) gratitude can help build social bonds, strengthen existing relationships and nurture new ones; 6) expressing gratitude tends to inhibit invidious comparisons with others; 7) the practice of gratitude is incompatible with negative emotions and may deter feelings such as anger, bitterness and greed; and ) gratitude helps to thwart hedonic adaptation or preventing people from taking the good things in life for granted.

2.9.2 Gratitude and student wellbeing. Gratitude is one of the main pillars in Seligman’s PERMA model (Seligman, 2011). It is associated with positive emotions, and the key to take advantage of positive emotions is to regard them as resource builders, and these include pride, gratitude, pleasure, satisfaction, interest and hope; simply put, “Gratitude can make life happier and more satisfying” (Seligman, 2011, p. 30). Increasingly, researchers are seeing a positive relationship between gratitude and wellbeing. Emmons and McCullough

(2003) investigated the relationship between gratitude and wellbeing in a sample of young adolescents and found that those who displayed high levels of gratitude also experienced “optimism, overall life satisfaction and domain-specific life satisfaction” (p. 228).

For centuries, gratitude has been considered a powerful ingredient of health and wellbeing for individuals and society (Gilman, et al., 2009). Research in the last decade has shown a variety of ways in which gratitude is beneficial for optimal development. Gratitude is one way of cultivating positive emotions and there is correlational research that suggests gratitude is associated with good mental and physical health (Wood, Froh, & Geraghty, 2010). In a study of 154 adolescents (with a mean age of 12.14 years), gratitude was found to have positive associations with psychological outcomes (i.e., subjective wellbeing and optimism) and social outcomes (i.e., pro-social behaviour and social support). In this sample, females reported higher gratitude than males, and males were found to derive more gratitude from family relationships than females (Froh, Yurkewicz, & Kashdan, 2009).

2.9.3 Ways to enhance gratitude in adolescents. There are various gratitude exercises reported in the literature. One simple exercise reported by Seligman (2009) is to have students write down daily three good things that happened each day for a week. The three things can be small in importance. Next to each positive event, students write about one of the following: “Why did this good thing happen?”, “What does this mean to you?”, or “How can you have more of this good thing in the future?” Lyubomirsky (2007) suggests there is an array of possibilities in terms of gratitude exercises, for example, keeping a gratitude journal, expressing gratitude directly to another, writing a gratitude letter, writing a ‘best possible selves’ diary. Gratitude exercises can be implemented directly in the classroom by the teacher. This makes it feasible to use these exercises as additions to the existing curriculum. They do not require staff to expend excessive amounts of time or energy and they are relatively easy to execute (McCabe, et al., 2011). Lyubomirsky (2007) also suggests that the way students express gratitude can depend on the individual personality. Instead of writing, some may choose to reflect on why they are grateful. Alternatively, some may want to acknowledge one ungrateful thought per day and substitute a grateful one. She also suggests that the

gratitude strategy should be fresh by varying it or not over-practising it (Lyubomirsky, 2007).

Experiencing gratitude is one way for students to boost their mood, strengthen their social ties and cultivate a sense of purpose and engagement with the world (Gilman, et al., 2009). What may be interesting for future research is whether certain combinations of exercises including gratitude exercises may work better to increase optimum functioning and life satisfaction for adolescents (McCabe, et al., 2011). Seligman (2005) asserted that applying multiple exercises at once might be more beneficial than any exercise applied on its own.

The third positive psychology construct that is an important part of the positive education program is flow.

2.10 FLOW

2.10.1 Definition. “Flow describes the subjective buoyancy of experience when skilful and successful action seems effortless, even when a great deal of physical or mental energy is needed” (Gilman, et al., 2009, p. 132). Flow is a state of mind that is associated with wellbeing (Lyubomirsky, 2007). Flow was a concept developed by Csikszentmihalyi in the 1960s when he was researching the creative process. It is connected to using individual strengths and is linked to positive emotion and experiencing pleasure in life. Flow is Csikszentmihalyi’s term for the psychological state that accompanies highly engaging activities (Peterson, 2006). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) argues that the good life, a happy life is one that is characterised by flow, by complete absorption in what one does, and to achieve flow there must be a balance between the skills and challenges (Lyubomirsky, 2007). Finding flow involves the ability to expand one’s mind and body to the limits, to strive to accomplish something challenging and to discover rewards in the process of each moment, which goes unnoticed because of absolute engagement (Lyubomirsky, 2007).

Csikszentmihalyi (1997) suggests there are nine features of flow: 1) task-challenge balance; 2) a feeling of oneness with the activity or merging of action and awareness; 3) clear goals; 4) clear and immediate response; 5) concentration and absorption; 6) a sense of control; 7) loss of self-consciousness or awareness; 8) decreased awareness of time; and 9) a task that is valued and intrinsically motivating. Flow is not

automatically achieved when an individual enjoys an experience. An essential element of flow is the appropriate match between skill level and the task challenge, so that skills are stretched but not overmatched A mismatch between task challenge and skill level can lead to anxiety (low skill and high challenge), relaxation (high skill and low challenge), or apathy (low skill, low challenge) (Snyder & Lopez, 2005). If the challenge is too low and boredom or apathy is experienced, then attention wanders. If the challenge is too great and tension or anxiety is experienced, then attention shifts to the self-conscious or personal limitations (Gilman, et al., 2009).

2.10.2 Ways to enhance flow in adolescents. When flow is present, an individual engaged in a task will not notice the passing of time as there is total absorption and engagement in the activity. In addition, an individual experiences intrinsic happiness and pleasure when experiencing flow. “Schools need only the vision, initiative, and commitment to create environments where learning is enjoyable as well as rigorous for flow in schools to become a reality” (Gilman, et al., 2009, p. 143). Strategies for cultivating flow include noticing and making time for flow activities and re-crafting activities to create an appropriate match between skill and challenge. Concentration, attentiveness and student engagement were much higher when instruction was seen as challenging and relevant; further, flow was more likely to occur during experiential activities (group work, discussions) than passive activities (lectures, videos) (Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Schneider, & Shernoff, 2003). Shernoff et al. (2003) also recommend strategies for creating matches between student skill level and expectations, teaching skills in an incremental way, and providing regular and specific feedback.

There are many variables that affect whether students experience flow in their learning experiences. These variables include individual personality traits, background characteristics, family, the age of students, socio-economic status, individual ability level and talent, as well as the teacher’s role. The breadth of these variables make it difficult to measure flow in relation to student learning (Hunter & Csikszentmihalyi, 2003).

2.10.3 Flow and teachers. An important influence on students’ engagement with learning is the teacher (Gilman, et al., 2009). Three strategies for cultivating teacher engagement are: 1) encourage staff to continue to nurture and cultivate their own passions and interests; 2) focus more on the intrinsic rewards of learning more than the external rewards such as grades or results; and 3) provide mastery or learning feedback rather than performance or outcome feedback (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Several researchers have explored the teacher’s flow experience while in classrooms. A study in 2000 by Di Bianco conducted on both teachers and students in a limited sample of a mathematics classroom reported that students were not in flow when teachers were in flow, and vice-versa (Gilman, et al., 2009). However, research in this area is limited.

A school where arguably flow has occurred for teachers and students is Geelong Grammar School. In 2008, teachers and students were involved in the Geelong Grammar School Project (involving 1500 students). It was the first time that Martin Seligman and staff from the Positive Psychology Centre at the University of Pennsylvania had an entire school interested in implementing a positive psychology program (Seligman, et al., 2009). Teachers were trained to use the skills in their own lives, both personally and professionally. The use of this program throughout the school has also been extended, and over 100 ancillary staff were trained in the program in 2011. There is evidence that supports the in-principle approach of infusing teachers as well as students with the skills of the positive education program. For example, relationships between teaching staff and students in schools are gaining an increasingly high profile, not only in relation to wellbeing, but also for developing an effective learning environment (Lowry-Webster, Barrett, & Lock, 2003). Studies in this area are limited. However, St Peter’s College Adelaide conducted research to measure whole school wellbeing in students and staff by applying Seligman’s PERMA model in 2012. School employees were invited via email to complete an online survey (n = 143) based on Butler and Stern’s 2015 measure to evaluate PERMA. This study revealed that staff with higher levels of wellbeing reported better health, and staff who reported positive relationships with co-workers had greater job satisfaction (Haase, Poulin, & Heckhausen, 2012). This suggests that positive affect motivates individuals to invest time and energy into educational and occupational goals. Additionally, there are those in education who

assert that teacher efficacy is one of the critical factors in determining student motivation and engagement (Hattie, 2008). Forging positive relationships between staff and students is important to bring out the best in students and create an effective and connected learning school community (Roffey, 2012).

The fourth positive psychology construct that is an important part of the positive education program is savouring.

2.11 SAVOURING

2.11.1 Definition. Savouring refers to our awareness of pleasure and our deliberate attempt to make it last (Peterson, 2006). Bryant and Veroff of Loyola University are the founders of a small field they call ‘savouring’ (Seligman, 2002). Author Russ Harris links savouring with mindfulness and living in the present and suggests exercises to increase these experiences in our lives (Harris, 2008, 2011).

Adolescents in secondary education spend a great deal of time striving to achieve their goals in multiple domains such as academic, sporting and cultural. Much of the time, teachers encourage and support students to reach the goals they set for themselves in these domains. Those who habitually savour are happier and more satisfied overall with life, more optimistic and less depressed that those who do not savour (Peterson, 2006).

There are several studies that have found savouring increases positive emotions and wellbeing. Research has found that the individual’s perceptions of their ability to savour were positively correlated with indicators of wellbeing (e.g., positive affect, optimism, subjective wellbeing and self-esteem) and negatively correlated with indicators of distress (e.g., guilt, hopelessness, depression, and negative affect) (Bryant, 2003). In 2010, a study via the intranet at a Belgian University was conducted involving 282 adult participants and found that savouring strategies focused on being present in the moment, vividly remembering or anticipating positive events, and sharing events with others were associated with wellbeing (Quoidbach, Berry, Hansenne, & Mikolajczak, 2010). In contrast, suppression strategies of fault finding, ruminating, and distracting were associated with decreased wellbeing. Taken together, these studies support the power of savouring as a strategy for maximising positive emotions derived from life experiences.

2.11.2 Ways to enhance savouring in adolescents. There are strategies that can enhance and promote savouring with students. These include: 1) sharing with others: seeking out others to share the experience or telling others how much you valued the moment; 2) memory building: taking mental photographs or reflecting about an event later with others; 3) self-congratulating: telling oneself how impressed others are and remembering how long it took for this to happen; 4) sharpening perceptions: focusing on certain elements of the experience and blocking out others; and 5) absorption: letting oneself get totally immersed in the pleasure and trying not to think about other things. (Peterson, 2006) These techniques support four kinds of savouring: 1) basking (receiving praise and congratulations); 2) gratitude (expressing gratitude for blessings); 3) marvelling (losing the self in the wonder of the moment); and 4) luxuriating (indulging the senses) (Seligman, 2002). Savouring and mindfulness are key elements of what Seligman terms ‘a pleasant life’:

Savouring and mindfulness happen by sharing your pleasures with someone else, by sharpening your perceptions (particularly using perspective shifting) and by absorption. Basking, giving thanks marvelling, and luxuriating are all means to amplifying pleasures. (Seligman, 2002, p. 110)

The fifth positive psychology construct that is an important part of the positive education program is mindfulness.

2.12 MINDFULNESS

Mindfulness can be described as purposefully paying non-judgemental attention to what one is actually experiencing in the present moment. The objective is to welcome and accept the current state including any emotions, thoughts and perceptions (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Mindfulness is not new and locates its roots in Buddhism. In particular, Zen Buddhism involves training the mind to be more aware of, and open to, the present moment (Lyubomirsky, 2007). Mindfulness, while

similar to meditation, is not the same as meditation. It can be practised for short or long periods on a daily basis: “Mindfulness begins with the observation that mindlessness pervades much of human activity. We fail to notice huge swaths of experience” (Seligman, 2002, p. 109). Lyubomirsky (2007) asserts that people who are regularly mindful of their current circumstances are more likely to experience positive emotions, feel self-sufficient and competent, and have positive social relationships.

2.12.1 Mindfulness research. Mindfulness research in children and adolescents is in the formative stages but initial results are promising (Burke, 2010). In a meta-analysis of 16 studies of mindfulness therapies in children and youth (ranging in age from six to 18 years), mindfulness programs were found to have a beneficial impact on physical heath (cardiovascular functioning), mental health (anxiety) and behavioural outcomes (social skills, attention, problematic school behaviours) with moderate effect sizes across all outcome variables (Black, Milam, & Sussman, 2009). Similar results were found in a review of 15 mindfulness studies in children and adolescents, suggesting that mindfulness has a key role to play in students’ health (Burke, 2010).

Mindfulness is also believed to have a positive impact on the physical body; in particular, it is known to calm the stress response and improve immune functioning (Hassed, 2008). In addition, mindfulness creates a state of relaxed attention that enables the individual to achieve more flexibility in their psychological and physical responses to various situations (Greenberg & Harris, 2011).

The power of mindfulness is that it can break the link between negative thoughts and negative emotions. Regularly practising mindfulness is believed to lead to deeper self-awareness and increased capacity to manage emotional responses effectively and resist emotional impulsivity (Black, et al., 2009). Mindfulness is a skill and it does not come naturally; it requires instruction and practice (Fredrickson, 2009).

There are numerous scientific studies that confirm the physical and mental health benefits of beginning a practice of mindful awareness (Fredrickson, 2009). Research suggests that regular mindfulness practice is essential for beneficial outcomes. Huppert and Johnson (2010) conducted a study where a sample of 155 adolescent boys (aged 14 and 15) were allocated either to a four week, 40 minute mindfulness

program or to a control condition that involved classes as usual. Contrary to expectations, there were no significant differences between students in the mindfulness group or students in the control group on measures of resilience or psychological wellbeing after the program ended. However, analysis of the data of students who completed the mindfulness training yielded some interesting results. The study revealed there was a significant improvement on measures of mindfulness and psychological wellbeing related to the level of individual mindfulness practice undertaken outside the classroom. Students who regularly practised mindfulness outside the classroom reported improvements in psychological wellbeing (Huppert & Johnson, 2010). This finding suggests that learning about mindfulness is not enough. Mindfulness techniques must be applied and practised regularly for benefits to be obtained. Burke (2010) proposed recommendations for the use of mindfulness in schools including: amending the length of the mindfulness practice to cater for shorter attention span compared with adults, the use of active forms of mindfulness such as walking mindfulness activities, and, where possible, the inclusion of key adults in students’ lives—such as parents, caregivers and teachers—to reinforce the practice across important life domains (Burke, 2010).

Researchers have begun to talk about ‘mindful learning’. For example, Langer (2009) asserts that when humans learn mindlessly, the learner looks at experience and imposes a contingent relationship between the two things: what they or someone else did and what they think happened as a result. This can result in the learner interpreting that experience from a single perspective, oblivious to the other ways it can be seen. This aligns with Frederickson’s (2001, 2004) ‘broaden and build’ theory where she asserts that positive emotions broaden psychological and behavioural repertoires and build psychological resources. Mindful learning looks at experience and understands that it can be seen in countless ways, that new information is always available, and that more than one perspective is possible and extremely valuable. It is an approach that promotes creative and critical thinking and allows the learner to be careful about what we know to be true (Langer, 2009).

2.12.2 Ways to enhance mindfulness in adolescents. Janet Etty-Leal (2010) has developed mindfulness exercises for children in her book Meditation Capsules: A Mindfulness Program for Children. In this book, she provides practical resources for adults who wish to teach children the skills of

mindful meditation. She created awareness with Year 4 students by noticing, feeling, reflecting, choosing, and creating (Etty-Leal, 2010). This was achieved through activities such as: body awareness; discussion, stories, poems; the use of props; and practices of standing, sitting, and lying. Harris (2011) suggests using mindfulness exercises, such as the one below to develop mindfulness. This exercise is usually completed at the start of a class (but can be done at any time) with the teacher asking the students to close their eyes, sit into the backs of their chairs and follow the instructions of the teacher; for example:

Pause. Pause for a few seconds and notice what your mind is telling you. Notice its choice of words and the speed and volume of its speech. Be curious: is this story old and familiar, or is it something new? Don’t try to debate with your mind or try to silence it; you’ll only stir it up. Simply notice the story it’s telling you And notice with curiosity, all the different emotions that arise… (p. 99)

The five constructs of character strengths, gratitude, savouring, flow and mindfulness discussed above are used in combination with each other throughout the Pos-Ed program that is the focus of the study. This study focuses on using these five constructs with female adolescents in the transitional year to secondary school and the following year. This period of adolescence is a time where schools can play a role in enhancing the wellbeing of students.

2.13 SUMMARY

This chapter examined the period of adolescence with particular attention paid to the period of early adolescence for female adolescents. It explored the factors impacting on female adolescent wellbeing which is at the centre of this study. The scope of this study was discussed, with a justification given as to why the early adolescent period was chosen. Additionally, this chapter traced the emergence and growth of positive psychology as well as examining how opponents view this branch of psychology. The model of the five positive psychology constructs used in the current research was outlined in detail. The discussion on wellbeing continues in the next chapter with links made to positive psychology and the school context which is the context of this study.

Chapter 3: Literature Review Part 2

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter examines the application of positive psychology in schools. This is a relatively new area. In the United States, the main area of influence for positive psychology has been the clinical area as well as those in organisations with an emphasis on the improvement of working life (Sheldon, et al., 2011). Education is now beginning to receive attention. This chapter explores the concept of wellbeing as related to schools, and examines a number of wellbeing programs in schools from a strengths approach. The researcher identifies this strengths approach as a proactive, preventative approach. Most of these programs discussed here are based in Australia.

3.2 WELLBEING AND SCHOOLS

Schools play a significant part not only in the formal and informal education of young people but also in their wellbeing (Roffey, 2012). Increasingly, schools in the 21st century are being called upon to incorporate student wellbeing as part of the overall school vision, and to promote life-long learning beyond adolescence into adulthood (Huitt, 2011). In 1995, the World Health Organisation (WHO) introduced the Global School Health initiative which aimed at strengthening health promotion and education initiatives at the local, national, regional, and global levels. It brought the concept of education for wellbeing into the foreground (Roffey, 2012). In Australia, the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child states “if we really want to build a strong platform for healthy development and effective learning, then we must pay as much attention to children’s emotional wellbeing and social capacities as we do to their cognitive abilities and academic skills” (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008, p. 7). Schools are now seen as institutions whose role extends beyond academic competence to preparing the whole child (Huitt, 2011). The focus on school as a means for preparing adolescents for adulthood is one of the hallmarks of developed countries (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). As a result of this shift in approach, there are many schools now considering more contemporary approaches to wellbeing.

As discussed in Chapter 2, there are many definitions and views on what actually constitutes wellbeing, and these seem to keep evolving. Wellbeing is an overarching term that encapsulates an individual’s quality of life, satisfaction with life, and experience of good mental and physical health. Additionally, the area of student wellbeing poses challenges in this regard as there is very little consensus on what defines student wellbeing (Roffey, 2012). Roffey (2012) presents one definition which is stated in Chapter 2. Noble et al. (2008) define it as a positive emotional state resulting from a harmony between the sum of specific context factors and personal needs and expectations towards the school. In contrast, a more simple definition is that it is the degree to which a student feels good in the school environment (Fraillon, 2004). For this study, the researcher’s understanding of student wellbeing aligns with that of Huppert and Johnson (2010), which is that wellbeing is the combination of feeling good and functioning well as applied to students in the school setting.

Over the last 10 years, there has been a gradual shift in both research and practice from supporting adolescents in distress towards the concept of wellbeing and resilience. This trend is strongly evidenced in a positive psychology approach (Seligman, 2011). Teaching the personal skills of wellbeing and resilience can make a significant difference in terms of adolescent health and wellbeing (Roffey, 2012). The constructs of wellbeing and resilience are closely linked; most definitions of wellbeing incorporate references either explicit or implicit to the capacity of an individual to be resilient (Roffey, 2015).

Further, Roffey (2015) asserts that when student wellbeing is a whole school or whole student approach with the learner at the centre of the approach, this can be seen as a proactive and preventative approach. It involves all levels of the school from leadership to policy and practice, and it means high expectations for everyone. Increasingly, schools around the world are adopting their own models of educating the whole child, and are exploring ways to achieve this. Incorporating positive psychology is one such way.

3.3 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: WELLBEING AND SCHOOLS

As an institution, the school has immense influence on the development of young people and as Gilman et al. (2009) argue, positive psychology might be a useful lens

through which to view schools and the educational process. Schools could be one of the institutions that utilise positive psychology to promote human development. Seligman et al. (2009) argue that schools are uniquely placed to promote the wellbeing of young people and of school communities more broadly. Studies of positive psychology in children and youth remain in the early stages of development (Gilman, et al., 2009). Research on positive psychology and mental health is still in its formative stages, and some researchers suggest that developing, testing, and refining positive psychology programs catering specifically for adolescents should be a priority (Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009). In recent years, there has been increased impetus to apply positive psychology principles to research with children and adolescents (Chafouleas & Bray, 2004; Clonan, Chafouleas, McDougal, & Riley-Tillman, 2004). One way this can be achieved is by the introduction of school- based programs that teach positive psychology principles. However, there are limited empirical studies available on school-based programs. For schools wishing to implement programs, there are scant studies to examine as a source of guidance in relation to implementing a program.

As well as being interested in happiness and wellbeing in adults, Seligman (2009) investigated whether positive psychology principles could be taught to students in schools through school-based programs. Seligman (2009) argues that the synergy between learning and positive emotion is a strong reason for positive psychology to be taught in schools. For too long the conversations in schools have been dominated by a deficit approach, for example, eliminating bullying. Rather than focusing on this deficit approach, conversations and approaches should be focused on promoting a proactive approach to wellbeing, such as promoting respect, friendship, inclusion, and other positive attributes (Roffey, 2015). Seligman has led the way in arguing for positive psychology to be used in schools. Tough (2012) argues that the qualities that matter the most in relation to children’s success have more to do with character skills like perseverance, curiosity, conscientiousness, optimism and self-control, and that parents and schools can play a powerful role in nurturing these character traits that foster success. Tough’s theory aligns with Seligman’s (2009) claim that “skills that increase resilience, positive emotions, engagement and meaning can be taught to school children” (p. 293). Seligman and colleagues (2009) argue that positive psychology should be explicitly taught to schoolchildren for three reasons: 1) as an

antidote to depression; 2) to increase life satisfaction; and 3) as an aid to improved learning and creative thinking (Seligman, et al., 2009). While these researchers advocate for positive psychology in schools, there is limited material about how to achieve this. Despite this, there is continuing interest in the contribution of positive psychology to enhanced adolescent wellbeing for these reasons.

Current research available on positive psychology highlights that if research based programs are applied in a systemic and considered manner, positive psychology has the potential to make a valuable contribution to adolescent health beyond that of the established deficit-based programs. In order to appreciate the various aspects of wellbeing, and gather a broader understanding of school-based programs aimed at enhancing student wellbeing, selected education programs from preventative and proactive models will now be discussed.

3.4 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAMS

In the literature available on positive psychology, there are a number of terms which are used interchangeably. For the current study, the researcher used the term ‘positive psychology construct’ to signify the use of a single construct, such as gratitude. Positive psychology interventions (PPIs) are defined as programs, practices, treatment methods or activities aimed at cultivating positive feelings, positive behaviours, or positive cognitions (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). The positive education program is not regarded as an intervention as, unlike some interventions which have a limited time-period for implementation, the Pos-Ed program is a timetabled program in the school. Additionally, Waters (2011) states that a PPI has to be evaluated using valid research designs and measures. In the current study, as mentioned earlier, the researcher is the author of a positive psychology program designed for an all girls’ school. This program is named the Positive Education (Pos- Ed) Program, and comprises five positive psychology constructs (character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring and mindfulness). These five constructs were chosen by the researcher as they are evidence-based. Positive psychology programs are distinct from other wellbeing initiatives such as ‘depression-reduction’ programs or ‘anti- bullying’ programs that enhance wellbeing through the removal of negative factors, as the former seeks to enhance the psychological strengths that students already possess. Such programs approach wellbeing from a strengths perspective. Waters (2011) observes that these programs typically include strategies that:

1) cultivate hope in students; 2) cultivate gratitude in students; 3) cultivate serenity in students; 4) focus on developing resilience in students; and 5) focus on developing character strengths in students. These programs are based on the practical application of positive psychology research. Examples of positive psychology programs include identifying and developing strengths, cultivating gratitude, and visualising best possible selves (Seligman, et al., 2005). A series of wellbeing programs from a proactive approach is presented in the next section.

3.5 PROGRAMS THAT ADDRESS ADOLESCENT WELLBEING FROM A PREVENTATIVE, PROACTIVE APPROACH

3.5.1 Positive Educational Practices (PEPs). PEPs is a framework that was developed in Australia by Toni Noble and Helen McGrath (2008) and includes elements of positive psychology. PEPs adapts and applies Seligman’s (2005) five pillars of wellbeing to school wellbeing and is a useful and comprehensive framework for facilitating the work of education psychologists in promoting student wellbeing. The PEPs framework is an example of applied positive psychology in action, where the focus shifts from deficits, problems and treatment to a preventative focus on positive experiences, strengths, and the intentional promotion of wellbeing (Noble & McGrath, 2008). The framework comprises five foundations: 1) social and emotional competency; 2) positive emotions; 3) positive relationships; 4) engagement through strengths; and 5) a sense of meaning and purpose. In an article examining positive psychology programs, Waters (2011) suggests that this framework could be used by schools as an overarching framework to promote student wellbeing. There are no empirical studies currently available on this framework; additionally, there is no evidence currently available of how widely this program is being used in schools to promote wellbeing. One major drawback of this approach for schools considering its adoption is that there is a lack of scientific evidence on the impact of this program. Schools looking to adopt wellbeing programs are more likely to consider programs that have proven to be successful.

3.5.2 AEIOU: Academic, Emotional Intelligence, Optimising performance, Understanding you. One such program is AEIOU, run at Anglican Church Grammar School, a private boys’ school that caters for students from Prep (four years of age) to Year 12 (17 years of age) in Brisbane, Australia. The school’s mission is ‘Making of Men’ and this incorporates academic achievement, personal growth, spiritual awareness, and community service. There is evidence to support that one of the common attributes of top scholars is high emotional intelligence (EI), and conversely depression is a common attribute of people with low EI scores (Goleman, 1995). AEIOU learning experiences incorporate emotional intelligence self-assessment for boys. This program is aimed at increasing emotional intelligences in boys, and uses elements of Goleman's principles of emotional intelligence, research from Swinburne University Melbourne, and elements of positive psychology (Wellham, 2010). Emotional intelligence research in education is in its infancy; however, the application of emotional intelligence understanding, combined with the use of the school’s research findings is being integrated into the school’s curriculum (Wellham, 2010). Strategies were devised for improved academic outcomes through an EI specific language in the curriculum. Students, teachers, and parents were provided with multiple presentations about the program. This program explores positive psychology principles in conjunction with Goleman’s principles of Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1995). Assessment of this program is in the initial stages with no findings currently available. The researcher has observed that in the years since this program was introduced (2010), the author of the program moved to another school, and it appears the program has changed. Information available on the school’s website in 2016 indicated the wellbeing program is no longer labelled as AEIOU, but is listed under a heading called ‘Our Culture’ and the tenets of “belong, lead, improve, serve and strive” appear to have replaced the AEIOU program. While this program received attention in educational magazines when it began, it has not received any attention of late. Additionally, there is no empirical data available on the wellbeing outcomes of this program for students.

3.5.3 Evidence-based life coaching for senior high school students: Building hardiness and hope. Evidence-based life coaching can be defined as a collaborative, solution-focused, results-oriented process in which the coach facilitates the coachee’s life experience,

goal attainment, and wellbeing (Green, Grant, & Rynsaardt, 2007). A recent Australian project examined a life coaching program which consisted of ten individual face-to-face coaching sessions with an allocated teacher-coach and was conducted over two school terms. Participants were 56 volunteer adolescent females (16 to 17 years of age, mean age=16.09) from a normal and mainstream (non- clinical) population in a private girls’ school in Sydney. Participants were assigned to participate in the control group or a wait-list control with 28 in each group. They completed self-report measures as Time 1 (pre-program) and Time 2 (post-program). The measures used were the Trait Hope Scale, the Cognitive Hardiness Scale, and the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale. Each coaching session involved the setting of session goals, followed by a discussion of what was going on the coachee’s life. Participants were then coached to identify personal resources that could be utilised in moving towards their goals and to develop specific action steps to achieve their goals (Green, et al., 2007). Results were promising. With regard to hope, participants in the program scored significant increases in agency, pathways, and total hope. There was also a significant treatment by time interaction for cognitive hardiness for those in the control group (Green, et al., 2007). In relation to the depression, anxiety, and stress measures, there were no significant changes for either group from Time 1 to Time 2.

This was the first controlled study of an evidence based life-coaching program for senior high school students in Australia. Green is hopeful that an “evidence-based life coaching programme implemented in schools may provide a platform for applied psychology, delivering a multitude of benefits that impact positively on student’s overall health and well-being” (Green, et al., 2007, p. 31). This study provides preliminary evidence that a solution-focused life-coaching program can be effective in increasing hope and cognitive hardiness and decreasing self-reported symptoms of depression. It may provide an applied positive psychology option for schools wanting to enhance student wellbeing. This program is interesting as it is the first study of an evidence-based life-coaching program for senior high school female students in Australia. However, studies of this nature are limited and further research using other educational samples and possibly exploring other elements such as academic performance are needed.

Coaching in education is about helping a person to achieve his or her goals or improve performance through structured one-to-one conversations (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012). It can also increase goal attainment and satisfaction with life, increase perceived control over environmental factors, and result in greater openness towards new life experiences (Spence & Grant, 2005). In addition, life coaching can assist in increasing quality of life and reducing depression, anxiety, and stress (Green, et al., 2007).

Recent studies have provided initial evidence for the efficacy of evidence-based life coaching (Green, et al., 2007). These studies come from the relatively new field of coaching psychology, which is defined as the systematic application of behavioural science to the enhancement of life experience, work performance, and wellbeing of individuals (Grant & Cavanagh, 2007). What these studies have indicated is that an evidence-based life coaching program can enhance goal striving, wellbeing, and hope in female adolescent participants (mean age 16 years) in evidence-based life coaching (Green, Oades, & Grant, 2006).

To date, much of the research on life coaching research has focused on adult, community populations (Grant, 2003), although interest in coaching in schools is growing. In a recent publication titled “Coaching in Education”, the author provides examples of coaching applications in schools in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012). This be because evidence-based coaching underpinned by the field of coaching psychology is similar to positive psychology as it is also concerned with optimal functioning and enhanced wellbeing. However, there are currently only limited studies of coaching used in schools and, while the evidence is promising, more empirically evaluated studies may increase interest in this approach.

3.5.4 The Resourceful Adolescent Program (RAP). This is a universal, group-based resilience-building program focusing on the prevention of depression in a health promoting framework (Shochet et al., 2001). It is designed for students aged 13 to 15 years to be run in groups from eight to 16 students, typically in a high school environment. RAP aims to promote coping abilities and the maintenance of a sense of self in the face of stressful and difficult circumstances for adolescents. It is comprised of 11 sessions, each designed to fit within a normal school period, and addresses the following areas: personal strengths;

cognitive restructuring; keeping calm; general problem-solving; support networks; keeping the peace; and interpersonal problem-solving. A study of this program was conducted in a large secondary school in Brisbane, Australia. The purpose of the program was to investigate the efficacy of a universal depression prevention program that operated as part of a school environment (Shochet, et al., 2001). Participants were 260 Year 9 male and female secondary school students with low to middle- class socioeconomic status who completed measures of depressive symptoms and hopelessness and were assigned to one of three groups: 1) RAP-A, an 11 session school-based resilience program as part of the school curriculum; 2) RAP-P, a 3 session parallel program for the parents of the participants to support what their child was learning in RAP-A; and 3) Adolescent Watch, a comparison group in which adolescents simply completed the measures. There was a high recruitment rate (88%), low attrition rate (5.8%), and satisfactory adherence to program protocols. Adolescents in either of the RAP programs reported significantly lower levels of depressive symptomatology and hopelessness at post-program and 10 month follow- up, compared with those in the comparison group. Adolescents also reported high satisfaction with the program (Shochet, et al., 2001). The major theoretical underpinnings of RAP are CBT (cognitive behaviour therapy) and interpersonal therapy (Shochet, et al., 2001). This program is still utilised, but the researcher was unable to determine the extent to which schools utilise this program.

3.5.5 The Geelong Grammar School Project. This is a project where Seligman and his colleagues incorporated positive psychology principles into a whole school setting at Geelong Grammar School (GGS) in Australia. Seligman and his team assisted GGS in developing a program where teachers used the science of positive psychology in their classes, on the sports field, in the chapel, and in their house structure on a daily basis. GGS has four campuses with about 1500 students (co-educational) and approximately 200 staff members. In January 2008, Seligman assembled 15 staff trained in positive psychology at the University of Pennsylvania in the United States to come to Geelong Grammar School to teach the skills of positive psychology, including skills in resilience, character strengths, gratitude, positive communication, and optimism. Seligman used two different programs utilising positive psychology principles at the school: the Penn Resiliency Program (PRP) and the Strath Haven Psychology

Program. Both these programs have been empirically tested, with 17 studies having evaluated the PRP. In relation to the Strath Haven Psychology Program, Seligman and his researchers with a $2.8 million grant from the US Department of Education completed a randomised controlled evaluation of the program. This study revealed improvement in strengths related to learning and engagement in schools, and there was an improvement in social skills. However, it did not improve students’ reports of depression and anxiety symptoms. The program was delivered to approximately 100 Geelong Grammar School staff members over a nine-day program. Geelong Grammar School staff members were encouraged to use the skills in their own lives. The principles and skills of positive psychology were taught in plenary sessions, and reinforced through exercises and applications in groups. Following this training, seven trainers were in residence at Geelong Grammar School for one year to further embed the principles of positive psychology and approximately a dozen scholars in the field visited the school for a week or more to instruct staff members in their positive psychology specialities (Seligman, et al., 2009).

Subsequent to this first program, teachers (2010 to 2012) and ancillary staff (2011) were trained in positive psychology skills. What occurred following the initial training was that stand alone courses and course units in positive psychology and positive education emerged (Seligman, et al., 2009). Between 2009 and 2013, Geelong Grammar School teachers and administrators were engaged in the process of embedding positive education into most academic courses, on the sports field, in pastoral counselling, in music and in the chapel (Seligman, et al., 2009). Initially, no empirical data was gathered on this project. In 2012, the school announced that research students would be working with them to generate data on their program.

In 2013, a paper was published which provided an overview of the Geelong Grammar School model of positive education, an applied framework developed over five years of implementing positive education as a whole-school approach (Norrish, et al., 2013). The model includes explicit and implicit teaching targeting six wellbeing domains: positive emotions; positive engagement; positive accomplishment; positive purpose; positive relationships; and positive health. However, this article opens itself up to claims of bias as the four authors are all employees of the Geelong Grammar School. A further limitation is that this paper does not supply any data on evaluating the framework. Subsequent to this paper,

Geelong Grammar announced they would conduct a three-year study of their positive education program funded by the Australian Research Council due to conclude at the end of 2015. To date, only initial results have been made available. The school is now embarking on researching the program, which perhaps might have been more beneficial at its inception in 2008.

Anecdotally, it appears that Geelong Grammar is more than satisfied with the outcomes of their program, as they continue to embed the program by widening the groups they train. In 2013, the Geelong Grammar School announced it would begin working with their parents to train them in positive psychology skills. Geelong Grammar continues to be a highly regarded school showcasing positive psychology with many Australian and international educators visiting the school to find out about positive psychology in schools. In the last two years, this success in promoting positive psychology has expanded as they launched the Institute of Positive Education, the aim of which is to improve student and staff wellbeing. The institute has the dual purpose of nurturing positive education at the school and assisting the growth of positive education throughout Australia and the world. Through this institute, they offer training courses for teachers, parents and the wider community. The researcher has observed this expansion with a degree of scepticism as, while it is a ground breaking initiative, it can also be viewed as a lucrative economic asset to the college.

3.6 SUMMARY

To date in secondary schools, many programs in the area of wellbeing have tended to focus on students with problems (Green, et al., 2007). The current study explored the impact of a positive psychology program (the positive education program or Pos-Ed) on the wellbeing of mainstream adolescent girls to lead meaningful, purposeful lives and develop skills in resilience. This chapter examined wellbeing programs in schools from a preventative, proactive, or strengths approach. Schools can serve as the nexus between positive psychology which promotes a proactive approach to human development, and the institutions that can serve as the vehicle for this development (Clonan, et al., 2004). The next chapter provides details of the Pos-Ed program.

Chapter 4: The Positive Education Program

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to provide details of the positive education program (Pos-Ed), designed and organised by the researcher. It is a school-based positive psychology program for mainstream adolescent girls focused on five evidence-based positive psychology constructs: strengths, gratitude, mindfulness, savouring and flow. This program is a proactive, strengths-based wellbeing program that replaced an existing program that was not evidence-based. Of importance to the researcher was the process of evaluating the program and this was the main aim of this study. The Pos-Ed program was launched in the school in 2011, and this study evaluated the Year 8 and 9 programs over two years, 2013 and 2014.

4.2 POSITIVE EDUCATION

Positive education was formally defined as a field in 2009 and can be described as education for both traditional academic skills and skills for happiness and wellbeing (Seligman, et al., 2009). Since that time, the definition of positive education has been expanded and refined as education for both traditional academic skills and skills for happiness and wellbeing (Seligman, 2011). It can also be regarded as ‘applied psychology in education’ and there is a growing number of schools using positive psychology programs (Green, et al., 2011). Positive education is growing globally and schools in Australia are rapidly creating large scale, strategic, and customised positive education programs or positive psychology programs (Green, 2014). While more and more schools are adopting positive education, there is a concern about how they will implement these programs, and how they will evaluate them. Some in this area such as Van Nieuwerburgh (2012) signal a need for further research on such programs and the need for expert external consultants and educators to work collaboratively with schools to create and evaluate individualised programs that teach wellbeing skills.

Researchers and practitioners in the positive education area argue that schools can both teach the skills of wellbeing and the skills of achievement (Seligman, et al.,

2009). A key tenet within the field of positive education is that the skills and mindsets that promote positive emotions, positive relationships, resilience and character strengths can be taught explicitly by schools (Green, et al., 2011). They also assert that these wellbeing skills can ameliorate subsequent health issues such as depression and increase life satisfaction.

This shift from a deficit model to a more positive approach to wellbeing continues to gain momentum. Historically, like many western countries, Australia has high expectations in relation to academic performance in secondary schools. However, more recently and in a similar way to other western nations, there are a growing number of schools interested in a more holistic secondary education with a stronger focus on wellbeing. In Australia, Seligman’s approach is growing in popularity with an increasing number of schools implementing wellbeing programs based on positive psychology. It was interest in Seligman’s ideas that prompted the researcher to closely examine the area of positive psychology as a major focus of the current study is that wellbeing strategies can be taught explicitly to students. The researcher wanted to develop a program that was evidence-informed and one that would be evaluated.

The researcher is the author of the program and chose the generic term positive education as the name of the program, but shortened it to Pos-Ed. As stated in Chapter 3, the researcher used the term ‘positive psychology construct’ to signify the use of a single construct, for example, gratitude. The Pos-Ed program in this study (also considered a positive psychology program) incorporates five positive psychology constructs: character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring, and mindfulness. As stated in Chapter 2, these five constructs are all evidence-based and have been shown to contribute to wellbeing. It was important to the researcher that the five constructs had considerable and reputable evidence behind them.

Any school can introduce a positive education program as long as it uses positive psychology principles. This can present challenges, as mentioned at the start of this chapter, as not all programs that are emerging are evidence-based and may not, in fact, achieve the goal of enhanced wellbeing. Before schools take on positive psychology approaches, they need to be informed by evidence that the positive psychology programs and constructs are effective in enhancing wellbeing in students (Waters, 2011). This view is shared by Kristjánsson (2012) who suggests that,

although there are a variety of positive psychology constructs available, they have rarely been used or assessed in combination with each other, or as part of a whole school approach. The researcher is aware that more research on positive psychology constructs and programs would be beneficial and is hopeful that this study makes a contribution to this area.

4.3 POS-ED: A POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM

More recently, educational and other psychologists have begun to develop school-based programs that take a positive proactive approach to enhance student wellbeing through the strengths they already possess (Peterson, 2006). There are some researchers who argue that a positive psychology program should have two essential components: 1) a program’s goal must target wellbeing; and 2) the pathway by which the program operates should be evidence-based. Others, such as Bolier and her colleagues (2013), limited their interest to programs covering the period from 1998 (the start of positive psychology) to 2012. A broader understanding of pathways is posited by Schueller, Kashdan, and Parks (2014) to include an accumulated knowledge of the affective, behavioural, cognitive and motivational processes that support wellbeing. The researcher concurs with Schueller and his colleagues (2014) who argue for a more expansive definition of positive psychology programs. Strategies such as gratitude, kindness, optimism, savouring, and mindfulness to name just a few are highlighted by Lyubomirsky (2001) to support these pathways. Of interest, the constructs that the researcher used—gratitude, savouring, and mindfulness—parallel those in Lyubomirsky’s study. As research continues in the area of positive psychology, it would seem likely that other evidence-based techniques will emerge as viable programs. In the current study, constructs have been chosen because of the empirical evidence associated with them.

4.4 POS-ED: A POSITIVE EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR ADOLESCENT GIRLS

4.4.1 Program Origin. The programs that address adolescent wellbeing from a positive and proactive model discussed in the previous chapter, particularly the positive psychology program at Geelong Grammar School, strongly influenced the program examined in the current study. The researcher visited schools that were using positive psychology constructs

in order to examine how they were implementing positive education. In doing so, the researcher hoped to learn what was working well and what was not in these schools. This knowledge assisted the researcher in the initial stages of thinking about what type of positive education program would be effective for female adolescents in the school where the researcher works. In 2010, the researcher visited Geelong Grammar School, a co-educational independent school, and Genazzano College, an independent Catholic all girls’ school, both in Melbourne, to talk to staff who were involved with designing and implementing their positive psychology programs.

The researcher was accompanied by two staff members who were also pastoral middle leaders who would be involved in teaching the program. At this time in 2011, there were very few schools using positive psychology in any capacity. At the conclusion of these visits, the researcher wrote a summary of how both these schools were implementing positive psychology and presented this to the principal. These notes are included in Appendix A. The column titled ‘Exploration for MSM’ was left blank to be filled in when the researcher met with the principal to share thoughts from the visits. After discussion with the principal, the researcher was given permission to design and implement a positive education program to replace the existing personal education program. The researcher, while having overall responsibility for the program, would work with the college psychologist and the team of pastoral middle leaders to achieve this change. The principal and college leadership team were highly supportive of the program, and the principal chose to attend, along with the researcher and the college psychologist, a three-day training opportunity in 2011 at Geelong Grammar School to develop an understanding of positive psychology.

4.5 PROGRAM PLANNING

4.5.1 Researcher as the author of the program. The researcher sought input, suggestions, and guidance from the college psychologist throughout the process of designing the program. The psychologist was able to assist the researcher in understanding the developmental needs of adolescent girls from a psychological perspective, and was able to contribute valuable suggestions for the overall design of the program. This was, in part, due to her qualifications in

psychology, as well as her extensive experience of over twenty years working with adolescent girls.

The researcher had overall responsibility for the Pos-Ed program in an all girls’ college which offered education from Years 8 to 12. As mentioned in Chapter 1, there was a change in 2015, when Year 7 girls also joined the college as a result of Queensland state legislation mandating that Year 7 move from primary to secondary school. In this study (2013 to 2014) the transition year to secondary school was Year 8, and only Pos-Ed in Year 8 and Year 9 were evaluated.

The researcher, as the initiator of the move towards positive psychology, drove the change process. This change was viewed as a major cultural change impacting on all students and all teaching staff. An advantage of the researcher’s role as part of the school leadership team is that it allowed the process of change to be driven by the senior executive of the school as they were supportive of the initiative. The ethical consideration raised by this is discussed in Section 5.6. The conceptualisation, research, and planning for positive psychology were completed by the researcher. These aspects can be considered conceptual and, to implement the change, the researcher worked very closely with the team that consisted of five pastoral middle leaders (one for each year level from 8 to 12) and the college psychologist. The pastoral middle leaders then worked with their teams of home room teachers to deliver the program. Schools, like many organisations, operate with a hierarchy of teams. The researcher realised that as this change would affect the whole school, the staff teams needed to be on board and trained in positive psychology. As discussed in Chapter 1, the focus of this study is a positive education program and, for staff to implement this program, they needed to be trained in positive psychology principles as positive education is applied positive psychology in education.

The change would affect the whole school, as all students would be involved as well as all home room teachers and pastoral middle leaders which comprise the majority of the teaching staff. Consequently, a decision was made to provide professional learning for all staff in positive psychology over a number of years, so that there would be a common language and approach shared by staff and students. Due to budgetary concerns, this professional learning spanned a number of years which is seen in Table 4.1, and training has continued beyond this study. While this change can be regarded on one level as a whole school approach in the wellbeing area, and

affected all students and the majority of the teaching staff, it was not the whole school approach taken by schools such as Geelong Grammar School. In these schools, not only do they have explicit lessons for Positive Education, but what is taught in these lessons is integrated into the curriculum and all aspects of college life, from the sporting field to the chapel. Geelong Grammar School has an applied framework for positive education which provides an empirically-informed roadmap for how positive psychology can be applied and embedded in schools (Norrish, et al., 2013). This type of comprehensive whole school approach was not adopted by the school in this study. While there is increasing evidence to link academic performance with increased wellbeing, as discussed in Chapter 1, the school in this study did not extend the application of positive psychology explicitly to the curriculum area. This was in part due to the principal not wanting it to extend to the curriculum area, and in part due to the researcher viewing this as too large a project to manage.

Table 4.1 Research and Training for Staff

Positive Psychology Research/Training External Experts Year Visit to Geelong Grammar School & Genazzano Key staff visit these 2010 College colleges Introduction to Positive Psychology training Karen Reivich Jan 2011 Geelong Grammar School Staff PD January 2011 (Positive Psychology) Current Staff driving 20 Jan 2011 the program Applied Positive Psychology in Education: Emily Scanlon from Jan 2012 strengths/flow/mindfulness/gratitude Positive Psychology Institute Resilient Kids Need Resilient Teachers Dan Haesler 2013 Mindfulness Janet Etty-Leal 2014

4.5.2 Program design. As planning and implementation began the researcher designed the program for each year level. This design consisted of using planning sheets that were kept in a central place at the workplace (R Drive, Pos-Ed, on the school network), where all the teachers of the program could access them. The researcher organised a template for these planners. There was an overall planning sheet showing the program for the year

across all year levels, and there were also four separate term planners (one for each term of the school year) for each year level. The overall yearly planning sheets for Year 8, 2013, and Year 9, 2014 are provided as Appendix B. They were all kept electronically in folders on the school R drive for teachers of the program to access. An example of a term planner for Year 8 is provided as Appendix C and for Year 9 as Appendix D.

As well as this overall yearly and term planning, the pastoral middle leaders met at a scheduled time for 50 minutes every fortnight with the researcher and college psychologist to plan individual lessons. These lesson plans were also saved on the school R drive in the Pos-Ed folder organised by the particular year level (e.g., Year 7, Year 8) and were available to all teachers involved in the program. Additionally, the home room teachers met weekly for twenty minutes every Wednesday morning before school to discuss the individual Pos-Ed lesson plans for the term. As they met weekly, the pastoral middle leader was able to check that all teachers were following the program and were confident about teaching the lessons. The pastoral middle leader discussed the individual lesson plans at these meetings. On some occasions the researcher visited these meetings to talk about the lesson plans. The researcher is aware of the limitation that, while as many checks as possible were put in place to ensure the same material was being covered in alignment with the planning, there would be variance in the manner in which the teachers would present the material. However, this limitation applies to teachers teaching in any subject area. As while there will be a syllabus to follow, and subsequent individual subject planners as well as individual lesson plans, there will still be variance in the way the material is taught, as this is the nature of teaching. There is no guarantee that teachers will deliver content to students in exactly the same way; this is just not possible or realistic as an expectation. While the researcher recognised this as a limitation, the weekly meetings of the home room teachers to discuss lesson plans were the researcher’s method of addressing this limitation. Another strategy used to address this limitation was that the researcher asked the pastoral middle leaders on occasion to visit and observe lessons delivered by home room teachers, which was an incentive for them to comply with the lesson plans.

Each pastoral middle leader worked with their own teams consisting of five home room teachers for each year level. Each of these five home room teachers was the

teacher in charge of a particular class (for example, 8A, 8B, 8C, and so on). These teachers would meet with students at the beginning of the day, mark the roll, and attend to organisation and pastoral matters. These teachers were also allocated to teach Pos-Ed to their home room class. The pastoral middle leaders together with the home room teachers and the college psychologist would then deliver the program to students in the time allocated to Pos-Ed in the timetable, details of which are provided in the next section. Delivery of the Pos-Ed program varied, and this was deliberate with the aim of stimulating and engaging students with different types of lesson delivery. Some lessons were taught by the home room teacher in the home room classrooms. Some lessons were taken by the pastoral middle leader or the college psychologist. On these occasions, all home rooms in the year level would assemble in a large area, and the home room teachers would supervise students as they were taught the lesson and as they completed activities as directed by the pastoral middle leader or college psychologist. As well as aiming for varied lesson delivery, the researcher was cognisant of varying the structure of the lessons to motivate and engage students, and this will be discussed in detail in one of the sections below.

4.5.3 Training for teachers implementing the program. As a result of the researcher’s visit to the Geelong Grammar School in 2010, the researcher was offered three places in a three-day training opportunity in positive psychology presented by Dr. Karen Reivich who works very closely with Martin Seligman in the United States. Dr. Reivich is the Director of Training Programs for the Penn Positive Psychology Centre at the University of Pennsylvania. In consultation with the principal, it was decided that the researcher, the principal, and the college psychologist would attend this training. Strategically, this decision was wise as both the researcher and college psychologist would be involved in the design of the Pos-Ed program, and it was important to have the principal’s endorsement in subsequently gaining widespread staff support for the program. In order to train the pastoral middle leaders, the researcher organised a one-day intensive training session with Dr. Suzy Green at the Positive Psychology Institute in Sydney. All of this training occurred prior to the launch of the program.

One of the challenges the researcher faced was in bringing the staff on board with positive psychology. Rather than just train the teachers delivering the program, the

researcher, with the pastoral middle leaders and the college psychologist, prepared and presented a six-hour training session to all teaching staff on a professional learning day in January 2011 prior to the launch of the program. At this session, administration staff were also invited to attend, and a small number attended.

Teachers were provided with professional learning on the five key constructs by outside experts in the area of positive psychology. This professional learning provided for teachers is listed in Table 4.1. As this was a new and evolving program, teachers were continually provided with professional learning opportunities to enhance their own understanding of the concepts they were teaching. This professional learning for staff on positive psychology was ongoing.

4.6 PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

The Pos-Ed program was launched in February 2011, with a special whole school assembly to announce to staff and students that the previous pastoral care program was being replaced. The launch was organised by the researcher and the pastoral middle leaders and college psychologist. It consisted of a presentation using a PowerPoint presentation along with music and video clips to highlight key aspects of the program. The launch lasted for twenty minutes and students responded with enthusiasm. This launch informed the whole school community of the change to positive education. This was only two years after positive education was formally defined as a field (2009). The researcher was aware that this was a new direction for the school and that, as an early adopter, there needed to be education of staff and students in this field. At this time there were very few schools apart from Geelong Grammar School using positive psychology.

This program was part of the six-day timetable and was taught by home room teachers. Pos-Ed was timetabled for 50 minutes once per six-day cycle, as well as another 50 minutes every week when there was not a whole school assembly. As stated above, elements that were taught in this program were: character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring, and mindfulness. While positive psychology encompasses other concepts, these concepts were chosen as they align with Seligman’s (2011) latest wellbeing theory.

Table 4.2 The Pos-Ed program (Current Study)

Age Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4 Yearly Group Total Year 8 Positive Positive Health Positive Positive (12-13) Identity 11.2 hours Relationships Purpose 44.8 11.2 hours 11.2 hours 11.2 hours hours Year 9 Positive Positive Positive Positive Health (14) Relationships & Identity Purpose 11.2 hours 44.8 Transition to 11.2 hours 11.2 hours hours Year 9 11.2 hours Year 10 Positive Health Positive Positive Positive (15) 11.2 hours Identity Purpose Purpose 44.8 11.2 hours 11.2 hours 11.2 hours hours Year 11 Positive Positive Positive Positive (16) Identity Relationships Purpose Purpose 23.2 5.8 hours 5.8 hours 5.8 hours 5.8 hours hours Year 12 Positive Positive Health Positive Positive (17) Purpose & Positive Purpose Purpose- 23.2 5.8 hours Identity 5.8 hours Transitioning hours 5.8 hours to Adulthood 5.8 hours

The researcher was influenced by the six organising pillars used by Geelong Grammar School: positive purpose; positive relationships; positive accomplishment; positive emotions; positive engagement; and positive health. These organisers reflect the PERMA model (Seligman, 2011) with the addition of positive health. Four organising pillars were chosen by the researcher: positive identity; positive purpose; positive health; and positive relationships. Identity and health were chosen as they are important factors in the social-emotional development of female adolescents and in building confidence and resilience as they move to adulthood (Bellhouse, 2004). Purpose and relationships are both key elements of Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model of wellbeing. While the researcher was influenced by Seligman’s PERMA model, this model was not adopted in its entirety. This should not be surprising as

schools will choose what best suits their educational environment and generally speaking, school systems will implement positive psychology in their own way. The overall structure of the program is outlined in Table 4.2.

While there were four organising pillars and five main constructs that were explicitly taught, the program also comprised other elements related to wellbeing. These elements aligned with positive psychology and included examples such as goal setting, positive affirmations, community-focused activities, as well as personal and social safety. Not every lesson focused on the five key constructs, as for practical reasons this would not have worked as there were many lessons to fill each term. The researcher considered that the five key constructs were the most important elements of the program and these were threaded not only through the program in Years 8 and 9, but through all year levels. The program was designed to allow students as they progressed through secondary school to gain a deeper understanding of these constructs which they could apply personally to their own lives.

More time for Pos-Ed was allocated to Years 8, 9 and 10, and this is where the five constructs were taught explicitly to students. Less time was available in the timetable for Years 11 and 12 due mainly to state legislative requirements for senior schooling. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, Years 8 and 9 were the two years chosen as the focus of this study. These years were chosen for two main reasons: 1) the transition year to secondary school is a significant year for adolescents; and 2) the researcher realised that by targeting the transition year and the following year, these adolescents would almost certainly not have had any exposure to positive psychology, and therefore would be a suitable group from whom to gather data. Moreover, the research was confined to a limited time frame, as these were the conditions that the principal of the college agreed to for this research.

4.6.1 Program delivery. The method of lesson delivery varied and this was deliberate. The researcher planned lessons that would be engaging and meaningful. Each lesson had a number of different components and some lessons would be delivered by guest presenters. The researcher, also a teacher, realised that teaching in any area where there is no assessment is challenging as students often treat these classes with scant regard. This is why it was important to carefully plan engaging lessons.

Lesson delivery included formal teacher instruction, group activities, guest speakers from outside the school, and presentations by the college psychologist. It also included teachers who organised competitions or challenges to make the content interesting. One example of this is teachers organising students into teams according to their top five signature strengths, and then setting a challenge for each of these teams. Students then work on the challenge in groups, learn more about their signature strengths, enjoy friendly competition, and enjoy the learning.

While the lesson plans were organised by the pastoral middle leaders for the home room teachers to deliver, these were not exclusively prescriptive. Teachers could obviously add to the lesson by giving their own explanations, and provide their own examples of whatever they were teaching. Pos-Ed as a subject is well regarded and students generally speaking enjoy the lessons. Possible reasons for this are that there is no assessment, and also teachers deliver the material in an interesting and engaging manner; this is a result of the careful planning and design of the program. It is also a result of the teachers embracing positive psychology themselves personally.

4.6.2 Examples of lessons. As stated in the previous section, the lessons were designed to be meaningful and engaging, as well as varied in both format and delivery. The researcher worked closely with each of the five pastoral middle leaders and the college psychologist in designing the overall yearly plan and the four term plans. The pastoral middle leaders then designed individual lesson plans in consultation with the researcher and the college psychologist. As stated earlier in the chapter, the pastoral middle leaders then met with the home room teachers to train them to deliver the lessons. Some lessons were delivered by home room teachers to their individual classes, and some were delivered by the Pastoral Middle Leader or the college psychologist to the entire year level.

The lessons discussed here provide examples of lessons being taught to students, the content, and the content later revisited and built on. An example of a Year 8 lesson on strengths, provided in Appendix E, was delivered by the home room teachers to their individual classes. Students were given revision information about strengths followed by instructions to complete the VIA Inventory of Strengths for Youth (discussed in Chapter 2). As the questionnaire took 30 to 40 minutes to complete, this took most of this lesson. This lesson followed an introductory lesson on

strengths by the Pastoral Middle Leader to the whole year level in the school auditorium using a PowerPoint presentation. Later in the year, home room teachers revisited strengths with the Year 8 students to reinforce their importance. The plan for this lesson is provided in Appendix F and this was a worksheet emailed to the students just prior to the lesson. This lesson consisted of the teacher revisiting the area of strengths after an opening activity. There were three key tasks on the worksheet the students had to complete, followed by a class sharing of their responses in the latter part of the lesson.

In Year 9, as mentioned above, lessons were built on the work taught in Year 8, with the aim of students developing a deeper, more comprehensive understanding of the constructs. An example of a Year 9 lesson building on the work completed on strengths in Year 8 is provided in Appendix G. This lesson was delivered by the college psychologist and was focused on strengths in teams. Students brought to this lesson their printout of the VIA Inventory of Strengths for Youth survey completed in Year 8, and students were to record their top five strengths on posters that were provided. The aim of this lesson was to allow students to gain an understanding of the strengths of other students in the class as well as the strengths of the class as a whole. Students were then engaged in a group activity brainstorming where they could apply their top five strengths at school and they shared their ideas with the group. The lesson ended with students writing in their gratitude journals about being grateful for their individual strengths.

4.6.3 Examples of activities. Gratitude as one of the key constructs of the program featured strongly in the Year 8 and 9 programs. As part of the stationery package purchased by families at the beginning of the year, students received a small book to use as their gratitude diary. Students in both these year levels regularly used their gratitude diaries in Pos-Ed lessons. Gratitude activities varied; for example, students were directed to take time to write down three things that went well that day and why they went well. Another example of a gratitude activity was dividing their diaries into three sections (gratitude, goal setting, strengths), and they were given time to reflect on positive things in their lives at the time related to these areas.

Students were given directions about how to use their gratitude diaries and an example of this is provided in Appendix H. This lesson consisted of a PowerPoint

presentation presented by the pastoral middle leader to the whole year level, with the aim of explaining the significance of gratitude and directing students to commence entries in their diaries. Students would be given time in class to write in their diaries and meditative music was played during this time. Students appreciated the time to stop and reflect, and they enjoyed the process of individualising their diaries. Teachers respected that these diaries were private, but on occasion would invite students to share what they were writing about and called for volunteers to share. Evidence of this is provided in Chapter 6, where students in both focus groups spoke about the practice of using the gratitude diaries helping them ‘feel better’ and be ‘happier’. There were students who found the sharing process with the whole group helpful as they heard what other students were grateful for in their lives.

As well as gratitude diaries, each of the Year 8 home rooms with the teacher assembled their own class gratitude tree over the period of one term (10 weeks), and in Pos-Ed time they would write personal gratitude messages and place them as leaves on the tree over the 10 weeks. Students spoke about this in the first focus group with some students preferring to work in their diaries while others enjoyed preparing messages for the gratitude tree. It seemed that providing variety with gratitude activities catered for personal differences in learning. These trees were creative, promoted class cohesion, and students enjoyed the activities. Members of the college leadership team visited these classes and affirmed students for their creative and thoughtful work on gratitude.

In a similar way to strengths, the lessons taught about gratitude in Year 8 were built on in Year 9. This was a deliberate strategy to extend and deepen the learning in the five constructs. An example of an early lesson in Year 9, 2014 is provided in Appendix I where the lesson was delivered by the pastoral middle leader to the whole year level. This lesson could also easily be delivered by home room teachers in individual classes, but as this was the start of the second year of positive psychology in the school, the pastoral middle leaders tended to take the lessons at the beginning of the terms. The lesson began with a mindfulness exercise, which was then followed by work in their gratitude diaries.

By this stage, students in Year 9 were becoming very familiar both with using their gratitude diaries and starting the lesson with a mindfulness activity. The researcher recognised that in the second focus group some of the participants spoke about the

gratitude activities being repetitive and some students were writing the same things over and over. This was noted by the researcher as a suggestion for improvement and was taken on board for further consideration.

4.7 SUMMARY

This chapter provided a detailed explanation of the school-based positive psychology program for mainstream adolescent girls called the Pos-Ed program Examined in this chapter are the background, the research, planning, and implementation of the program. Also provided here are the processes the researcher engaged in to design the program. This program relied on the involvement and commitment of a number of different teams of staff within the school, and information on how these teams delivered the program is supplied here. The final section of the chapter provided examples of lessons and activities that formed part of the Pos-Ed program. Additionally, in this chapter there were references to program plans, term plans, lessons, and activities for teaching the program, as well as a schedule of professional learning for staff.

Chapter 5: Research Design and Theoretical Framework

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter outlines a mixed methods research design, underpinned by the science of positive psychology and applied to adolescents within a constructivist paradigm. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of a positive education program for adolescent girls in their transition from primary to secondary school. First, the research questions are identified. Second, a justification for using a mixed method design is outlined. Third, the rationale for the three quantitative and two qualitative data phases of the mixed method design is provided, including information about the participants, measures, and analysis. Fourth, the framework of the positive education program (Pos-Ed) that comprises the two phases of this study is presented. Fifth, pertinent ethical issues relevant to this study are also highlighted. Finally, the chapter concludes with an outline of the theoretical framework used.

5.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

There are three central research questions for the current research project.

1) What are the short-term and long-term changes in the level of wellbeing that adolescent girls experience in the Pos-Ed program? 2) What are the experiences of adolescent girls in the Pos-Ed program at the end of the first and second year of the program? 3) Have any observed changes been consistent, or strengthened, over the two years of the program (Years 8 and 9)? In relation to the questions above, question one aimed to gain an understanding of the levels of wellbeing of adolescent girls on transition to secondary school and during the following year. Question two sought to examine the experiences of Year 8 adolescent girls in their transition year, as well as Year 9 girls who had completed two years of the program. It was hoped that insights into specific aspects of the program could be gained by identifying what the students considered to be the most and least helpful parts of the program, as well as how they felt their wellbeing had been impacted by their participation in the program. Question three focused on

examining whether there were any observed changes to the participants’ wellbeing over the two-year period, and whether the changes if any, had been consistent or strengthened over the two-year period.

An issue of concern for the researcher was whether the students involved in the current study had been previously exposed to a positive psychology program. Students were asked at the beginning of the final survey they completed at the end of Year 9 to verify whether they had participated in any positive psychology program in primary school, and all students stated that they had not.

5.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

5.3.1 Mixed methods approach: Strengths and challenges. Mixed methods or multimethod research first emerged in the 1950s in the field of psychology (Hunter & Brewer, 2003) and has continued to develop into a separate and distinct methodology with a body of accompanying literature (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2001). Mixed methods research involves collecting and analysing both quantitative and qualitative data. A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analysing, and ‘mixing’ both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or a series of studies to understand a research problem (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2001).

The strength of mixed methods lies within its capacity to traverse different approaches, therefore providing increased confidence to final conclusions. Another advantage of the mixed methods model is that the researcher is able to collect two types of data simultaneously, providing the current study with the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative data (Creswell, 2009). When used in combination, quantitative and qualitative methods complement each other and allow for more in-depth analyses (Greene, Caracelli, & Graham, 1989; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). By using both datasets, the researcher is able to provide a better understanding of the topic than if either dataset had been used alone (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2001).

Despite the advantages of using a mixed methods design, there were challenges for the researcher. A mixed methods design requires that the researcher be conversant with both qualitative and quantitative methods (Creswell, 2003). For small projects with only one researcher, as in the current study, mixed methods poses challenges in relation to the time and work required to collect and analyse both quantitative and

qualitative data. This situation however, provided continuity and closeness with the data that is difficult to achieve when studies have separate researchers involved in the qualitative and quantitative phases. A small, mixed methods project is also a personally and professionally enriching experience which extends researcher competencies (Creswell, 2003).

The mixed methods approach used in this study is a concurrent explanatory approach, where the researcher aimed to elaborate on the findings of one method with another (Creswell, 2009). The concurrent explanatory approach usually implies collecting and analysing first quantitative and then qualitative data in two consecutive phases within one study (Ivankova, Creswell, & Stick, 2006). Typically with this approach, quantitative data is collected and analysed in the first phase followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data in a second phase, which builds on the initial results (Creswell, 2012a). The straightforward nature of the concurrent explanatory approach is a strength of this method because the steps fall into clear and separate stages (Creswell, 2012b). The quantitative data was collected using survey instruments. The qualitative data was collected through focus groups which provided the power of the narrative, and was used as a supplementary source of data. Focus group methodology is useful in exploring what people think and why they think the way they do, about the issues of importance to them (Liamputtong, 2011). The concurrent explanatory design was used in this study as wellbeing is a difficult area to study because of the many variables at play. That is, the quantitative research alone may not be enough to address the research problem, while the addition of qualitative data extended and enriched the quantitative data.

The mixed methods research design for the current study occurred over seven phases. These phases, listed in Table 5.1, include the quantitative and qualitative gathering of data, as well as the implementation of the program over two years.

Table 5.1 Research Timeline for the Current Study

Phase Instrument Timeline Phase 1 Pre-Test Administered Feb 2013 Social Emotional Health Participants randomly selected for Survey focus groups Permission gained from parents for focus groups Phase 2 Positive psychology program, Program implemented in 2013 Year 8 across the whole year level Phase 3 Focus Group 1- Year 8 6 students- conducted February 2014 students at the beginning of Year 9 (focused on the experiences of Year 8 students in their transition year) Phase 4 Post-Test Post-Test completed November 2013 Social Emotional Health Survey Phase 5 Positive psychology Program implemented 2014 program- Year 9 Phase 6 Focus Group 2- Year 9 5 students- conducted November 2014 Phase 7 Post- Post-Test Post- Post-Test implemented Social Emotional Health November 2014 Survey

5.4 PHASES OF THE STUDY

5.4.1 Quantitative phases. There were three quantitative phases in this study—phases 1, 4 and 7—which occurred over a two-year period. The quantitative instrument used in this study was the Social Emotional Health Survey-Secondary (SEHS-S) which was used as a general measure of psychological wellbeing (Furlong, 2014). This survey examined the psychological wellbeing of the participants in this study at different points in time.

Phase 1 consisted of generating and analysing quantitative data before the students undertook the Pos-Ed program (the pre-test phase). Phase 4 involved the generation of the second set of quantitative data, gathered after the students completed the first year of the Pos-Ed program (the post-test phase). Phase 7 involved the generation of the final set of quantitative data, collected after the students completed the second year of the Pos-Ed program (the second post-test phase).

Phase 1: Pre-Test (Transition to secondary school: Year 8). The process of generating data in Phase 1 involved surveying the entire Year 8 cohort of approximately 170 female students. The survey was voluntary and, of the 170 female students in the cohort, 149 students completed the survey in Phase 1. This was due to some students being absent on the day the survey was completed, and some students not wanting to participate. As stated above, this pre-test survey occurred prior to the commencement of the Pos-Ed program in 2013. The SEHS-S asked a range of questions about student perceptions in relation to their overall psychological wellbeing and their life at school (see Appendix J). This occurred at the beginning of the first Pos-Ed lesson in February 2013. This was a point in time survey, and these students had just transitioned from various primary schools to a new secondary school and were just settling into a new educational environment. Also, at this point in time, they were not familiar with the school’s positive education program. To protect the identity of the students, they were asked to supply answers to three questions at the beginning of the survey: 1) provide the first two letters of their mother’s first name, 2) the day of their birth, and 3) the last letter of their last name. While this information protected the identity of students, it also enabled the researcher to track responses over the two years. A consent form was sent home to parents and students to participate in the survey, and signed forms were required for students to complete the survey (see Appendix K).

For reasons of educational equity, a situation where a control group is utilised was not possible in this study. The researcher gained approval from the school principal for the study (see Appendix L). The school principal at the research site would not give permission for one group to be excluded from completing the program as she felt this would be inequitable. The ideal research opportunity consists of two groups, an experimental group (where the test variable is introduced), and the control group (where the independent variable is neither introduced nor manipulated) (Gray,

Williamson, Karp, & Dalphin, 2007). However, this was not possible in this study. The study was conducted within these parameters and the researcher obtained a baseline for all new Year 8 students before their exposure to the Pos-Ed program through the pre-test.

Phase 4: Post-Test (End of Year 8). The same students who completed the SEHS-S as a pre-test at the beginning of Year 8 completed it again as a post-test at the end of Year 8, the end of their first year of exposure to the Pos-Ed program. Of the 170 girls in the cohort, 151 students completed the survey at this point in time. This information was presented earlier in Table 1.1.

Phase 7: Second Post-Test (Quantitative Data: End of Year 9). A final post-test using the SEHS-S occurred at the end of 2014, after students had completed the two years of the Pos-Ed program. Of the 170 girls in the cohort, 163 students completed the survey at this point in time. This completed the exploration of the students’ social-emotional wellbeing and laid the foundation for the assessment of the impact of the positive psychology program over two years.

Participants. The participants in the quantitative phases of the study comprised the entire 2013 Year 8 cohort of approximately 170 female students in their transition year to secondary school. Participation was voluntary, so not all of the 170 students agreed to participate. At Time 1, the beginning of Year 8, 149 students completed the survey. The secondary school was a Catholic girls’ secondary school in suburban Brisbane, Australia. The population was approximately 750 students aged 12 to 17 years. It is an independent school in a relatively wealthy middle-class area approximately 10 kilometres from the capital city of Queensland, Brisbane; it serves predominantly middle-class families. As a Catholic school, it espouses an ethos of compassion and it takes a small percentage of students from families experiencing financial hardship. Students come to this school from over 20 state and independent primary schools. The Index of Community Socio-Educational Advantage (ICSEA) measure in 2013 was 1127 and in 2014 it was 1139. This measure enables fair and reasonable comparisons among schools with similar students, and was developed specifically for the ‘My School’ website: https://www.myschool.edu.au/. The ICSEA

is set at an average of 1000. The lower the ICSEA value, the lower the level of educational advantage of students who attend the school. As the level increases to higher levels, the level of educational advantage of the students also increases. These ICSEA results indicate that students were in the high level of educational advantage. For this school, destination survey results over the last five years revealed that most graduates progressed to post-secondary study at universities and colleges of technical and further education.

Measures. The Social Emotional Health Survey-Secondary was used to assess the levels of wellbeing in the students. This measure was chosen as it allowed for the combinatorial effect of numerous positive psychological variables to be measured, and it has been designed for use with secondary school students. As discussed in Chapter 2, the Social Emotional Health Survey-Secondary (SEHS-S) is a better predictor of subjective wellbeing and quality of life as it measures the combinatorial effect of a range of positive psychological variables (Furlong, et al., 2013). Furlong et al. (2013) developed the SEHS-S as an instrument that is used to investigate the social and emotional wellbeing of adolescents. It is based on the covitality model, which is defined as the co-occurrence of positive personal assets and interpersonal resources that increase the likelihood of positive development for individuals. This model identifies four constructs—belief-in-self, belief-in-others, emotional competence, and engaged living—that are widely used in positive psychology research and are individually related to highlight scores on measures of psychological health. The model asserts that a combination of positive traits is needed for wellbeing rather than a focus on any one specific trait.

The SEHS-S has undergone robust statistical analysis including confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) which has supported the four factor structure (Furlong, et al., 2013). It consists of 36 items, nine per construct, where belief-in-self, belief-in-others, and emotional competence are assessed using a four-point Likert scale: not at all true of me, a little true of me, pretty much true of me, and very true of me. The first three items of the engaged living construct use the same four-point Likert scale, while the other six (related to gratitude and zest: see below) use a five-point scale: not at all, very little, somewhat, quite a lot, extremely. The four constructs that comprise the SEHS-S will now be discussed in detail.

Belief-in-Self. In a school setting, belief-in-self is important in understanding how students choose what tasks they will be involved in, how much effort they will exert on the task, and how long they will persist when there are difficulties or when they experience failure (Bandura, 1989). Belief-in-self is important towards adolescents regulating their own functioning and exercising control over their personal life circumstances (Bandura, 1997). Belief-in-self in a school context has been identified as comprising three internal concepts: self-awareness, self-efficacy, and persistence, which has characteristics of what is called ‘flow’ (Furlong, et al., 2013). This concept can be applied to female adolescent development, which can be a challenging time and is characterised by losses as well as high expectations that may increase emotional vulnerability (Bennett, 2012). Self-awareness can be defined as a person’s capacity to actively reflect on their own abilities to learn and complete tasks (Ridley, Schutz, Glanz, & Weinstein, 1992). In relation to adolescents, this may involve knowing when to ask for assistance with their academic work or identifying that it may be time to invoke a new learning strategy (Furlong, et al., 2013). Self-awareness allows students to set goals and implement necessary strategies to achieve these goals. An example of a self-awareness item is “I understand my moods and feelings.”

Self-efficacy can be defined as an individual’s beliefs about their own capability to learn or engage in a task at a given level (Gore, 2006). The beliefs of self-efficacy permeate every area of students’ lives, including their thought processes, motivation, persistence, and their capacity to use emotional and behavioural regulation. Self-efficacy also plays a key role in assessing how likely it is a student will be at risk of experiencing feelings of depression, anxiety, and stress (Bandura, 1997). An example of a self-efficacy item is “I can do most things if I try.”

Persistence can be defined as perseverance in and passion for accomplishing one’s goals (You et al., 2013). An example of a persistence item is “When I do not understand something, I ask the teacher again and again until I understand.” Persistence in academic tasks for students is positively affected by the experience of flow (Furlong, et al., 2013). In the current study, the belief-in-self construct showed a Cronbach α of .83 for Time 1, .84 for Time 2, and .86 for Time 3. These are acceptable internal consistency coefficients as they are greater than .7. Below this point they are typically considered too low (Pallant, 2011).

Belief-in-Others. Belief-in-others occurs for adolescents when they feel cared for across peer, school, and family contexts. Belief-in-others, in a school context, has been conceptualised as consisting of three components: peer support, school support and family coherence (You, et al., 2013). In an important study, researchers drew on data from over 12,000 middle school and high school male and female students in America who participated in The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Resnick et al., 1997). It was found that both family connectedness and perceived school connectedness protected against every measure of risky behaviour (emotional distress, suicidality, violence, substance use, age of first sexual experience) except a history of pregnancy (Resnick, et al., 1997). A sense of relatedness, along with feelings of competence and autonomy has been identified as a psychological need which is important for positive wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2000). A review of the literature undertaken by Gilman et al. (2009) led the authors to suggest that a belief-in-others is positively related to psychological wellbeing. In the current study, the belief-in-others construct exhibited acceptable internal consistency with a Cronbach α of .85 for Time 1, .84 for Time 2, and .84 for Time 3.

Emotional Competence. Emotional competence can be defined as having self-efficacy in immediate situations where key emotional skills are needed. Children demonstrate emotional competence by initially showing an awareness of their own emotions and then developing an ability to go beyond themselves and understand the emotions of others (Saarni, Campos, Camras, & Witherington, 2006). Research suggests that poor emotional competence in early adolescence predicts the development of depression (Zeman, Shipman, & Suveg, 2002). The SEHS-S describes emotional competence as including emotional regulation, self-control and empathy.

Emotional regulation is defined as a person’s capacity to influence which emotions are expressed (Gross, 1998). Students may exercise emotional regulation consciously or unconsciously. Emotional regulation has been described as having two main elements: the management of emotional expression and the modulation of emotional reactions (Gilman, et al., 2009). An example of an emotional regulation item is “I accept responsibility for my actions”.

Self-control or delay of gratification can be defined as the ability to control one’s actions and resist taking immediate rewards in favour of anticipated outcomes. This process develops over time and is central to successful goal-oriented behaviour (Mischel et al., 2011). An example of a self-control item is “I can wait for what I want.”

Empathy is defined as an individual’s affective response to the experience of another person. Empathy has been linked to positive social and psychological outcomes (Davis, 1983). An example of an empathy item is “I try to understand what other people go through.” In the current study, the emotional competence construct exhibited acceptable internal consistency with a Cronbach α of .85 for Time 1, .78 for Time 2, and .76 for Time 3.

Transition to secondary school is an important milestone and can be a stressful time in the lives of adolescent girls (Waters, et al., 2014). Consequently, emotional competence can be affected at this time, and it is important to provide girls with skills to navigate this important period in their lives.

Engaged Living. Engagement can be described as the experience where a person is highly attentive and motivated with a task, and absorbed in the specific challenges in the activity (Dawes & Larson, 2011). Three strength-based constructs that have been identified as being central to engaged living are gratitude, optimism, and zest. Gratitude is defined as the feeling people experience when they are aware of and thankful for the good things that happen to them and express thanks to those responsible (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). Optimism is defined as a general expectation for good outcomes in the future (Scheier & Carver, 1985). Zest is defined as a positive trait reflecting a person’s approach to life with anticipation, energy, and excitement (Peterson, Park, Hall, & Seligman, 2009).

Overall, these constructs are significant in linking adolescents’ attitudes towards past, present, and future developments in their lives (Froh, et al., 2009). For adolescents to develop optimally and to think strategically about their life challenges and opportunities they need to experience purposeful and meaningful engagement (You, et al., 2013). In the current study, the engaged living construct exhibited

acceptable internal consistency with a Cronbach α of .87 for Time 1, .88 for Time 2, and .87 for Time 3.

5.4.2 Qualitative phases. Focus Group Interviews. Focus group methodology can be attributed to Emory Bogardus who, in 1926, described group interviews in his social psychological research (Liamputtong, 2011). Focus groups can be defined as a discussion among a group of selected individuals about a particular topic (Wilkinson, 2004). Qualitative research in the form of focus groups that use open ended questions can offer many different perspectives on the topic and provide a complex picture of the situation (Creswell, 2012a). A major advantage of using focus groups is the opportunity to observe a large amount of interaction on a topic in a limited amount of time (Morgan, 1997). An appealing feature of focus groups is their robust versatility for shedding light on almost any topic. Focus groups are particularly useful for exploratory research when little is known about the phenomenon of interest (Stewart, Shamdasani, & Rook, 2007). Currently, there is limited research on positive psychology and female adolescent wellbeing. The current study makes a contribution to research in this area as it examines female adolescent wellbeing over a two-year period. Drawbacks of the focus group technique include sampling bias and expectancy effects. Due to the use of random sampling to select participants and the small size of the groups, participants may not be broadly representative of any population (Gray, et al., 2007). The researcher considered this limitation when designing the study, but realised that it would not be possible to conduct large focus groups due to the parameters agreed to by the principal for this study.

There were two qualitative phases in this study, Phases 3 and 6, which occurred over a two-year period. The qualitative data for this study consisted of two focus groups. The first occurred following the first year of the program at the start of Year 9 (February 2014), before the second year of the program. The second occurred at the end of the second year of the program (October 2014) in Year 9. The two focus groups were comprised of the same participants and though still a small representation of the student population (n = 6 and 5 respectively), these narratives provided valuable data for the researcher, that could not be gained in the quantitative

phase. It was anticipated that these narratives would provide specific information about effective and ineffective aspects of the program in relation to their wellbeing.

5.4.3 Procedure. The same procedure was used in both focus groups. The focus groups were held during Pos-Ed time in a classroom away from the main area of the school where it was quiet and private. A semi-structured approach was used and the moderator devised a number of questions for the participants to respond. The moderator adopted a flexible approach should there be items outside of the questions that the participants wished to discuss. The participants were welcomed and given a sheet with the questions and asked to complete written anonymous responses for ten minutes before the commencement of the focus group, and these written responses were collected at the end. The purpose of the sheet was to give the participants time to think about their responses before the discussion started, and also to give the researcher a written set of responses should there be students who offered minimal input to the discussion. The researcher informed the participants that she would be acting as the moderator, as well as taking notes throughout the discussion to assist with gathering information. The researcher explained the term moderator, where the researcher would take the ‘deputy principal’ hat off, and act as a non-judgemental person gathering information about the Pos-Ed program, without offering any personal views or opinions. As the researcher did not teach any of these students including not teaching them the Pos-Ed program, the researcher made the decision to conduct the focus groups despite the fact the researcher was a deputy principal.

The moderator then informed the participants of a number of ground rules for the focus group, for example, ‘there were no right or wrong answers’. Participants were encouraged to feel comfortable to share their views even if they were different from others. The researcher explained the focus group would be audio-recorded to enable a written transcript to be generated. The researcher clearly explained that their identities would remain confidential, no identifying information would be recorded or collected, and if at any time they felt uncomfortable they could ask to leave. At the end of each focus group, there was a short time to debrief with participants before they went to their next class. The researcher went around the group individually and asked if each participant was feeling comfortable and if they were ready for their next class. All participants replied they were ‘ok’, and the researcher observed all

participants were smiling and energetic. Participants were thanked for their input. After the focus groups were conducted, the researcher gave the participants a movie voucher on the last day of term when the whole cohort was gathered in the library for end of term celebrations and the atmosphere was informal. The researcher quietly found each student and thanked them for their participation, and gave them an envelope with the voucher.

In Focus Group 2, the moderator noticed there were more comments that were not able to be identified with a particular participant, so these comments are noted as ‘student unidentified’. This was due partly to the discussion flowing more quickly and freely than in focus group 1, and the moderator was unable to quickly name each participant who was speaking. Also, the students did not readily use the names of other students when reflecting or responding to their comments.

5.4.4 Participants. The participants in the qualitative phases of the study comprised six female students in the first focus group and five in the second focus group (six Year 8 students in 2013 and five Year 9 students in 2014). Students in Year 8 were aged 13 in 2013, and students in Year 9 were aged 14 in 2014.

5.4.5 Participant selection. Participants were chosen using a random sampling process available in Microsoft Word. This program generated a list of all Year 8 students in random order. The sort function of this program was used to generate six random lists of the students in the six Year 8 home rooms. The first student on each of these lists was selected to be a participant. The researcher did not teach these students and did not have any input into their academic results.

For Time 1, Phase 3, the researcher contacted the six students by email and gave them a brief overview of what a focus group is, the topic and the purpose, and stated that they had been selected randomly by a computer software program. In this email, the researcher invited the students to be participants in the focus group and clearly stated this was optional and there would be no disadvantages if they chose not to be involved. The researcher also set a short meeting time in a designated room during Pos-Ed time for these students to meet with the researcher (the year level co-ordinator was also present) to talk to them personally about the focus group and

allow them to ask questions. At this meeting, the researcher talked to them about the process of being involved in the focus group and assured them that their contribution would be valued and confidential. This meeting occurred a week after the email was sent and was approximately ten minutes in duration. The researcher also explained that, should they become uncomfortable at any time in the focus group, they could withdraw and would later be offered counselling support by the college psychologist if it was requested.

At the end of the meeting the researcher gave each of the students a permission letter to take home to parents. The students were asked to talk to their parents, decide if they were interested in being a participant, and email the researcher a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response two weeks after the meeting. Both students and parents were required to sign the consent forms. All of this occurred approximately a month before the date set for the focus group, to allow time for the researcher to invite other students to be involved (going back to the list of students who were random sampled), should any of the selected students opt not to participate. All six students and their parents gave permission to participate at Time 1, and five gave permission for Time 2, Phase 6. The researcher then emailed them with details of the date, place, and time for each focus group, and they were told to meet at the venue.

Phase 3: Focus Group Interviews 1. Focus Group 1 occurred in February 2014, after Year 8 students completed the first year of the program and before they started Year 9. Permission was sought from both the students and their parents (see Appendix M). The researcher was the moderator for the focus group. An advantage in this study was that the researcher had over thirty years’ experience working with adolescents in group situations. In addition, the researcher had not had direct contact with these students through teaching any of their classes. It was anticipated that this would make the students more willing to be open and honest with the researcher, as the researcher did not have any impact on their day to day learning or results. A limitation of the researcher being the moderator was the researcher as deputy principal in the school was perceived as an authority figure and, as such, this could affect the nature of responses and sharing of information from the participants. The researcher led the discussion, and attempted to ensure that discussion occurred between participants, instead of between them and the moderator (Liamputtong, 2011). This was achieved by the moderator posing the

questions to the participants and then encouraging them to offer their own personal responses to the questions. The questions were delivered by the moderator in a non-judgemental manner, and students were asked to elaborate on their responses where appropriate by comments such as ‘go on’ and ‘could you describe that further?’ The moderator was careful to accept all responses from the students in an open and supportive manner.

A strength of the focus group methodology is that the researchers are provided with a great opportunity to appreciate the way people see their own reality and hence “to get closer to the data” (Ivanoff & Hultberg, 2006, p. 126). The focus group provided participants with the opportunity to share their experiences of the Pos-Ed program and, in doing so, provided information in relation to how this impacted on their wellbeing, and what they perceived as the positives and negatives of the program. As stated previously, focus groups are particularly useful for exploratory research when little is known about the phenomenon of interest, in this case positive psychology and its effects on female adolescent wellbeing (Stewart, et al., 2007). As well as providing data on the impact of the Pos-Ed program on adolescent wellbeing, the two focus groups provided rich information on the specific constructs of the program: character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring, and mindfulness. Data on these constructs is important as they underpin the Pos-Ed program. The questions that were asked in the focus groups are listed below as well as in Appendices C and D.

Phase 6: Focus Group Interviews 2. Phase 6 involved conducting a second focus group, which occurred at the end of the second year of the program (November, 2014, approximately one year after the first focus group was completed). The rationale for this sequence is that the quantitative data and results provided a general response to the research problem, while the focus group interviews enriched and extended the general picture (Creswell, 2012a). The students were in Year 9 for the second focus group. The same six student participants involved in Focus Group 1 were invited to participate in Focus Group 2, and five students responded affirmatively (see Appendix N). The letter sent home to parents is included as Appendix O for the first focus group and Appendix P for the second focus group. The rationale for using the same students was to gauge what had happened for them in the Pos-Ed program over the two years. The data gained from

the two focus groups using the same participants helped provide longitudinal data on the program.

Interview Questions. The interview questions formed the foundation of gathering the qualitative data in the two focus groups. The guiding questions in the focus groups were:

Focus Group 1

1) What does wellbeing mean, if anything, to you? (If someone asked you what wellbeing means to you, how would you answer?) 2) Now you are aware in your first year of high school last year you were involved in the Pos-Ed program, which is the school’s wellbeing program for students, and there is time created in the timetable for this to occur each six days. I would like to ask you some specific questions about how you found this program last year. Describe what you believe have been the most useful or helpful aspects of Pos-Ed for you personally. 3) Describe what you believe have been the least useful or helpful aspects of Pos-Ed for you personally. 4) Last year, in Year 8 at [xxxx College] you have experienced a wellbeing program called Positive Education (Pos-Ed). Describe your own experience of the Pos-Ed program in 2013. 5) Do you think the Pos-Ed program has helped your move from Primary to Secondary school? If so, in what ways? 6) Do you think you have developed any strategies to assist with your wellbeing as a result of Pos-Ed? If not, why not? If so, what specifically are these strategies? 7) Have you noticed any changes in yourself, related to your personal wellbeing since the beginning of the Pos-Ed program? If so, what changes have you noticed? Focus Group 2

1) This is your second year of secondary school, and you have been involved in the Positive Education program (Pos-Ed) for two years. What does wellbeing mean to you now?

2) You have been involved in the Pos-Ed program, the school’s student wellbeing program, for two years now and there is time created in the timetable for this to occur each six days. I would like to ask you some specific questions about how you found the program this year. Describe what you believe have been the most useful or helpful aspects of Pos-Ed for you personally. 3) Describe what you believe have been the least useful or helpful aspects of Pos-Ed for you personally. 4) This year, in Year 9 you have experienced the second year of a wellbeing program called Positive Education (Pos-Ed). Describe your own experience of the Pos-Ed program in 2014. 5) Do you think the Pos-Ed program has helped your adjustment from primary to secondary school, the further you have gone with Pos-Ed? 6) Do you think you have developed any strategies to assist with your wellbeing as a result of Pos-Ed? If not, why not? If so, what specifically are these strategies? 7) Have you noticed any changes in yourself, related to your personal wellbeing since the beginning of the Pos-Ed program? If so, what changes have you noticed?

5.4.6 Positive psychology program (Pos-Ed). The Pos-Ed program was designed by the author of this study. The author sought guidance from the college psychologist throughout the process of designing the program. The details of the delivery of the program were outlined in Chapter 3. The program consisted of embedding the five positive psychology constructs: character strengths, gratitude, flow, savouring, and mindfulness. The program was explicitly delivered by home room teachers (teachers who teach the students every day) who were trained by the author and the college psychologist. The home room teachers were trained at the end of 2012 and they met weekly in 2013 to discuss the delivery of the program. The Year 8 co-ordinator oversaw lesson delivery and resources in consultation with the researcher (author of the program) and the college psychologist. The program was part of the students’ weekly timetable.

Phase 2: The Positive Education Program (first year the program). Phase 2 involved the implementation of the Pos-Ed program for Year 8 students at the beginning of 2013. Pos-Ed was timetabled for 50 minutes once every six day cycle as well as 50 minutes every week when there was not a whole school assembly (this varied throughout the year). Lesson delivery was varied, and included formal teacher instruction, group activities, guest speakers from outside the school, and presentations by the college psychologist.

Phase 5: The Positive Education Program (second year of the program). Phase 5 was the implementation of the second year of the Pos-Ed program for Year 9 students in 2014 (the same students who were in year 8, 2013). Pos-Ed was timetabled for 50 minutes once every six day cycle as well as 50 minutes every week when there was not a whole school assembly (this varied throughout the year). Lesson delivery was varied, and included formal teacher instruction, group activities, guest speakers from outside the school and presentations by the college psychologist.

5.4.7 Quantitative and qualitative data analyses. For the quantitative data, the means, standard deviations, and percentages were reported to summarise the participants’ scores on all measures. A correlational analysis was conducted to measure the strength of any relationships between the Social Emotional Health Survey (SEHS) constructs. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare the Year 8 and Year 9 groups to ascertain if any change in scores on the SEHS over two years was statistically significant. The details of these analyses are fully discussed in Chapter 6.

For the qualitative data, the methodology is discussed below, with more detail provided in Chapter 7. The data from each group was analysed and organised around themes using Creswell’s (2009) Eight Steps Model (see Figure 5.1). The researcher engaged in a systematic process of analysis, which assisted the researcher to identify themes or perspectives and report on them. Although Creswell’s (2009) model espouses a linear or hierarchical approach, he also suggests that the model should be seen as interactive and interrelated and not always solely applied in the order presented. When the coding of results was completed, the results were analysed through the literature review and the theoretical framework to identify themes and

common perspectives. A detailed account of how the researcher analysed the data is provided in Chapter 7.

In analysing the qualitative data, triangulation of data was achieved through the researcher using the expertise of her two supervisors to read transcripts and discuss findings. This allowed the researcher to achieve a more detailed and balanced picture of the program and how the participants related to it in terms of their wellbeing (Altrichter, 2008).

In Chapter 8, the final chapter, the researcher then examined the results of the quantitative and qualitative data, and examined the quantitative and qualitative data together. In this way, methodological triangulation of research data was achieved through using a mixed methods approach.

Interpreting the meaning of themes/descriptions

Interrelating themes/descriptions

Themes Descriptions

Coding the data

Reading through all data Figure 5.1. Data analysis in qualitative research adapted from Creswell (2009).

5.4.8 Longitudinal results. A further consideration is this study also occurred over three time points, whereas most recent studies examining positive psychology do not provide data beyond testing over a one-year period. A review of school-based positive psychology in 2011 revealed that most of these studies were evaluated in their pilot stage, and that further evaluation beyond the pilot stage with multiple student groups, larger sample sizes, and across multiple settings is needed (Waters, 2011). What this study offered is data beyond the time period of many of the available studies in this area. This study offers a contribution to research in this area by reporting data over a period of time.

5.5 ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION

5.5.1 Researcher at the research site. In choosing a site, the researcher should aim for a site where entry is possible to the site and the researcher must be able to build trusting relations with the research participants (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2001). The author of the current study is in a senior administration role as a member of the school leadership team. In the current research project, the author is regarded as an insider. An insider can be defined as a researcher who chooses to study a group to which they belong, while outsider-researchers do not belong to the group under study (Breen, 2007).

As an insider and a well-respected educator, the researcher already had the trust and respect of the student population. For the quantitative phase of data generation, being an insider was an asset in relation to the mechanics of organising students to complete the Social Emotional Health surveys, as the insider works on site and has a working knowledge of organisational processes, which allowed for efficient administering of the surveys. For the qualitative phases of data collection, the researcher is one of the three Student Protection Contacts (staff trained in the Student Protection Policy, and the contacts for students if they have any personal safety concerns), and this was an advantage with the focus groups should any sensitive information be divulged. As an insider, the researcher was already immersed in the culture and ethos of the school (eight years of teaching experience at this school), which is another advantage. There are researchers who claim an advantage of being an insider researcher is having a greater understanding of the culture being studied (Bonner & Tolhurst, 2002). A further advantage with the focus groups is that the researcher is an experienced deputy principal, and is highly proficient in the skills of conversing, interviewing, and dialoguing with students. This aligns with research that asserts qualitative case study requires researchers to spend extended time at the site being personally involved with activities and operations of the research, reflecting, and revising meanings of what is going on (Stake, 2005).

While there are distinct benefits in using an insider approach, there can also be disadvantages. For the qualitative phase, there may be disadvantages as the author is in a position of authority at the school, and students may provide information that they think they should provide to be seen in a positive light, thus making this information unreliable. Because of this, the structure of the focus groups using

students as participants was carefully considered to avoid unreliable information. That is, questions asked were non-biased and open-ended to invite personal perspectives. The researcher did not teach any of the participants who were in the focus groups and did not have any impact on their day-to-day schooling or their academic results. Therefore, this helped minimise potential problems, such as students feeling pressured to give favourable responses as they may have felt that their academic results could be affected if the moderator taught them. Morgan (1997) has warned that the researcher’s influence on the data is an issue in almost all qualitative research. The researcher as an insider was aware of this dilemma. To help overcome this dilemma, the study was comprised of three quantitative surveys in addition to the focus groups, which provided the qualitative interview data. Additionally, the researchers’ supervisors read the transcripts and discussed analysis and outcomes of findings to minimise bias.

Furthermore, it could be perceived that an insider may already have biased perceptions of the study. In this study, the researcher as the author of the program automatically had a vested interest. For an insider, some researchers such as Glesne (1999) warn about preconceptions that narrow their perspective; for example, previous experience with people on-site may set up expectations for certain types of interactions that will constrain data collection (Glesne, 1999). For this study, the principal who approved the study already had high expectations in relation to the Pos-Ed program. In choosing a concurrent explanatory mixed-methods design, weight was given to the major form of data collection (quantitative surveys in this study), and then secondary status to the supportive form (qualitative interviews in this study) (Creswell, 2012b). This sequence was chosen for the current study to avoid any issues of limited perceptions or bias of the researcher. The secondary form was used in this mixed methods study to support and provide additional information to the primary form. The qualitative data was used to explain and interpret the quantitative results, and provided more data to address the three research questions listed earlier in this chapter. The qualitative data collection may be used to examine any surprising results should they occur in the quantitative data collection (Creswell, 2009).

Another concern was a potential conflict of interest in relation to the author’s role as deputy principal at the school, as student participants in the focus groups may have

felt constrained in their responses for fear their information may be shared or used in ways that may cause them worry or anxiety. The procedures outlined in the ethics section following will present approaches used to mitigate this issue. The generation of qualitative data can also create ethical and political dilemmas, but this was weighed against the enormous potential benefits that working as an insider can bring, which can have future implications for similar programs in other schools (Jones, et al., 2012). Overall, the benefits of being an insider in this research project far outweighed the disadvantages, as the disadvantages were able to be satisfactorily addressed. It was hoped that this study would be of value to other schools wishing to introduce a positive psychology based program.

5.6 ETHICAL ISSUES

The setting for this study is an education setting, a single-sex girls’ Catholic secondary school. As the school is an independent Catholic school, approval was sought and gained from the principal in liaison with the School Board. The principal expected that the research adhered to the guidelines for Brisbane Catholic Schools. That is, even though the setting is an independent Catholic school and is, to a large degree, self-governing, it still comes under the overall governance of Brisbane Catholic Education, Queensland. Therefore, ethics approval was obtained from the Brisbane Catholic Education office in addition to the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Human Research Ethics Committee (QUT Ethics Approval number 1100001523). More particularly, the guidelines from Brisbane Catholic Education are specific in relation to child protection legislation, and required that if a research participant discloses confidential information to a researcher in relation to sexual or physical abuse or harm or circumstances where a student’s health, safety, or wellbeing is in danger, the researcher is required to disclose this information to the school principal. Participants were made aware of this requirement in the permission letter provided to the participants and their parents, as well as verbally in the focus groups.

5.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

5.7.1 Early adolescence: The trajectory point for the program. The early adolescent period was chosen for the current study as research shows that girls enter this developmental period with very high self-esteem, and this can drop dramatically as this developmental period progresses (Roeser, et al., 2008). This group is in the early adolescent category, aged 12 years when they enter secondary school, turning 13 years of age in the transition year, and 14 years of age during Year 9. The program was aimed at enhancing female wellbeing at this trajectory. It was anticipated that the group of Year 8 students would not have had any exposure to positive psychology during their primary years of schooling, and they completed a question on the survey to confirm this. The main focus of the current study was to examine a positive psychology program for female adolescent wellbeing in the transition year to secondary school, and subsequently track this program over two years.

5.7.2 Positive psychology: A theoretical position. Positive psychology is an evidence-based sub-field of psychology. It shares similarities with humanism and existentialism. Positive psychologists acknowledge the legacy of the humanistic psychology of the 1950s to the 1970s with its emphasis on self-fulfilment and self-education (Kristjansson, 2012). They have consistently credited humanistic psychology for pioneering the territory of positive psychological research and practice (Robbins, 2008). Humanism is the doctrine where the needs and values of human beings take precedence over material things and they adhere to the process of self-actualisation where people strive to make the most of their potential (Peterson, 2006). Humanistic psychology also shares similar views with existentialism. The critical idea of existentialism is that a person’s experience is primary and people are the products of their own choices freely undertaken; further, there is no fixed human nature, only the sort of person that each unique individual becomes by the way people choose to define themselves (Peterson, 2006).

Despite acknowledging the commonalities between humanism and existentialism with positive psychology, Seligman (2002) chose to distance positive psychology from humanism and existentialism for two main reasons. First, positive psychology regards both the good and the bad about life as genuine, whereas humanists often

assume people are inherently good. Second, positive psychology is committed to the scientific method, whereas humanists are often sceptical of science and its ability to shed light on what they believe really matters. The main theoretical framework for this study sits within the scientific discipline of psychology, with positive psychology an accepted sub-field of psychology. What also underpins this study is the concept that students build on existing knowledge and experiences to create new knowledge, and this concept is aligned with constructivism.

5.7.3 Constructivism. There are many definitions and understandings of what constitutes constructivism. Constructivism is an epistemology, a learning or meaning-making theory, that offers an explanation of the nature of knowledge and how human beings learn (Ultanir, 2012). The common core of constructivist theory is that we do not find knowledge, we construct it (Boghossian, 2006). “Constructivism is a multifaceted expression of a philosophical tradition that recognises the individual as an active, anticipatory, and developing participant in his or her own life-span experience” (Franklin & Nurius, 1998, p. 3). The learner is at the heart of the learning experience in constructivism, which maintains that individuals create or construct their own new understandings or knowledge through the interaction of what they already believe, and the ideas, events and activities with which they come into contact (Ultanir, 2012). While there may be other definitions and understandings of constructivism, these definitions align with the current research project.

Constructivism is a theory about knowledge and learning. It is not a theory about teaching, but it has a significant impact on the educational world, as it promotes a radically different approach to the teacher-centred authoritarian model. Constructivism has gained recognition for different reasons among diverse groups, including social work, psychology, family therapy, cognitive therapy, and education (Franklin & Nurius, 1998). Pioneering expressions of constructivism can be found in the writings of William James (1890), Jean Piaget (1926), and Frederic Bartlett (1932) (Bartlett, 1932; James, 1890; Piaget, 1926). Constructivism as a theory of cognition can be traced back to the developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (Piaget, 1969). A constructivist view of learning suggests an approach to teaching that gives learners the opportunity for concrete, contextually meaningful experience through which they can search for patterns, raise questions, and model, interpret, and defend

their strategies and ideas (Fosnot, 2005). Piaget’s (1969) main focus of constructivism has to do with the individual, and how the individual constructs knowledge.

Piaget took the notion of adaptation out of the biological context and turned it into the cornerstone of his genetic epistemology (Fosnot, 2005). Piaget (1953, 1969) stated that the development of a person’s intelligence is forged through adaptation and accommodation. Adaptation is the process of assimilation and accommodation. According to Piaget (1953) assimilation is when children bring new knowledge to their own schemas to accommodate the new information or knowledge (Piaget, 1953). This adjustment process occurs when learning is the result of processing the new information to fit into what is already in one’s memory. This process of building on existing knowledge to forge new information is of significance to the current study, where the new learning about positive psychology constructs will build on the adolescent student’s existing knowledge and experiences. Real understanding is only constructed on learners’ previous experience and background knowledge, and this is a developmental process (Ultanir, 2012).

Piaget (1926) identified four main periods of development of the child’s mind: 1) sensorimotor stage (ages birth to two); 2) pre-operational stage (ages two to seven); 3) concrete operational stage (ages seven to 11); and 4) formal operational stage (age 11 to adulthood). Of significance to the current study is the fourth stage, the formal operational stage where students will start using higher levels of thinking or abstract ideas to solve problems, although not all students reach this stage in all aspects of their lives. The teacher is a guide or facilitator who encourages learners to formulate their own ideas, opinions and conclusions (Cannela & Reif, 1994). The early adolescent years prior to adulthood are an important trajectory where students are capable of higher order thinking and can cognitively understand positive psychology constructs. Thus, the period from adolescence to adulthood presents significant opportunities for positive change in life course trajectories (Hawkins et al., 2011).

Constructivism as a theory about knowledge and learning underpins the current study for two main reasons. First, positive psychology constructs are relatively new and unknown both by teachers and students. Therefore, the learning journey is shared by the teacher and student and the teacher is a guide or facilitator in the learning. Second, students learning about positive psychology constructs will build on

experiences and knowledge they already have. A fundamental assumption of the current study is that students will not only embrace the new knowledge about positive psychology, but will also make meaning out of this knowledge in an individual way significant to them, in order to lead flourishing lives. This may mean they experiment and explore the constructs and find out what works best for them, which may not be the same as what works for others. Some researchers assert that when adolescents engage in a more intimate exploration of their life experiences, particularly those that cause significant change, positive consequences can emerge at the personal level. It is only in exploring these constructs that meaningful, lifelong learning will occur (Tavernier & Willoughby, 2012). It is anticipated that students will be learning concepts and ideas that they can apply inside and outside of school to help them become their best selves, and that this learning can help them develop into the best adults they can be.

This chapter provided an overview of the research aims and design, in conjunction with the stages and timeframes for the implementation of each phase of the current study. The research questions informing this study were identified. The data collection processes, both quantitative and qualitative, were described for each phase of the study. The chapter also provided a description of the theoretical framework adopted for this study.

Chapter 6: Analysis of the Quantitative Survey Data

6.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the results of the quantitative survey data gathered for this study using the Social Emotional Health Scale-Secondary (SEHS-S). It outlines the methodology, analysis, and findings of this phase of the study. It examined if there are any significant differences in the subscale scores (belief-in-self, belief-in-others, emotional competence, and engaged living), between the three data collection points. The focus group interviews (Chapter 7) serve to highlight and expand on the quantitative findings on the effectiveness of the Pos-Ed program as a program to enhance student wellbeing.

6.2 RESULTS

6.2.1 Data screening. Questionnaire item results were entered into three separate SPSS data files as Time 1 (149 students), Time 2 (151 students), and Time 3 (163 students). Only those participants with full data sets for the three data collections were used in the final analysis and these numbered 124. As none of the items were negatively scored, there was no re-coding of any items. Individual student responses to all items on each questionnaire were added to generate individual scores for belief-in-self, belief-in-others, engaged living, emotional competence, and a total covitality score.

6.2.2 Correlational analyses. Results of the bivariate correlation analyses for all variables are provided in Table 6.1. This analysis was performed to ensure that covitality and its underlying constructs—belief-in-self, emotional competence, belief-in-others, and engaged living—were all positively related as per the original development of the scale (Furlong et al., 2013). The analysis revealed that each of the components of co-vitality was positively related and that there was no perfect linear relationship between any of the constructs. That is, as Furlong et al. (2013) suggest, each

individual score represents an individual aspect of covitality and can therefore be used to measure distinct factors.

Table 6.1 Correlations for the Four Underlying Co-vitality Components and Co-vitality

Belief-in-Self Belief-in-Others Emotional Engaged Competence Living Belief-in-Self Belief-in-Others .55** Emotional Competence .64** .42**

Engaged Living .55** .46** .51**

Co-vitality .84** .76** .77** .82**

Note: Values rounded to 2 decimal places. Correlations marked with (**) were significant at the .01 level 6.2.3 One-way repeated measure ANOVA. Firstly, a one-way repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted to compare scores on the four independent variables, belief-in-self, belief-in-others, emotional competence, and engaged living, at Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3. The means and standard deviations are presented in Table 6.2. For belief-in-self, there was a significant effect for time, Wilks’ Lambda = .94, F(2, 122) = 6.06, p < .05, multivariate partial eta squared = .08, which is a moderate effect size (Cohen, 1988). For belief-in-others, there was a significant effect for time, Wilks’ Lambda = .64, F(2, 122) = 34.34, p < .001, multivariate partial eta squared = .36, which is a large effect size. For emotional competence, there was not a significant effect for time, Wilks’ Lambda = .90, F(2, 122) = 6.95, p < .005, multivariate partial eta squared = .03. For engaged living, there was a significant effect for time, Wilks’ Lambda = .64, F(2, 122) = 34.34, p < .001, multivariate partial eta squared = .10, which is a moderate effect size.

Finally, a one-way repeated measure ANOVA was conducted to compare scores on covitality at Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3. The means and standard deviations are presented in Table 6.2. There was a significant effect for time, Wilks’ Lambda = .91, F(2, 122) = 6.12, p < .005, multivariate partial eta squared = .09, which is a moderate effect size.

Table 6.2 Summary of Scores.

Descriptive Statistics for Belief-in-Self, Belief-in-Others, Emotional Competence, Engaged Living, and Covitality

Emotional Engaged Belief-in-Self Belief-in-Others Covitality Competence Living M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) Time 1 27.50 30.26 29.47 33.70 120.92 (4.52) (4.27) (3.74) (5.65) (14.33) Time 2 27.35 30.57 29.76 33.95 121.63 (4.44) (4.43) (3.17) (5.95) (14.72) Time 3 25.90 25.89 29.10 31.35 115.32 (5.15) (5.15) (3.27) (6.24) (16.61) Range 9-36 9-36 9-36 9-36 36-150

All the effect sizes indicated that there were significant differences in actual scores over time for all measures except for emotional competence. Overall, the difference in mean scores between Times 1 and 3 for each of the underlying constructs were: belief-in-self = 1.6; belief-in-others = 4.37; emotional competence = 0.37; engaged living = 2.35 (see Table 6.2). There was a large effect size for belief-in-others (36% of the variance explained), while there was a moderate effect size for both belief-in-self (8% of the variance explained) and engaged living (10% of the variance explained). For covitality, there was a moderate effect size with 9% of the variance being explained. Overall, this suggests that the differences in time could be considered to be of low to medium practical significance (Pallant, 2011).

However, it is important to note that these results also showed that at Time 1 82.6 percent of participants were in the high average to high levels of covitality scores (see Table 6.3). The fact that the participants started in these highest levels of covitality scores indicates that there was limited scope for reaching higher scores in covitality. Overall, between Time 1 and Time 2 the results reveal a small upward movement in covitality score means (.71). At the time of the upward trend, students were aged approximately 12 or 13 years. Between Times 2 and 3, there was a large drop in the covitality mean (6.31). Despite this drop, 72.3 percent of the participants were still in the high average to high range of covitality scores. However, the number

of girls in the low and low to average range increased from 12.1 to 26.8 percent. Participants during this time were between 13 and 14 years of age.

These results reveal insights into what was happening for this group of adolescent girls in relation to their wellbeing at different age points. The covitality scores reveal that at the age and time this group transitioned to secondary school, the Time 1 survey, they were already in the high range of covitality scores. This could be reflecting the high socio-economic status of the majority of the group, as students belonged to predominantly wealthy middle-class families. What was evident from the Time 1 survey was that these students arrived at secondary school with high levels of wellbeing. As these students came from over 20 primary feeder schools, it was not possible to have a clear understanding of what may have been taught in these schools in relation to wellbeing prior to their transition to this secondary school. As stated above, this then gave limited scope for reaching higher scores in covitality in subsequent years. Wellbeing in the first year (transition year) of the Pos-Ed program, Time 1 (beginning of program), and Time 2 (end of the first year of the program) indicate a positive response.

Table 6.3 Percentages of Participants in Each Level of Covitality Scores

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 1.3% low 1.6% low 5.2% low

16.1% low average 10.5% low average 21.6% low average

50.4% high average 51.6% high average 49.7% high average

32.2% high 36.3% high 23.5% high Note: Low ≤ 85; Low Average = 86-106; High Average = 107-127; High = ≥ 128 (Furlong, 2014)

Despite the above scores showing an upward movement by the end of Year 8 and then a downward movement in Year 9, this downward movement was still within a range which indicates wellbeing was reasonably stable for this group (72.3 percent still in the high average to high range of covitality scores). This downward movement may be explained by a number of factors. While a range of factors may be at play, the following discussion will focus on: developmental changes (including self-esteem issues, depression, and transition to secondary school), challenges associated with being a Year 9 student (labelled the Year 9 factor), and reference bias (the notion that as one’s awareness of a construct increases, one may rate oneself less favourably in the area). To begin, the discussion will focus on the developmental changes faced by adolescents.

6.3 DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES

6.3.1 Self-Esteem issues. The belief-in-self construct was the only construct that had a very slight downward trend of .15 between Time 1 and 2. There was a slight mean rise of 0.31 for belief-in-others, 0.29 for emotional competence, and .25 for engaged living. Additionally, there was an increase of .71 in the covitality score. This indicates that participants stayed relatively stable in this domain from the start of their transition year (Year 8) to the end of their transition year. However, between the start of the following year (Year 9) and the end of this year, there was a small decline in this domain (6.31) which, while a drop, is still a small variance. It does however, point to something happening for the participants in this year, and this disturbance was puzzling for the researcher. The main changes in scores occurred between Time 1 and Time 3. The largest effect size was 4.37 for belief-in-others. Belief-in-others as discussed in Chapter 5 occurs for adolescents when they feel cared for across peer, school, and family contexts. It has been conceptualized as comprising three components: peer support, school support, and family coherence. The changes for the other three elements (Belief-in-self 1.60, emotional competence 0.37, and engaged living 2.35) were considered to be of minor effect size.

The period of early adolescence for females corresponds with the transition from primary to secondary school (except for those students who attend K-12 schools, where they remain on the same campus for the duration of their schooling). It is

difficult to isolate variables that may account for this drop in Year 9; however research shows that a peak in self-esteem can occur for some girls at the end of primary school, followed by a dip in early adolescence, with a return soon after. This is in contrast to what researchers report about adolescent males, with boys reporting higher self-esteem than girls at the same age (Rosenberg & Simmons, 1975; Simmons & Blyth, 1987). Research shows that for some adolescent females, self-esteem can peak at ages 10 to 12, then dip markedly in early adolescence from ages 13 to 14, then return to a pre-adolescent levels after 14 years of age (Eccles, et al., 1993; Galambos, et al., 2004). Research has established that for some early adolescent females (aged 12 to 14) this can be a time of self-image disturbance. This is supported by a number of studies.

For example, Roeser et al. (2008) found that self-esteem was shown to dip markedly for girls around early adolescence at 13 to 14 years of age (Roeser, et al., 2008). Other researchers also identified negative changes in self-esteem among girls during early adolescence (Chaplin, et al., 2009). Not only self-esteem, but negative changes in self-consciousness have been found among girls during early adolescence (Galambos, 2004; Graber & Sontag, 2004; Peterson, Compas, et al., 1993). While there is a body of research that shows a dip in self-esteem for early adolescent females, the evidence shows that the disruption is minor, temporary, and there is recovery from the decrease later in the year, and a steady increase in self-esteem through remaining adolescence (Eccles, et al., 1993; Rosenberg, 1979; Simmons, Rosenberg, & Rosenberg, 1973). This is in contrast to what happens for boys’ levels of self-esteem during adolescence (Block & Robins, 1993). Studies have typically found that males have a higher self-esteem than females, particularly during adolescence. A recent meta-analysis of self-esteem studies supported this conclusion, showing a modest, yet significant difference between male and female self-esteem (d = 0.21) (Kling, et al., 1999). Overall, there is conflicting evidence among researchers on the development and significance of self-esteem in early adolescence. Some studies show a dip in self-esteem in early adolescence for girls (Simmons, et al., 1973), while other studies show no significant change for girls at this time (Nottlemann, 1987). In the current study, the data reflects a dip in self-esteem for females in the early adolescent period.

This drop was supported by the quantitative data that emerged in this study, showing high levels of covitality throughout the first year (transition year) of secondary school, following the departure from primary school, and for girls this is a peak period in self-esteem. This could be a result of social positioning, in that 11 to 12 year olds in primary school are at the top of the social ladder age-wise and enjoy a prestigious position as the leaders of the school (Waters, et al., 2012). This changes dramatically the following year where they are at the bottom of the social ladder as the youngest in the school and no longer hold a prestigious position as school leaders. Research has shown that, after controlling for factors of race, socioeconomic status, and academic achievement, 12 year olds in secondary school had greater disturbances in self-image (i.e., lower self-esteem, higher self-consciousness and less stable self-image) than 12 year olds in elementary (primary) school (Simmons, et al., 1973).

In summary, recent evidence supports that self-esteem is dynamic and changing rather than a static construct (James, 1983; Rosenberg, 1979). It appears that self-esteem amongst adolescent girls is more sensitive to issues such as transition to secondary school, stressful life events, and changes in body image due to the onset of puberty (Dweck, Davidson, Nelson, & Enna, 1978). It would seem that for some of the participants in the study their self-esteem could have been affected by the factors mentioned above, the transition to secondary school, as well as physical changes due to puberty. As the largest drop in scores between Time 1 and Time 3 was for the belief-in-others construct, this group of participants may also have experienced challenges in relation to peers, school, and family. This may be linked to self-esteem and, while this group transitioned successfully to secondary school, something changed for them in the year following the transition year. Additionally, it would be difficult to isolate particular factors causing the drop, as a combination of factors such as the transition process and puberty may have contributed.

6.3.2 Depression rates. Another possible explanation for the downward trend in the data from Time 2 to Time 3 is that females in adolescence experience downward slides in self-esteem and related areas such as confidence and optimism (Roeser, et al., 2008), and an upward trend in depression scores from issues such as body image, struggle for independence, and academic pressures (Galambos, 2004). A recent Australian

Federal Government Survey of over 6,300 Australian families with children and/or adolescents aged four to 17 years revealed increasing rates of depression, self-harm, and suicidal thoughts in teenagers (Lawrence, et al., 2015). These rates are disturbing, with approximately one in ten teenagers indicating that they have engaged in self-harming behaviour, and one in thirteen (7.7%) adolescents aged 11 to 17 years met the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder in the previous 12 months. Major depressive disorder was more common in females and older adolescents, affecting 7.2 percent of males and 19.6 percent of females aged 16 to 17 years. One fifth (19.9%) of adolescents had very high or high levels of psychological distress, which was almost twice as high for females at 25.9 percent compared with 14.8 percent for males (Lawrence, et al., 2015).

These statistics suggest that female adolescents suffer from disturbing rates of depressive disorders and psychological distress. Strategies and programs need to be explored to help reduce these rates. There is nascent research indicating that teaching positive psychology constructs to adolescents can have a positive effect on their wellbeing, and this research continues to grow (Green, et al., 2011; Norrish & Vella- Broderick, 2009; Seligman, et al., 2009; Waters, 2011). Increased wellbeing contributes to more positive mood, which assists in preventing depression (Bolte, et al., 2003). Experiencing positive mood helps develop better coping strategies and builds resilience. In particular, there is consistent evidence that females experience emotions intensely and are also more susceptible to negative moods such as feeling anxious and sad, and they are also more vulnerable to experiencing depression and anxiety (Gaffney, 2011; Lyubomirsky, 2007). The Pos-Ed program is a positive psychology program aimed at increasing wellbeing for adolescent females, which can possibly act as a buffer to help reduce the rising depression rates in adolescent females. This can be achieved by teaching them strategies to experience more positive mood and coping strategies as mentioned above, and these strategies are taught in the Pos-Ed program.

6.3.3 Transition to secondary school. The transition to secondary school has been identified as a time where two simultaneous major transitions occur: the transition from primary to secondary school, and the transition from childhood to adolescence. As stated in Chapter 2 of this study, there are rapid physical, cognitive and social changes occurring at this

time, and girls are more affected than boys by the physical rather than the cognitive and social changes (Eccles, et al., 1991). A recent Australian study (Table 6.4), undertaken by the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) in 2014 found that female adolescents were less likely to report a positive transition experience than males (Waters, et al., 2014). This study investigated what primary school students worried about in relation to transitioning to secondary school and how their expectation predicted their actual experience. The sample consisted of 2078 students aged 12 to 13 years enrolled in 20 Perth (Australia) metropolitan Catholic secondary schools. These students were invited to complete two surveys six months apart, the first at the end of Year 7, and the second in Term 1 of Year 8. As shown in Table 5.4, female adolescents found the transition experience more difficult than the boys did. This was in contrast to the data showing that both boys and girls had similar expectations about the transition (Waters, et al., 2014).

Table 6.4 Transition Expectation and Experience by Gender as a Percentage of the Sample as Adapted from Waters et al. (2014)

Male Female (n = 480) (n = 552) Transition expectation Difficult 10.6 10.9 Somewhat difficult 19.2 22.3 Somewhat easy 28.8 24.5 Easy 20.2 16.8 Don’t know 21.3 25.5 Transition experience Difficult 7.1 10.2 Somewhat difficult 12.7 19.1 Somewhat easy 19.1 21.1 Easy 53.7 43.5 Don’t know 7.4 6.1

There is evidence to show that successful transition to secondary school is linked to higher levels of wellbeing. A successful transition is important as it can have far reaching implications later in schooling, with those who transition poorly being

shown to have higher levels of victimisation, depression, anxiety, and loneliness as compared to those who transition well (Waters, et al., 2014). The success of any transition involves the process of coping with change, which involves adolescents being able to be resilient. The skills and strategies taught in Pos-Ed are designed to strengthen the capacity of students to cope with the change to secondary school.

In considering data from the current study, it reveals that for the duration of the transition year, the scores were in the high range. At Time 1, 1.3% were in the low range of covitality, 16.1% were in the low average range, and 82.6% were in the high or high average range. At Time 2, 1.6% girls were in the low range of covitality, 10.5% were in in the low average range, and 87.9% were in the high or high average range. This indicates that the participants were predominantly in the high range at both points in time. There was even a slight rise of 5.3% in covitality between Time 1 and 2. For the participants in the current study, the data shows a successful transition to secondary school with covitality scores slightly increasing at the end of this year. In examining the data, it can be argued the transition to secondary school in Year 8 for the participants in the study was a positive experience. It can also be argued that the Pos-Ed program is one of the factors that contributed to the transition year being a successful one, where participants maintained positive wellbeing levels.

It is also possible that the Pos-Ed program assisted in maintaining high levels of wellbeing during the transition year, and acted as a preventative factor buffering against the development of mental health issues. Furthermore, it can also be suggested that the Pos-Ed program is acting as a protective factor against these mental health issues. In contrast, the second year of secondary school offers different challenges to students. What will be examined in the following section is what occurred for participants in Year 9. The drop in scores occurred in this year, and therefore the researcher identified this year as the ‘Year 9 factor’.

6.4 CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH BEING A YEAR 9 STUDENT: THE YEAR 9 FACTOR

There is a downward trend for each of the four constructs and covitality between Time 2 (end of transition year, Year 8) and Time 3 (end of Year 9), which can be seen in Table 6.2. Participants during this time were between 13 and 14 years of age. This drop is not dramatic and can be considered in the low to moderate range, with

overall scores remaining stable. However, Year 9 is a time when girls have to meet other challenges related to their wellbeing.

What happens for students in Year 9 is not a subject that has been widely researched in the literature, in comparison to research available on the impact of transition to secondary school on adolescents. For Year 9 students (approximately 14 years of age), the transition to secondary school is no longer a challenge or concern to them, as they have already navigated this milestone in their lives and have completed the ‘settling in’ process to secondary school. These students have moved beyond the transition process to face new and different challenges as they progress through adolescence. In Year 9, generally speaking, it is difficult for teachers to engage and motivate students using traditional models of teaching and learning (Bissett, unpublished). This challenge for teachers was documented recently in an education magazine with the author asserting that Year 9 is a time where many become disengaged and develop a contemptuous view of education (Gazzola, 2016). The researcher labelled this change as the ‘Year 9 factor’.

As they move further into adolescence, after navigating the transition year, adolescents continue to gain independence from their parents and teachers while developing more supportive relationships with their peers (Ausubel, Montemayor, & Svajian, 1977; Muuss, 1975; Soenens et al., 2007). Developmentally, students in Year 9 are emerging as more complex thinkers and are able to apply logical reasoning processes. They are more flexible and have the capacity to regulate their learning and to expand and organize their thinking in more complex ways than they could in primary school (Bellhouse, 2004). It is highly likely that the participants in the current study were facing developmental changes as they entered the second year of the Pos-Ed program.

As the participants were asked whether they were exposed to any form of positive psychology during their primary school years, and all responded they had not, it can be assumed that the exposure to the Pos-Ed program in their transition year to secondary school was their first experience of positive psychology and a positive education program. They were exposed to the program in their transition year and, as they continued with the program, further brain development as part of adolescence helped them internalize what they were taught and enabled them to think about how they could fit these ideas into their own lives. Initially though, there may have been

some reduction of uptake of these ideas (Pendergast, 2005). This could be attributed to the fact that, as they continued to develop cognitively in Year 9, they also began to critically analyse how they really felt about what they were being taught (Bellhouse, 2004).

In relation to the current study, as the participants knew nothing about positive psychology prior to being exposed and made aware of the concepts, it is plausible to consider that this made their reporting of wellbeing more stringent. This could account for the small drop in scores. Then, as they worked on enhancing and experimenting with these variables in their lives, and as awareness and understanding of them grew, their scores in covitality could rise. Research shows that this rise in covitality scores will usually occur from age 15 or Year 10 onwards (Simmons, et al., 1973). This also coincides with the research that reveals the disturbance in self-esteem for girls is temporary and returns to pre-adolescent levels from year 10 onwards (Galambos, et al., 2004). The results of the research reported here seem to follow this pattern of starting high, then dipping, so it is possible that a rise could follow. Unfortunately, a longitudinal design with greater reach is necessary to determine with any certainty and was, unfortunately, outside the scope of this study.

Reports and evidence on the characteristics and developmental needs of students in Year 9 reveal that these students form a very diverse and challenging group. Research in Australia shows that adolescents do not progress from the transition period, Year 8, to more independence in Year 9 in the same way or at the same rate, and need to be supported through these times of not only potential and promise but also frustration and uncertainty (Cole, Mahar, & Vindurampulle, 2006). It is not surprising then, that Year 9 is a difficult year for teachers and students as the developmental needs of students are changing. With this occurring, the traditional models of learning and teaching are not necessarily engaging the majority of Year 9 students successfully (Bissett, unpublished). It can be argued that these challenges in Year 9 can lead to a decline in resilience for some students, as they become aware of the limitations of their academic abilities and this affects their self-esteem. For female adolescents in Year 9, it is not only this awareness of their academic abilities, but also a disturbance in their self-esteem generally that can impact on their wellbeing. Given these two factors, the researcher believes it is not surprising that the participants in the current study experienced a drop in covitality in Year 9.

A decline in resilience for this age group is also supported by evidence in a report which reveals findings from a survey on Australian students’ own perceptions of resilience. The findings indicate that resilience levels declined significantly from Years 5 and 6 to Year 9, and this low resilience score during the middle years could be attributed to Year 9 students becoming more aware of the limitations of their academic abilities (Pendergast, 2005). Geelong Grammar School, which is regarded as a flagship school in the area of positive education, explicitly teaches resilience skills to Year 7 and Year 9 students. In particular, Year 9 students undertake comprehensive resilience training during their time at Timbertop, a fully residential boarding campus in the Victorian Highlands, Australia. As stated by Norrish (2015), in Positive Education, The Geelong Grammar School Journey, explicit teaching of positive psychology in the classroom for Year 9 students plays a critical role in supporting the students as they manage adversity at Timbertop in a positive and dynamic way.

Adolescents are already experiencing profound changes and have to rely on their problem solving skills to deal with all these challenges: physiological and emotional changes; establishing new peer networks; developing thinking skills; and coming to a realisation about their academic abilities. If adolescents are not effective in dealing with the stresses, or using effective coping skills, associated with these challenges, they may develop mental health problems such as depression or anxiety that can result in negative outcomes academically and developmentally (Cole, et al., 2006). Some argue that if adolescents are taught coping skills, their belief about their capacity to cope and their positive emotional experiences may be enhanced. There are some researchers who claim there is a need to intervene in the education of adolescents at about Year 9 level to capture students’ attention (Bellhouse, 2004). Recently the Department of Education and Communities (DEC) in New South Wales (NSW) released a wellbeing framework where schools are required to have a planned approach to wellbeing in place. This is based on the approach that teaching and learning and the development of wellbeing are now considered as parallel, integrated and complementary processes. As the Pos-Ed program aims to enhance wellbeing and teach skills in resilience, it can be argued this program is effective in preventing further slides in depression, anxiety, and mental health disorders for the Year 9

participants in the study. The small changes in scores for covitality may reflect the positive impact of the Pos-Ed program.

Another consideration in this study is the nature of the participant responses in the quantitative survey. In particular, in this study exploring wellbeing, there are many variables which relate to wellbeing, and participants in responding to questions relating to their wellbeing will use some frame of reference to answer the questions, and this can be explained as ‘reference bias’.

6.5 REFERENCE BIAS

As mentioned earlier in Chapter 4, there are many variables associated with wellbeing that can be influenced by social context. Reference bias can be described as a tendency for survey responses to be influenced by social context. It is difficult to measure all the variables in support of academic success and long-term life outcomes, as variables that are not related to cognitive success are not easy to measure reliably. Variables not related to cognitive success have been labelled by some as ‘non-cognitive’ skills which include a large group of personal qualities and wellbeing skills including self-control, grit, growth mindset, and many others. (Duckworth & Yeager, 2015). These variables are typically assessed during self-report measures, and self-report measures such as questionnaires have limitations.

Reference bias was first documented in cross-cultural psychology. In studies of distinct societies, data from self-report surveys often contrast with conclusions made by cultural experts (Peng, Nisbett, & Wong, 1997). A simple example is, when considering whether ‘I am a hard worker’ should be marked ‘very much like me’, a participant must imagine an image of ‘a hard worker’, and then compare his or her habits. One participant with high standards may consider a hard worker someone who does all of their homework, whereas another participant with lower standards may consider a hard worker someone who brings the homework home and attempts to complete it, but may not fully complete it (West et al., 2015). What is possible is that reference bias can impact on quantitative data measuring non-cognitive skills due to the diverse social contexts of the participants.

A recent study in the United States measuring students’ non-cognitive skills and the impact of schooling used self-report surveys to gather information on a broad range

of non-cognitive skills from 1,368 Year 8 students attending Boston public schools. The researchers then linked this information to administrative data on their demographics and test scores. What emerged from this study was that findings about school impact on non-cognitive skills based on self-reports may be misleading due to reference bias occurring from differences in school climate (West, et al., 2015).

In the current study, it was plausible that reference bias may have been experienced by some of the participants in the self-report surveys, and this could account for the small drop in scores. This is due to participants completing self-reports using their own frame of reference which can differ dramatically across participants (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002). In addition, it is plausible that as the adolescents learnt more about positive psychological constructs and their wellbeing over time, they may have judged themselves more harshly. Kruger and Dunning (1999) argue that the more competent a person is in a given domain, the more stringently he or she tends to judge himself or herself (Kruger & Dunning, 1999). As a result, the more students came to know and apply positive psychological practices to their wellbeing, the more harshly they may have judged their own abilities. In pursuing a multi-methods approach to increase reliability and validity, the researcher selected a suitable research method, yet this is an area which other researchers have suggested needs improvement in the suite of performance tasks available for program evaluation and practice improvement (Duckworth & Yeager, 2015).

6.6 SUMMARY

This chapter examined the results of the quantitative data gathered to examine the impact of the Pos-Ed program for adolescent females at three different time points. The instrument used was the 36 item Social Emotional Health Scale-Secondary (SEHS-S) which provided a number of subscale scores and a total covitality score. The scores showed an upward movement by the end of Year 8 and then a downward movement in Year 9 (although still within an acceptable range). This downward movement may be explained by a number of factors such as developmental changes (include self-esteem issues, depression, and the transition to secondary school), the Year 9 factor, and reference bias. The following chapter examines the qualitative data gathered from two focus groups which occurred at two different points in time.

Chapter 7: Analysis of Focus Groups

7.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter details the process of undertaking focus group interviews with students who shared their experiences of the Pos-Ed program, as well as the analysis of the results. There were two focus groups conducted at different points in time for this study. This approach allowed for tracking of participants over two years of the Pos-Ed program, the transition year to high school (Year 8) and the following year (Year 9). Participants at this time will have experienced the whole transition experience to secondary school as well as two full years of the Pos-Ed program. The first focus group interview occurred in February 2014, before participants began the second year of the program. The second focus group was conducted at the end of Year 9, the end of their second year of the Pos-Ed program. In Focus Group 2, the moderator noticed there were more comments that were not able to be identified with a particular participant, so these comments are noted as ‘student unidentified’. This was due partly to the discussion flowing more quickly and freely than in Focus Group 1, and the moderator was unable to quickly name each participant who was speaking. Also, the students did not readily use the names of other students when reflecting or responding to their comments. This chapter provides details of the methods and processes used for conducting the focus groups as well as providing the results.

7.2 DATA ANALYSIS TIME 1

The data that was analysed consisted of the transcript of the focus group, the students’ written responses to the questions and the researcher’s notes. The notes taken by the researcher were used as a measure to check alignment of the data (Creswell, 2009). The researcher examined the transcript first and grouped the information under topics, then looked at the written responses to check all information had been accounted for, and lastly checked this against the notes taken by the researcher. For Time One, no new information was gained by looking at the student’s and researcher’s notes. All the information used came from the transcripts.

The analytic framework used to examine the data is the Key Concepts framework of Krueger and Casey (2009). This framework focuses on identifying the key factors of central importance as well as the key ideas that emerge. Within this framework there may be other moderating factors that emerge, and these could assist the researcher in understanding the bigger picture of what is happening for the participants. This framework is useful as it allows the participants to share their understanding and perspectives on a topic as well as their ideas, experiences and preferences. In this way participants can help identify the key concepts.

The audiotaped recording of the focus group was transcribed professionally and the researcher analysed this transcript by hand. A classic analysis approach was used to identify themes and categorise results. This is a systematic approach which makes analysis a visual and concrete process (Krueger & Casey, 2009). The transcriptions were initially coded where information was grouped under headings. The researcher used highlighter pens on a copy of the transcript to identify emerging themes, and a different colour was used for each emerging theme. The researcher determined a theme was emerging if comments in the transcript had more than three references to it, by at least two of the participants. In deciding on the themes the researcher took into consideration factors such as frequency, specificity, emotion and extensiveness. After this was completed, the researcher cut out the colour coded sections and grouped them together under themes on a large piece of cardboard. This was done loosely with blu-tack to allow the researcher to view the information holistically, as well as move pieces of information around to best fit under a theme. This process also allowed the researcher to identify the similarities and differences with the information presented. A numbering system was used on the cut out pieces of transcript to identify frequency of a view. Information that was unusual, in that it did not fit under a theme was placed in a category called ‘interesting and to come back to’. The researcher then took a break from the data for several days to refocus attention on the big picture. On return, the researcher looked again at the themes and once satisfied with the grouping began the process of writing up the results.

7.3 RESULTS TIME 1

The researcher decided to organise the information under themes, rather than in response to the seven questions, as the questions were designed as a tool to generate information about the Pos-Ed program (Creswell, 2009). Five themes connected to

wellbeing were identified in the analysis: 1) gratitude; 2) strengths; 3) mindfulness; 4) savouring; and 5) transition. The theme of transition was further subdivided into two issues: 5a) stress and homework; and 5b) focus and time management (Figure 7.1).

Wellbeing

Savouring Gratitude Strengths Mindfulness Transition

Stress Focus &Time & Management Homework

Figure 7.1. Themes that emerged in the focus group discussion at Time 1.

7.4 WELLBEING

Wellbeing is the overarching focus of this study, in particular, female adolescent wellbeing. There is little consensus in the academic literature on the definition of wellbeing, but as stated in Chapter 2, wellbeing for adolescents is about a sustained emotional state as evidenced by positive mood, attitude, relationships, resilience, self-optimisation and satisfaction with learning experiences (Roffey, 2012). In the focus group the participants were asked to share their understanding of wellbeing. From the responses, the understanding of wellbeing was about being happy with their lives, and taking into consideration what others feel. One participant stated that wellbeing was, “Like how you are, both physically and mentally, and sometimes spiritually” (unidentified student). Another participant shared, “It was being in a safe and comfortable position or state of mind” (unidentified student). It appeared that all of the participants had a broad understanding of wellbeing, and that they generally associated wellbeing with being happy.

As well as female adolescent wellbeing, another focus of this study is female students in transition (early adolescence) to secondary school, as much of the research points to a dip in self-esteem during this time (Galambos, 2004; Graber &

Sontag, 2004; Peterson, Compas, et al., 1993). Following the sharing of their understanding of wellbeing, participants were asked to share their experiences of the Pos-Ed wellbeing program in their transition year, and several participants said that the Pos-Ed program assisted them in adopting a positive approach to life:

You would walk out from Pos-Ed feeling good about yourself, and you thought you had a great time, but during the course of that week you started feeling that stress again, and that every single week or six days, we would go back to Pos-Ed and it would just repeat the good feeling (Participant B).

I really thought that without the Pos-Ed program and without all the sessions that we did, I think I’d probably be really stressed because it [high school] was a really big step up from primary school (Participant C).

When asked whether the Pos-Ed program had helped them develop strategies to assist their wellbeing, the participants highlighted the cognitive and emotional strategies they experienced. These included: ways to reduce stress and not feel overwhelmed; ‘writing things down you are grateful for’; ways to achieve balance and have more time for oneself and taking time out; ‘having quiet time where they can focus on their thoughts and breathing’ strategies to be a happier person; ‘being able to recognise the things in my life I am grateful for’; strategies to focus more on homework and then have more time for themselves in the long run; ‘looking forward to things instead of being bogged down in homework’; and strategies to set goals and then reward themselves; and ‘just having ten minutes break from homework’. These examples are aligned with three of the constructs of this study: gratitude, savouring and mindfulness. One of the participants talked about continuing to use the strategies that were taught in Pos-Ed stating, “I’m definitely putting those strategies into action” (Participant A). When asked if they noticed any changes in their wellbeing since beginning the Pos-Ed program, participant E stated she “feels more relaxed” (about school), and Participant B said, “Pos-Ed really helped me gain a sense of [being] comfortable in class and comfortable around my peers and teachers.” Other experiences shared by participants about wellbeing included: feeling more relaxed and confident of doing things (Participant D) and feeling like a happier person

(Participant E). Five of the six participants reported noticing changes in their wellbeing since beginning the Pos-Ed program. A positive comment was offered by Participant C:

I think I’m a lot happier, and with the Pos-Ed program it’s kind of made me not dread coming to school and getting even more homework and assignments, and a lot more things to do, and not have that time for myself, and I really think that it’s kind of, again with stress, I think it’s really helped relieve that.

Another positive comment was shared by Participant A:

I think, yeah, it definitely helped me feel better about myself, but it also made me feel like a better person for being able to recognise the good things about others as well, so that made me feel good.

There was only one comment by Participant C about negligible changes in wellbeing, “I think after you do Pos-Ed, you walk out feeling a happier person. I haven’t noticed significant changes.” This was interesting in that this participant seemed to value what was being done in Pos-Ed, but this did not seem to transfer to the participant’s overall wellbeing.

7.4.1 Gratitude. Gratitude is defined as an enjoyable experience that leads to feelings of happiness, hope and satisfaction (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). For centuries, gratitude has been regarded as an important factor influencing wellbeing (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Gilman, et al., 2009). When discussing the Pos-Ed program with the students in the focus group, a strong area of focus that emerged was gratitude. The construct of gratitude threaded constantly throughout the entire discussion.

All six participants spoke positively about engaging in gratitude activities. Participant E stated:

I liked doing the gratitude journal. I think that was a good thing every, like, [every lesson], in the first ten minutes of Pos-Ed, always reflecting on what you’re grateful for, you do forget about those things.

Most of the participants, in describing their experience of the program, reflected on the ‘gratitude diary’ or the ‘gratitude tree’. There was some disparity as to which

they seemed to prefer. Two participants preferred working on the gratitude tree, while at least three other participants enjoyed working in their gratitude diaries, and one participant did not comment. The gratitude diary is an exercise where students wrote privately and quietly in their diaries for a set period of time in the Pos-Ed lesson. In contrast, the gratitude tree was an exercise done as a whole class, where students made a gratitude tree and publicly displayed their thoughts of gratitude by writing them on paper and pasting them as leaves on the tree. Participant D said: “Well, I liked in [it] how the gratitude diary when you wrote things you were grateful for, you had, like, the freedom to write whatever you wanted, because teachers wouldn’t look at what you wrote, and you could set it out how you wanted to set it out, and so it’s, like, your personal gratitude diary.” In contrast, Participant F said, “I preferred the gratitude tree to the gratitude diary, just, like, seeing it visually and seeing what everyone’s grateful [for], rather than keeping it private.”

Participants talked about gratitude being used as a strategy for dealing with stress. Participant B stated:

Well, again, with all the stress from home and all that, you kind of got to sit back and think about all the things you’re grateful for, and then how the teachers put on that relaxing music and meditation and all that kind of linked into the relaxation of not focusing on what you’ve got to do, but focusing on what you have done before, and the things that people have done for you.

This was also reflected in Participant D’s comment: “If you write down the things that you are actually grateful for, then it can make you feel better.” In general, the participants identified that the strategies associated with gratitude (relaxation time, music, gratitude diary and tree) assisted their wellbeing, helped to relieve stress, and made them happier. Participant A identified gratitude as contributing to changes in her personal wellbeing, “Probably being able to recognise the things in my life that I’m grateful for, and that’s what Pos-Ed [has] taught me, and that’s helped me to become a happier person.”

7.4.2 Strengths. Similarly to gratitude, the construct of strengths emerged as a constant area of focus throughout the discussion. Strengths can be defined as ways of thinking, feeling and

behaving that come naturally and easily to a person and that enable high functioning and performance (Linley, et al., 2006). Strengths are proposed to have important benefits for wellbeing (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). In the Pos-Ed program, strengths refer to the 24 Values in Action (VIA) Character Strengths. All the participants spontaneously recalled completing the VIA character strengths test as part of the Pos-Ed program in their transition year. They recalled using the test results to identify their top five strengths. Participant E commented that finding out about her strengths was useful: “I liked finding out about your strengths, I thought that was quite good.” When asked to elaborate, she said, “Yeah, and you’re always focusing on what you’re bad at or ‘I can’t do this,’ and then you got to your strengths, and you’re, like, ‘Oh, I can do that.’”

Three of the six participants (Participants A, E, and F) shared that they liked the teachers telling them stories of inspirational people to start them thinking about strengths. It appeared that the narrative technique used by teachers enabled students to think about how they could use their strengths more fully. Participant F said that:

With the Pos-Ed teacher, if we were discussing a topic, the teacher would always tell us a story that they had experienced to do with the topic. And it would kind of show how that person who was dealing with that topic kind of overcame it or sought help, or how he helped someone about it, so it kind of encourage[d] us to do the same.

Participant E agreed, “It was kind of inspirational, maybe.” Participant A added that, “Probably they were quite inspiring people, but you could think, oh well, if they can do that, then I can do this.” It would appear that this strategy resonated strongly with at least half the participants, getting them to make some significant links about their strengths and the strengths of others, and generally how they can use their own strengths.

Identifying strengths in inspirational people was juxtaposed with some discussion about identifying strengths in each other. A focus on spotting strengths in the self and in others helps individuals develop self-confidence and enrich social interactions (Norrish, et al., 2013). Participant F suggested that, “Sometimes it was better if you asked a friend what your strengths are, because friends see your strengths different to what [how] you see them.” Linking strengths to the transition to secondary school

was raised by Participant D who said that exploring strengths at the beginning of the year was helpful:

At the start of the Pos-Ed [program] when we were looking at strengths, it helped you set out the year and how you did your work, like, I’m good at this, so I can do my work so I can use my strengths into sorting our assignments and stuff.

She elaborated further about how this made her feel: “At the start you’re nervous, because it was going to be really hard, but if you know what you’re good at, then it was easier and more comfortable when you got work, because you know that you could get it done easier.” Participant B agreed with this view, as she thought knowing about strengths helped her with “[g]etting things done, because I’m not known to get things done quickly. I take a lot of time on homework and all that stuff.” Teaching about strengths was an important part of the program.

7.4.3 Mindfulness. Mindfulness was also a dominant theme in the discussion. The participants however, did not use the term mindfulness; rather they called it various names (meditation, sitting quietly, relaxation time). Teachers and students did not explicitly use the term mindfulness during the Pos-Ed lessons. Teachers started the activity without directly stating that they were engaging in a mindfulness activity. This was partly due to the inexperience of some teachers using the positive psychology constructs, even though they had been trained in these concepts. Mindfulness can be described as purposefully paying non-judgemental attention to what one is actually experiencing in the present moment. The objective is to welcome and accept the current state including any emotions, thoughts, and perceptions (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).

In discussing mindfulness, the participants stated they found it useful in their lives. Participants B and F identified this quiet time to be one of the helpful aspects of the program. Participant F stated:

Probably just when we as a class, we, like, close our eyes and just kind of relax for a while, and just focus on our breathing, and it’s, like, really downtime to yourself, giving yourself downtime.

Participant B stated, “Well, I was going to say that it was time to reflect on yourself because we don’t really get time to.” These reflections suggest that the participants

found that ‘having quiet time,’ where they could focus on their thoughts and breathing which is mindfulness, is useful in their lives. When participants were asked to describe their own experience of the Pos-Ed program, mindfulness emerged as a positive experience for most of the participants.

Experiencing mindfulness activities in Pos-Ed at the beginning of the day assisted students in setting themselves for up the day in a positive way, and this is how they spoke about the experience of mindfulness in Pos-Ed. The following quote from Participant C demonstrated this feeling:

At the start [of the day… it] kind of to prepared you for that [the day ahead]. You had those couple of minutes to reflect on everything and try and relieve the stress, so I really thought the meditation helped.

This participant elaborated further, “Well, when we had the meditation, I really thought it was helping to take your mind off all the things that you were worrying about,, like, exams, and that, yeah, that sort of stuff.” Mindfulness seemed to assist participants in being relaxed at school, which prevented them from becoming anxious and worried. Later in the discussion, Participant B identified mindfulness as one of the aspects of the Pos-Ed program that helped her in the transition to secondary school:

Just the sense of being relaxed in that environment, because of the music that they played, that’s a small thing, but it did get you to be more relaxed. But just the sense of feeling relaxed, made you feel more relaxed about being around everyone.

The positive comments about mindfulness confirm that this construct is a useful strategy in the Pos-Ed program that at least half the participants thought contributed to their sense of wellbeing. In particular, mindfulness seemed to assist in helping them feel less stressed and less overwhelmed.

7.4.4 Savouring. Savouring is the practice that refers to our awareness of pleasure and our deliberate attempt to be aware of it and make it last. Savouring has often been linked in the psychological literature with mindfulness, as both are about living in the present (Harris, 2011). As part of teaching savouring in the Pos-Ed program, teachers explicitly taught the strategy of ‘rewarding’ oneself after focusing hard on work, or

achieving something, and this could be as insignificant as walking the dog after one hour of homework. The reward of walking the dog could be viewed as a savouring activity. Teachers in the Pos-Ed program did not explicitly use the term ‘savouring’, rather they used the phrase ‘rewarding yourself’ with the Year 8 girls. The notion of ‘rewarding yourself’ is bringing attention to awareness of pleasure which is savouring. In many regards teachers were teaching savouring and mindfulness alongside each other.

Participants in the focus group did not use the term ‘savouring’, but they did talk about ‘rewarding themselves’. The researcher interpreted references to ‘rewarding’ as savouring in this focus group. Five of the six participants identified the practice of ‘rewarding themselves’ as a useful strategy learnt in Pos-Ed to assist their wellbeing as the following quotes demonstrate:

“Well, in Pos-Ed how they were always reminding you that your life is not always about homework, like, how you have to have time for yourself.” (Participant C) “One of the strategies that came up for me in Pos-Ed was looking forward to things, instead of being bogged down about the workload, and go ‘Oh okay, after I have done this work I get to… [inaudible] a thing coming up on the weekend like a party I could go to, so it made me less bogged down in all the homework and happier.” (Participant E) “So if you finished two of these subjects you would reward yourself with something. And some of the things that would reward you was, maybe 10 minutes to yourself, or reward you with maybe something sweet or something like that, and that helps your wellbeing.” (Participant B) “Just going on from [Participant’s B’s] thing, I used that as a motivation, like when I got home I tried to do my homework straight away, so then I could get it all done, and then have some of the night just to relax and be ready for school tomorrow and not be tired if I’m doing that homework all night.” (Participant D) “So going off [Participant’s B’s] point about rewarding yourself, or just having 10 minutes of just a break from your homework, that kind of, like, changed your look on homework. So before when you didn’t have

the rewards, you’d kind of look at it, oh, you’d be upset that you have to do homework. But now, if you reward yourself, you look at it like, ‘Oh, let’s do that so I can have a reward,’ so it’s like you’re more happy [happier] about doing it and you’re more excited to actually just get it done.” (Participant F)

Participant B concurred with this comment and also confirmed, “I’d feel happier about myself when I did get it done.”

What was evident here is that the participants viewed the ‘rewards’ (that followed the completion of stressful school-related tasks) as contributing to their overall wellbeing. The practice of rewarding oneself upon completion of work seemed to assist in preventing stress related to homework. It emerged that five of the six participants were regularly practising savouring throughout the year and they had learnt this as part of the Pos-Ed program.

Another form of savouring that made participants feel happy was the activity of receiving written affirmations at the conclusion of Pos-Ed for the year. This activity consisted of every student in the class writing a positive comment about another person in the class and placing it in a named envelope on the wall. Students were encouraged to write affirmations to several students and place them in the envelopes. Two of the participants stated they still had their affirmations from this exercise, with one participant saying it was still up on her wall at home. One of the participants could not recall this activity and thought she may have been absent at that time. Almost all of the participants recalled this as a positive activity making them feel happy. Participant E said, “It made you feel really, really good about yourself, and see what other people’s take of yourself is.” The following was shared by Participant A: “I think, yeah, it definitely helped me feel better about myself, but is also made me feel like a better person for being able to recognise the good things about others as well, so that made me feel good.”

7.4.5 Transition. It was clear from the comments in the focus group that the transition from primary school to secondary school was a significant milestone in the participants’ lives, and one that caused them stress. A number of issues emerged about the transition to secondary school and the researcher grouped these as: stress and homework; focus;

and time management. It also seemed clear that the strategies used by teachers in the Pos-Ed program assisted the participants to deal with these challenges.

Stress and Homework. The issue of stress emerged constantly throughout the discussion and seemed to be linked strongly to homework. All participants acknowledged that the large amount of homework caused them stress and, combined with the stress of being in the transition year, both had a significant effect on their lives. Participant A explained that, “I was becoming overwhelmed by things, because I just wasn’t used to it, because my primary school was just so much different to the expectations here.” Participant C said, “There was very little of, or any homework in primary school.” Participant C revealed, “Oh well, there was no, there was probably about an hour a week, and that’s about it. There was none at primary, hardly any.”

The researcher noticed all participants confirming this by nodding in agreement. This was a significant revelation in the discussion. When the moderator asked all the participants, “So what you’re saying is that in terms of homework it’s a big jump?” all participants nodded in agreement. At least two of the participants thought this stress was a cause for concern in relation to their emotional wellbeing: “I thought stress was that we had just so much homework that we weren’t used to, and yes we were getting overwhelmed, but we were getting overwhelmed to a stage where we could start crying” (Participant B).

All participants felt that Pos-Ed assisted them to cope with homework stress. Participant A talked about being overwhelmed by homework and stated that the Pos-Ed program “helped me to reduce the stress, so as a result I was an overall happier person.” Participant B stated, “Oh, there’s a lot of homework, and I’d be very upset and down that I have to do it but, as [Participant F] said, it [Pos-Ed] really helped me to get all my homework done, and I’d feel happier about myself when I did get it done.” This participant elaborated further, and this point was confirmed by another participant who said, “I think I’m a lot happier, and with the Pos-Ed program it’s kind of made me not dread coming to school” (Participant C). Additional agreement came from Participant D who said, “Well, it [Pos-Ed] makes me more relaxed and confident that I can do things.”

The researcher found there was general consensus about homework being a significant issue in their transition year. The participants said that with their six subjects they were expected to complete 30 minutes of homework every night for each subject, yet Participant C stated that “it’s more like 45 minutes or something” on each subject. As well as homework being a constant stress throughout the week, the participants talked about much of their weekends being consumed with homework as well. The burden of homework was a topic which the participants felt strongly about and which they identified as the source of stress. Most of the participants in this group stated they were experiencing stress in the transition year and Pos-Ed was assisting them to alleviate this stress.

There are clear links between stress and adolescent wellbeing, with girls experiencing stress that is debilitating if continued over long periods, and on a greater level than boys the same age, and depression emerging during early adolescence for girls (Deak, 2010; Debold, 1995; Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002). Developmental success during this period has implications throughout adulthood (Gilman, et al., 2009). Throughout the discussion, Pos-Ed emerged as helping students cope with the stresses associated with navigating the transition year to secondary school, particularly as it offered strategies to help them undertake their homework (focusing on what they could do well and rewarding themselves for work done) and reduce the stress associated with homework. In this way, Pos-Ed assisted students with their wellbeing by providing strategies to cope with the intense emotional stress that most of the participants experienced at times during their transitional year.

Focus and Time Management. Focus and time management were two areas that were discussed in a minimal way as part of what the participants experienced in the Pos-Ed program, and were related to strategies they were learnt in Pos-Ed. Focus was a term which seemed to be associated with their transition to secondary school. Participants wanted to improve their ability to focus in order to manage their homework and school load, and in this way focus was linked to time management. Participant D stated that what was being taught in Pos-Ed helped students focus on their work, “Well, I feel like it keeps you focused on what you’re doing and not getting distracted.” Participant A stated:

At the beginning of the year I wasn’t really taking a break every sort of half an hour or something, so then I find [found] that my mind would just be totally off track, because I’d been focusing on something for too long.

It appeared that the workload in the first year of secondary school caused stress for the participants and they felt pressured to remain focused to cope with this workload. Most of the discussion seemed to associate the ability to focus with mindfulness and taking time out for oneself. The participants reported that Pos-Ed lessons assisted them in achieving a balance in their lives, which was also linked to their ability to focus at school. Participant A stated, “Well, I got more time for myself if I could do my homework and focus more, and then have more time for myself in the long run.”

There was also some discussion around time management issues. A number of participants repeatedly talked about Pos-Ed helping them to take time for themselves. They talked about the teachers in Pos-Ed teaching them about aiming to achieve a balance in their lives. More than half the participants felt that Pos-Ed enhanced their wellbeing through teaching them to take some time for themselves. Participant B spoke about Pos-Ed helping her in this area, “All through Pos-Ed they taught you how to do your time management.” This participant also stated:

If I didn’t have Pos-Ed and that little session of sometimes, of learning how to manage your time well, I wouldn’t have ever finished an assignment on time, or I would have been really struggling on finishing homework and assignments by the due date.

Participant A said, “I thought Pos-Ed taught me to have more time for myself.” This was shared by Participant F who also said that, “Pos-Ed was giving more time to yourself.”

7.5 SUMMARY OF FOCUS GROUP 1

The purpose of the focus group was to gather information from the six participants about their experiences of the Pos-Ed program in the transition year to secondary school. The seven questions used in the focus group were aimed at developing discussion and were useful to elicit information sharing among the participants about their experiences of the program. Overall, the participants reported positive responses, and all except one participant shared that the program contributed to their

wellbeing. Participants spoke about feeling happier, more relaxed, and balanced in their lives through the experience of the Pos-Ed program.

Stress was experienced by all the participants in the transition to secondary school, and the concepts taught in Pos-Ed appeared to assist them in coping with the stress. It seemed that a significant contributor to this stress was homework, as many students went from having almost no homework in primary school to large amounts of homework in their transition year. Participants talked about the practice of rewarding oneself (a form of savouring), and having quiet time (mindfulness), and stated that they had been taught these strategies during the Pos-Ed program. These strategies assisted them in to manage homework and decrease their stress in this area.

Participants spoke about the constructs of gratitude, strengths, savouring, and mindfulness. These are four of the five constructs that comprise the Pos-Ed program and the target of the study. The fifth construct of flow was not mentioned by the participants. Even with this small gap in understanding, there was a strong response from the participants that the Pos-Ed program contributed to their wellbeing in the transition year, and they shared a number of strategies (such as taking breaks and rewarding themselves after focusing for a set period of time, taking time for themselves to do things they enjoyed, being grateful and expressing gratitude, knowing and utilising their individual strengths) they developed as a result of the program, with some students stating they would continue to use these strategies.

An identical process was used for writing up the results for the second focus group, with the only difference being that this group had five of the original six participants, and not the original six participants that the researcher had hoped for. The same six participants involved in Focus Group 1 were invited to participate in Focus Group 2, and five of the six responded affirmatively.

7.6 DATA ANALYSIS TIME 2

As with Focus Group 1, the researcher organised the information under themes, rather than in response to the seven questions. Five themes connected to wellbeing were identified in the analysis: 1) gratitude; 2) strengths (with a sub theme called flow); 3) mindfulness; 4) savouring; and 5) transition. What also emerged in this focus group was the issue of confidence, which was aligned closely with wellbeing. Two participants spoke about confidence directly and one indirectly. In Figure 7.2,

the researcher placed ‘confidence’ alongside the overarching concept of wellbeing as a side issue that emerged from the data.

Figure 7.2. Themes that emerged in the focus group discussion at Time 2.

7.7 WELLBEING

Similarly to the first focus group, the participants in the second focus group were asked to share their understanding of wellbeing. From their responses, the understanding of wellbeing was broad and holistic. Participant C stated, “It’s the state of being physically, emotionally and mentally happy.” This participant also added, “It’s important to take care of yourself well, then you’re sure to sort of succeed in school.” A similar comment was offered by another participant, “It’s the emotional and physical and spiritual, positive state of how someone is.” A similar comment was shared by another participant, “I thought it was like positive health, like, mental and physical health for your wellbeing” (unidentified student). These comments on wellbeing were similar to the comments shared by participants in Focus Group 1.

Following the sharing of their understanding of wellbeing, participants were asked to share their experiences of the Pos-Ed wellbeing program over two years, their transition year in Year 8 (2013) and their second year of secondary school, Year 9 (2014). Three participants shared that the guest speakers organised for Pos-Ed topics in Year 9 were engaging and inspiring. One participant talked about the Positive Purpose unit in Pos-Ed as useful and applicable in her own life: “I think that really showed everyone that you do have, like, a purpose in life” (student unidentified).

Other responses shared about their experience of Pos-Ed included: the value of mindfulness; the benefit of understanding personal strengths and how they work; and the importance of having a sense of gratitude, all of which will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

At Time 2, students had varied responses about strategies developed in Pos-Ed to assist their wellbeing. Four of the five participants talked about aspects of the Pos-Ed program they found helpful in relation to their wellbeing. Examples of strategies talked about included: taking deep breaths to calm themselves down when feeling stressed; stopping to think about something before acting; and using gratitude. These examples aligned with two of the constructs of this study: mindfulness and gratitude.

7.7.1 Confidence. When participants were asked to reflect on whether they had noticed any changes in relation to their wellbeing over the two years of the Pos-Ed program, the responses were interesting. A key area raised by the participants in response to this question was the notion of confidence. Participant D stated that due to the strategies she learnt in Pos-Ed, “I’ve become calmer and less stressed… noticing when you’re in flow and when you’re not… and being grateful and recognising that you are always going to get your things done”, and that this gave her confidence. When asked by the researcher “So are these strategies giving you…” the participant replied, “Confidence, yeah, that’s what it is, yeah.” It is important to note that the researcher did not introduce the word confidence. This term entered the discussion via one of the participants.

The term confidence was used by at least two of the five participants throughout the discussion. Participant B used the term when talking about learning about her strengths: “I think I have become more confident….more confident in yourself, I guess.” This was also shared indirectly by Participant A when she talked about self-awareness being a change she noticed in relation to her wellbeing as a result of Pos-Ed, “Also, just like knowing yourself, and knowing how to take care of your wellbeing and how to manage yourself, I guess.” There was one participant who was ambivalent in relation to changes in her wellbeing as a result of the Pos-Ed program, “I don’t think I’ve noticed any major changes [to the others, I don’t know]. I mean maybe I have changed but I just haven’t really noticed” (Participant C).

7.7.2 Gratitude. Once again gratitude emerged as a theme that was spoken about the most by participants. The construct of gratitude threaded constantly throughout the entire focus group discussion. There was acknowledgement by participants that they experienced gratitude exercises in every Pos-Ed lesson: “We do so much on gratitude, like most Pos-Ed lessons” (Participant B). This participant went on to say, “So you start, like, thinking about, like, what you’re grateful for and it’s, like, helped you, like, put that into your daily life, like, what you’re grateful for each day.” Two of the five participants spoke about gratitude as being a most useful aspect of the program. One participant said, “I think that gratitude was really helpful because you got to, like, take time to reflect on things that you’re grateful for” (unidentified student). Another participant shared, “I think that gratitude, because we do it early in the morning, it’s a good way to start the day, and so it helps you to be calm for the rest of the day” (unidentified student).

In contrast, two participants spoke about repetition associated with the gratitude dairy as a least useful aspect of the program, one said:

Yep, all the time I just found it like…..a bit repetitive and it’s, like, some people would just be, like, food, shelter and sometimes I had to find myself writing down those things as well (unidentified student).

Another participant said, “Yeah, I kind of agree” (unidentified student). They spoke about the repetitive nature of the comments in their gratitude diaries, writing similar entries each time they had to write in their diaries in Pos-Ed. Another participant reflected, “They kind of write the same thing over and over again” (unidentified student). When the researcher stated that it was sounding like they were doing a very similar thing each time they wrote in their gratitude diaries, there was general agreement from all five participants. One participant made a suggestion about the use of the gratitude diary, “I think maybe if the questions we were asked had been more varied each session and that could have been more helpful” (unidentified student). At the end of the focus group, one participant offered a suggestion to vary the gratitude exercises saying, “Every Pos-Ed lesson do, like, a different one, so it’s not so [repetitive]” (unidentified student).

While two of the five participants spoke about the repetitive nature of the gratitude exercises and offered suggestions for improvement, three of the five participants spoke positively about gratitude itself. Participant B stated, “I guess it (Pos-Ed) helps you become more grateful for things.” Another participant said, “Yeah, I, like, agree with that” (unidentified student). Another participant said, “It’s been pretty useful” (unidentified student). Taken together, participants experienced gratitude as a useful strategy to assist their wellbeing.

When asked if participants noticed any changes related to their wellbeing since the beginning of the Pos-Ed program, two participants spoke about gratitude. One participant stated, “So since the Pos-Ed program, I think that everyone has been able to stop and think about what it is they’re actually grateful for” (unidentified student). Still related to noticing changes in their wellbeing, when asked if there were any strategies in the Pos-Ed program that helped them a participant stated, “I think being grateful and recognising that you are always going to get your things done. I think I sort of doubt that I’m going to finish something” (unidentified student).

Gratitude was a positive psychology construct that at least half of the participants were using beyond the classroom in their personal lives. In this second focus group, some participants made connections between an awareness of gratitude and putting gratitude into action. Emerging literature on gratitude focuses on two aspects of gratitude: a personal awareness of gratitude and expressing gratitude through actions (Howells, 2012). Participants talked about the Pos-Ed initiative of putting gratitude into action through a community service action project, where over a period of ten weeks they were issued a volunteer card and were required to enter details of any community service they completed. This was a ‘gratitude in action’ project in the Pos-Ed program, focused on during the Positive Purpose Unit. One participant found this useful, “The positive purpose unit makes you stop and think every once in a while what you can do, and sometimes you can, like, sometimes go do those sort of activities that will help and benefit others" (unidentified student). Another participant shared a different view:

The positive purpose unit, I found really, like, pressuring I suppose, although, like, the community service was rewarding in a way, but I think that is was kind of like, it wasn’t us that wanted to do that in the beginning, I think that it was more of a pressuring thing, and so it

wasn’t rewarding as it would be if we got [to choose whether or not to do it] (unidentified student).

When the researcher asked whether they put gratitude into their daily lives, two participants responded: Participant B replied, “Yeah, because you, like, begin to think about it and what you have and what others don’t have” and another (unidentified) student said, “Yeah, I, like, agree with that.”

7.7.3 Strengths. Strengths emerged as a construct that was positively acknowledged by all participants. When asked to comment on the most useful aspect of the Pos-Ed program, there was general agreement that they found the work on strengths useful:

At the start we did that survey and we found, like, our five top strengths, and so that can, like, help us with, like, putting them into like our study that we can. If it’s, like, determination or something and you can, like, know that you’re determined and, like, helps you, like, figure out how using your strength you can make things easier. (unidentified student)

When asked whether they had developed any strategies to assist with their wellbeing over the two years of the Pos-Ed program, four of the five participants nominated strengths as a strategy. One participant stated:

I just think again, with the strengths, I think if you find something very difficult, you can reflect on the strengths you have, and put them into practice, so then something will become easier and you can get it done faster, yep, and just adding to that as well, I can’t remember who said it, but they told us, like, rather do things that you actually enjoy doing, than doing stuff that just you feel, like, you have to do. (unidentified student)

As well as strengths being talked about as a useful strategy, a number of participants talked about strengths being connected to flow and how they could use this outside of school. One participant stated, “Well, I suppose it [kind] of relates to flow then, if you use your strengths and then you find something challenging you will go further” (unidentified student). Participant C then commented that, “Yeah, well, like, you know they taught us in Pos-Ed about flow. It’s, like, you do something that you can

do, so that you’re good at, I suppose, but then also something, like, that is challenging you.” This participant stated she saw a connection between strengths and flow she could use in her life outside of school: “I suppose, well, say in, like, university with your work and you choose a field that you’ve got a strength in but then it’s also challenging, so you get flow, and then you succeed.” Another participant agreed with this view, and went on to comment further that she could use strengths and flow in choosing subjects at school: “I suppose choosing subjects… yeah, they’ve told us a fair few times to do what you love and what you’re good at, and I think that connects to flow” (unidentified student).

As well as linking strengths to flow, Participant B spoke about strengths giving her confidence, and this comment was in response to the question about noticing any changes in their wellbeing since the beginning of the Pos-Ed program. She identified this as a change she noticed in her wellbeing:

I think maybe I’ve become, like, more confident,, like, with learning my five strengths you can put them to use, because in, like, a new year,, like, it’s going to be, like, harder, so a bit unsure but, like, when you know what you’re good at, you can put that to use and then become more confident in yourself, I guess.

At the very end of the focus group when participants were asked if there were any final comments they wanted to offer about the program, one participant made a suggestion about doing the strengths test more often. She commented:

Personally for me, I think it would’ve been helpful to do one of those strengths test, maybe at the end of each term, not the beginning of each term so that we could see how we’ve changed. I think I would’ve liked to do that. (unidentified student)

7.7.4 Mindfulness. Mindfulness, after gratitude, was the next most discussed theme throughout the entire second focus group. As with Focus Group 1, the participants referred to mindfulness as meditation, sitting quietly, and relaxation time. Participants in this focus group spoke confidently about mindfulness and its usefulness in their lives, including outside of school.

When asked about the most useful aspects of the program, two participants stated that they found mindfulness a most useful aspect of the program. One participant stated, “I also thought the, like, self-massage, like, the meditative kind of thing, it just, like, relaxes everyone and kind of puts them in a positive state” (unidentified student). Another participant stated, “I found it really useful. Like even just, like, the little things, like, taking deep breaths, I’ve used that sometimes outside of school” (unidentified student). One participant talked about being stressed at times and using the strategy of mindfulness to cope with the stress. She said, “If something is becoming overwhelming, you can, like, stop and think about it and not get all stressed, you can just stop and then, like, be mindful [of] it and calm down” (unidentified student). Participant C spoke about mindfulness in response to being asked to comment on the experience of the program over the last two years. She said:

They give you time to, like, stop and just think about yourself and, like, your wellbeing, instead of just, like, thinking about lots of things, so you kind of just stop and think about where you’re at… and then, like, the mindfulness activities, I think, like, if you already have, like, a little bit of a bad morning or something’s, like, happened the night before and you’re in, like, a bit of an upset mood or like, I don’t know, miserable state kind of thing, I think it’s better to use the mindfulness activity, like, personally, because it just relaxes you instead of, like, having to think and actually write down something if you’re, like, in a bad mood, it may not help.

Mindfulness emerged strongly as a strategy the participants said they would use in the future to assist with their wellbeing. In response to the question asking if they had developed any strategies to assist with their wellbeing as a result of the program, three participants spoke about mindfulness, stating they were either using mindfulness, would continue to use it, or may use it in the future. One participant stated, “I just think that the mindfulness, I would use that personally through my schooling and after that… I think it’s definitely helped me” (unidentified student). Another participant said, “I think I’ll definitely continue, like, the mindful and meditation exercises, which is, I found… I found them really good to just, like, calm down, just relax.” This participant further stated, “I suppose I’ll try it in the future to make it a regular part of my life because I think it is really useful” (unidentified

student). Participant A stated, “I was just going to say, but also, like, the mindfulness, I’d use it, because it makes you aware of, like, your emotions and, like, how you’re feeling, so you kind of, like, can adjust to the situation you’re in.”

At the end of the focus group when participants were asked for any final comments, two of the five participants talked about mindfulness. One participant confirmed learning about mindfulness in Pos-Ed saying, “I think we learnt, like, how to be in the moment.” Another participant offered a suggestion, “Instead of always starting with, like, the gratitude diary in the morning, maybe also you just go back to mindfulness” (unidentified student). As stated above, mindfulness was a constant theme throughout this focus group.

7.7.5 Savouring. Savouring was a construct that featured only in a minor way throughout this focus group. As with Focus Group 1, participants used the phrase ‘rewarding yourself’ when discussing savouring. When the researcher asked the participants whether they had experienced savouring in the program, all participants replied no, but they did comment on the strategy of ‘rewarding oneself’. One participant talked about ‘rewarding yourself’ after finishing something as a strategy she learnt in Pos-Ed to assist her wellbeing. She said, “Reward yourself after you’ve done something, so I found that, like, good, like, you’re doing, like, an assignment and you, like, finish one little part you can, like, stop and, like, reward yourself” (unidentified student). The participant confirmed that she would use this as she went through school and beyond school. She said, “Yeah, because I think it’s really useful.”

Another form of savouring that made participants feel happy was the activity of receiving written affirmations at the conclusion of Pos-Ed in the transition year (year 8). Participants really liked this activity, and talked about and remembered this savouring activity two years later. This activity consisted of every student in the class writing a positive comment about another person in the class and placing it in an envelope which had their name on it. Students were encouraged to write affirmations to several students and place them in the envelopes. Several participants nodded in agreement at a suggestion by one unidentified participant at the end of the focus group for more affirmation activities. The suggestion was, “So, I think that [affirmation activities] really helped people to know that everyone actually, like, does see them as a person and does actually like them.”

Two participants at the end of the focus group, when asked for final comments about the five constructs of the program, offered a suggestion about doing more work on savouring in Pos-Ed. One said, “Maybe add a little more on the savouring. We didn’t really focus [on savouring]” (unidentified student). A second participant said, “They [the teachers] didn’t’ really identify it as savouring and… Yeah, I would, like to do that a bit more” (unidentified student).

7.7.6 Transition. The participants were asked to comment whether the Pos-Ed program had helped, or not helped, with their adjustment to secondary school now that they had experienced two years of the program. Four of the five participants stated that the program had helped. Participant C who did not think it helped commented, “I just don’t think it focuses on the adjustment of primary school and secondary school, and I’ve been just fine myself.” This participant also commented, “Like last year I think was more focused on settling in, but now this year it doesn’t really, like, help you transition; it’s just kind of, I don’t know, provides you with the knowledge you can use.”

The participants talked about transition being important in the first year of transition (Year 8) but in Year 9 they had moved on. One participant said, “We’re settled in, but now we’re moving on to things that mean more than just settling into the school” (unidentified student). Another participant said, “Most of the topics last year were about fitting into school and… This year it’s more topics that relate to now and not so much [about fitting in]” (unidentified student).

It was clear from the comments in the second focus group that the transition from primary school to secondary school, while a significant milestone in the participants’ lives in the first year (Year 8), was not a significant issue in the second year of secondary school (Year 9). The following quote demonstrates one participant’s growing confidence with her ability to cope with secondary schooling. She said:

The Pos-Ed has helped me with my wellbeing and strategies because something in sort of [sic] Grade 8, I just found that I was really getting really stressed, and I think this year in Pos-Ed I sort of learnt, like I said earlier, I discovered that writing lists can help you to get things done. I think sort of taking breaks, I found out this year as well has helped me get my school work done. So they’re two of the things I’ve learnt this

year that have helped me to sort of keep my stress down… Stress is part of my wellbeing, like, personally. (unidentified student)

This comment demonstrates that the participant knew what wellbeing is, and what might stress her and that her stress levels impact on her wellbeing. With this knowledge and understanding, she was actively taking steps to minimise her stress. This occurred as a result of the program and should be regarded as a success of the program.

Three of the five participants commented they found the program in Year 9 more helpful than the program in Year 8. One participant said, “I found this year’s Pos-Ed program a lot more helpful than last year’s” (unidentified student). Another participant said, “I think it’s just been a lot more interesting and easier to sort of enjoy it” (unidentified student). Participant B stated:

I think it’s better this year than last year, because last year it was just… It wasn’t really about us; it was, like, moving us into the school, but is wasn’t really, like, things that, like, this year the units are, like, positive purpose and how we can feel better about ourselves and, like, with the positive identity, and so that’s, like, more relevant to us.

7.8 SUMMARY OF FOCUS GROUP 2

The purpose of the second focus group was to gather information from the five participants about their experiences of the Pos-Ed program in their second year of secondary school (Year 9). The seven questions used in the focus group were aimed at developing discussion among participants about their experiences of the second year of the program.

Overall, the participants reported positive responses about the Pos-Ed program throughout the discussion. All participants except one shared that the program assisted in their transition to secondary school. They talked about the program helping them adjust to secondary school and assisting with their wellbeing. There was also a feeling, that while the program had helped them settle into secondary school, the program had moved on in the second year. Three participants felt the second year of the program was more useful than the first year. This was the same for wellbeing, where four of the five participants spoke about positive changes to their wellbeing in the second year of the program. What also emerged alongside

wellbeing was the issue of confidence which was spoken about by three of the five participants. Their comments suggested that confidence was a result of what they had learnt in relation to the constructs of strengths, flow, gratitude, and mindfulness.

The construct of flow was discussed in connection with that of strengths. Participants displayed an accurate understanding of the concept and a mature insight into the connection between using strengths and achieving flow. They understood that using one’s strengths in a challenging way could advance them further. Most participants understood how they could use this knowledge later in school and also beyond school. While there was limited discussion about the concept of savouring, participants spoke about ‘rewarding oneself after working hard at something’. While this is an aspect of savouring, participants did not have a clear understanding of the concept of savouring.

In conclusion, three constructs featured strongly in the discussion, and these were gratitude, mindfulness, and strengths. While flow was discussed in connection with using strengths, there was limited discussion and understanding of savouring. There were positive responses about the program assisting their wellbeing, confidence, and their adjustment to secondary school. More than half the participants said they were using strategies learnt in the program in their school life and said they would use them beyond school life.

7.8.1 Application of strategies to current and future lives. One outcome of the Pos-Ed program is that students were encouraged to take the concepts and strategies they learnt in the program and apply them to their schooling and wider lives. Teachers recognised that not all students would embrace these concepts, as students are at different points in their learning journeys. For some students, teachers recognised that just knowing what these concepts were, may be as far as students go in embracing these concepts. What emerged throughout the discussion in this focus group was that three of the five girls stated they were currently using the constructs of strengths, gratitude, and mindfulness in their lives. Students demonstrated a good understanding of the constructs of strengths, gratitude, flow, and mindfulness. While no student spoke specifically about using savouring, the notion of ‘rewarding oneself’’ after a job completed was discussed. One student spoke articulately about her understanding related to her stress levels and the impact on her wellbeing. She outlined the strategies she employed to control her stress and

positively influence her wellbeing. For this student at least, the program afforded her a language with which to discuss her wellbeing, and the ability to take responsibility for her choices and behaviours in order to enhance her wellbeing. While students stated they would use these strategies at school and beyond school in their normal lives, there was no follow-up about how this would occur.

7.8.2 The Pos-Ed program: Suggestions for changes to the program. The participants offered suggestions of ways to change the Pos-Ed program at the end of the focus group when asked for final comments. These suggestions were: 1) to do more work on savouring; 2) to interconnect the different constructs of the program and show how they are linked and fit together rather than using them separately; 3) to complete the strengths test again; 4) to bring back the savouring activity of writing and posting affirmations; 5) to do group bonding activities; and 6) to review and reflect on goals more regularly. The researcher considered these suggestions when the program was reviewed at the end of the year, and after the analysis of the current data was reported to the school. As these suggestions were gathered from a small number of students, the researcher will consider asking a larger number of students for suggestions at the end of the year. This would be completed in conjunction with asking teachers who teach the program for their suggestions. The suggestions of both students and teachers would then be examined and discussed by the researcher in consultation with the teachers in order to arrive at decisions regarding changes to the program for the following year. The researcher would also look for opportunities for girls to make more explicit connections about how, when, where, and why they can use the strategies learnt in Pos-Ed in their own lives. This would also occur as part of the annual review of the program.

Chapter 8: Discussion and Conclusion

8.1 INTRODUCTION

This final chapter revisits the questions guiding this study, as well as discussing the findings detailed in Chapters 6 and 7. This chapter also re-examines the positive education program designed by the researcher offering a proactive, preventative approach to assist female adolescent wellbeing. Positive education aims to provide empirically validated programs shown to have an impact on student wellbeing, providing young people with the skills of resilience before they need it (White & Murray, 2015). Positive education continues to offer much to the wellbeing area particularly from a strengths-based approach rather than a deficit one. This final chapter examines the contributions, limitations, implications for practice, possibilities for future studies, and final comments related to this study.

8.2 RESEARCH PROGRAM

The seven phases of the study were clear and these separate stages can be seen in Figure 8.1. When the seven stages of the study were complete, the researcher was then able to examine both sets of quantitative results together.

Figure 8.1 Phases of the current study

In examining the quantitative and qualitative results together, the results were varied. The quantitative data over the three time points revealed positive social-emotional health results for participants at the beginning, and during the transition year to secondary school in Year 8. While the results for the transition year were stable, there was a low to moderate dip in social-emotional health in the second year of the program. Despite this dip, it is still considered to be of low to minor practical difference. In contrast, information gathered from the two focus groups was largely positive about the program and how it was contributing to the participants’ wellbeing. Taken together, there was congruency for both the qualitative and quantitative data in the transition year, but not in the second year.

For Year 9, the focus group results provided positive data on the program, while the quantitative results showed a dip in social-emotional health. The rich narratives provided by the two focus groups allowed the researcher a more substantial understanding of what the participants were actually experiencing in the program. This information was largely positive with participants stating they viewed the second year of the program more effective than the first year. Emerging from both focus groups were comments that support the conclusion that the Pos-Ed program was providing skills and strategies to assist the wellbeing of the participants. While the research supports the view that the program was assisting the wellbeing of the participants, it cannot be determined from the data whether the participants would continue to use the strategies learnt in Pos-Ed.

The survey and focus group results may have varied for a number of reasons. These reasons could include that the participants in the focus groups appeared to have a positive approach to the program, and therefore shared comments and views that affirmed the Pos-Ed program. The participants in the focus groups were also able to provide specific comments on various aspects of the program, and this form of sharing of comments was not available in the surveys. All the comments gathered in the focus groups related specifically to the participants’ experiences of the Pos-Ed program, whereas the responses gathered in the surveys were more aligned to the social and emotional health of the participants.

The findings from both focus groups support the view that the participants were operating from a constructivist framework, as they acquired new knowledge, then set about internalising it, and therefore created new learning (Franklin & Nurius, 1998).

This was evidenced by the majority of the participants who reported in the second focus group that they were utilising or would use the Pos-Ed strategies beyond school and in their normal life. This concurs with Tavernier and Willoughby (2012) who asserted that when adolescents engage in a more intimate exploration of their life experiences, positive consequences for lifelong learning can emerge at a personal level. However, one limitation was the small sample in each focus group.

Despite the varied results, there is evidence that this group of participants transitioned successfully to secondary school and the Pos-Ed program gave them strategies to assist their wellbeing during this time. While this was not the case for the second year, the qualitative results in Year 9 showed that the program did assist the wellbeing of the participants in this group, and in fact they found it more useful than the first year of the program.

8.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND FINDINGS

As stated in Chapter 1, there were three questions that guided this study. Each will now be addressed in turn.

1. What are the short-term and long-term changes in levels of wellbeing that adolescent girls experience in the Pos-Ed program?

The SEHS-S survey used at three different time points measured the social and emotional wellbeing of the participants. The first time point was on entry to secondary school where participants did not have any previous exposure to positive psychology. For this group of female students transitioning to secondary school with no previous exposure to positive psychology, the results of the first survey revealed high scores of wellbeing on entry to secondary school. The fact that they enjoyed high levels of covitality on entry indicated little scope for achieving higher covitality scores. What emerged when the second survey was taken at the end of the transition year and after one year of the program was that their wellbeing remained stable during the transition year, with a small upward movement in covitality. Consequently, the short term changes can be regarded as minimal, as the data showed that for this group they transitioned successfully to secondary school with very little change to their levels of wellbeing.

In contrast to the short-term changes in the transition year, between Times 2 and 3, the end of the second year of secondary school, there was a slight downward trend in

scores. This indicates a minor change occurring for this group in the second year. The researcher discussed this change in Chapter 6. Despite these results, this downward trend was still within a range which indicated that wellbeing was reasonably high and stable for this group. The longer-term changes in wellbeing over a two-year period indicated a slight downward change in the second year. Given that this group entered secondary school with existing high levels of wellbeing, it can be argued that high levels of wellbeing were relatively sustained over a two-year period apart from a slight downward trend in the second year.

2. What are the experiences of adolescent girls in the Pos-Ed program at the end of the first and second year of the program?

The experiences of the adolescent girls at the end of both years were positive. In relation to the first focus group at the end of the first year of the program, the participants spoke about the strategies in Pos-Ed helping them to feel happier, more relaxed, and balanced in their lives. They shared their experiences of being stressed because of homework, focus, and time management issues, and that strategies learnt in Pos-Ed such as writing in their gratitude journals, learning about and practising mindfulness, and learning about their individual strengths by completing the VIA Strengths test all contributed to them feeling better about themselves and happier overall. Researchers suggest that the daily stress and coping difficulties can represent dimensions of internalised stress that affect some female adolescents (Roeser, et al., 2008). Additionally, participants spoke about the constructs of gratitude, strengths, savouring, and mindfulness helping them feel less stressed and able to cope with the transition process. They enjoyed writing in their gratitude journals, learning about strengths, practising mindfulness, and savouring when they completed tasks. Comments to support this are provided in Chapter 7. Five of the six participants in this group stated they noticed positive changes in their wellbeing. Clearly, these experiences showed that, overall, there were benefits at the end of the first year of the program.

In the second focus group, one year later, the experiences of the participants were similar to those of the first focus group. Rather than the transition, which was no longer a concern, they spoke about Pos-Ed helping them adjust to secondary school. Four of the five participants in this group spoke about positive changes to their wellbeing during the year. Additionally, confidence was spoken about as a result of

what they had learnt in Pos-Ed. This confidence emerged as a result of the strategies they were learning in Pos-Ed in knowing how to take care of their wellbeing and manage themselves. One participant remarked, “I’ve become calmer and less stressed.” She identified as confidence what she described as “being grateful and recognising that you are always going to get your things done” (Chapter 7). They also talked about the variety of activities, and how useful what they were learning in Pos-Ed was for them and gave examples of this. They spoke about their gratitude diaries making them feel happy about themselves and the world. In terms of mindfulness, they spoke about taking breaths, stopping, and taking time out for themselves. As four of the five girls in the second focus group were the same girls who had participated in the first focus group, it appears that their positive experience of the program across both years was retained. While most girls spoke about using the strategies learnt in Pos-Ed in their lives, it is impossible to state with any certainty whether the girls will continue to use these approaches over time. However, their exposure to them, via the Pos-Ed program, means that they now have an awareness of such strategies and the opportunity to use these in their lives. In a similar way to the first focus group, these experiences overall indicate positive benefits at the end of the second year of the program.

3. Have any observed changes been consistent, or strengthened, over the two years of the program (Years 8 and 9)?

For the first year of the program the SEHS-S results indicated that the high levels of wellbeing with which the participants entered secondary school were maintained. There was even a slight increase in covitality scores between the start and end of the transition year to secondary school. Indeed, for the transition year, the results for wellbeing were consistent as this group of participants maintained high levels of wellbeing. However, the high levels of the transition year were not consistent for the second year of the program. Examining the two years together, the SEHS-S results indicated relatively stable levels of wellbeing for this group of participants, even though there was a slight downward trend in the second year.

As presented in Chapter 2, there is substantial research documenting the challenges females face in early adolescence. Girls search for a sense of wellbeing, they are sensitive to what they meet in everyday life, they struggle with dubious emotions, they need to handle and respond to all this, and, in the ups and downs, they need

peace to feel content with life (Larsson, et al., 2013). While the qualitative results revealed relatively high levels of wellbeing for the two-year period, the quantitative results revealed that what was being taught in the Pos-Ed program was helping the participants maintain these high levels of wellbeing. What emerged from both focus groups was that the participants were using at least three of the five constructs in a consistent manner over the two years. This suggests that what they were learning was being internalised and assisting them with their wellbeing.

8.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

While Seligman, Peterson, and Csikszentmihalyi were courageous in initiating positive psychology to shift the focus from a deficit approach to wellbeing to studying what goes well in people’s lives from birth to death and everything in between, the application in institutions can be challenging. In the United States, most applications of positive psychology have to date been clinical, followed by an interest from organisations, in particular the workplace (Sheldon, et al., 2011). Only very recently has education begun to receive attention. In Australia, there is increasing interest in positive psychology and positive education. How this translates into action in schools is varied.

There are those like Seligman who promote whole school programs. A whole school approach can arguably be explained as whole school implementation encompassing all aspects of school life, and includes training in positive psychology for all groups: parents, staff, students, and parents. Waters (2011) suggests that a whole-school approach can be thought of as a general way of life at the school, where positive education frameworks target all domains, including organisational structures, policies, curriculum, co-curriculum, and the playground. The researcher argues there is more than one form of whole school approach and the school where the researcher works is an example of a whole school approach applied only in the wellbeing area. This form of whole school approach still has a wide ranging reach with the majority of staff familiar with positive psychology. Teaching staff and students are trained in positive psychology, wellbeing is included in school documents and policies, and the language of positive psychology is familiar to all teaching staff and students. However, administration staff and parents have not been trained, and positive psychology has not been applied to the academic area. One of the main reasons these groups have not been trained is limited capital resources. Yet the researcher argues

that, from a systemic view, this can still be regarded as a whole school approach. The implication here is that there are different models of a whole school approach that schools may consider.

Interestingly, the schools which have implemented whole school programs in Australia are wealthy independent schools such as Geelong Grammar School Melbourne, St Peter’s Adelaide, and Knox Grammar Sydney. These schools have implemented Seligman’s PERMA model and consequently have received endorsements by Seligman and other notable researchers in this area. For schools with limited resources, it may be more practical to apply aspects of positive psychology in various pockets throughout the school, rather than as an overarching, all embedded framework. In addition, while the wealthy private schools listed above have chosen to implement positive psychology using Seligman’s PERMA model, not all schools need to do this. There is a range of wellbeing frameworks that can be applied. All schools can seek to add layers to their positive psychology programs over time, and in doing so can work their way toward greater integration of positive psychology across all school systems and the curriculum.

For positive psychology to have the most impact on wellbeing, the optimum situation is to involve the entire school community. Schools can be considered one of the few institutions with funding, staff resources, and direct access to students, families and communities (White & Murray, 2015). As such, schools have the capacity to introduce and sustain whole-school initiatives. Additionally, opportunities can also be created for staff and students to practise integration of positive psychology skills and information. A drawback of this approach is that there are competing interests in schools such as strategic priorities, and not all schools view wellbeing as a strategic priority. White (2016) argues that there are a number of obstacles which hinder progress in positive psychology; these include financial; wellbeing considered a marginal topic; a shortage of reliable expert training providers; and the perception it will be a silver bullet to fix all the challenges in education (White, 2016). These are valid obstacles and should be considered by schools adopting positive psychology.

Regardless of these obstacles, if schools view wellbeing as a priority, there are adaptations they can make if they are interested in implementing positive psychology. At a recent conference attended by the researcher, there was a session entitled, “Positive Psychology on a Budget.” Implicit here is the perception that

positive psychology will be costly to implement. However, a school may consider moving slowly and incrementally with modest financial outlays.

However, the reality of achieving this is difficult as school finances compete for varying projects to be funded and not all schools receive the same funding. Private independent schools are better positioned to be able to allocate funds to this area. Training for staff, parents, and students is a huge cost to a school. Obviously, schools should train teaching staff first if they are implementing a positive psychology program. Even this will be a significant cost as usually outside experts are utilised to train teachers. Allowing teachers to practise the skills gained in positive psychology training in their personal lives as well as in their lives as educators would equip them to pass on their knowledge directly and indirectly to their students through role modelling as well as direct teaching (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014).

Furthermore, there is the question of when and if the school wants to extend the training to all staff and also to parents, and how this training would be delivered. Another challenge that arises for schools is how to induct new staff into positive psychology as they enter schools. Staff changes vary from year to year, but a plan for staff induction into positive psychology should be considered.

To date, there is very limited research on evaluating the training and implementation of positive psychology with staff. St Peter’s Adelaide has undertaken to collect data from both staff and students in response to embracing the PERMA model at a whole school level. This is one of the few schools engaging in data collection from staff. They claim this aligns with the school culture in being strong in the scientific tradition and this was supported by staff. As no validated measures of PERMA existed at the time of the data collection, they utilised two measures that are under development. Reliability was weaker for the staff PERMA items, and convergent validity was unclear. Subsequent assessment will benefit from the more reliable items that are now available (Butler & Kern, 2015). What is not clear here is whether most schools could engage in this process of data collection, as this is an expensive process that requires expertise in data collection and analysis. While St Peter’s Adelaide is committed to documenting and assessing the impact of their efforts, it is unclear how widely what they are doing could be applied to other schools.

One of the greatest challenges for schools interested in adopting positive psychology is determining the content of the program. In Australia, there is increasing interest in

the creation and implementation of large-scale, customised positive education programs (Green, 2014). However, it is obvious that schools will want to tailor programs to suit their needs. As noted earlier, Clonan et al. (2004) suggest that no two school systems will implement positive psychology in the same way. Thus, schools have choices to make in relation to content.

One of the early decisions school face is whether to adopt the PERMA or a similar wellbeing model as a whole school approach, in which case there are a number of case studies available, such as those from Geelong Grammar School and St Peter’s Adelaide. Even with this decision made, the school still has to decide how to teach the various elements of the model. This could result in a combination of subprograms to address specific elements. For instance, ‘Bounce Back’ is a resilience program that integrates core principles of positive psychology, while another resilience program is the Strath Haven Program. Other similar programs, such as PEPS, AEIOU, and RAP, which use a proactive, preventative approach, were discussed in Chapter 3.

Another approach schools could adopt would be to implement a program using positive psychology constructs or using a positive psychology intervention (PPI) as discussed in Chapter 3. The current study is a program based on multiple constructs. In addition, schools could consider combining positive psychology and coaching psychology elements which are complementary. For example, coaching psychology promotes a strengths approach which is also promoted in positive psychology, both of which have, as Van Nieuwerburgh (2012) suggests, much to offer schools.

Finally, an important consideration is strategic planning over a certain period of time, such as a five-year implementation plan. Any significant change requires careful planning and Australian schools such as Geelong Grammar School and Knox Grammar are willing to share their knowledge and experiences. This can be done through dissemination of research findings and engaging in conversations to consider options either by visiting or by skype (Green, 2014). Alongside planning, schools should investigate suitable methods of gathering empirical evidence on the programs they implement. Schools may consider partnering with other schools and universities to explore options for evaluating programs. It is by measuring wellbeing programs that school leaders can make a difference and can help to form clear policy decisions (White & Murray, 2015), allowing them to implement quality programs. As well as evaluation, sustainability is also important, and this should be factored into the

evaluation process. Schools adopting positive psychology will be at different points from those starting to those who are more developed, and consequently both will have different needs. Moreover, there is a pressing need for further research on positive psychology programs and a need for expert external consultants and educators to work collaboratively with schools to develop and evaluate individualised programs (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012).

8.5 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY

The current study makes a number of contributions to the field of positive psychology. This section presents these contributions both practically, theoretically, and methodologically. The practical and theoretical contributions are discussed below, while the methodological contributions are discussed in the subsequent section.

From a practical viewpoint, this study makes a contribution to the body of research on evidence-based positive psychology programs currently available for adolescents to assist with their wellbeing. As previously stated, the Pos-Ed program is based on five evidence-based constructs: character strengths, gratitude, mindfulness, flow, and savouring. Each construct was chosen on the basis that it was supported by a substantial amount of research. Rather than adopting just one construct, this study explored how the five evidenced-based constructs worked alongside each other as well as together. There are researchers now encouraging schools to consider a broad approach in designing wellbeing program. Focusing on one construct alone may not be enough to strengthen the overall social-emotional health and wellbeing of adolescents; rather, a “broad range of constructs such as those that underpin covitality should be considered” (Pennell, et al., 2015). Additionally, these constructs offer skills and strategies from a proactive and preventative approach, which aligns with the current research that, over the last 10 years in both community and school practices, there has been a shift away from the deficit approach of supporting young people in distress towards the concept of promoting wellbeing and resilience (Roffey, 2012). This is posited in the move by educational and other psychologists who have begun to develop school-based programs that adopt a positive proactive approach to enhance wellbeing through utilising existing strengths (Peterson, 2006). As such, the Pos-Ed program has made a valuable contribution to the research available on wellbeing in an all girls’ secondary school.

Another contribution from a practical viewpoint was the longitudinal approach of this study. This makes it unique in offering data over three points in time, as most studies currently available have a one-year or less, time frame. As discussed in Chapter 6, Geelong Grammar School is undertaking a three-year study, due to conclude at the end of 2015. Only preliminary findings from the first year (2013) have been released. A recent synthesis of 12 school-based positive psychology programs drawn from international studies, across different school systems, in co-educational and single-gender schools using age ranges from five to 19 years, with students of various ethnicity, revealed significant, robust, and encouraging results (Waters, 2011). However, many of these studies were evaluated in the pilot stage; hence, further evaluation of these programs beyond the pilot stage is needed. The current study offers data beyond a pilot stage, thereby providing a resource for all who are working in this area and thinking of implementing adolescent wellbeing programs.

Positive education programs continue to emerge, as well as a considerable amount of non-quantitative evidence to show this is a growing area (Rusk & Waters, 2013). From a theoretical viewpoint, this study offered useful data on a positive education program, and this could be considered by other schools as they embrace positive psychology and implement wellbeing programs. As the increasing focus on wellbeing continues to attract schools to positive psychology, the rigour and evidence behind what they choose to implement is important. The current study offers such a program where schools, should they choose this path, could benefit from a program based on mixed-methods longitudinal research. This is increasingly important as critics assert that positive psychology is not only a theory, but a movement, and many people seem to be heading in the direction of positive education. Another challenge is that the different emerging programs have rarely been used or assessed either alone or as part of a whole-school approach (Kristjansson, 2012). While the program was not embedded in all aspects of school life, the current study offers a positive education program that adds to the literature available on programs using multiple constructs. This could be viewed as a strength of the program, as schools realise they do not have to incur the expense of incorporating a whole school program to experience positive effects in the wellbeing area.

Additionally, from a theoretical viewpoint, the current study made a substantial contribution to the literature on positive psychology and adolescents. Since its emergency in 1998, positive psychology remains is a relatively new science with research still in its formative stages. However, much of the interest in positive psychology has been disproportionately focused on adults (Chafouleas & Bray, 2004; Gilman, et al., 2009; Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009; Seligman, et al., 2009). This study contributes by providing more information about adolescents and positive psychology and, in particular, female adolescents.

Another theoretical contribution of this research is in the area of adolescent development. In the face of rising rates of anxiety and depression for female adolescents as revealed in the Report on the Second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (2015), the Pos-Ed program provided skills and strategies to assist female adolescents in their wellbeing. The relatively stable quantitative results over time, combined with the largely positive results from the focus groups provide information to suggest that the program is assisting the wellbeing of adolescent girls. This study also provided further empirical evidence to support the research showing that, for some girls, there is a disturbance in self-esteem, with a peak at the end of primary school or the beginning of secondary school, between the ages 10 to 12, then a drop in early adolescence, ages 13 to 14. While not expected, the quantitative data revealed a disturbance for this group of participants definitely occurred in Year 9. Had this study only lasted for one year, this data would not have emerged. The results from this study provide valuable information to educators planning for female students to transition to secondary school.

8.6 PROACTIVE POSITIVE EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Increasingly schools are embracing the call for education to develop the whole student through social, emotional, moral and intellectual development (Cain & Carnellor, 2008). The literature offers several reasons for schools to adopt a positive education approach to promote wellbeing. As the current study examines the impact of the Pos-Ed program on wellbeing, it can be argued that this study is a positive contribution in providing an evidence-based wellbeing program. This program addressed female adolescent wellbeing from a positive and proactive model and explicitly taught resilience skills based on evidence-based constructs aligned with

Seligman’s latest research, character strengths and virtues, gratitude, mindfulness, savouring and flow (Seligman, 2011). This is in contrast to many programs that are based on a deficit approach.

Even though positive psychology is a new science, there is a growing body of research emerging in this area, although most of the studies are based on adult samples (Gilman, et al., 2009). In the last twenty years however, efforts have been made to examine wellbeing in children and adolescents. There is research that shows positive education provides an antidote to youth depression, acts as a pathway leading to a flourishing life, promotes learning and creativity, and enhances social cohesion and a sense of civic responsibility (Seligman, et al., 2009; Waters, 2011). While the research points to providing an antidote to youth depression, these researchers are not claiming it will prevent or cure depression. This aligns with the notion of this century being one that is more focused on prevention. Positive education is a preventative approach and introduces and normalises self-inquiry and self-management of one’s mental health from a young age, which may lead to lasting benefits as adolescents move into adulthood with greater awareness and emotional intelligence (Waters, et al., 2014).

8.7 METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS

The current study has also made a number of methodological contributions to the literature. The design of the study was a methodological strength as it used a mixed-methods design (incorporating quantitative and qualitative data), which allowed for an in-depth exploration of the Pos-Ed program that may not occurred through just one method. Further, the use of focus groups provided qualitative data to provide a more detailed understanding of the effects of the program on the students. While the quantitative measure provided a more general picture of the social and emotional health of the participants, the qualitative data enabled student voices on the impact of the program to be heard. Additionally, the students contributed valuable information on the five positive psychology constructs and the impact on their wellbeing.

A notable methodological contribution arising from this study was that the five constructs that formed the Pos-Ed program are all evidence-informed. This study methodologically offers material that has been tested both quantitatively and

qualitatively. Researchers continue to call for more work to be carried out in terms of applied scientific studies on the development of positive psychology programs, as well as age-appropriate, psychometrically sound measures of positive psychology constructs for youth and the impact of whole-school programs (Gilman, et al., 2009; Green, et al., 2011; Kern, Waters, Adler, & White, 2014; Norrish & Vella-Broderick, 2009). Additionally, this study adds to the material available on covitality and its relationship to wellbeing in adolescents.

The extent of researcher involvement in the current study provided further methodological strength. As the study was undertaken in one secondary school, the researcher had control over the process of data generation to ensure its integrity. The researcher did not teach any of the students nor did it have any influence on their academic results. In working closely with the students, particularly in the focus groups, the students felt comfortable sharing their personal experiences of the program due to an already developed sense of trust and respect. This led to richer more insightful research (Patton, 1999).

8.8 LIMITATIONS

The current study faced a number of limitations. The sample was limited to one school. The researcher realised from the outset the limitation of the sample as, while the principal in consultation with the college board approved the study to occur in the school, neither was in favour of bringing on board other schools as non-control groups. The researcher searched for a way to organise a control group situation for this study but, after exploring and discussing a number of options with the principal as well as the researcher’s supervisors, the use of a control group was determined not to be feasible. The researcher was cognisant of the difficulties in finding schools willing to agree to participate in the research study, although the school where the researcher worked was willing to participate. Moreover, the concept of having a wait-list for half of the Year 8 and Year 9 students at the school over a six-month period was not viable because the principal would not approve this and, logistically, in the school situation, this would have presented difficulties with timetabling and staffing. Ultimately, the principal gave permission for the study to occur and there were conditions connected to this permission. The researcher was constricted by these limitations and had to work within certain parameters in relation to approval, even though the ‘purest’ form of experimental design is the randomised controlled

trial which requires a control group and one or more experimental groups (Greig, Taylor, & MacKay, 2013).

Furthermore, the researcher also faced the dilemma of being the moderator for both focus groups. The researcher, as deputy principal, was in a position of authority in the school and regarded as an insider as discussed in Chapter 5. While there are advantages of having an insider conduct the study, there are also challenges. In addition to being an insider, the researcher was also the author of the program, and this is why a concurrent, explanatory mixed-methods design was chosen to minimise the issue of researcher bias. The issue of bias also arose with the focus groups. The researcher chose to be the moderator of the focus groups to avoid a conflict of interest arising. Had the researcher asked one of the teachers teaching the program or the college psychologist, there could have been a conflict of interest as both the teachers and the college psychologist were involved in delivering lessons in the program, while the researcher (and the author of the program) was not involved in delivering these lessons. Another consideration is that the teachers teaching the program and the college psychologist would have direct contact either in the lessons or, for the psychologist, through clinical appointments with some of the students involved in the study. In contrast, the researcher did not have any type of working relationship with any of the students involved in the study.

An additional limitation was that the student sample consisted of all female students comprised of predominantly white, middle-class adolescents. This school was also an independent school, with the majority of students well-adjusted behaviourally. Consequently, it is not surprising that the data from the first SEHS survey revealed that this group of students entered secondary school with high levels of wellbeing, and maintained high levels of wellbeing throughout their transition year. That is, an extrapolation from this to other populations is not possible. As such, these results are not generalizable to populations other than adolescent, middle-class females. The results from the focus groups also reflect viewpoints from predominantly white, middle-class participants but nevertheless provide support for the impact of the Pos-Ed program. Further multi-method studies using the SEHS-S combined with focus groups are required to determine whether the program can be used more widely.

The longitudinal nature of the study, while desirable, was also a limitation of the study. Unlike many studies of positive psychology and adolescents which have occurred in the pilot stage or over one year, this study contributed by gathering data over a two-year period. However, the unexpected results of the Time 3 quantitative survey showing a slight downward trend for each of the four constructs as well as covitality, which raised questions that could have been answered had the study’s duration been more than two years. A longer study would have been able to reveal was whether the dip in self-esteem that occurred at the end of Year 9 returned to pre-adolescent levels after the students turned 14 years of age. This pattern of disturbance for some adolescent females has been confirmed in a number of studies (Galambos, et al., 2004; Roeser, et al., 2008). The gap in information raised questions for the researcher to ponder in terms of female adolescent development in Year 9. The researcher addressed these questions in the discussion in Chapter 6.

Finally, there was the limitation of not knowing whether the skills and strategies learnt in the program are able to be sustained over longer periods of time. While the three constructs of strengths, gratitude, and mindfulness featured strongly in both focus groups and more than half the participants were using strategies related to these constructs in their school life (and said they would use them beyond school life), there was no capacity for following these participants over a longer period of time. This longitudinal tracking would be useful as equipping students with strategies to enhance their wellbeing and develop the capacities to live well and enable social cohesion is increasingly important (Wyn, 2007).

8.9 FUTURE STUDIES

Positive psychology as a relatively new science is still in its formative stages; in particular, studies with adolescents are limited. Studies examining different samples, co-educational, and single gender schools are also limited. This study contributed to the literature available on positive psychology in an all girls’ school, and is one of only a few studies examining female adolescents. Greater benefit would be gained if more empirical studies about different groups were available, as this would assist educators contemplating using positive psychology as a basis of a wellbeing program. Future research should continue to explore the potential benefits of positive psychology programs in schools (McCabe, et al., 2011).

As the research studies suggest, using positive psychology programs to increase wellbeing is promising, but further research is needed in relation to their application with adolescent populations. It is important with the bourgeoning interest in wellbeing that empirical research and the scientific evidence it provides remains the cornerstone that supports the application of positive psychology (Norrish & Vella- Broderick, 2009). The Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools provides many examples of scientifically evaluated positive psychology programs that schools may utilise in wellbeing programs (Gilman, et al., 2009). However, many of these examples are single programs (for example, on gratitude), whereas Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) in a meta-analysis found that a ‘shotgun’ approach in which individuals practise multiple positive psychology activities might be more effective than engaging in only one activity. Such studies are scant, and while the current study is one such study, using a positive psychology program with multiple constructs, further research on programs using multiple rather than single constructs will ensure that the most advanced programs are being adopted (Van Nieuwerburgh, 2012).

Some schools such as Geelong Grammar School and Knox Grammar School in Australia and Wellington College in the United Kingdom have committed to a whole-school community approach to positive psychology, while other schools are examining smaller scale positive psychology programs. Clonan et al. (2004) suggest that no two school systems would implement positive psychology programs in the same way, as they would tailor the program to meet the particular needs of the school. Whatever approach schools adopt, there is a need for further research to support such initiatives and increase student wellbeing, and these initiatives should be empirically tested.

In addition to schools implementing programs to suit their particular needs, broader ecological influences could also be examined which could be achieved by schools engaging other groups such as parents, students, teachers, and school staff to share their perceptions of the program. This broader group could offer valuable insights which could add to the critical discussion and contribute to future directions for the program. Teacher perspectives could be particularly beneficial especially where teachers have been engaged with the program for a number of years.

Finally, future studies would benefit from taking a longitudinal approach to examining positive psychology programs. As stated in Chapter 6, with the studies currently available on positive psychology and adolescents, many were evaluated in their pilot stages, used small samples, and often were evaluated over a period of less than one year. While it may present challenges, longitudinal research on the effects of programs on adolescents for more than three years, with additional follow up study at later points in time could prove beneficial and strengthen this field of research.

8.10 A FINAL WORD

During the 20th century, psychology focused on treating illness, whereas the focus in the 21st century is prevention. In 21st century education there is a call to educate the whole student, which aligns with Seligman’s (2009) assertion that increases in wellbeing are likely to produce increases in learning. Recent evidence points to mindfulness programs, strengths-based programs, coaching programs, affect-based programs (that is, writing about positive emotions), and gratitude programs as promising ways to increase wellbeing and decrease depression in young people (Donaldson, et al., 2015). Three of these—mindfulness, strengths, and gratitude—are central to the current study. The researcher was motivated to improve the wellbeing of female adolescents by developing and empirically testing the Pos-Ed program using a proactive and preventative approach based on five evidence-based constructs.

This motivation emerged from the researcher observing increasing numbers of female adolescents struggling with anxiety and depression. As previously highlighted, the Report on the Second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey on Mental Health and Wellbeing released in 2015 revealed that one fifth (19.9%) of adolescents had very high or high levels of psychological distress, and this was almost twice as high for females (25.9%) compared with males (14.8%) (Lawrence, et al., 2015). The results of the current study revealed the Pos-Ed program to be a positive psychology program that equipped girls with skills and strategies to assist in their wellbeing. The researcher is hopeful that the students will use the strategies they have learnt in their lives beyond school, and the data from the two focus groups indicates this is already happening. With recent evidence showing that happiness and wellbeing are not static entities, but rather iterative processes that are constantly in

flux (Jongbloed & Andres, 2015), positive psychology programs provide an avenue for teaching adolescents skills to lead flourishing lives.

The researcher was buoyed by the positive way students in the focus groups talked about the Pos-Ed program. At the end of the second focus group students offered suggestions to improve the program. The researcher will use these suggestions to enhance the program in the future and is committed to interviewing larger numbers of students to further improve the program as it continues to be rolled out. With unanswered questions arising from the dip in self-esteem of the students in Year 9, the researcher will undertake to survey this same group in subsequent years (10, 11, and 12) outside of this study, and subsequently collate these results to further improve the program and understand how self-esteem is changing in these female adolescents over the course of their entire secondary school journey. In conclusion, the current longitudinal study found that the positive psychology program called the Pos-Ed program using five evidence-based constructs did assist the wellbeing of adolescent girls in their first two years of secondary school.

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Appendices

8.10.1 Appendix A: Notes of visits to schools

POSITIVE EDUCATION PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY EXPLORATION Geelong Grammar School Geelong Genazzano Catholic Girls’ College Kew FOR MSM • GGS attracted because PP is based on • School philosophy is that curriculum scientific findings and welfare are intrinsically linked and • PP science only 12 years old both are important • PP has the notion of ‘flourishing’ • Up until Gen Star program didn’t have attached to it in terms of its main any PP purpose • Adopted direct teaching of principles • Positive Psychology of Performance Psychology • ‘Positive Psychology is a branch of • Performance Psychology based on psychology founded by Martin science Seligman on the belief that people • They liaised with GGS for ideas from want more than just an antidote to PP depression. Positive Psychology • Positive Psychology- increase focuses on cultivating positive emotions and how to deal with them emotion, character traits and institutions’ • 2009 1st year of PP Performance Psychology- increase mental • 2007, 2008 planning and preparation skills to increase achievement/same skills as Sports Psychology • 2008- huge investment –Martin Performance Psychology Skills: Seligman lived on campus for 6 • Goal setting months-worked with staff/trained staff • Positive thinking (huge cost) • Relaxation • 2008-9 day training course for staff in • Reflection holidays • Mental Rehearsal • 2009-6 day training course for staff in • Personal Strengths holidays • Preparation & Rehearsal • • 2010-3 day training course for staff in Overcoming Setbacks • Teamwork & Assertiveness holidays • Sleep • 1 day resilience • Focus & Flow • I day character strengths • Personal Wellbeing • 1 day creative aspects • 2010-achieve all teaching staff trained in PP

Universities are slowly becoming Performance Psychology: interested 1. Psychological factors 1. 2 day course University of Sydney 2. Many people are held back by $650 with Dr Suzie Green MENTAL BLOCKERS 2. Melbourne University-in talks to 3. The Right Mindset is Critical for set up a PP SUCCESS 4. Performance= Preparation + Psychological Readiness

GGS- 3 ways of embedding PP: Time: 50 minutes a cycle/10 day cycle 1. Staff experience PP-training 2008: course 1. trialled new program in Year 10 2. Expectation that staff will live PP only

POSITIVE EDUCATION PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY EXPLORATION Geelong Grammar School Geelong Genazzano Catholic Girls’ College Kew FOR MSM 3. Staff teach PP skills explicitly to 2. 8 sessions per term students 3. Evaluation tool end of 2008 (pre • HODs in curriculum and post program survey tool) • Year Cos in pastoral care 4. Used text written by their So that PP is part of daily life- e.g. start Counsellor ‘Thinking Skills for lesson with a ‘mindfulness activity’ Peak Performance’ • Embedded in policies 5. Students had to purchase text • Embedded in diary 6. Home room teachers delivered program using Coaches book also written by Counsellor 7. Feedback at end of 2008 was very positive 8. Home room teachers trained by Counsellors- staff training sessions lunch and after school 9. Also used “Best of Coping’ published by ACER 10. Guest speakers organised at some points in the program

GGS PP Program Gen Star Program 1. Explicitly taught in Years 7 and Middle Years (8 sessions) Years 5-8: 10 (our Year 8 and 11 ) 1. My Strengths 2. Penn Resilience Program & Strath 2. Inspirational People Haven Program- both copyrighted 3. My Dreams to Penn University 4. Teamwork/Relationships 3. Year 7- Penn Resilience Program 5. Relaxation Skills where they teach the 7 skills of Resilience using various resources Later Years (9-12): • 60 min lessons every 2 Year 9: Mind, Body, Spirit Wellness weeks 1. Year 10: Thinking Skills for Peak 4. Year 10- Strath Haven Program Performance (use text book) • 90 minutes (2 periods) every 2. Years 11 & 12: goals and week relaxation, motivation, stress • Term 1- Introduce science of regulation, self-talk PP and skills of ‘Savouring’ • Term 2- Resilience-going deeper • Term 3-Character Strengths (family tree) • Term 4-Creativity/different experiences-mindfulness, yoga, dance, other new experiences 5. Year 11- have Focus Days 6. Year 11 & 12 –optional Co- Curricular Positive Education Experiences 4.00-5.00 pm GGS- 6 pillars of Positive Education: Gen Star = PEP program P-12 1. Positive Emotions • Strategy 2. Positive Engagement • Thinking 3. Positive Relationships • Action 4. Positive Accomplishment • Review 5. Positive Purpose 6. Positive Health Martin Seligman- 3 Life Pathways Creating a whole school program: 1. Pleasant/Good life 1. 2007- new building launched 2. Engaged Life- using character called ‘Performance Psychology

POSITIVE EDUCATION PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY EXPLORATION Geelong Grammar School Geelong Genazzano Catholic Girls’ College Kew FOR MSM strengths- in ‘flow’- extending Centre’- where the yourself counsellors/psychologists work 3. Meaningful Life- having meaning 2. 2008 Year 10 trial using the text and purpose in your ‘Unleash your potential’ life- contributing to society by 3. 2009 whole school launch of the ‘giving back’ GenStar program P-12 • PP presentation to parents Special launch with students with promotional material- bag with GenStar logo printed on it, pen, post card. Martin Seligman- currently writing new Performance Psychology book- Some changes in his thinking: • A branch of psychology to assist • Connections and relationships in life people and communities to deliver are significant peak performances • Positive Relationships also added as • A set of cognitive skill that enable being significant people to perform at THEIR BEST in any pursuit PP Resources: Gen Star Resources: 1. Positive Psychology by 1. Thinking Skills for Peak Christopher Peterson (a copy was Performance Student Book by purchased for all staff) Catherine Brandon and Clare 2. The Resilience Factor by Karen Ivens Reivich and Andrew Shatte (this 2. Thinking Skills for Peak was used in the training days)- Performance Coach’s Book by Karen is Martin Seligman’s key Catherine Brandon and Clare trainer in PP Ivens 3. The How of Happiness by Sonya Lyubomirsky 4. Celebrating Strengths by J. Eades

Role of Psychologists/Counsellors: Role of Psychologists/Counsellors: • Not intention to reduce the no of • Absolutely crucial to whole program students accessing the counsellors • Catherine Brandon one of the • Never the intention to measure this psychologists wrote the text book and • Idea to promote counsellors being student manual ‘Unleash your accessed for support for students in Potential’ practising PP • She also in-serviced staff at lunch time • Counsellors supplement PP approach and after school- for those teaching in their individual sessions with with her text students • She wrote the whole Gen Star Program for P-12 with some flexibility with her time and role • Psychologists pivotal to this program GGS- looking at tools to measure PP and Genazzano had an pre- and post-survey how students are ‘flourishing’- they used with the trial Year 10 group and were happy with results � �

8.10.2 Appendix B: Years 8 to 9 Overview of Positive Education Program 2013, 2014

TERM 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4 YEAR 8 YEAR 8 YEAR 8 YEAR 8 Positive Identity Positive Health & Positive Relationships Positive Purpose (Transitional Focus) Wellbeing • Healthy/ Positive • The Achievement • Orientation • Developing Relationships – Zone – Developing Activities positive routines strengths in self and Focus and Flow (introduce the • Increasing relationship to • Community Action vision of the MSM relaxation and others – to family/ Focus graduate- women reducing stress friends/ sporting • International/ of 5C’s & • Mental Rehearsal teams etc. National Community introduce Positive • Wellness activities • Positive Investigation education • Goal Reflections Affirmations – • Fundraising program) • Continuing individual and Organisation – • Positive approach Gratitude Journal others Background research to Study Skills and • Semester • Continuing and investigation/ Habits (including Reflection and Gratitude Journal Guest Speakers Diary usage) Review • Team Harmony and • Fundraising events • Adolescent Brain Conflict Resolution e.g., Movie Night Development – • Social Stories and • Staying on track – link to Learning Role-plays Dealing with Conference • Mindfulness setbacks • Habits of Mind – • Booster Shots – orientation and Review of Peak development Performance • Performance Workbook Psychology • Continuing Gratitude Inventory Journal • Peak Performance • Performance and Personal Psychology Strengths Inventory Review • VIA Personal • Savouring Strengths Test • Links to Year 9 (Child Version) • Goal Setting and Cultivating Inspiration • Gratitude Journal • Successful Mindsets – focussing on positive self-talk, successful time management and seeds of success • Mindfulness

TERM 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4 YEAR 9 YEAR 9 YEAR 9 YEAR 9 Positive Relationships & Positive Identity Positive Purpose Positive Health Transition (10 sessions) • Positive psychology • Positive psychology • Gratitude Diary Text- Session 6 Text Sessions 1-3 • Protective Ultimate Rehearsal Discover the Behaviours- personal • Expectations of Year /Peak Condition 9- timetables/lockers Champion Within and social safety • Intro to Character Create Your Own • Revisit Pos-Ed (KJA) Strengths- Positive Future • • Refresher at start of Melanie Boyd Case psychology Success is a Mindset year- goals, study Study • Choices Program • More information on habits, time • Cyber Safety (Brett (sex/relationships Flow and Savouring management (SLI) Lee) education) • Empathetic Learning • Help Seeker Booklet • Self Defence (Master • Positive PowerPoint Charles Birch + –Home room activity Identity- Formation • Researching team) • Positive psychology of Identity organisations who • Sexting (ACMA) PowerPoint Text- Session 7 exhibit purpose • Personal Safety (Sgt • Team Harmony and Motivational • Operation Smile + Jose) Speaker- Positive friendship dynamics Promotion of markets • Mindfulness Identity and Self- • • Volunteer Card Exercises Camp preparation Esteem (Damon • Smile video • Gratitude Diary Joseph from • Future • Character Builders) Mindfulness Planning- subject • Activities Photo Wall Project selection (SLI) • Flow • Gratitude Diary

• Savouring

8.10.3 Appendix C: Term Planner Year 8

Year: 2013 Term One Year Level: 8 POSITIVE EDUCATION PROGRAM

Date Activities 29 January WHOLE SCHOOL ASSEMBLY/ HOME ROOM INTRODUCTION 4 February • Procedure Expectations (complete from last week) • Letters from Year 9 • Introduction to key Personnel – Deputy Curriculum/Pastoral/ College Psychologist • Positive Impressions of MSM – students to write about their experiences from the first week of high school • Diary Use – How to use your Diary – Clearly go through the elements of the diary and how to effectively sue it as a study tool. • Also students can complete the Homework and Study Plan for this week in their diaries (at the back)

5 February Role Description of Class Captain Roles – vote and decide (1+) A3 poster – ‘What makes you, you? Photo montage about their identity (these can be positioned in each home room) – this can be completed for homework

13 Habits of Mind Power Point – 16 Habits of Mind – orientation and development February Wordle Creation – each home room is given 2 Habits of Mind and a creation of a Wordle is completed with similar words – this will be referred to in the Learning Conference

19 Gratitude Activity: Introduction to Gratitude Journal February Introduction to Pos-Ed program – link to music/ environment (1+) Expectations and Responsibilities in the program 21 Year 8 Learning Conference Periods 13 February 1 March Pos-Ed Pre-Test Survey – 40 minutes Homework Activity – Learning Conference Reflection – Positives/ Negatives and Improvements – feedback given to Sissi 12 March Study Skills Session – Positive Approach to Study and Skills Habits (1+) 19 March Gratitude Journal – Opening Page and 1st Activity – Grateful Moments – Goals and (1+) Dreams 20 March VIA Strengths Test – Applicability of strengths to areas/ subjects at school/community Strengths Wall Creation 26 March Performance Psychology – Session One – Discover the Champion Within (1+) Gratitude Journal – complete Grateful Moments

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8.10.4 Appendix D: Term Planner Year 9 2014 Term 1

Theme Activities Location Resources

Positive Relationships & Stepping up Together in Year 9

Tuesday Establishing a Positive Home Room Handouts: 4 February Relationship within the Ice Breaker Day 5 home room sheets 8.35 am – • Ice Breaker sheets 9.20 am and handouts • Mindfulness exercises

Thursday Swimming Introduction to Gratitude Auditorium PowerPoint – 6 February Carnival Journal Gratitude Day 6 Presentation Prayer 9A Journal 8.50 am – s (Home A5 Visual Art 9.40 am Room) Diary (Booklist item)

Friday Opening Further Engagement with Home Rooms A5 Visual Art 14 Eucharist the Gratitude Journal Diary/Gratitud February • Mindfulness e Journal Day 6 exercises

Tuesday Relationships Goal Setting Sophia Centre PowerPoint – 18 Workshop – Session 1 Goal Setting February • Goal Setting Work Day 2 Booklet Handout – 8.35 am – • Introduction to a Goal Setting 9.20 am Year 9 Group Work Booklet Theme

Monday Relationships Goal Setting Auditorium PowerPoint – 24 Workshop – Session 2 Goal Setting February • Goal Setting Work Handout – Day 6 Booklet Goal Setting 8.35 am – Work Booklet 9.40 am

Tuesday Shrove Motivational speaker on Auditorium All 4 March Tuesday Team Dynamics requirements Day 6 • Damon Joseph from provided by 8.35 am – Character Builders Character 10.05 am • characterbuilders.com.au Builders Prayer 9P Home Room Thank you 9R KJA to Group Strengths in Home provide

Room materials Gratitude Journal Students must bring their Year 8 Gratitude diaries Thursday Conflict Resolution & Auditorium PowerPoint – 13 March Team Harmony 9 conflict Day 6 • KJA to present resolution 8.35 am – Prayer 9X scenarios 9.40 am Tuesday Practical Team Building Sophia Centre Team Building 18 March Activities Booklet Day 3 • Opportunity to focus 8.35 am – on group theme & 9.20 am group strengths • Flow and engagement • Reflection – add names to strengths poster • Gratitude Journal

Friday Practical Team Building Home Rooms Team Building 21 March Activities (must clear Booklet Day 6 • Opportunity to focus space) Gratitude 8.35 am – on group theme & Journal 9.40 am group strengths • Flow and engagement • Reflection – add names to strengths poster • Gratitude Journal

Tuesday Team Harmony – Fox Sophia Centre MKE to 25 March Process Drama provide Day 2 • Flow and resources 8.35 am – engagement FOX – 9.20 am • Gratitude Journal Margaret Wild Prayer 9L and Ron Brooks Tuesday Team Harmony – Fox Sophia Centre MKE to 1 April Process Drama provide Day 3 • Flow and resources 8.35 am – engagement FOX – 9.20 am • Gratitude Journal Margaret Wild Prayer 9P and Ron Brooks Gratitude Journal Friday Pos-Ed Positive Relationships & Library SLI to provide 4 April program Stepping Up Together in materials

Day 0 P1&2 Year 9 Easter 8.35 am – 8.45 am Prayer Liturgy Gratitude 11 am Journal

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8.10.5 Appendix E: Year 8 Strengths Lesson

Introducing the 24 Character Strengths

Posted on 28. Aug, 2008 by Julia Barnard in Articles, positive psychology, strengths Positive psychologists Chris Peterson and Martin Seligman have identified 24 strengths which can be seen as character traits. All of these strengths can be developed. A great deal of research has gone into looking into these strengths and how they can benefit happiness and wellbeing. Seligman suggests that we identify our signature strengths (our top strengths) and use these regularly in our lives. You can do this by visiting the Authentic Happiness website and completing the VIA Signature Strengths questionnaire. Using your signature strengths will feel effortless as they are part of who you are.

Carrying out tasks and activities that provide you with opportunities to exercise your strengths are sure to make you feel good and give you more flow experiences. Consciously using these strengths will move you away from engaging in passive activities so frequently (e.g. watching television). The 24 strengths have been divided into groups of six distinct virtues: Wisdom and knowledge Courage Humanity Justice Temperance Transcendence

(http://makethechange.com.au/introducing-the-24-character-strengths/) VIA Strengths Test

Your character strengths are already within you, but isolating and identifying those strengths can be complicated, confusing and incredibly time-consuming. The VIA Strengths Test is designed to help you easily discover the strengths you already have and gain deeper insight into what makes you who you are. You will need to go to the following link and enter your username (email address) and password.

This survey will take approximately 30 - 40 minutes to complete. http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/Entry.aspx?rurl=http://www.authentic happiness.sas.upenn.edu/testcenter.aspx

8.10.6 Appendix F: Lesson- Year 8 Strengths Revisited Last semester in Pos-Ed, you undertook an analysis to identify your character strengths. In this session you will re-visit these strengths.

Year 8 Pos-Ed Character Strengths Revisited

Why is it important to re-visit my strengths?

The reason for this is that at our very core, we each have our own set of strengths. These strengths play an important role in our daily lives. Usually, we feel energized and satisfied when we use our strengths. In fact, research shows that our greatest successes are the result of our using our unique strengths.

Opening Activity

What is one thing that went well for you last night?

______

______

______

Why do you think it is important to share what went well?

______

______

______

Key Task 1

What Are Your Top 5 Character Strengths?

______

______

______

Key Task 2

In the space below, brainstorm all of the activities you undertake across a typical week in your life. Consider the differing roles that you play and activities you are involved in. List these in the space below. You might consider, for example, performance at school, study habits at home, participation in home room, membership in a community action network group, participation in a peer group, commitment to a sporting team, contribution to the chores at home etc.

8.10.7 Appendix G: Lesson- Year 9 Strengths Year 9 Pos-Ed Lesson: “Strengths in Teams”

Materials – • H/R Teachers to have a complete set of laminated ‘24 Character Strengths’ A4 Posters and have these posted up in their Home Room. • Post-its for laminated posters • Rough work paper (student’s own)

*Student to bring their already completed Character Strengths printout.

Children’s VIA Strengths Test done in Year 8 Pos-Ed.

(It may be wise to remind your cohort by email prior to this session. They will not be able to participate in the activity without it. *If girls have lost / not kept their Strengths Summary, they should be able to print it from their “Authentic Happiness” a/c. They can re-do it if needed prior to this session).

Activity 1 – Girls will work from their individual Character Strengths summary (Year 8 Pos-Ed).

5 girls at a time to write their name on each of the “Character Strength” posters that represent their ‘top 5 strengths’. At the end of this activity, each girl should have their name written on 5 posters. Teachers can also join in, if they are willing to share!

Once this activity is complete, H/R teacher to give a very brief summary of which are the standout strengths in the cohort.

*Please keep these in your Home Rooms as a visual reminder of student’s strengths and as a prompt for recognising when students are using their strengths.

Activity 2 – Girls to write a statement of intention about 2 of their Top 5 strengths, and how these might play out in school life.

Brainstorm possible scenarios of where their strengths may apply at school e.g., co-curricular, in class, in Pos-Ed Team Building activities (e.g., could use their strength in a particular activity, to lead the group, to help keep group spirits up, to have a go at something new, to encourage the efforts of others etc.).

Which strength will you be using? How might you use this strength? Share this within the group. Students may like to add this to Goal Setting booklet

Pos-ed Homework: Using your Gratitude Journal, complete an entry acknowledging how your top 5 strengths are a blessing in your life.

8.10.8 Appendix H: Activity Year 8 Gratitude Activity

8.10.9 Appendix I: Year 9 Gratitude Activity Year 9 Pos-Ed Term 1 14/2/14

Mindfulness Script

Take a few moments to be still. This is the end of the day, but perhaps it is the first time you’ve really sat down and stopped for a few minutes. There’s no need to judge or analyse anything, just be present in the moment and for the next few minutes, focus on this exercise. Let go of where you’ve been and what has been on your mind today. Let’s begin by closing your eyes and shifting your attention to your breathing. Breathe normally and place your hand gently on your belly. Breathing in and knowing that you’re breathing in. Breathing out and knowing that you’re breathing out. Breathe in and out as you normally would. There is no need to force it. Your lungs will fill naturally after they empty without you having to do anything. At times the mind may wander away from awareness of breathing. This is natural. When you recognise that your mind is wandering, simply acknowledge where you went and come back to breathing in and out with awareness. PAUSE: 20 secs And now, take your attention away from your breathing and shift your focus to your body. Notice any sensations of warmth, coolness, tightness, tenseness, tingling, itchiness, discomfort and neutrality. Notice how your feet feel where they come into contact with the floor. Pay attention to your toes, the bottoms of your feet and your heels. Move your awareness up your legs, feeling into your shin, calves and where your legs connect into your knees. Move upwards over your upper legs and into your hips. Notice any sensations there. Notice how your bottom and back feel against the chair that you are sitting on. Now lift your awareness up into your abdomen and tummy, and moving around, pay attention to the lower, middle and upper parts of your back. Feel any sensations that are there to be felt. Allow any tightness to soften and any tightness that’s not softening, to simply be. Let the awareness shift now to the chest, into your heart and lungs. Feeling into the ribcage as your chest rises and falls. Notice your heart beating steadily away. Moving along now, notice your fingertips, fingers and palms of your hand. Travel up your forearms and into your elbow joints. Move to your upper arms, feeling any sensations. Let the awareness move past your arms and into your shoulders, armpits and up along your neck. This is an area for many of us that we store tension. Move still further into your head. Feel into your cheeks, mouth, teeth and tongue. Notice your eye sockets and ears. Being present. Now expand your awareness to your body as a whole unit. Notice any thoughts you are having and any emotions you are feeling. PAUSE: 10 secs Expand your awareness further into this room. Open your eyes slowly. Notice what you can hear, see, smell, taste and feel. Congratulate yourself for sticking to this and having a go at focussing your attention fully for a few minutes. You will now use the remaining time to focus on your gratitude diary.

Gratitude Journal – Term 1

By now, your Gratitude Journal’s front and back cover should be decorated and you should have completed the first 3 entries.

In today’s session, we would like you to complete the following 3 pages:

1. Strengths- Write one thing you think you are good at. It can be ANYTHING. Why do you think this strength is a gratitude for you?

2. Gratitude- Design a page in your Journal with the Year 12 theme “Ignite your light.” On this page also explain how you think you might be able to embrace this theme this year.

Identify 2 people that you feel you are grateful for at this point in time and why.

3. Goals- Last year, you studied key concepts and ideas about Positive Psychology from your Textbook – Thinking Skills for Peak Performance. Write down two ways in which you think you could incorporate aspects of Positive Psychology into your life in 2014.

Some of those key terms included positive self-talk, flow, peak performance, team harmony and successful preparation etc.

Make sure you decorate all your pages and use inspirational quotes or images.

Year 9 Pos-Ed Term 1 14/2/14

Mindfulness Script

Take a few moments to be still. This is the end of the day, but perhaps it is the first time you’ve really sat down and stopped for a few minutes. There’s no need to judge or analyse anything, just be present in the moment and for the next few minutes, focus on this exercise. Let go of where you’ve been and what has been on your mind today.

Let’s begin by closing your eyes and shifting your attention to your breathing. Breathe normally and place your hand gently on your belly. Breathing in and knowing that you’re breathing in. Breathing out and knowing that you’re breathing out. Breathe in and out as you normally would. There is no need to force it. Your lungs will fill naturally after they empty without you having to do anything.

At times the mind may wander away from awareness of breathing. This is natural. When you recognise that your mind is wandering, simply acknowledge where you went and come back to breathing in and out with awareness.

PAUSE: 20 secs

And now, take your attention away from your breathing and shift your focus to your body. Notice any sensations of warmth, coolness, tightness, tenseness, tingling, itchiness, discomfort and neutrality. Notice how your feet feel where they come into contact with the floor. Pay attention to your toes, the bottoms of your feet and your heels. Move your awareness up your legs, feeling into your shin, calves and where your legs connect into your knees. Move upwards over your upper legs and into your hips. Notice any sensations there. Notice how your bottom and back feel against the chair that you are sitting on.

Now lift your awareness up into your abdomen and tummy, and moving around, pay attention to the lower, middle and upper parts of your back. Feel any sensations that are there to be felt. Allow any tightness to soften and any tightness that’s not softening, to simply be.

Let the awareness shift now to the chest, into your heart and lungs. Feeling into the ribcage as your chest rises and falls. Notice your heart beating steadily away.

Moving along now, notice your fingertips, fingers and palms of your hand. Travel up your forearms and into your elbow joints. Move to your upper arms, feeling any sensations. Let the awareness move past your arms and into your shoulders, armpits and up along your neck. This is an area for many of us that we store tension.

Move still further into your head. Feel into your cheeks, mouth, teeth and tongue. Notice your eye sockets and ears. Being present.

Now expand your awareness to your body as a whole unit. Notice any thoughts you are having and any emotions you are feeling.

Pause: 10 secs

8.10.10 Appendix J: Quantitative Survey Michael's Well Being 2014 Welcome. This survey asks about your behaviour, experiences, and attitudes related to health, wellbeing, and schooling. You do not have to answer these questions, but your answers will be very helpful in improving school and health programs. You will be able to answer whether or not you have done or experienced any of these things.

Select only one answer or each question unless told to “Mark All That Apply.”

This survey asks about things you may have done during different periods of time, such as during the past 30 days. Please pay careful attention to these time periods. Thank you for helping!

Study Title: Examining psychological wellbeing constructs in relation to student life challenges.

Investigators: Mrs Madonna Ahern Dr. Peter Boman, Prof. Mike Furlong, Ms. Rachael Dawes, Ms. Claire Pennell, Ms. Allison Stalling, Kyra Greisbach. You are invited to participate in research being conducted by Masters students at the Queensland University of Technology. The overall aim of this research is to gain an understanding of how positive traits/ ways of viewing life effect the challenges of high school. This project has been approved by the Queensland University of Technology Ethics Board, as well as the Brisbane Catholic Education Ethics Board.

What will I be asked to do? You will be asked to do the following:

1. Read this form and then sign to say that you understand what this study is about and that you agree to take part. 2. Fill in basic information about yourself at the beginning of the online/hardcopy questionnaire. 3. Complete the 30-40 minute survey, which asks you a range of questions about you and your life at school.

Who is being asked to participate? We are inviting adolescents like you, from different high schools around Queensland to participate in this study and answer questions on this survey.

What if I have concerns about completing this questionnaire? If you have concerns regarding this questionnaire, please contact one of the primary researchers using the details below. Your participation in this study is voluntary.

If for some reason you feel uncomfortable or distressed while completing this survey, please tell your teacher and you will not need to complete the survey. In this case your survey results will be destroyed and your answers will not be used.

If completing this survey causes you any distress and you need someone to talk to please seek support. Counselling can be accessed through QUT Psychology clinic which can be contacted on 3138 0999 (please mention to the receptionist that you are a research participant).

Alternatively, Lifeline can be contacted on 3250 1900 (Brisbane), 3823 9400 (Capalaba), 3624 2400 (Chermside), 3442 1500 (Logan) or their 24 hour Support Line on 13 11 14. This information is also available at the end of the survey.

What about privacy? Any information we collect from you is confidential. We do not attach any of your personal detail (such as your name) to the information you complete on this questionnaire. Individual participants will not be identifiable.

Research project supervisor: Dr. Boman: [email protected], 3138 3934

Doctoral student: Madonna Ahern [email protected]

Psychology masters students: Ms. Dawes: [email protected] Ms. Pennell: [email protected] Ms. Stalling: [email protected] Ms. Kyra Greisbach: [email protected]

Page 2 St Michael's Well Being 2014 1. What are the FIRST TWO LETTERS of your mother's FIRST name? (e.g.: Mary = "Ma"; Flora = "Fl") 2. What is the DAY of your birth? (e.g.: 25 July = "25"; 10 November = "10") 3. What is the LAST LETTER of YOUR LAST name? (e.g.: Smith = "H"; Obama = "A") 4. What is your gender? 5. How old are you? 6. What grade are you in? 7. What is your postcode? * * * * * * *   Male Female 12 13 14 15 16 17 Other, please specify 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th Page 3 St Michael's Well Being 2014 8. What is your favourite subject at school? Please Read Carefully

Bullying happens when someone hurts or scares another person on purpose and the person being bullied has a hard time defending himself or herself. Usually, bullying happens over and over. • Punching, shoving and other acts that hurt people physically • Spreading bad rumours about people • Keeping certain people out of a “group” • Teasing people in a mean way or • Getting certain people to “gang up” on other

9. Have you been bullied this month at school? 10. How often have you been bullied? (Check one) 11. Do you like reading? 12. Do you have a social network account (Facebook, Myspace, Twitter, etc.)? * * * * * Maths English History Geography PE/HPE Computers Art Legal studies Business Other, please specify No Yes Once in the past month 2 or 3 times in the past month  About once a week Several times a week No Yes No Yes Page 4 St Michael's Well Being 2014 13. What ethnicity do you primarily identify with? 14. What is your relationship status? 15. How many people live in your household including yourself? 16. Do you have a job? 17. How many hours a week do you work? 18. Do you consider yourself a spiritual person? 19. Which faith do you identify with? * * * * *   * *   Australian Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander Asian Maori South Sea Islander Other, please specify Single In a relationship 1 2 3

4 5 6 More than 6 No Yes No Yes Page 5 St Michael's Well Being 2014 20. School is a waste of time How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statement about your school? 21. (A11) I feel close to people at this school. How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statement about your school? 22. (A12) I am happy to be at this school. How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statement about your school? 23. (A13) I feel like I am part of this school. How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statement about your school? * * * * Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Disagree nor Agree Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Disagree nor Agree Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Disagree nor Agree Agree Strongly Agree Page 6 St Michael's Well Being 2014 24. (A14) The teachers at this school treat students fairly. How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statement about your school? 25. (A15) I feel safe in my school. At my school, there is a teacher or some other adult… 26. (A16) who really cares about me. At my school, there is a teacher or some other adult… 27. (A17) who tells me when I do a good job. At my school, there is a teacher or some other adult… 28. (A18) who notices when I’m not there. At my school, there is a teacher or some other adult… * * * * * Strongly Disagree Disagree

Neither Disagree nor Agree Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Disagree nor Agree Agree Strongly Agree Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Page 7 St Michael's Well Being 2014 29. (A19) who always wants me to do my best. At my school, there is a teacher or some other adult… 30. (A20) who listens to me when I have something to say. At my school, there is a teacher or some other adult… 31. (A21) who believes that I will be a success. At school… 32. (A22) I do interesting activities. At school… 33. (A23) I help decide things like class activities or rules. At school… * * * * * Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Page 8 St Michael's Well Being 2014 34. (A24) I do things that make a difference.

In the community… 35. (A 31) I am part of clubs, sports teams, church/temple, or other group activities. In the community… 36. (A32) I am involved in music, art, literature, sports, or a hobby. In the community… 37. (A33) I help other people. * * * * Not at all True  A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Page 9 St Michael's Well Being 2014 38. (A125) During the past 12 months, how would you describe the grades you mostly received in school? How much do you disagree or agree with this statement? 39. (H1) My family members really help and support one another. How much do you disagree or agree with this statement? 40. (H2) There is a feeling of togetherness in my family. How much do you disagree or agree with this statement? 41. (H3) My family really gets along well with each other. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. * * * * Mostly A's A's and B's Mostly B's B's and C's Mostly C's C's and D's Mostly D's Mostly F's Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree

Agree Strongly Agree Page 10 St Michael's Well Being 2014 42. (H4) I have a friend my age who really cares about me. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 43. (H5) I have a friend my age who talks with me about my problems. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 44. (H6) I have a friend my age who helps me when I’m having a hard time. Select the answer that best describes how much you feel that this statement is like you personally. 45. (H7) I feel bad when someone gets their feelings hurt. Select the answer that best describes how much you feel that this statement is like you personally. 46. (H8) I try to understand what other people go through. Select the answer that best describes how much you feel that this statement is like you personally. * * * * * Not at all True A Little True Petty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True  Petty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Petty Much True Very Much True Not at all Like Me Not Very Much Like Me Like Me Very Much Like Me Not at all Like Me Not Very Much Like Me Like Me Very Much Like Me Page 11 St Michael's Well Being 2014 47. (H9) I try to understand how other people feel and think. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 48. (H10) I can calm myself down when I’m really excited. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 49. (H11) I can wait for my turn to talk. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 50. (H12) I can wait for what I want. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 51. (H13) I don’t bother others when they are busy. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. * * * * * Not at all Like Me Not Very Much Like Me Like Me Very Much Like Me

Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Page 12 St Michael's Well Being 2014 52. (H14) I think before I act. Select the answer that best describes how much you have experienced this feeling “since yesterday” 53. (H15) Grateful Select the answer that best describes how much you have experienced this feeling “since yesterday” 54. (H16) Thankful Select the answer that best describes how much you have experienced this feeling “since yesterday” 55. (H50) Appreciative These words describe feelings people have. Please read each one carefully. How much do you have this feeling right now? * * * * Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Page 13 St Michael's Well Being 2014 56. (H17) Energetic These words describe feelings people have. Please read each one carefully. How much do you have this feeling right now? 57. (H18) Active These words describe feelings people have. Please read each one carefully. How much do you have this feeling right now? 58. (H51) Lively

These words describe feelings people have. Please read each one carefully. How much do you have this feeling right now? 59. (H52) Alert Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. * * * * Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Page 14 St Michael's Well Being 2014 60. (H19) When I am uncertain what will happen next, I usually expect it to be something good. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 61. (H20) I am a lucky person. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 62. (H21) Each day I look forward to having a lot of fun. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 63. (H53) I usually expect to have a good day. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 64. (H54) Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad things. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. * * * * * Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Really Untrue  Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Really Untrue Sort of Untrue

Sort of True Really True Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Page 15 St Michael's Well Being 2014 65. (H55) When things are bad, I expect them to get better. How much do you disagree or agree with this statement? 66. (H22) My life is going well. How much do you disagree or agree with this statement? 67. (H23) I would like to change many things in my life. How much do you disagree or agree with this statement? 68. (H24) I wish I had a different kind of life. How much do you disagree or agree with this statement? * * * * Really Untrue Sort of Untrue Sort of True Really True Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Mildly Disagree Mildly Agree Moderately Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Mildly Disagree Mildly Agree Moderately Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Mildly Disagree Mildly Agree Moderately Agree Strongly Agree Page 16 St Michael's Well Being 2014 69. (H25) I have a good life. How much do you disagree or agree with this statement? 70. (H56) I have what I want in life. Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. 71. (H26) Scared Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. 72. (H27) Cheerful Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. * * * * Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Mildly Disagree Mildly Agree

Moderately Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Mildly Disagree Mildly Agree Moderately Agree Strongly Agree Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Page 17 St Michael's Well Being 2014 73. (H28) Lonely Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. 74. (H30) Gloomy Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. 75. (H31) Nervous Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. 76. (H33) Happy Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. * * * * Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Page 18 St Michael's Well Being 2014 77. (H57) Upset Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. 78. (H58) Sad Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day. 79. Delighted Please rate how often you feel this emotion on a regular day.

80. Joyful Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. * * * * Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not at All A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Page 19 St Michael's Well Being 2014 81. (H34) I can work out my problems. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 82. (H35) I can do most things if I try. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 83. (H36) There are many things that I do well. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 84. (H37) There is a purpose to my life. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 85. (H38) I understand my moods and feelings. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. * * * * * Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True

A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Page 20 St Michael's Well Being 2014 86. (H39) I understand why I do what I do. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 87. (H40) When I read a book, I do not like to take breaks until I finish it. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 88. (H41) When I read a book, I do not skip any pages. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 89. (H42) When I am doing homework I like to take breaks. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 90. (H43) I often stay up late to study. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. * * * * * Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Page 21 St Michael's Well Being 2014 91. (H44) When I do not understand something, I ask the teacher again and again until I understand. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 92. (H45) I try to answer all the questions asked in class. Select the answer that best describes how true you feel that this statement is about you personally. 93. (H46) When I try to solve a math problem, I will not stop until I find a final solution.

The following section has 12 statements about how a person might feel about their school. Beside each statement there is a scale of 1 to 5. Please read each statement. If the statement is not at all true for you, select 1. If the statement is somewhat true for you, select 2. If the statement is as often as not true for you, select 3. If the statement is almost always true for you, select 4. If the statement is completely true for you, select 5. 94. People here notice when I’m good at something. * * *

* Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all True A Little True Pretty Much True Very Much True Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Page 22 St Michael's Well Being 2014 95. It is hard for people like me to be accepted here. 96. Other students in this school take my opinions seriously. 97. Most teachers at this school are interested in me. 98. Sometimes I don’t feel as if I belong here. 99. There’s at least one teacher or other adult in this school I can talk to if I have a problem. * * * * * Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true  Almost always true Completely true Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Page 23 St Michael's Well Being 2014 100. Teachers here are not interested in people like me. 101. I am included in lots of activities at this school.

102. I can really be myself at this school. 103. The teachers here respect me. 104. I wish I were in a different school. * * * * * Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true Page 24 St Michael's Well Being 2014 105. Other students here like me the way I am. The next section of questions list of some ways that you might have felt or behaved. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week.

106. I was bothered by things that usually don’t bother me. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week.

107. I did not feel like eating; my appetite was poor. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week.

108. I felt that I could not shake off the blues, even with help from my family or friends. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week.

109. I felt I was just as good as other people. * * * * * Not at all true Somewhat true As often as not true Almost always true Completely true

Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Page 25 St Michael's Well Being 2014 Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 110. I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week.

111. I felt depressed. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week.

112. I felt that everything I did was an effort. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week.

113. I felt hopeful about the future.

114. I thought my life had been a failure. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. * * * * * Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Page 26 St Michael's Well Being 2014 115. I felt fearful.

Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 116. My sleep was restless. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 117. I was happy. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 118. I talked less than usual. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 119. I felt lonely. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. * * * * * Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days)  Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Page 27 St Michael's Well Being 2014 120. People were unfriendly. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 121. I enjoyed life. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 122. I had crying spells. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 123. I felt sad. Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. 124. I felt that people disliked me Mark how often you have felt this way during the past week. * * * * * Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days)

Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days)  Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Page 28 St Michael's Well Being 2014 125. I could not get “going.” The questions in this scale ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. In each case, you will be asked to indicate by circling how often you felt or thought a certain way. 126. In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly? 127. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life? 128. In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and “stressed” * * * * Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) Most or all of the time (5-7 days) Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Page 29 St Michael's Well Being 2014 129. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal problems? 130. In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way? 131. In the last month, how often have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to do? 132. In the last month, how often have you been able to control irritations in your life? 133. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things? * * * * *

Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Page 30 St Michael's Well Being 2014 134. In the last month, how often have you been angered because of things that were outside of your control? 135. In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them? 136. I accept responsibility for my actions. 137. When I make a mistake I admit it. 138. I can deal with being told no. For the following six questions, spirituality is defined as one’s relationship to God, or whatever you perceive to be Ultimate Transcendence. * * * * * Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Never Almost Never Sometimes Fairly Often Very Often Not at all Like Me Not Very Much Like Me Like Me Very Much Like Me Not at all Like Me Not Very Much Like Me Like Me Very Much Like Me Not at all Like Me

Not Very Much Like Me Like Me Very Much Like Me Page 31 St Michael's Well Being 2014 139. In terms of the questions I have about life, my spirituality answers. 140. Growing spiritually is: * * 0 = No Questions  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 = Absolutely all my questions  0 = Not important to me  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 = More important than anything else Page 32 St Michael's Well Being 2014 141. When I am faced with an important decision, my spirituality… 142. Spirituality is… * * 0 = Plays absolutely no role  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 = Is always the overriding consideration  0 = Not part of my life  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 = The master motive of my life, directing every other aspect of my life

Page 33 St Michael's Well Being 2014 143. When I think of the things that help me to grow and mature as a person, my spirituality… 144. My spiritual beliefs affect… * * 0 = Has no effect on my personal growth  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 = Is absolutely the most important factor in my personal growth  0 = No aspect of my life  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 = Absolutely every aspect of my life 

8.10.11 Appendix K: Consent Form THIS FORM MUST BE RETURNED TO THE HOME ROOM TEACHER ONCE COMPLETED *** PARENT AND STUDENT – CONSENT FORM FOR QUT

RESEARCH PROJECT “The relationship between positive psychological wellbeing and adolescent mental health.” QUT Ethics Approval Number 1100001523 RESEARCH TEAM CONTACTS School of Cultural & Professional Madonna Ahern Learning [email protected] 3858422 School of Psychology and Claire Pennell Counselling [email protected] School of Psychology and Allison Stalling Counselling [email protected] School of Psychology and Kyra Greisbach Counselling [email protected] Dr Amanda School of Cultural & Professional Mergler Learning [email protected] 3138 3308 School of Cultural & Professional Dr Peter Boman Learning [email protected] 3138 3934 STATEMENT OF PARENT CONSENT By signing below, you are indicating that you: • Have read and understood the information document regarding this project. • Have had any questions answered to your satisfaction. • Understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research team. • Understand that your child is free to withdraw at any time, without comment or penalty. • Understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Unit on 3138 5123 or email [email protected] if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the project. • Understand that non-identifiable data collected in this project may be used as comparative data in future projects. • Agree for my child to participate in the project. Parent’s Name Parent’s Signature Date STATEMENT OF STUDENT CONSENT Your parent or guardian has given their permission for you to be involved in this research project. This form is to seek your consent to participate in the research. By signing below, you are indicating that you: • Have read and understood the information about this project. • Have discussed the project with your parent/guardian. • Have had any questions answered to your satisfaction. • Understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research team. • Understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or penalty. • Understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Unit on 3138 5123 or email [email protected] if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the project. • Agree to participate in the project. Student’s Name Student’s Signature Date

8.10.12 Appendix L: Principal’s Approval

12 February 2012

Mrs M Ahern

Dear Donna

I am happy to confirm my approval for you to conduct a study evaluating the Positive Psychology program of adolescent female students at the College. This study involves students at the College in 2013 and 2014.

As you are aware the transition of students to secondary school is a very important aspect of the commencement of our school year, and the students’ continued wellbeing is also of the highest importance.

Donna, I would like to wish you success for your project and I look forward to discussing the findings of your research.

Sincerely

Alison Terrey Principal

8.10.13 Appendix M: Focus Group 1- Information and Consent Form

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION FOR QUT RESEARCH PROJECT

– Focus group – “The relationship between positive psychological wellbeing and adolescent mental health.” QUT Ethics Approval Number 1100001523

Principal Madonna Ahern–Student–Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Researcher: Associate Dr Peter Boman and Dr Amanda–School of Cultural Professional Learning– Researchers: Faculty of Education–QUT RESEARCH TEAM

DESCRIPTION This project is being undertaken as part of an Educational Doctorate project by Madonna Ahern who is examining the relationship between positive psychological well-being and adolescent mental health. The first part of the project was a survey in which most Year 8 students have already participated. The second part of the project will involve focus group interviews that will provide in-depth qualitative data. The generation of this data is part of a seven phase study over 2.5 years.

The purpose of this project is to be able to combine the findings of the focus groups with the quantitative survey data to examine the impact of the Positive Psychology program in the transition and following year of secondary school

We would value your child’s input into this valuable project, which in the long term aims to influence future work with Australian adolescents. The information that you can provide will enable us to develop a greater level of insight into the relationship between positive psychological wellbeing and the ability to cope with the challenges of secondary school studies. If you and your child’s consent are gained, your child will participate in the focus groups over two years. Your child will only be asked to participate in one of the two focus groups over this time. The results of the focus groups combined with the results from the surveys will enable the researcher to measure the effectiveness of the school’s Positive Education Well-being Program known as Pos-Ed. PARTICIPATION Your child’s involvement will consist of participation in an audio recorded 50 minute Focus Group which will occur in school time. Your child will be asked to answer questions and be involved in discussion about the Pos-Ed program. Questions will include:

1. What parts of the Pos-Ed program do you think have helped you in relation to your wellbeing? 2. What parts of the Pos-Ed program do you think are the least useful to you in relation to your wellbeing? 3. How has the Pos-Ed program helped or not helped you- personally? Please note that if your child arrives late it may not be possible for them to participate. In addition to gaining permission for your child to participate in the Focus Group, both you and your child will be asked to sign a consent form before the Focus Group occurs. In order for your child to participate in the Focus Group, the consent form needs to be signed and

returned by Friday 25 October 2013. If you agree for your child to participate they do not have to participate if they become uncomfortable during the Focus Group discussion. Your child’s participation in this project is entirely voluntary. If you do agree for your child to participate you can withdraw from the project without comment or penalty. If you withdraw, on request any identifiable information already obtained from you will be destroyed. Your decision for your child to participate or not participate will in no way impact upon your current or future relationship with the school (for example your grades) or QUT. EXPECTED BENEFITS It is expected that this project will not benefit you or your child directly. However, it may benefit future students at the school by enabling the development of a deeper understanding of the concept of positive psychological wellbeing. The examination of the above psychological relationships will also enable Mt St Michael’s Positive Education Wellness Program to be assessed for its effectiveness in building positive psychological strengths and enable the program to be revised accordingly. RISKS There are minimal risks associated with participation in this project. These include the possibility that your child may become concerned or distressed by the discussion in the Focus Group. As your child’s participation is voluntary they are under no obligation to answer all questions or be involved in the entire discussion. Your child may withdraw from the Focus Group at any time. Should your child become upset during the Focus Group it is recommended that they seek counselling. In the first instance counselling should be sought from school counselling services. PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY All comments and responses will be treated confidentially unless required by law. The names of individual persons are not required in any of the responses. The Focus Group will be audio recorded. The audio recordings will not be used for any other purpose and will be destroyed at the end of the project in 2014. The researcher and the person involved in the transcribing will be the only 2 people who will have access to the audio recording. CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE Submission of the completed parent consent form will be taken as permission for your child to participate in this research. In addition your child will be asked to give their consent to participate in the Focus Group prior to the day the Focus Group will occur. QUESTIONS / FURTHER INFORMATION ABOUT THE PROJECT If have any questions or require further information please contact one of the research team members below. Dr Peter Boman Dr Amanda Mergler 3138 3934 [email protected] 3138 3308 [email protected] CONCERNS / COMPLAINTS REGARDING THE CONDUCT OF THE PROJECT QUT is committed to research integrity and the ethical conduct of research projects. However, if you do have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the project you may contact the QUT Research Ethics Unit on 3138 5123 or email [email protected]. The QUT Research Ethics Unit is not connected with the research project and can facilitate a resolution to your concern in an impartial manner. Thank you for helping with this research project. Please keep this sheet for your information.

CONSENT FORM FOR QUT RESEARCH PROJECT

– Focus group – “The relationship between positive psychological wellbeing and adolescent mental health.” QUT Ethics Approval Number 1100001523

Madonna Ahern School of Cultural and Professional Learning [email protected] 3858 4222 Dr Peter Boman School of Cultural and Professional Learning [email protected] 3138 3934 Dr Amanda Mergler School of Cultural and Professional Learning [email protected] 3138 3308 RESEARCH TEAM CONTACTS STATEMENT OF PARENT CONSENT By signing below, you are indicating that you: • Have read and understood the information document regarding this project. • Have had any questions answered to your satisfaction. • Understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research team. • Understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or penalty. • Understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Unit on 3138 5123 or email [email protected] if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the project. • Have discussed the project with your child and what is required of them if participating. • Understand that the project will include an audio recording. • Agree for your child to participate in the project.

Parent’s Name

Signature

Date

STATEMENT OF STUDENT CONSENT Your parent or guardian has given their permission for you to be involved in this research project. This form is to seek your consent to participate in the research. By signing below, you are indicating that you: • Have read and understood the information about this project. • Have discussed the project with your parent/guardian. Have had any questions answered to your satisfaction. • Understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research team. • Understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or penalty. • Understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Unit on 3138 5123 or email [email protected] if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the project. • Understand that the project will include an audio recording. • Agree to participate in the project.

Name

Signature

Date

8.10.14 Appendix N: Focus Group 2- Information and Consent Form

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION FOR QUT RESEARCH PROJECT

– Focus group – “The relationship between positive psychological wellbeing and adolescent mental health” QUT Ethics Approval Number 1100001523

Principal Madonna Ahern–Student–Queensland University of Technology Researcher: (QUT) Associate Dr Peter Boman and Dr Amanda Mergler–School of Cultural Researchers: Professional Learning–Faculty of Education–QUT

RESEARCH TEAM

DESCRIPTION This project is being undertaken by Madonna Ahern as part of a Doctor of Education degree at QUT, under the supervision of Dr Peter Boman and Dr Amanda Merger. Madonna Ahern is examining the relationship between positive psychological wellbeing and adolescent mental health in relation to their involvement in the school’s Positive education program known as the Pos-Ed. The first part of the project was a survey in which most Year 8 students have already participated. The second part of the project will involve focus group interviews that will provide in-depth qualitative data.

It is hoped that the project will be useful to the school as it improves the Pos-Ed program. The purpose of this project is to be able to combine the findings of the focus groups with the survey data to examine the effectiveness of the Pos-Ed program in Year 8 and 9.

We would value your child’s input into this valuable project, which in the long term aims to influence future work with adolescents to enhance their wellbeing. The information that you can provide will enable us to develop a greater level of insight into the relationship between positive psychological wellbeing and the ability to cope with the challenges of secondary school studies. If you and your child’s consent are gained, your child will participate in the focus groups either at the beginning or end of Year 9. Your child will only be asked to participate in one of the two focus groups at either of these times. The results of the focus groups combined with the results from the surveys will enable the researcher to measure the effectiveness of the school’s Pos-Ed program. The results will also contribute to improving the Pos-Ed program in the school.

PARTICIPATION Your child’s involvement will consist of participation in an audio recorded 50 minute Focus Group which will occur in normal Pos-Ed class time. Your child will be asked to answer questions and be involved in discussion about the Pos-Ed program. Questions will include:

4. What parts of the Pos-Ed program do you think have helped you in relation to your wellbeing? 5. What parts of the Pos-Ed program do you think are the least useful to you in relation to your wellbeing? 6. How has the Pos-Ed program helped or not helped you personally?

Please note that if your child arrives late it may not be possible for them to participate.

If you give permission for your child to participate in the Focus Group, both you and your child will be asked to sign the attached consent form before the Focus Group occurs. In order for your child to participate in the Focus Group, the consent form needs to be signed and returned by Monday 10 February 2014. If you agree for your child to participate they do not have to participate if they become uncomfortable during the Focus Group discussion.

Your child’s participation in this project is entirely voluntary. If you do agree for your child to participate you can withdraw from the project without comment or penalty. Your decision for your child to participate or not participate will in no way impact upon your current or future relationship with the school (for example your grades) or QUT.

EXPECTED BENEFITS It is expected that this project will not benefit you or your child directly although their involvement in the program is expected to benefit their personal development and wellness. However, it may benefit future students at the school by enabling further development of the Pos-Ed program. That is, the Pos-Ed program can be assessed for its effectiveness in building positive psychological strengths and enable the program to be revised accordingly. To compensate your daughter for her willingness to be involved in the project, she will receive a movie voucher to the value of $15.

RISKS There are minimal risks associated with participation in this project. These include the possibility that your child may become concerned or distressed by the discussion in the Focus Group. As your child’s participation is voluntary they are under no obligation to answer all questions or be involved in the entire discussion. Your child may withdraw from the Focus Group at any time. Should your child become upset during the Focus Group it is recommended that they seek counselling. It is unlikely that your daughter will become concerned or anxious during the focus groups as there will be no discussion of sensitive material.

If however your daughter does become distressed the researcher will offer counselling from the College psychologist.

PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY All comments and responses will be treated confidentially unless required by law. The names of individual persons are not required in any of the responses.

The Focus Group will be audio recorded. The audio recordings will not be used for any other purpose and will be destroyed at the end of the project in 2014. The researcher and the person involved in the transcribing will be the only two people who will have access to the audio recording.

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE Submission of the completed parent consent form will be taken as permission for your child to participate in this research. In addition your child will be asked to give their consent to participate in the Focus Group prior to the day the Focus Group will occur.

Should you give permission for your daughter to participate then withdraw this consent, this will need to be in writing to the researcher.

QUESTIONS / FURTHER INFORMATION ABOUT THE PROJECT If have any questions or require further information please contact one of the research team members below.

Dr Peter Boman Dr Amanda Mergler 3138 3934 [email protected] 3138 3308 [email protected]

Madonna Ahern 38584222 [email protected]

CONCERNS / COMPLAINTS REGARDING THE CONDUCT OF THE PROJECT QUT is committed to research integrity and the ethical conduct of research projects. However, if you do have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the project you may contact the QUT Research Ethics Unit on 3138-5123 or email [email protected]. The QUT Research Ethics Unit is not connected with the research project and can facilitate a resolution to your concern in an impartial manner.

Thank you for helping with this research project. Please keep this sheet for your information.

CONSENT FORM FOR QUT RESEARCH PROJECT

– Focus group – “The relationship between positive psychological wellbeing and adolescent mental health.” QUT Ethics Approval Number 1100001523 RESEARCH TEAM CONTACTS Madonna Ahern School of Cultural and Professional Learning [email protected] 3858 4222 Dr Peter Boman School of Cultural and Professional Learning [email protected] 3138 3934 Dr Amanda Mergler School of Cultural and Professional Learning [email protected] 3138 3308 STATEMENT OF PARENT CONSENT By signing below, you are indicating that you: • Have read and understood the information document regarding this project. • Have had any questions answered to your satisfaction. • Understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research team. • Understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or penalty. • Understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Unit on 3138 5123 or email [email protected] if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the project. • Have discussed the project with your child and what is required of them if participating. • Understand that the project will include an audio recording. • Agree for your child to participate in the project.

Parent’s Name

Signature

Date

STATEMENT OF STUDENT CONSENT Your parent or guardian has given their permission for you to be involved in this research project. This form is to seek your consent to participate in the research. By signing below, you are indicating that you: • Have read and understood the information about this project. • Have discussed the project with your parent/guardian. Have had any questions answered to your satisfaction. • Understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research team. • Understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or penalty. • Understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Unit on 3138 5123 or email [email protected] if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the project. • Understand that the project will include an audio recording. • Agree to participate in the project.

Name

Signature

Date

8.10.15 Appendix O: Parent Letter- Focus Group 1

30 January 2014

Dear Parent/Guardian We are asking for permission for your daughter to participate in a focus group interview that is an extension of the original survey that they completed for the assessment of the [xxxx] Positive Education (Pos-Ed) Wellness Program. This research has been approved by the Principal. A focus group interview can be defined as a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members. The focus group interview with your daughter will comprise a small group of 6 students and they will be invited to share their perceptions and views about the Pos-Ed program that they have been involved in. The questions asked will be general questions designed to generate discussion among the students. There will be 2 focus groups: one in February 2014 and one in November 2014. I will be the moderator of the focus group and I do not teach any of the girls in the focus group interview and do not have anything to do with their academic results. Participation is voluntary and your daughter will not be disadvantaged in any way if they choose not to participate. Should students choose to participate and become uncomfortable at any time during the focus group, they will be free to leave. The focus group session will take place in the conference room in the Mary Aikenhead Centre. This is a quiet area away from mainstream classrooms where students will feel comfortable to share their views of the Pos-Ed program that they experienced in Year 8. The focus group interview will take one lesson only and will occur in Pos-Ed time, and will in no way disadvantage students in regard to their classes for the day. The purpose of the focus group interview will be to gather information from the students’ perspectives to assist the moderator and the school to improve the program. It is anticipated that future students will benefit from the evaluation and subsequent enhancement of the Pos-Ed program. Students who agree to volunteer for the focus group interview will be rewarded with a movie voucher. An Information & Consent Form is attached for you to complete and return. If you have any questions please feel free to contact me on 3858422. Regards Madonna Ahern Deputy Principal

8.10.16 Appendix P: Parent Letter Focus Group 2

7 November 2014

Dear Parent/Guardian Your daughter was involved in a focus group interview early this year and I are asking for permission for your daughter to participate in a second focus group interview In November this year. My supervisor has suggested that using the same participants in the second focus group would be more beneficial than asking six different students. This research has been approved by the Principal and is part of the evaluation of our Pos-Ed program. A focus group interview can be defined as a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members. The focus group interview with your daughter will comprise a small group of six students and they will be invited to share their perceptions and views about the Pos-Ed program that they have been involved in. The questions asked will be general questions designed to generate discussion among the students. I will be the moderator of the focus group and I do not teach any of the girls in the focus group interview and do not have anything to do with their academic results. Participation is voluntary and your daughter will not be disadvantaged in any way if they choose not to participate. Should students choose to participate and become uncomfortable at any time during the focus group, they will be free to leave. The focus group session will take place in the conference room in the [xxxx] Centre. This is a quiet area away from mainstream classrooms where students will feel comfortable to share their views of the Pos-Ed program that they experienced in Year 8. The focus group interview will take one lesson only and will occur in Pos-Ed time (Tuesday 18 November), and will in no way disadvantage students in regard to their classes for the day. The purpose of the focus group interview will be to gather information from the students’ perspectives to assist the moderator and the school to improve the program. It is anticipated that future students will benefit from the evaluation and subsequent enhancement of the Pos-Ed program. Students who agree to volunteer for the focus group interview will be rewarded with a movie voucher. An Information & Consent Form is attached for you to complete and return. If you have any questions please feel free to contact me on 3858422. Regards Madonna Ahern Deputy Principal