Applying the Conservation Evidence Database to

Wild Animal Welfare

Author: Jane​ Capozzelli

Introduction

One of Wild Animal Initiative’s foundational questions is: “what can we do to improve the welfare of wild animals?” (Wild Animal Initiative 2019). Currently, we are reviewing and summarizing relevant literature from restoration and conservation ecology, as these fields often evaluate the impacts and effectiveness of wildlife interventions. Even if conservation ecologists are not necessarily value-aligned with animal welfare advocates (e.g. diversity​ is good - Soulé 1985, Driscoll and Watson 2019; ​ but see Dubois and Fraser 2013 and Beausoleil et al. 2018), impact assessments from conservation are still useful to wild animal welfare (Rowe 2019). Reviews of conservation evidence increase our understanding of the outcomes of interventions in nature and enables us to apply these interventions to welfare causes.

One such conservation database is the ​Conservation Evidence Project​, which has evaluated over

5,400 conservation interventions and compiled synopses on what works and what doesn’t to achieve

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certain conservation goals. The synopses summarize scientific evidence relevant to conservation objectives and assess the effectiveness of interventions based on the available evidence, including if no evidence has been found. The Conservation Evidence Project also publishes an annual summary, What​

Works in Conservation (Sutherland et al. 2018). ​ These synopses combine the results of research projects that carried out the intervention as part of the study design and quantitatively monitored the effects of the intervention. Reviews and meta-analyses are also included. However, predictive modelling or correlative studies (e.g. surveys of species distributions in areas with long-standing management histories) are not. The advantage to this approach is that the synopses are based on direct, causal relationships between the intervention and the observed conservation outcomes (Sutherland et al. 2018). The disadvantage is that a large body of possible evidence is excluded, since observational studies provide reliable data that confirm ecological phenomenon in real-world settings and complement causative experiments (Sagarin and Pauchard 2010).

The Conservation Evidence Project acknowledges that their database is just one tool in the decision-making process, and encourages researchers to consult more comprehensive systematic reviews, such as those compiled by the Centre for Evidence-Based Conservation and the Collaboration for

Environmental Evidence (Sutherland et al. 2018).

To integrate the Conservation Evidence database with wild animal welfare, we highlight the interventions which overtly change the lives of animals, such as those which alter movement, feeding, or reproductive behavior or control competition and predation. Most of the summarized research measures the effects on species diversity, abundance, or population size. Reproductive success, body condition, or behavior are evaluated less frequently, which appears to reflect a limitation within the conservation and restoration literature (Cooke and Suski 2008, Cooke et al. 2013). Research on wild animal welfare can

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address this knowledge gap by targeting interventions to these understudied areas (Dawkins 2008,

Beausoleil et al. 2018).

We also re-evaluate the interventions from the Conservation Evidence database from a welfare-oriented perspective to illustrate how conservation evidence can inform predictions of the primary and non-target effects on welfare. Target effects are the direct effect on the welfare of the focal species or individuals and non-target effects refer to the welfare impacts on other animals in the ecosystem. The outcomes on conservation targets are given in the online synopses, which are linked to when available. We also incorporate the conservation evidence into Wild Animal Initiative’s interventions classification system (forthcoming in 2019) to further build our capacity to conduct welfare interventions in the future. Overall, we find that conservationists and welfare advocates may emphasize different potential effects and trade-offs when evaluating environmental problems, yet the different approaches may or may not, in practice, change the intervention actions.

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Highlighted Interventions

Amphibian Conservation target: reduce predation by other species Conservation Welfare target Improve amphibian welfare by reducing predation by other species Welfare mechanism remove threats/risks Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Remove or control fish by ● avoids amphibian ● long, painful death for fish predators drying out ponds deaths ● deaths of other aquatic animals (​synopsis​) ● may increase deaths ● alters food web by removing aquatic of amphibian eggs top predator and larvae Remove or control fish by ● avoids amphibian ● short, painful death for fish catching (​synopsis​) deaths ● alters food web by removing aquatic top predator Remove or control ● avoids amphibian ● increases amphibian deaths without invasive bullfrogs deaths assessing control method (​synopsis​) ● increases deaths/ ● releases resources by removing highly risks to one competitive species amphibian species ● alters food web by removing aquatic predator Remove or control ● avoids amphibian ● increases snake deaths without invasive snakes (​synopsis​) deaths assessing control method ● alters food web by removing terrestrial mesopredators Remove or control ● avoids amphibian ● increases mammal deaths without mammals (​synopsis​) deaths assessing control method ● alters food web by removing terrestrial mesopredators Remove or control fish ● avoids amphibian ● long, painful death to fish using Rotenone​​ (​synopsis​) deaths ● deaths of other aquatic animals ● may increase deaths ● alters food web by removing aquatic of amphibian eggs meso- and top predators and larvae

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Exclude fish with barriers ● avoids amphibian ● alters food web by partially removing (​synopsis​) deaths aquatic meso- and top predators Encourage aquatic plant ● avoids amphibian ● decreases food availability for fish growth as refuge against deaths ● creates habitat for species that prefer fish predation dense vegetation while removing habitat for species that prefer less vegetation Remove or control ● avoids amphibian ● increases crustacean deaths without non-native crayfish deaths assessing control method ● releases resources by removing highly competitive species

Amphibian Conservation target: reduce competition with other species Conservation Welfare target Improve amphibian welfare by reducing competition with other species Welfare mechanism remove threats/risks Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Reduce competition from ● avoids amphibian ● releases resources by removing highly native amphibians deaths competitive species (​synopsis​) ● increase amphibian body condition ● increases deaths/risks to other amphibian species Remove or control ● avoids amphibian ● releases resources by removing highly invasive Cuban tree frogs deaths competitive species (​synopsis​) ● increase amphibian body condition ● increases deaths/risks to one amphibian species Remove or control ● avoids amphibian ● releases resources by removing highly invasive cane toads deaths competitive species

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● increases ● reduces deaths to predators which eat deaths/risks to one cane toads amphibian species

Bat Conservation Conservation target: reduce interactions with exotic plants, animals, and pathogens Welfare target Improve bat welfare by reducing interactions with exotic organisms Welfare mechanism remove threats/risks Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Remove invasive plants ● avoids bat deaths ● increases aerial insect abundances (​synopsis​) ● increases predation of aerial insects by ● increases bat body bats condition Translocate to ● avoids bat deaths ● alters food web by adding a new predator-free or predator to the community ● increase risks to disease-free areas ● interferes with bats’ normal behaviors translocated bats (​synopsis​) ● alters disease dynamics by adding a new host for pathogens to a community Control invasive predators ● avoids bat deaths ● increases deaths of predators without assessing control method ● alters food web by removing predators

Bat Conservation Conservation target: increase habitat suitability Welfare target Improve bat welfare by increasing habitat suitability Welfare mechanism providing resources (e.g. food and shelter) Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Leave bat roosts, roost ● avoids bat deaths ● increases normal behavior of other entrances, and commuting light-sensitive animals ● increases ability for routes unlit (​synopsis​) ● alters amount of predation of flying bats to perform insects by bats normal behaviors Use low intensity lighting ● increases ability for ● increases normal behavior of other (​synopsis​) bats to perform light-sensitive animals normal behaviors ● alters amount of predation of flying insects by bats

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Provide artificial roost ● increases ability for ● alters food web by adding or structures for bats bats to perform increasing the number of bat (​synopsis​) normal behaviors predators in the community

Restrict timing of lighting ● increases ability for ● alters amount of predation of flying bats to perform insects by bats normal behaviors ● increases normal behavior of other light-sensitive animals

Use low pressure sodium ● increases ability for ● alters amount of predation of flying lamps or UV filters bats to perform insects by bats normal behaviors ● increases normal behavior of other light-sensitive animals

Impose noise limits in ● increases ability for ● alters amount of predation of flying proximity to roosts and bat bats to perform insects by bats habitats normal behaviors ● increases normal behavior of other light-sensitive animals

Bird Conservation Conservation target: reduce predation by other species Welfare target Improve bird welfare by reducing predation by other species Welfare mechanism remove risks/threats Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Remove or control ● avoids bird deaths ● increases mammalian deaths without mammalian predators on assessing control method islands (​synopsis​) Reduce predation by ● avoids bird deaths ● alters food webs by adding new translocating predators predators or increasing the number of (​synopsis​) predators in communities Control predators not on ● avoids bird deaths ● increases predator deaths without islands (​synopsis​) assessing control method ● increases ● alters food webs by decreasing deaths/risks to predator abundances in communities raptor and corvid predators

Bird Conservation Conservation target: reduce incidental bird mortality during predator eradication or control

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Welfare target Improve bird welfare by reducing incidental bird mortality during predator eradication or control Welfare mechanism remove risks/threats Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Distribute bait using ● avoids bird deaths ● kills fewer predators dispensers (​synopsis​) ● no effect: do birds take bait designed for pest control? (​synopsis​) Use colored baits to reduce ● avoids bird deaths ● kills fewer predators accidental mortality during ● predator control (​synopsis​) no effect: do birds take bait designed for pest control? (​synopsis​) Use repellents on baits ● avoids bird deaths ● kills fewer predators (​synopsis​) ● no effect: do birds take bait designed for pest control? (​synopsis​)

Bird Conservation Conservation target: reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas Welfare target Improve juvenile bird welfare by reducing nest predation Welfare mechanism remove risks/threats Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Physically protect nests ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters food web by shifting predation from predators using deaths to non-bird species non-electric fencing (​synopsis​) ● increases avian ● interferes with normal behavior of deaths: can nest predators protection increase ● increases risks to predators nest abandonment? (​synopsis​); can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks? (​synopsis​)

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Physically protect nests ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters food web by shifting predation with individual deaths to non-bird species exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks ● increases avian ● interferes with normal behavior of (synopses #1​​ , ​#2​, ​#3​, ​#4​) deaths: can nest predators protection increase ● increases risks to predators nest abandonment? (​synopsis​); can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks? (​synopsis​) Protect bird nests using ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters food web by shifting predation electric fencing (​synopsis​) deaths to non-bird species

● increases bird ● interferes with normal behavior of deaths: can nest predators protection increase ● increases risks to predators nest abandonment? (​synopsis​); can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks? (​synopsis​) Use artificial nests that ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters food web by shifting predation discourage predation deaths to non-bird species (​synopsis​) Guard nests to prevent ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters food web by shifting predation predation (​synopsis​) deaths to non-bird species

● interferes with ● interferes with normal behavior of normal behavior of predators birds ● increases risks to predators ● increases bird deaths: can nest protection increase nest abandonment? (​synopsis​); can nest protection increase predation of adults

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and chicks? (​synopsis​) Protect nests from ants ● avoids juvenile bird ● increases deaths of ants and other (​synopsis​) deaths small animals by sticky traps

● increases risks to ants and other insects from chemical repellents Use multiple barriers to ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters food web by shifting predation protect nests (​synopsis​) deaths to non-bird species

● increases bird ● interferes with normal behavior of deaths: can nest predators protection increase ● increases risks to predators nest abandonment? (​synopsis​); can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks? (​synopsis​) Use naphthalene​​ to deter ● avoids juvenile bird ● interferes with normal behavior of mammalian predators deaths predators (​synopsis​) ● decreases body ● alters food web by shifting predation condition to non-bird species ● increases insect deaths

Use snakeskin to deter ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters food web by shifting predation mammalian nest predators deaths to non-bird species (​synopsis​) Play spoken-word radio ● avoids juvenile bird ● interferes with normal behavior of programs to deter deaths predators predators ● interferes with ● alters food web by shifting predation normal behavior of to non-bird species birds Use “cat curfews” to reduce ● avoids juvenile bird ● interferes with normal behavior of predation deaths outdoor cats

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Use lion dung to deter ● avoids juvenile bird ● interferes with normal behavior of domestic cats deaths outdoor cats

● alters food web by shifting predation to non-bird species Use mirrors to deter nest ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters food web by shifting predation predators deaths to non-bird species

● interferes with normal predator behavior Use ultrasonic devices to ● avoids juvenile bird ● interferes with normal behavior of deter cats deaths outdoor cats ● alters food web by shifting predation to non-bird species

Bird Conservation Conservation target: reduce bird mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behavior Welfare target Improve bird welfare by decreasing predation by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behavior Welfare mechanism remove risks/threats Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Reduce predation by ● avoids bird deaths ● alters food web by shifting predation translocating nest boxes to non-bird species ● (​synopsis​) increases risks to birds by moving birds’ nests Use collar-mounted ● avoids bird deaths ● alters food web by shifting predation devices to reduce predation to non-bird species (​synopsis​) ● interferes with normal predator behavior Use supplementary feeding ● avoids bird deaths ● alters the food web by of predators to reduce increasing/decreasing predation ● increases bird deaths predation (​synopsis​) pressure on other species by attracting predators Use aversive conditioning ● avoids bird deaths ● alters food web by shifting predation to reduce nest predation to non-bird species (synopses #1​​ , ​#2​)

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● interferes with normal predator behavior

Bird Conservation Conservation target: reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites Welfare target Improve juvenile bird welfare by reducing competition with other species for food and nest sites Welfare mechanism remove risks/threats Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects Reduce inter-specific ● avoids bird deaths ● increases deaths of competitive competition for food by species without assessing control ● increases bird body removing or controlling method competitor species condition ● releases resources by removing highly (​synopsis​) ● increases risks to the competitive species bird competitor species Protect nest sites from ● avoids bird deaths ● interferes with normal behavior of competitors (​synopsis​) competitive species ● increases risks to the bird competitor species Reduce competition ● avoids bird deaths ● alters the food web by increasing the between species by number of birds in the community providing nest boxes (​synopsis​)

Reduce inter-specific ● avoids juvenile bird ● releases resources by removing highly competition for nest sites deaths competitive species by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species ● increases risks to the ● interferes with normal behavior of (synopses #1​​ , ​#2​, ​#3​, ​#4​) bird competitor competitive species species

Bird Conservation Conservation target: increase habitat suitability Welfare target Improve bird welfare by increasing habitat suitability Welfare mechanism providing resources (e.g. food and shelter) Conservation intervention Potential target effects Potential non-target effects

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Plant wild bird seed or ● increases ability for ● alters the food web by increasing the cover mixture (​synopsis​) birds to perform number of birds in the community normal behaviors Relocate nests at harvest ● avoids juvenile bird ● alters the food web by increasing the time to reduce nestling behavior number of birds in the community mortality (​synopsis​) ● increases risks by moving birds’ nests Rehabilitate injured birds ● avoids bird deaths ● increases humans’ connection to (​synopsis​) nature by rescuing birds ● interferes with birds’ normal behaviors Remove eggs from wild ● avoids bird deaths if ● alters the food web by increasing the nests to increase sibling competition number of birds in the community reproductive output is avoided (​synopsis​)

Use artificial visual and ● increases ability for ● alters the food web by increasing the auditory stimuli to induce birds to perform number of birds in the community breeding in wild normal behaviors populations (​synopsis​)

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Wild Animal Initiative | June 2019 | www.wildanimalinitiative.org