A REVIEW, GAP ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT INFORMATION

RELATING TO MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS IN THE SW REGION

PART A OF PROJECT C1-G1: A COASTAL AND MARINE MANAGEMENT

PLANNING FRAMEWORK FOR THE SOUTH WEST CATCHMENTS COUNCIL

OCTOBER 2006

A. J. LIMBOURN AND M. B. WESTERA

School of Plant Biology Faculty of Natural & Agricultural Sciences The University of Western Australia 35 Stirling Highway CRAWLEY WA 6009

Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006

NON-TECHNICAL SUMMARY

Local councils and management agencies in the south west (SW) are under increasing pressure to manage resources in an ecologically sustainable manner, to account for the pressures of population growth in the region, and to maintain a healthy natural environment. This is particularly so in the marine and coastal zones where mitigating natural hazards, enhancing recreational use and protecting ecosystem health can cause conflict. To better manage the marine and coastal zones an understanding of current knowledge of marine and coastal resources is essential. Equally important is identifying gaps in knowledge. This information can then be used in local decision making when there is a level of uncertainty due to incomplete scientific knowledge, changing public perceptions, indeterminate policy application or other issues. Through identifying gaps in existing knowledge, strategies may be developed to ensure that decisions are well founded and defensible rather than based on personal judgement or political will.

In July 2006 the South West Catchments Council (SWCC) commissioned a project to carry out a review, gap analysis and assessment of current information relating to coastal and marine environments in the South West Natural Resource Management (NRM) region. The project included: a detailed search for literature and information from relevant libraries; liaison with stakeholders, government departments and researchers; and collation of references into a database. Over 500 articles were located of varying levels of relevance to marine and coastal resource management. The literature was reviewed and this report was compiled detailing: the current knowledge and condition of coastal and marine “assets” (where information was available); and gaps in knowledge. The second phase involved an assessment of knowledge gaps to determine priority actions for SWCC. The main sources of information were scientific journals, government reports, newspapers, brochures and websites and most articles located have been provided to SWCC to be held in a database. Much of the past work was in response to targeted management or development issues. There was some focus on important nearshore habitats such as seagrass and reef communities, and on fishes that are sought by commercial and recreational fishers.

Some specific areas were identified for on-ground works, planning and capacity building. However, the main finding of the work was that there is limited information that spans logical time scales and can be used to make sound management decisions. For example, to protect biodiversity it is necessary to first understand which species of plants and animals exist in certain areas (habitats), in what numbers, and how this changes over a number of years. If there are natural fluctuations in these species over time, perhaps due to drought or changes in ocean currents, then these must be understood so that managers can separate natural changes from human- induced changes. It is not usually necessary to monitor every species as this would not be cost effective, however certain species may respond to changes and be suitable key indicators of change (such as seagrass or coral).

This project is to be followed by a series of workshops where input will be sought from the SW community, and stakeholders in marine and coastal management, to compile a strategic action planning and investment framework for coasts and marine management in the SW region. This report is designed to stimulate discussion and collaboration between stakeholders at the planned workshops which will be coordinated by the South West Catchments Council in November 2006. Workshop participants should read Section 7 of this report “Summary of knowledge gaps and setting priorities” and give thought to how they might contribute their

2 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 valued local knowledge to the decision making process. For example, a participant with knowledge of local fisheries, coastal areas that are suffering from erosion or marine ecotourism could contribute information to the workshops. To gain more information on knowledge gaps, workshop participants are also encouraged to read sections of this report that they find relevant to their areas of expertise (please see table of contents).

The authors have attempted to make this report readable to wide audience including interested members of the community, scientists and marine and coastal managers. However, some of the content is necessarily technical in order to describe marine and coastal processes and scientific work that may warrant discussion in the proposed workshops. A glossary and a list of acronyms have therefore been included in the appendices. The authors also note that every effort was made to locate available information. In some cases however, literature may not have been listed at libraries or at websites and was therefore not located. Workshop participants or other interested readers are encouraged to highlight any oversights with regard to current or past projects or documents on the marine and coastal environment of the South West NRM region. These should be communicated directly to the Coastal and Marine Program Coordinator for South West Catchments Council.

3 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION...... 7

Acknowledgements...... 8

2 METHODOLOGY ...... 9

2.1 SEARCHES FOR LITERATURE AND INFORMATION...... 9 2.2 HOW TO USE THE ENDNOTE LIBRARY ...... 9 2.2.1 PDF documents and Links ...... 10

3 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT - OVERVIEW OF EXISTING INFORMATION...... 11

3.1 SEAGRASS COMMUNITIES...... 11 3.1.1 Knowledge gaps - Seagrass communities ...... 11 3.2 REEF ASSOCIATED BENTHIC COMMUNITIES...... 12 3.2.1 Corals...... 12 3.2.2 Algae (seaweeds)...... 13 3.2.3 Rocky shores ...... 14 3.2.4 Knowledge gaps - Reef associated benthic communities ...... 14 3.3 SANDY BOTTOM COMMUNITIES...... 15 3.3.1 Knowledge gaps - Sandy bottom communities ...... 15 3.4 FISHES ...... 15 3.4.1 Knowledge gaps - fishes...... 18 3.5 INVERTEBRATES ...... 18 3.5.1 Crustaceans (crabs & lobsters)...... 18 3.5.2 Echinoderms (sea urchins & seastars)...... 19 3.5.3 Molluscs (abalone & shells)...... 19 3.5.4 Sponges and ascidians (sea squirts)...... 19 3.5.5 Knowledge gaps - Invertebrates...... 20 3.6 MARINE MAMMALS, BIRDS AND REPTILES...... 20 3.6.1 Whales, doplphins and seals ...... 20 3.6.2 Seabirds...... 21 3.6.3 Marine turtles...... 21 3.6.4 Knowledge gaps - Marine mammals, birds and reptiles...... 22 3.7 VULNERABLE MARINE COMMUNITIES ...... 22 3.7.1 Knowledge gaps – Vulnerable marine communities ...... 22 3.8 VULNERABLE MARINE SPECIES ...... 23 3.8.1 Knowledge gaps – Vulnerable marine species...... 25 3.9 THE CAR MARINE RESERVE SYSTEM ...... 26 3.9.1 Marine Conservation Reserves ...... 27 3.9.2 Fish Habitat Protection Areas ...... 28 3.9.3 Knowledge gaps - The CAR marine reserve system...... 28 3.10 MARINE ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES ...... 29 3.10.1 The Leeuwin Current...... 29

4 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006

3.10.2 The Capes Current ...... 30 3.10.3 Knowledge gaps - Marine ecosystem processes...... 30

4 THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT - OVERVIEW OF EXISTING INFORMATION...... 31

4.1 SHORELINE STABILITY ...... 31 4.1.1 Knowledge gaps – Shoreline stability ...... 31 4.2 COASTAL HABITATS...... 32 4.2.1 Knowledge gaps - Coastal habitats...... 34 4.3 COASTAL FAUNA ...... 35 4.3.1 Knowledge gaps - Coastal fauna ...... 37 4.4 COASTAL WETLANDS ...... 37 4.4.1 Knowledge gaps - Coastal wetlands ...... 38

5 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING MARINE AND COASTAL PLANS...... 39

5.1 COASTAL MANAGEMENT PLANS...... 39 5.2 LOCAL GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES...... 40 5.2.1 CoastSWaP...... 40 5.2.2 GeoCatch ...... 41 5.3 STATE GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES...... 41 5.3.1 Coastwest ...... 44 5.3.2 CALM / DEC management plans...... 44 5.4 AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES ...... 46 5.4.1 Natural Heritage Trust...... 46 Ecologically sustainable development ...... 46 5.4.2 Coasts and clean seas program (under NHT 1 from 1996 - 2002) ...... 46 Coastcare ...... 46 Clean seas program...... 46 5.4.3 Department of Environment and Heritage...... 46 5.4.4 Coastal CRC (ended June 2006)...... 47 5.4.5 Regional NRM delivery...... 47

6 ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT THREATS AND POTENTIALLY THREATENING PROCESSES...48

6.1 INTRODUCED MARINE PESTS ...... 48 6.1.1 Knowledge gaps - Introduced marine pests ...... 48 6.2 CONTAMINANTS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT ...... 49 6.2.1 Marine debris...... 49 6.2.2 Metals and pesticides ...... 49 6.2.3 Nutrients...... 50 6.2.4 Knowledge gaps - Contaminants in the marine environment...... 52 6.3 COMMERCIAL AND RECREATIONAL FISHING ...... 54 6.3.1 Commercial fishing ...... 54 6.3.2 Recreational fishing ...... 56 6.3.3 Knowledge gaps – Commercial and recreational fishing ...... 57 6.4 MARINE ECO-TOURISM ...... 58

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6.4.1 Knowledge gaps – Marine eco-tourism...... 61 6.5 MARINE AND COASTAL INDUSTRY ...... 62 6.5.1 Knowledge gaps – Marine and coastal industry ...... 63 6.6 COASTAL DEVELOPMENT AND RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES ...... 63 Case study: Geographe Bay ...... 65 6.6.1 Knowledge gaps - Coastal development and recreational activities...... 65 6.7 CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA LEVEL RISE...... 66 6.7.1 Knowledge gaps – Climate change and Sea level rise...... 67 6.8 SEA CHANGE ...... 68 6.8.1 Knowledge gaps – Sea change...... 68

7 SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE GAPS AND SETTING PRIORITIES...... 68

8 APPENDICES...... 73

Appendix I - Databases of information and datasets...... 73 Appendix II – Departmental web sites...... 74 Appendix III – List of acronyms...... 75 Appendix IV – Glossary ...... 76 Appendix V – Organisations consulted...... 78

9 REFERENCES...... 79

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Study area boundaries after SWCC (2006)...... 8 Figure 5.1: Coastal Planning – Current and outstanding management plans and strategies...... 43 Figure 5.2: Map of CALM / DEC Managed National Parks, Marine Parks and Conservation Parks and status of their current management plans for the SW NRM region...... 45

TABLE OF TABLES

Table 5.1: Population projections – SW NRM Region ...... 40 Table 6.1: Major anthropogenic pollutants ...... 54 Table 6.2: Environmental and ecological impacts of tourism in the SW region ...... 61 Table 6.3: Coastal facilities managed by the Facilities Management Branch within the DPI and other known facilities within the SW NRM region. Owned and managed by DPI (√), owned by DPI and managed/leased by others () and other facilities available (+). Table modified from DPI...... 63 Table 7.1: Issues, knowledge gaps and priority actions that should be considered and debated in the SWCC stakeholder workshops. Interested readers should refer to more comprehensive sections on each issue, which are contained within the body of this report (see contents page)...... 70

6 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006

1 INTRODUCTION

In July 2006, the South West Catchments Council (SWCC) commissioned the University of Western Australia (UWA) to conduct part A of Project C1-G1 “A Coastal and Marine Management Planning Framework for the South West Catchments Council.” The objective of this work, as outlined by SWCC, was to carry out a review, gap analysis and assessment of current information relating to coastal and marine environments in the South West Natural Resource Management (NRM) region. Part B of Project C1-G1 “Strategic Action Planning and Investment Framework for Coasts and Marine Management in the South West region” will be completed by another organisation.

The specified tasks of Part A were to: • Collect and review technical, scientific, economic and social information from across all aspects of the marine and coastal environment in the study area (this was focussed on the technical and scientific information following discussions with SWCC); • Provide an assessment and comment on the current condition (‘state’) of coastal and marine assets in the South West Region; • Provide an assessment and comment on the current threats (‘pressure’) to coastal and marine assets in the South West Region; • Determine gaps in the information (gaps are defined as areas where there may be no baseline information; areas of science that are not yet conclusive about the health or condition of a particular environment, nor conclusive about the impacts a suspected threat is having on a particular environment); and • Undertake an assessment of gaps to determine appropriate actions that may be required. Consideration should be given to highlighting gaps and actions that SWCC may be able to invest in.

The study area for the project includes the marine and coastal environments from Mandurah to Walpole which is the South West NRM region(Figure 1.1) (SWCC 2005). The coastal area is defined as coastal land abutting the marine environment which includes beaches, dunes, foreshores, and geological landforms. The marine boundary is the limit of State waters i.e. 3 nautical miles (5.56 km) from the coast (SWCC 2005). Information has also been included from estuaries but is focussed on the interface between them and the marine environment (i.e. estuary or river mouths, the Dawesville Cut etc.). Where available information has also been included from marine areas outside the State limit (i.e. Australian Government waters) but abutting the marine study area.

The project was completed over a four month period and included a number of phases. The first phase included; a detailed search for literature and information from relevant libraries located in universities and government departments using websites and search engines; liaison with relevant stakeholders, government departments and researchers; and collation of references into an Endnote database. This was followed by an assessment of the available literature and compilation of a report that detailed: the current knowledge and condition of coastal and marine “assets” (where information was available); and gaps in knowledge. The final phase involved identification of current or potential threats to marine and coastal environments and an

7 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 assessment of gaps to determine appropriate actions. The database of references should be periodically updated to account for on-going work that is being conducted in the South West NRM region.

Figure 1.1: Study area boundaries after SWCC (2006).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are would like to thank the South West Catchments Council (SWCC), and in particular Carolyn Switzer, for the opportunity of completing this project. Throughout its duration numerous people from various institutions were instrumental in providing direction and offering their opinions about issues and gaps in knowledge of the marine and coastal environment across the SW NRM region. Of the many people contacted we would especially like to thank Martin Heller (Aust. Govt. NRM Facilitator – Coastal and Marine/ Coastcare) for providing many constructive comments and reviewing earlier versions of this report. Martin’s enthusiasm for the SW and helpful advice throughout the project were influential in developing the structure of this report. We hope this final report provokes meaningful discussion to aid in the development of an investment framework from which SWCC can work to address issues facing the marine and coastal environment in the SW.

8 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006

2 METHODOLOGY

2.1 SEARCHES FOR LITERATURE AND INFORMATION

Searches for literature were made at the University of Western Australia, Murdoch University, Edith Cowan University, Curtin University, and the Library Information Service of Western Australia. Websites were also searched including government departments, local councils and consulting firms. Information of relevance to the SWCC region was added to an Endnote library (database) in addition to other literature with a broader context but local application.

Search terms included: the research topics as defined in the project brief; headings from the table of contents of this report; the names of authors including prominent local researchers; locations (e.g. South West, Western Australia); the names of various towns and settlements (e.g. Mandurah, Bunbury, Busselton, Dunsborough, Margaret River, Cowaramup, Hamelin Bay, Augusta, Walpole), the names of various geographical features (Cape Naturaliste, Cape Leeuwin, Flinders Bay, Geographe Bay, Cape D’Entrecasteaux), Marine Parks and various developments. Effort was also put into locating theses of relevance.

Material in the review and gap analysis was sourced from published peer reviewed literature (such as scientific journals), and grey literature (studies that have been conducted by local, state or federal governments; consulting firms; or other research institutions that may or may not have been published). In addition to reviewing literature, meetings or telephone conversations were held with individuals from organisations that are either: undertaking research within the SW NRM region or are involved in management and/or strategy planning for marine and/or coastal systems. A full list of these organisations is included in the appendices. The main points gained from these discussions were incorporated into the report. Existing literature reviews were also consulted to source appropriate references (Hodgkin & Majer 1978; Pearce 1983; Crossland & Wells 1985; Westera et al. 2006). A major study of the marine environment “The Strategic Research Fund for the Marine Environment” (SRFME) was also consulted which incorporated locations at Geographe Bay and Bunbury (Keesing & Heine 2005).

2.2 HOW TO USE THE ENDNOTE LIBRARY

All references that were located are listed in an Endnote library (database) to be held by SWCC. When the Endnote library is opened a main page appears with a list of all references. This summarises the details of all the references under the author, year and title. The library can be sorted by selecting column headings. There is a column “PDF” which signifies the existence of a PDF (Portable document format) document or a link to a website containing the document. When a particular reference is selected from the main Endnote window, another window will open with all the details of that reference including keywords and abstract where available. From the initial page users can search all references in the Endnote library under any combination of terms. User help and frequently asked questions (FAQs) for Endnote can be found at http://www.endnote.com/. Acronyms have been used for some of the authors but the full names will be detailed in the reference under “Institution” and in the acronym list of this report.

9 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006

2.2.1 PDF DOCUMENTS AND LINKS

To use links, open the reference and use the “link to PDF” function. PDF articles that were downloaded have been placed in a folder on the enclosed compact disc. The PDF articles are listed under the author name, the year of publication and the first couple of words in the title. These should be installed on a hard disk and can then be directly linked to the references in Endnote. Once this is done, PDFs can be seamlessly opened from Endnote. Alternatively the user can locate the folder and open the file manually. Most of the PDF articles can be searched. When in Adobe reader, use the find function to locate key words within the articles. Some of the older articles are in an image format and cannot be searched and this will be evident when a search is attempted. Any website addresses were current at the time of writing but may become obsolete or be moved by website administrators. If there is a website address within the reference, this will direct the user to the relevant website that contains the article provided the computer is connected to the internet.

The Department of Environment and Conservation was formed in 2006 by merging the Department of Environment (DoE) and the Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM or DCLM). Prior to this merge the DoE acted as an umbrella department and included the Water and Rivers Commission (WRC) the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) and the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA). Part of the DoE has also been divided to now be known as the Department of Water (DoW). Documents published under former names remain as they are at the time of publication. Therefore, documents can be found under DoE, DCE, DEC, EPA, CALM and DCLM in the Endnote library. The Department of Fisheries were previously known as Fisheries WA. The authorship of some references will reflect these departmental mergers.

The Endnote library should be periodically updated to stay current with new research and management in the SWCC region. The Web of Science and Current Contents databases operate through the ISI interface and can export references directly to Endnote. These databases can be accessed at the University of Western Australia, Murdoch University, Edith Cowan University and Curtin University.

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3 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT - OVERVIEW OF EXISTING INFORMATION

3.1 SEAGRASS COMMUNITIES

Seagrass communities have received extensive research interest due to their ecological value in providing important fisheries habitat, their ability to stabilise sediments, their capacity to utilise nutrients in the water column and because their community structure generally reflects their physical and chemical environment. Seagrasses also provide food and shelter for a wide range of other organisms. Threats to seagrass communities include excessive nutrient input, sedimentation from maintenance dredging, scouring from boat moorings and heavy epiphyte and periphyton loading as a result of nutrient enrichment. The sensitivity of seagrasses to nutrient enrichment has caused extensive losses to seagrass beds in Cockburn Sound, Princess Royal Harbour and Oyster Harbour (Cambridge & McComb 1984; Brodie 1995). Walker and McComb (1992) reviewed the causes and consequences of seagrass loss in Australian coastal waters.

The SW NRM region has extensive areas of seagrass beds throughout its coastal waters with those of Geographe Bay the most extensive in Western Australia outside of Shark Bay. The majority of seagrass studies in the SW have focused on the effects of nutrients (Conacher 1993; McMahon 1994; Walker et al. 1994; DAL Science and Engineering 1995; Lord & Associates 1995; Murdoch University 1996; McMahon et al. 1997; McMahon & Walker 1998) and sedimentation (Searle & Logan 1978) on seagrass growth and cover in Geographe Bay. Studies revealed that seagrasses were generally not being impacted by the high nutrient levels, which exceeded guidelines at many of the locations monitored. However, some caution should be expressed in interpreting the results of these studies as major losses of seagrass were recorded in areas with the greatest nutrient input. Moreover, SWCC have listed the seagrass communities of Geographe Bay as vulnerable.

South of Cape Naturaliste large meadows of predominantly Posidonia spp and Amphibolis spp can be found to depths of around 30 m. These communities are unique to the SW region and not found on any coast elsewhere in the world (Kirkman & Kuo 1990). The exceptionally clear waters of this coast allow these seagrasses to colonise deeper waters and thus minimise the exposure to direct oceanic swells.

Following a report prepared by Murdoch University (1996), titled The South Western Australian Seagrass Study (SWASS), three seagrass areas within the Geographe Bay-Capes-Hardy Inlet (Geographe Bay, Hamelin Bay and Flinders Bay) were nominated for listing on the Australian Heritage Commission’s Register of the National Estate in recognition of their ecological importance to marine communities. Elsewhere in Australia seagrass and mangrove communities are protected by Fisheries Acts as they have long been recognised as important fisheries habitats (see Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland).

3.1.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - SEAGRASS COMMUNITIES

Current information suggests that seagrasses are not in decline within the SW region. However, seagrass communities have been identified as potentially vulnerable by SWCC. Furthermore, the lack of any long term monitoring in the region may fail to identify impacts if and when they do occur. The impacts of catchment water flow into nearshore marine habitats is another area that has received little attention. Forecasted

11 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 population growth rates across the SW region may well place further pressure on nearshore seagrass communities.

A project funded by the SWCC is commencing in 2006 to monitor the seagrass communities and water quality of Geographe Bay. This project will investigate seagrass health and water quality at 20 locations situated at different distances from potential nutrient sources. Other than this project we are not aware of any other studies in the SW where monitoring of seagrass communities is being undertaken.

Seagrass mapping is recommended in other areas of the SW including representative locations in the Mandurah to Capel region and the Augusta to Walpole region.

3.2 REEF ASSOCIATED BENTHIC COMMUNITIES

The subtidal reef communities of the SW generally consist of limestone platforms and granitic boulder fields. These two reef types have been shown to support different faunal assemblages, which is thought to be due to differences in the microtopography, or surface profile, of the two surfaces (Kendrick et al. 1999). Furthermore, this study showed that faunal assemblages were similar between boulder fields but differed between limestone platforms. This is potentially due to the diversification of habitat, where occasionally rocks, boulders and sand are found overlaying the limestone platform, thus creating additional habitat.

The Marine Futures project in partnership with Natural Resource Management (NRM), regional councils, Australian and Western Australian State Governments, Universities and industry has embarked on a project of mapping the dominant marine habitats and conducting biodiversity surveys across WA, including the SW. The project aims to enhance and expand the current knowledge of the marine environment by developing practical guides to monitoring the condition of key marine resources. Detailed mapping of the seafloor using state-of- the-art technology will provide information on the distribution and extent of the different habitats and the organisms associated with them (Marine Futures 2006b; 2006a). This work has been undertaken at Cape Naturaliste and some of the western parts of Geographe Bay adjacent to Cape Naturaliste. Bancroft et al (2000) also conducted habitat mapping in the Geographe Bay Capes region including seagrass, sand and reef areas to the State territorial limit (3 nautical miles).

3.2.1 CORALS

Few coral colonies exist within the temperate waters of the SW due to water temperatures that are generally lower than that required for coral growth (18°C). However, the warm north-south flowing Leeuwin Current has resulted in the most southerly distribution of corals in the Indian Ocean (Hatcher 1991) with several coral colonies found within the SW region. Fourteen species of hermatypic (reef forming) coral have been recorded in the SW region, the majority are of tropical origin (Elscot & Bancroft 1999; Bancroft 2000). This includes two species that are endemic to south Western Australia, which Elscot and Bancroft (1999) report are abundant in some areas to a depth of 15-20 m. Veron & Marsh (1988) have published records and produced an annotated species list of the hermatypic corals of the Western Australian coastline. Known coral colonies can be found at Bunker Bay, Eagle Bay, Sugarloaf Rock, Canal Rocks and South Point. Westera et al. (2006) recorded 2%

12 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 coral cover at the Geographe Bay Ridge with lower cover at Flinders Bay and Cape Naturaliste. We were unable to locate any studies specific to corals within the SW region.

3.2.2 ALGAE (SEAWEEDS)

The rocky subtidal environment of south-western Australia is dominated by extensive beds of macroalgae Sargassum and Ecklonia radiata, with limestone reefs also supporting mixed beds of foliose red, green and brown algae. In the south, beyond Cape Naturaliste, cold temperate brown algae become more prominent coinciding with the presence of granite reefs (Walker 1991). The western coast has a reduced diversity compared with the rich flora of the southern coastline (Walker 1991). The book series The marine benthic flora of southern Australia (Womersley 1984; 1987; 1994; 1996a; 1996b; 2003) provides an overview of algal and seagrass species occurring in the study region.

Biological surveys conducted by CALM to support the planning process for the proposed Capes marine park yielded detailed data on algal species composition and biomass at 20 sites in the Capes region (Bancroft 2000). These data were analysed by Kendrick et al. (1999), who reported the greatest macroalgae species diversity at Foul Bay inshore, Bunker Bay and Canal Rocks inshore, with 40-50 species identified at each site. These sites were characterised by granite substrata, shallow depths and lacked a high biomass of E. radiata. Lowest diversity sites were Windmills and Hamelin Island (<20 macroalgae species).

CSIRO recorded 243 species of algae in Geographe Bay, many that were common to sites in the Perth metropolitan and Jurien regions (Keesing & Heine 2005). Sites in the SW NRM region were located near Bunbury and at Cape Naturaliste with differences in species composition observed between locations. Westera (2006) recorded 221 algal species at 21 locations throughout the Capes region (Flinders Bay to Geographe Bay). The highest species diversity was recorded at the Geographe Bay Ridge, Point Matthew and Flinders Bay. There were significant differences between the regions sampled within the Capes, but sites on the exposed west coast were more similar to each other than to the more sheltered embayment sites. The exposed west coast sites were dominated by brown macroalgal assemblages of Ecklonia radiata, Scytothalia doryocarpa and Platythalia spp.

Canopy-forming beds of Ecklonia radiata kelp are a characteristic feature of the south-western Australian nearshore subtidal environment. The apparent habitat homogeneity of such beds masks the diverse assemblage of algae beneath (Wernberg et al. 2003). Wernberg (2002) and co-workers (Wernberg et al. 2003) sampled at sites at Marmion Lagoon and off the Fitzgerald River National Park (both outside the study region) as well as Hamelin Bay. They found that E. radiata exerts a strong influence on associated macroalgal communities.

Canopy-forming kelps can be detached from reefs by storm swells (Kennelly 1987b, in Toohey et al. in prep.), which are a feature of much of the SW region. Three related studies at sites within Hamelin Bay monitored macroalgae recovery on subtidal plots manually cleared of E. radiata, Sargassum and other larger canopy species at both high and low relief sites. Toohey et al. (in prep.) assessed changes in macroalgae assemblages in the light of terrestrial forest gap theory. Toohey et al. (2004) focussed on the mechanisms underlying the influence of E. radiata on foliose algal assemblages; and Kendrick et al. (2004) assessed the role of disturbance in creating and maintaining the diversity of benthic macroalgae assemblages. In a related study, Thomsen et al.

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(2004) assessed the effects of thallus size, life stage, aggregation, wave exposure and substratum conditions on the forces required to break or dislodge E. radiata. They found that kelp mostly dislodged at the rock, rather than by breakage of the kelp.

Generalist herbivores such as sea urchins often influence structure and biomass of algal assemblages. However, Vanderklift (2002) found that the herbivorous sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma at Hamelin Bay had only a minor influence on biomass and no detectable influence on algal assemblage. However, the observed retention of drift macroalgae of E. radiata by the sea urchin suggests that trophic subsidies from this drift macroalgae moderate the effects of Heliocidaris on the biomass of attached macroalgae.

Walker and Kendrick (1998) examined threats to macroalgae beds, finding that three major threats include habitat destruction and pollution due to coastal development, and introduced species.

3.2.3 ROCKY SHORES

Elscot and Bancroft (1999) and Kendrick et al. (1999) surveyed rocky shores, and intertidal reefs, in the Geographe Bay-Capes-Hardy Inlet region. Elscott and Bancroft (1999) revealed that particular areas, such as Cowaramup Bay, show a high diversity of habitat types and support a wide diversity and abundance of marine animal species. The loose rocks and boulders along the rocky shore of Cowaramup Bay were shown to support an unusually high abundance of various echinoderms and molluscs.

Britton et al. (1991) provide a description of the spatial distribution of intertidal fauna on rocky shores in southwestern Australia. The authors examined how relationships between topography, substratum and surface temperature effect the distribution of fauna on rocky shores. However, the main focus of this work was on the rocky shores of Albany, which is likely to show subtle differences to the rocky shores of the SW NRM region.

3.2.4 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - REEF ASSOCIATED BENTHIC COMMUNITIES

The distribution of many species on reefs is known but there is limited data that quantifies the composition of these communities for long-term monitoring. While this region is believed to support high species richness few studies have incorporated rigorous scientific sampling to determine abundance and biomass of many of the species which make up these communities. However, baseline data has been collected on fishes, algae and invertebrates on reefs in the Capes region for SWCC Project C1-03 (Westera et al. 2006). This ongoing work will contribute toward a long-term baseline of information for the region that may be used to evaluate changes in marine community composition over time. Baseline studies are required other parts of the SW NRM region (i.e. Mandurah to Busselton and Augusta to Walpole) and nearshore reef associated communities across the entire region (e.g. Cowaramup Bay, Yallingup Reef, Kilcarnup etc) to gain an understanding of their ecological functioning and to set long term baselines against which human induced changes may be assessed. CALM have conducted baseline surveys within the Capes region, however these studies may need to be expanded to include time series data for change to be detected.

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3.3 SANDY BOTTOM COMMUNITIES

Within the study area sandy bottoms are generally bare but can contain seasonal vegetation or permanent patches of seagrass. Sandy bottoms containing seagrasses are generally dominated by monospecific stands of seagrasses Posidonia sinuosa and Amphibolis spp with the occasional patches of Halophila ovalis (seagrass), and the brown macroalgae, Scaberia agardhii (McMahon et al. 1997). These communities generally support a suite of invertebrate infauna and many other resident and non-resident species of fish. There is no evidence of research interest on sandy bottom communities (other than those containing seagrass communities) for the SW region.

3.3.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - SANDY BOTTOM COMMUNITIES

A general paucity of research exists for sandy bottom communities throughout the SW region. The majority of research interest has focused on seagrass communities associated with sandy bottoms. While the composition of the unvegetated sandy bottom communities, which are perhaps more common throughout the SW, are left largely unknown.

3.4 FISHES

There have been a number of surveys of fish assemblages in Geographe Bay, potentially because of the importance of seagrass habitat to the fish fauna. The majority of studies on fishes for the SW NRM region include at least one Geographe Bay site, with the exception of work conducted by UWA researchers at Hamelin Bay (Harman et al. 2003; Heap 2005; Watson et al. 2005; Harvey & Kendrick in prep.; Heap et al. in prep.). Other marine sites where ichthyofaunal composition has been documented include Kilcarnup, Gnarabup, Ringbolt Bay, Granny’s Pool and East Flinders Bay (Lenanton 1982); Cape Naturaliste-Yallingup, Hamelin Bay, Cumberland Rock and the Cape Leeuwin area (Hutchins 1994); Black Point (Ayvazian & Hyndes 1995); and Flinders Bay (Valesini 1994; Valesini et al. 1997). Two fish identification guides which cover the study area include Hutchins and Thompson (1995) and Hutchins and Swainston (1999).

Hutchins (1994) surveyed reef fish fauna in several locations in the Geographe-Bay-Capes-Hardy Inlet region between 1977 and 1993. These surveys included several inshore and offshore reefs in Geographe Bay (Busselton Jetty, Cape Naturaliste), Yallingup, Hamelin Bay, Cumberland Rock, St Alouarn, Flinders and Seal Islands and Quarry and Ringbolt Bays. Both Geographe Bay and Cape Leeuwin showed similar assemblages of fish species, dominated by warm-temperate species (76%), several subtropical species (19% and endemic to the west coast of Australia) and a few tropical species (5%) (Hutchins 1994).

Walker (1979a; 1979b) used lines, trawls, nets, traps and light-based fish attraction devices to sample the fish fauna of the Bunbury-Geographe Bay area. Combined with museum records, an inventory of 247 fish species from the area was created, with notes on distribution, preferred habitat, social behaviour, feeding and breeding biology. Scott (1981) sampled the ichthyofauna of seagrass meadows in Geographe Bay between Capel and Dunsborough, recording 19 species. The weed whiting (Neoodax radiatus) comprised 52 % of all individuals caught.

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Westera et al (2006) conducted underwater video census of fishes at 20 sites in the Capes region including: Geographe Bay; Capes Naturaliste, Freycinet, and Hamelin; and Flinders Bay. They recorded 42 species of fishes from 37 families. The most abundant fishes were black headed pullers, Maori wrasse, bullseye, red banded wrasse and McCullochs scalyfin. Highly targeted fishes such as western blue groper, Westralian dhufish, breaksea cod, harlequin fish, western foxfish and queen snapper were present in surveys but in low numbers, leatherjackets and sweeps were more abundant. There were no significant differences between regions or proposed zones (of the Capes Marine Reserve) in terms of fish composition from underwater video census. Out of a total of 6 kilometres (x 5 metres wide) of belt transect (video surveyed) only two blue groper were recorded. Baited remote underwater video techniques were also used to record fish assemblages at Cape Naturaliste and Injidup. Sixty nine species of fishes were recorded from 34 families. The most abundant fishes were Maori wrasse and red banded wrasse, with brown spotted wrasse also common at Naturaliste and western king wrasse at Injidup. The most common targeted fishes that were recorded were leatherjackets, western foxfish and skipjack trevally. Other targeted species recorded included queen snapper, sweep, Samson fish, breaksea cod, harlequin fish, swallowtail and pink snapper. There were no significant differences between proposed sanctuary and general use zones at either region. This work was part of a longer term monitoring program designed to set a marine benchmark for the region against which future changes or impacts can be gauged. The work was also designed to test the effect of marine reserve sanctuary zones on fish, algal and invertebrate assemblages.

Dr. P. Morrison of Sinclair-Knight-Merz (SKM) monitored the progression of colonisation of the HMAS Swan dive wreck at Dunsborough by fish and encrusting marine life from its scuttling in 1997 to 2002. The monitoring forms part of the Environmental Protection Authority’s compliance monitoring for the Sea Dumping Permit. Visual surveys of fish diversity and abundance occurred at five sites in Geographe Bay: the dive wreck; a control site 1 nm from the wreck, Wrights Bank; Geographe Ridge (also known as Four Mile reef); and the Busselton Jetty. Results from 1997-2000 are available in Morrison (2003), and the complete program is currently being prepared for publication as two papers which should be available through the SKM website www.skmconsulting.com (Dr. P. Morrison, personal communication).

A 1991-92 program of trawling and seine netting in Geographe Bay resulted in a suite of at least five research papers on the fish ecology of Geographe Bay (Hyndes et al. 1996; Platell & Potter 1998; Platell et al. 1998; Hyndes et al. 1999; Platell & Potter 1999). Study sites were both deep and shallow, and ranged between Perth and Cape Naturaliste, including three sites in Geographe Bay south of Bunbury and two slightly north of Bunbury. Between-site differences in the ichthyofauna of the bay were influenced by depth, distance from shore, season and latitude (Hyndes et al. 1999). The distributions and diets of the little gurnard perch (Maxillicosta scabriceps) and long-spined flathead (Platycephalus longispinis) were investigated by Platell and Potter (1998). Both species feed on a wide variety of epibenthic invertebrates, including crustaceans and polychaetes. The latter species also ingests a substantial proportion of teleosts. Platell and Potter (1999) also investigated habitat segregation by grooved gurnard (Lepidotrigla modesta), spiny gurnard (Lepidotrigla papilio), rough bullseye (Pempheris klunzingeri) and elongate bullseye (Parapriacanthus elongatus). Platell et al. (1998) compared the mouthparts and diets of the goatfish (Upeneichthys stotti) and blue-lined goatfish (U. lineatus) finding a partial partitioning of habitat and differences in diet. Hyndes et al. (1996) examined six co- existing whiting species, finding that body size affects habitat choice amongst king george whiting

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(Sillaginodes punctata), western trumpeter whiting (Sillago burrus), silver whiting (Sillago schomburgkii), western school whiting (Sillago vittate), bass whiting (Sillago bassensis) and stout whiting (Sillago robusta).

Studies of fish assemblages at western and southern coast sites have been less common. Lenanton (1982) sampled nine sites using seine net in 1976-77 including East Toby’s Inlet, Dunsborough and Eagle Bay within Geographe Bay; Kilcarnup and Gnarabup on the western coastline; Ringbolt Bay, Granny’s Pool, East Flinders Bay on the southern coastline within or close to Flinders Bay; and Stn 02 within the Blackwood River Estuary. Sixty-five fish species were recorded. Since many of the commercially or recreationally important fishes sampled were <1 year old, it was concluded that the inshore marine environment provides an alternative to estuaries as a nursery area. Hutchins et al. (1994) visually surveyed reef fish communities, diving at 23 locations on Western Australia’s coastline including sites in Geographe Bay (such as Naturaliste Reef and Busselton Jetty); between Cape Naturaliste and Yallingup; near Hamelin Bay, near Cumberland Rock; and the Cape Leeuwin area (Alouarn, Flinders and Seal Islands, Quarry and Ringbolt Bays). One hundred and fifty reef fish species were recorded, consisting largely of warm-temperate species, although the subtropical component was reasonably numerous. Ayvazian and Hyndes (1995) used seine netting to sample the surf zone fish fauna at 23 Western Australian sites, including two in Geographe Bay and one at Black Point. The Busselton site constituted a distinct assemblage, the Dunsborough site was grouped with similar embayment sites in Perth’s inshore waters, and Black Point was identified as a distinct depauperate assemblage lacking in endemic species. Valesini et al. (1997) used seine netting to sample and compare the fish faunas of the Hardy Inlet with adjacent marine shallows of Flinders Bay. The marine species found in Flinders Bay varied in their preference for the estuary as a nursery area. This paper was based on Honours research (Valesini 1994).

Hamelin Bay’s temperate reefs have been the focus of a suite of research on the relationship between habitat and fish assemblage, using underwater video. Harman et al. (2003) found differences in fish assemblages between granite and limestone reefs, higher species diversity on high relief sites and dominance of the kelp Ecklonia radiata on low relief sites. Watson et al. (2005) compared three underwater stereo-video techniques to sample temperate reef fish. Cryptic fish were shown to be missed by all methods, while baited camera failed to detect the differences in fish assemblage that were detected by unbaited camera. The Honours research of Heap (2005) and Heap et al (in prep.) assessed spatial and interannual variation in fish assemblages. Fish assemblages were different between locations and between high and low relief sites, however remained consistent between years. Harvey and Kendrick (in prep.) addressed the response of reef fish assemblages to kelp clearance (simulating storm disturbance) and recolonisation. Removal of kelps had a significant effect on fish assemblages for at least seven months after clearance, with fish abundance and species richness higher in recovering plots than in uncleared areas.

A survey of reef fish in the Capes region was conducted for CALM by Euan Harvey and co-workers from UWA to support the planning of the Capes marine park, and results described in Bancroft (2000). They sampled fish assemblages using diver transects at 20 sites between Geographe Bay and Flinders Bay, encompassing the northern, western and southern coastlines of the Capes region. A total of 110 fish species were recorded, which are presented in Appendices X, XI and XII of Bancroft (2000). Analysis of these results were performed by Kendrick et al. (1999). Regional spatial patterns in fish abundance and size were not observed, although offshore sites showed the highest species richness. The highest number of fish species was

17 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 recorded at exposed offshore sites, with between 24 and 31 species recorded at Seal Island, Sugarloaf Rock, Cape Naturaliste (offshore) and Canal Rocks (offshore). The schooling species black headed puller (Chromis klunzingeri); blue lined hulafish (Trachinops brauni) and Noarlunga hulafish (T. noarlungae) were an order of magnitude more abundant than most other species. There were differences between assemblages on high and low relief sites, however differences due to geographical location, reef type (granite or limestone) or depth were not reflected in the multivariate (ordination) analysis (Kendrick et al. 1999).

3.4.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - FISHES

Knowledge exists on the distribution of fishes and quantitative data is being collected at 20 sites in the Capes region. There have also been studies that were specific to certain species and experimental studies. However, data on the composition (abundance, biomass and structure) of fish assemblages needs to be collected at other areas across the SW region if we are to define benchmarks and to understand fish assemblages for marine conservation and biodiversity planning. Studies need to examine how fish populations change seasonally in response to temperature fluctuations, the ecological role of fishes and include quantitative information on exploited and unexploited species. There is also a lack of information on the impacts of species removal on ecosystems and associated food webs.

3.5 INVERTEBRATES

CSIRO recorded 297 species of invertebrates in the Geographe Bay region, many that were common to sites in the Perth metropolitan and Jurien regions (Keesing & Heine 2005). Sites in the SW NRM region were located near Bunbury and at Cape Naturaliste with differences in species composition observed between locations. Gastropods, ascidians and crinoids, were the dominant classes. Invertebrate communities differed between Jurien, Perth and Geographe Bay sites, however, trends were weak.

Bancroft (1999) recorded invertebrates at 20 subtidal and 26 intertidal sites in the Capes region. At the subtidal sites they recorded 110 sponge, 44 ascidian and 11 coral species. Species recorded at the intertidal sites included 2 sponges, 5 anemones, 1 zooanthid, 1 coral, 34 molluscs, 2 polychaete worms, 5 crustaceans, 1seastar, 1 brittlestar, 1 seaurchin and 1 seacucumber.

Westera (2006) censused large mobile invertebrates (>2cm) on reefs in the Capes region and recorded 29 species that were generally in low abundances. Seastars, urchins, sea cucumbers and abalone were the dominant invertebrates with the highest diversity recorded in the Flinders Bay region.

3.5.1 CRUSTACEANS (CRABS & LOBSTERS)

The majority of literature on crustaceans focuses on either the western rock lobster (Lenanton et al. 1991; Pearce & Phillips 1991; Phillips et al. 1991; Caputi et al. 1996; Melville-Smith & Anderton 2000; Caputi et al. 2001; DoF 2001b; Griffin et al. 2001; Caputi et al. 2003; Chubb & Barker 2003; Clarke & Li 2004; DoF 2005; Stump 2005) or the blue swimmer crab (Lenanton 1974; de Lestang et al. 2000; Potter & de Lestang 2000; de Lestang et al. 2003; Sumner & Malseed 2004). Both these species represent major commercial and recreational fisheries in the SW NRM region and this economic importance has resulted in substantial research on both species (see Penn et al. 2005). The general focus of these studies is directed towards understanding:

18 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 what influences recruitment to the fisheries; stock / recruitment relationships: management of the fishery; and general biology.

3.5.2 ECHINODERMS (SEA URCHINS & SEASTARS)

The doctoral research of Vanderklift (2002) assessed the interaction between the sea urchins Heliocidaris erythrogramma, Phyllacanthus irregularis and Centrostephanus tenuispinus at sites in Hamelin Bay and greater Perth. Vanderklift and Kendrick (2004) reported on habitat partitioning amongst the sea urchin species at Hamelin Bay and elsewhere, and Vanderklift and Kendrick (2006) discussed differences in trophic position amongst these species. These studies found that the sea urchins H. erythrogramma trapped and fed on E. radiata drift macroalgae, thereby subsidising their diet with biomass produced outside their home range.

3.5.3 MOLLUSCS (ABALONE & SHELLS)

The SW NRM region supports several commercially important mollusc species, including the greenlip abalone (Haliotus laevigata: northern limit is Cape Naturaliste), the blacklip abalone (Haliotis rubra) and Roe’s abalone (Haliotis roei). Greenlip abalone were examined at Augusta, Hopetoun and Esperance to determine any differences in the biological attributes of populations between locations known as ‘good’ and ‘bad’ fishing zones (Wells & Mulvay 1995), with no significant difference detected. The shelled gastropoda of south Western Australia are addressed by Hodgkin (1966). Wells (1980) investigated the distribution of marine prosobranch gastropods along the coastline of Western Australia.

Heald (1977) conducted a pecten scallop survey in Geographe Bay to assess the potential for a commercial scallop fishery in the bay. Numerous dredge surveys and smaller grab samples along transects were collected revealing information on sediment type, grain size and associated benthic fauna. Samples of the benthic fauna were collected for the Western Australian Museum and consisted mainly of molluscs, fish, echinoderms and sponges. Conclusions from the survey suggested that scallop stocks of Geographe Bay were low with most of the bay being unsuitable for scallop dredging due to the rocky nature of the substrate.

Laurenson et al. (1993) conducted a two year study to asses the impact of the saucer scallop and western king prawn trawl fisheries on benthic communities in coastal waters off south-western Australia. The study area included Augusta at its southern limit. Geographe Bay’s sea floor was found to be largely untrawlable with limited areas of sand habitat suitable for Saucer scallops. Harris et al. (1999) produced a Fisheries Research Report on the Western Australian scallop industry. It includes a section on the south-west trawl fishery, which includes Geographe Bay and extends south to Augusta.

3.5.4 SPONGES AND ASCIDIANS (SEA SQUIRTS)

The benthic biological survey conducted for CALM (Bancroft 2000) also included structured sampling of sponges and ascidians at 20 sites between Geographe Bay and Flinders Bay, encompassing the northern, western and southern coastlines of the Capes region. Approximately 110 species of sponge and 44 species of ascidians were collected, and presented in appendices VII and VIII of that document, respectively. Analyses of these data (Kendrick et al. 1999) uncovered no clear influence of geographical location, depth or substrata (limestone or granite) on sponge or ascidian assemblages.

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The sponge Haliclona sp. has been identified as containing salicylihalamide, which has potential as an antitumour compound (Erickson et al. 1997, in Abdo 2002). At Hamelin Bay, the influence of the physical environment on this sponge has been examined (Abdo 2002), as well as its modes of reproduction, recruitment and genetic subdivision (Whalan et al. 2005).

3.5.5 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - INVERTEBRATES

Quantitative data exists on sessile and mobile invertebrate communities at Bunker and Eagle Bays from the CSIRO SRFME project (Keesing & Heine 2005) and from other sites in the Capes region (Bancroft 2000). There is also knowledge of mobile macroinvertebrates from the SWCC project of Westera et al. (2006) from ongoing work in the Capes region. These data are confined to reef habitats and short time scales. There appears to be gaps in the knowledge for invertebrate communities on habitats other than reefs (e.g. sand areas, seagrass habitats, infaunal communities) for the SW region. Data is also lacking from deep water areas that are beyond diving depth. The Marine Futures project of SCRIPT and UWA will investigate some deeper water habitats near Cape Naturaliste. Ideally, data collections from all habitats should span 5 to 10 years in order to gain a better understanding of inter-annual fluctuations in abundance, biomass and species distributions.

3.6 MARINE MAMMALS, BIRDS AND REPTILES

3.6.1 WHALES, DOPLPHINS AND SEALS

Both humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae) and southern right (Eubalaena australis) whales are frequently observed in the SW NRM region (CALM 1994). There is evidence that the SW region is an important calving and suckling ground for both species: Geographe Bay for the former species and sheltered bays of the south- west and west coasts for the latter (Elscot & Bancroft 1999). Other cetaceans observed by CALM employees in the SW region (D. Coughran, CALM Wildlife Protection, personal communication, in Elscot & Bancroft 1999) include sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus), minke whales (B. acutorostrata), long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas), pygmy right whales (Caparea marginate), scamperdown whales (Mesoplodon grayi), false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens), Cuvier’s whales (Ziphius cavirostris), Shepherd’s beaked whales (Tasmacetus shepherdi), pygmy sperm whales (Kogia breviceps), striped dolphins (Stenella caeruleoalba), bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and common dolphins (Delphinius delphis). Records of mass cetacean strandings (more than 3 animals) in the study region include striped dolphins at Augusta in 1989 and 1992 (Gales 1992), false killer whales at Augusta in 1986 and 1988 and Mandalay Beach, west of Busselton in 2005 (AAP 2005a; 2005b), bottlenose dolphins at Mandurah in 1990 and 1994, long-finned pilot whales at Dunsborough in 1996 and grey beaked whales at Busselton in 2003. All whales, dolphins and seals are Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act listed and protected under the Conservation and Land Management (CALM) Act.

Both the Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) and the New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) are regularly sighted in the SW region (Elscot & Bancroft 1999), with the latter species generally confined to the southern coastline, and breeding only occurring eastwards of the study region (Shaughnessy et al. 1994). There are reported sightings of sub-Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus tropicalis) and leopard seals (Hydrurga

20 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 leptonyx) in the area, however these animals are likely to represent vagrants and are beyond their normal range (D. Coughran, CALM Wildlife Protection, personal communication, in Elscot & Bancroft 1999).

3.6.2 SEABIRDS

Wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans) have been tracked from the New South Wales coast, around the south of Australia to Cape Leeuwin in the SW of WA (Nicholls et al. 1995), and is EPBC (Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999) listed as vulnerable. A breeding colony of red-tailed tropicbirds (Phaethon rubricauda, EPBC listed) at Sugarloaf Rock, near Cape Naturaliste, occurs at an unusually high latitude for this essentially tropical seabird species (Le Corre 2003). The bridled tern (Sterna anethetus, EPBC listed) breeds on Hamelin Island and the islands off Cape Leeuwin including Seal Island, which represents the southern boundary of its breeding range (Wooller et al. 1991, in Elscot & Bancroft 1999). The fairy tern (Sterna nereis, EPBC listed) has also been reported to breed within the study area. A conservation reserve for the purpose of maintaining a habitat for fairy terns was set aside in Peel Inlet prior to the building of Mandurah’s Marina in 1999. According to the City of Mandurah (Taylor Burrell Barnett & Gresley Abas 2005) fairy terns are yet to return to the allotted reserve area. Four important breeding islands for seabirds have been recognised in the study region by Burbidge and Fuller of CALM’s Western Australian Threatened Species and Communities Unit (WATSCU): Cape Hamelin (Islet), Hamelin Island, Seal Island and Sugarloaf Rock (Elscot & Bancroft 1999). Appendix 10 of Elscot and Bancroft (1999) contains a list of 68 seabird species recorded as visiting the Capes region.

The hooded plover (Thinornis rubricollis, EPBC listed) is a rare endemic species to Australia that has become locally extinct in several areas in the Eastern States. Hooded plovers live on ocean beaches and on coastal and inland salt lakes and are under threat from coastal development, home range contraction, foxes, cats and dogs. Hooded plovers are also accidentally crushed by pedestrians, four-wheel drives and motorbikes. According to Birds Australia Western Australia a Hooded Plover Management Plan for Western Australia has been developed in conjunction with CALM and other relevant local government authorities, land care and conservation groups (see http://birdswa.iinet.net.au/projects/hp/hp.htm).

Threatened species management, implementation of recovery plans and interim recovery plans in WA are developed and legislated by the Department of Environment and Conservation.

3.6.3 MARINE TURTLES

Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtles are the predominant species found in south-western Australian waters, with both species caught in low numbers but regularly by trawlers, netters and cray fishermen in Geographe Bay (B. Prince, CALM Science, personal communication, in Elscot & Bancroft 1999). This area is potentially the southernmost foraging ground for these species (Elscot & Bancroft 1999). Some green turtles (Chelonia mydas), a hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and juvenile flatback turtles (Natator depressus) have also been found in the region, the latter two as strandings (Prince 1993, 1996, in Elscot & Bancroft 1999). All marine turtle species are protected under State legislation and the Australian Governments EPBC Act 1999. The loggerhead turtle is currently listed as endangered under this Act, which means that that this species may become extinct if the threats to its survival continue. The leatherback, green,

21 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 and hawksbill turtles are currently listed as vulnerable, which means that they may become listed as endangered if threats continue. All species of marine turtle are listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals and under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

3.6.4 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - MARINE MAMMALS, BIRDS AND REPTILES

It is beyond the scope of this study to identify gaps in knowledge for this section. To identify gaps would require an understanding of the distribution and biology of marine birds, mammals and reptile species in the SW region, and of particular threats such as predation by introduced species. This information may be available in the broader literature pertaining to the temperate west coast of Western Australia. Potential gaps could be discussed with the Department of Environment and Conservation. However, there are several Threat Abatement Plans (TAPs) that have been developed for specific species that have been identified under the EPBC Act 1999 as posing a threat to the survival, abundance or evolutionary development of a native species or ecological community (see the Department of the Environment and Heritage for further information on Threat Abatement Plans, see appendix II for URL).

3.7 VULNERABLE MARINE COMMUNITIES

The vulnerabilities of particular marine communities or ecosystems are owed to their proximity to large concentrations of humans, as in the case of nearshore ecosystems (seagrasses, mangroves, saltmarsh/samphire flats), or to remoteness and isolation from effective governance by humans, as in the case with the high seas. They can also be vulnerable because of their direct economic importance.

The state of vulnerable or threatened communities (assemblages of animals and/or plants) and species in the marine, estuarine and coastal waters is an important issue for south west Western Australia. The intrinsic value and economic and social wealth of the area relies heavily on those species and communities that define SW ecosystems remaining healthy and viable. Any loss of marine communities and species can be regarded as a loss of natural assets, which reduces options for other species as well as humans in the future. There are several key threatening processes that are likely to affect the health and potential vulnerability of marine communities in the SW these are; fishing pressure, introduced marine pests, urban and industrial development, degradation of nearshore marine environments from land clearing and nutrient input, shipping, recreational and commercial activities, port development, dredging and inappropriate management practices.

In the SW, and many other regions, the major focus has centred on the decline in water quality and eutrophication of coastal estuaries and the associated impacts to nearshore seagrass meadows. Little information exists for communities outside of the major estuaries and embayment’s, with little to no information on offshore seagrass meadows, reef systems and sandy bottoms. Therefore, classification of vulnerable or ‘at risk’ species and communities is likely to be difficult to resolve without further baseline research, which will then allow a more thorough assessment to be done.

3.7.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS – VULNERABLE MARINE COMMUNITIES

Marine habitat loss has occurred at a number of locations in Western Australia’s marine environment (Cambridge & McComb 1984; Cambridge et al. 1986; EPA 1987; Cambridge et al. 2002). However, very few

22 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 areas currently have data available to show changes over time. To detect such changes it is necessary to have time series data that spans sufficient generation levels of the monitored biota. Current knowledge is often based on rapid assessment surveys or biased toward commercially viable species, with baseline monitoring lacking for many habitats, ecological communities and abiotic components. As a direct result, human activities may be unknowingly contributing to a decline in marine biodiversity. Detailed information on biodiversity attributes will need to be established across the region. These include identifying; threatened flora and fauna and ecological communities, species diversity and richness, population abundance and size structure, hot spots of endemism, trophic linkages between levels and other attributes that are directly or indirectly influenced by human activities.

Important questions such as how the land-ocean interaction operates and how this is influenced by human activity will also need to be addressed. This is likely to require combining research on marine problems with work on processes in catchment basins.

3.8 VULNERABLE MARINE SPECIES

The IUCN Red List is the primary source of information on the status of vulnerable marine species worldwide. Of the species listed as potentially vulnerable in Western Australian waters it’s the various shark species that are of particular concern as they are slow growing, have a low reproductive rate, are highly migratory, and school during the mating season. These life history traits that have served the various shark species so well over the last 400 million years of evolution also make them extremely vulnerable to intense human exploitation. Despite increasing concern over the vulnerability of sharks to overexploitation effective shark management remains inadequate. According to Fowler et al. (undated) many conservation and management tools are available to help ensure sustainable shark fisheries, but the political will to implement these tools still need to be generated. The ecosystem effect of removing these top-of-the-food-chain apex predators still needs to be fully understood.

Other species of concern are the seahorses, sea dragons (leafy and common) and pipefish, which are considered particularly vulnerable, even at low levels of exploitation (Pogonoski et al. 2002). These largely endemic species of southern Australian waters are threatened due to their high value as aquarium specimens and through loss of habitat. Sea dragons are known to occupy coastal waters across the entire SW region. The Shire of Augusta – Margaret River in conjunction with the Cape to Cape Catchments Group and Lower Blackwood LCDC received a Coast West / Coast Care grant to conduct a Leafy Sea Dragon Clean Drains Program in the shire. The project was designed to raise community awareness about the need to conserve our marine environment and all its inhabitants. By enlisting the help of the public, the project aims to reduce the amount of domestic and industrial pollution entering the ocean from stormwater runoff through the strategic placement of signs, posters and information flyers sent out with council paperwork. Projects of this nature have the potential to influence change with very little cost. However, a conscious effort needs to be maintained in continuing the public awareness campaign long after funding has ceased.

Previously, the IUCN listed the Australian sea lion as rare, however they suggest that some populations appear to be making a comeback with IUCN status upgraded to lower risk and of least concern (LR/lc). Nonetheless, there still exist human threats to populations of seals and marine mammals in the SW. These include

23 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 entanglement in fishing nets/pots and ocean litter, oil pollution, and disturbance by visitors. Regulations are in place to minimise disturbance to migrating whales and colonies of seals and sea lions throughout Australia, with the development of a threat abatement plan to reduce marine debris (see DEH website for further information, URL in appendix II) and the development of national guidelines for whale and dolphin watching (Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council 2005). Entanglement in fish nets, in particular gill nets, and plastic box straps remains a major problem for WA’s at risk species.

More specific to the Commonwealth of Australia is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The EPBC Act not only lists threatened species but threatened ecological communities and threatening processes to ecological communities. The EPBC Act replaces the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992, Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975, World Heritage Properties Conservation Act 1983 and the Whale Protection Act 1980. The Act has been updated to include critically endangered, conservation dependent and extinct in the wild categories to the previous categories of endangered, vulnerable and extinct for threatened species. Critically endangered and vulnerable categories have also been added to the previous category of endangered for ecological communities. A Threatened Species Scientific Committee (TSSC) assesses new nominations for species and ecological communities under the EPBC Act according to specific criteria as information is updated and made available for assessment.

The EPBC Act protects Commonwealth marine areas and provides for: • The identification and listing of Threatened Species and Threatened Ecological Communities • The development of Recovery Plans for listed species and ecological communities • The recognition of Key Threatening Processes • The reduction of Key Threatening Processes, where appropriate, through Threat Abatement Plans.

The EPBC Act overarches state and territory legislation if they impact upon "matters of national environmental significance", "commonwealth waters" and "protected species".

There are some obvious discrepancies with the status of certain species between the IUCN and the TSSC (under the EPBC Act). For example, the IUCN lists the status of the Australian sea lion as ‘lower risk’ and of ‘least concern’, whereas the TSSC lists the Australian sea lion as ‘vulnerable’. The major threats identified for Australian sea-lions are interactions with fisheries, particularly shark and lobster fisheries, pollution, and competition with fur seals. These discrepancies can lead to inconsistencies in the advice provided by the State and Commonwealth Departments and may be confusing to members of industry and the public.

The state of the Fisheries report 2004/05 highlights the concerns and threats to stocks of the dusky whaler, whiskery shark and sandbar sharks (McAuley & Gaughan 2005). There is also some concern for populations of grey nurse sharks in WA. The IUCN has listed grey nurse sharks as ‘near-threatened’ in Western Australia, which is unlike the eastern Australian populations where they have been listed as ‘critically endangered’. However, the assessment of ‘near-threatened’ by the IUCN is loosely based on the lack of past targeted fishing effort of grey nurse shark populations in Western Australia, rather than reliable population estimates. Grey nurse sharks are considered vulnerable under the EPBC Act 1999 (October 2001) (available via the DEH

24 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 website) and protected in Western Australian waters under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. Other species that are not listed under either the EPBC Act or the IUCN Red List but are considered vulnerable to overexploitation on the west coast of WA include (DoF 2001a); • Westralian dhufish, with a high vulnerability score due to fishing and environmental factors and of high biological risk • Baldchin groper with a high vulnerability score due to fishing and environmental factors and of high biological risk (IUCN listed as lower risk/least concern, no long term data on recreational catches) • Mulloway, with a high vulnerability score due to fishing and environmental factors and of high biological risk • Salmon with a moderate to high vulnerability score due to fishing and environmental factors and of moderate to high biological risk. • Blue groper, no risk assessment was given in the DoF (2001) report for this species (IUCN listed as lower risk/conservation dependent).

The above species are either not classified or given a Least Concern classification under the IUCN Red List or EPBC Act as these species don’t meet the specific selection criteria. These species are commonly not monitored and therefore don’t meet the criteria, as such they are not assessed for their potential of being threatened.

The Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 is currently administered by the Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM/DEC) and is the piece of legislation most relevant to the conservation of fishes in WA. • Data on current at risk marine species is available for many species on the IUCN Red List web site. The 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is available online at (http://www.redlist.org/). • The EPBC Act – List of Threatened Fauna is available online at (http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi- bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=fauna) • Further information on at-risk, ‘threatened’ or ‘potentially threatened’ marine species can be found in (Pogonoski et al. 2002). • See NIMPIS website for introduced marine pests (http://www.marine.csiro.au/crimp/nimpis/). • The Centre for Research on Introduced Marine Pests latest records show 43 marine pests in Western Australia, while the Department of Fisheries have recorded 92 species of marine pests.

3.8.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS – VULNERABLE MARINE SPECIES

Confusion has existed in the past in recording catches of blue groper with the blue groper often being confused with the similarly named bluebone or baldchin groper. Blue groper are also taken as by catch in the WA shark fishery (Simpfendorfer & Unsworth 1998). Further studies are needed on blue groper to determine; • How important estuaries are as nursery areas for juveniles • The population structure i.e. abundance, ecology and sex ratios • The status of the Blue Groper Protection Strategy (NHT funded under the Coasts and Clean Seas Marine Species Protection Program to the Surfriders Foundation – Margaret River Chapter)

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Similarly for baldchin groper, which are endemic to WA; • may require further research into age and size at maturity to assess if current catch size and bag limits are sustainable.

Seadragons (Phycodurus spp.) are also at risk of overexploitation and are known to inhabit the shallow, protected reef and seagrass areas of southern Western Australia, however, there are no published estimates of population size or structure. Permits are issued for the collection of marine life for aquarium display without a full understanding of the impacts of its removal and mortality in captivity. The potential exists for whole populations of seadragons to be removed by licensed collectors. Gaps in knowledge of other vulnerable species groups besides marine mammals, and commercially important fisheries species are yet to be determined.

The highly migratory nature of various species of whales, dolphins, seals, sealions, sharks, birds and some species of fish means that many may only be transient visitors to the SW region thus management and monitoring should be conducted at a state level rather than at the regional level.

3.9 THE CAR MARINE RESERVE SYSTEM

Marine management is moving toward identifying and protecting representative examples of the diversity of habitats, communities and processes, rather than focusing on individual species or specific habitats (Ray 1999). This understanding of the importance of an ecosystem-approach is reflected in protocols at the international level (Convention on Biological Diversity), the national level (The National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas, ANZECC 1998, 1999 & 2000; Australia’s Ocean Policy, Commonwealth of Australia 1998) and the regional level (New Horizons Policy – The way ahead in marine conservation and management, CALM 1998).

At the national level the Australia and New Zealand Environment Conservation Council (ANZECC 1998 & 2000) developed a suite of general principles to guide the development of a National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA). These principles require that any network be comprehensive, adequate and representative (the ‘CAR’ principles).

Comprehensive requires that the full range of diversity across the marine environment is represented at the appropriate scale (i.e. ecosystem, habitat, community, population, species and genetic diversity) and across each bioregion in order to provide a buffer to destructive effects, whether anthropogenic or natural causes. Comprehensive also includes the maintenance of habitats of special significance such as unique biological communities, keystone species and genetic sources. Adequate refers to the level of protection offered within a protected area network to ensure the maintenance of ecological viability, to allow sufficient levels of connectivity between communities, populations and species, and to safeguard the integrity of natural processes. Representative requires that an area to be protected is a typical representation of other areas within a particular region at a particular spatial scale (i.e. at the scale of habitat, community or population). That is, they have similar physical features, oceanographic processes, ecological patterns, biological communities and/or species to elsewhere in the region.

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Also, for inclusion in the CAR network ANZECC state that public consultation should be included to address current and future cultural, economic, and social aspects as well as management issues of feasibility and practicality.

The framework for Marine Protected Area (MPA) management in Australia has been developing since 1992 as follows: • 1992 – ANZECC agreed to a National System of Marine Protected Areas; • 1998 – Commonwealth Governments Oceans Policy and the Regional Marine Planning Process; • 1999 – A key ANZECC document “Strategic Plans of Action for the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas”; • IMCRA – Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia. IMCRA is being used as a basis for planning the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas by helping to identify gaps where ecosystems and habitats are not yet protected and; • 2004/05 – Marine Bioregional Planning (under section 176 of the EPBC Act 1999) led by the National Oceans Office.

3.9.1 MARINE CONSERVATION RESERVES

The Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM) (now the Department of Environment and Conservation) manages all marine conservation reserves and is responsible for developing and implementing management plans for each reserve. The process of marine conservation planning in WA begins with CALM producing an indicative management plan for the Marine Parks and Reserves Authority (MPRA) whom then provide advice to the Minister of Environment on the establishment and proposed management of the state- wide system of marine conservation reserves. This process can be lengthy as it involves public consultation, and concordance from other ministerial departments such as the Minister for Fisheries and the Minister for State Development before the marine conservation reserve can be gazetted.

In 1998, the Western Australian Government released the strategy: New Horizons – The Way Ahead in Marine Conservation and Management (CALM 1998b). This strategy is based on definitions contained in the Department of Conservation and Land Management Act 1984 (CALM Act) with the broad aim of producing one comprehensive multiple-use marine reserve system where marine biodiversity and key ecological processes, such as ecosystem structure and function are conserved and maintained for the future. ‘Multiple– use’ (meaning that a diverse range of recreational, and where appropriate commercial) activities are to be managed in a fair (equitable) and ecologically sustainable way. Scientific research and education are promoted to provide a greater understanding and appreciation of the marine environment.

The key elements of the New Horizons strategy are: • a Marine Parks and Reserves Authority to govern marine conservation reserves, and is to be supported by a specialist Scientific Advisory Committee; • a three tiered approach to marine conservation reserves – Marine Parks, Marine Nature Reserves, and Marine Management Areas; • to ensure extensive ecological assessment, community consultation and management planning take place before the establishment of a new marine conservation reserve;

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• develop specific guidelines for fishing and aquaculture interests in marine conservation reserves and to; • develop specific guidelines for industry access within marine conservation reserves.

The commonly referred to Wilson Report (CALM 1994) makes various recommendations for potential marine conservation areas within the study area. Among these is Broke Inlet which has been recognised as a potential marine park for many years and is the only estuary in the SW whose catchment is fully forested and protected from development (Carman-Brown 2003). Black Point was also identified as a future marine park area.

Proposed Marine Sanctuaries in the SW region include: • Geographe Bay/Leeuwin-Naturaliste/Hardy Inlet (‘Capes’) Marine Park. The Indicative Management Plan for the Capes Marine Park was released for public review in September 2006; a copy is contained in the Endnote library (see DEC 2006). Note: the closing date for submissions is the 15 December 2006. • Walpole-Nornalup Inlets Marine Conservation Reserve.

3.9.2 FISH HABITAT PROTECTION AREAS

Fish Habitat Protection Areas (FHPA’s) and Reef Protected Areas (RPA’s) are a WA initiative that was developed by the WA Department of Fisheries for a number of purposes including: the protection of the aquatic environment; the protection of fish and; education (DoF 2002a). However, these are fisheries management areas rather than a component of the Marine Park Area (MPA) strategy.

Reef protected areas in the SW region include: • Quindalup artificial reef • Wreck of the HMAS Swan • Yallingup Reef • Cowaramup Bay

3.9.3 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - THE CAR MARINE RESERVE SYSTEM

There is a general lack of knowledge of marine biodiversity in the SW region. Scientifically creditable baseline information appears to be limited for areas within and adjacent to the proposed Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) (Capes and Walpole-Nornalup) in the SW region. This lack of information may impede the identification of representative ecosystems for the conservation reserve system and the conservation status of some taxa. The Wilderness Society (WA Branch) suggests the size of sanctuary zones in the Capes Marine Park (under the New Horizons Strategy 1998) does little to protect vulnerable species and communities nor does it meet the recommended scientific standards (see MacKenzie 2006). Furthermore, the Conservation Council of SA (2006) state that establishing multiple-use MPAs within the Marine Planning process may fail to deliver biodiversity protection but may relegate fully protected areas to a small percentage of marine bioregions and render them useless in performing essential ecosystem processes and protecting all species and habitats. However, there may be scope for periodic review of management plans with the opportunity to amend zoning if required.

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Significant areas should be gazetted as no-take marine reserves (using IUCN Categories la, Ib and II) under the existing legislation. Moreover, before a marine reserve is declared, baseline surveys should be conducted over several years to assess the scale of inter-annual variability. Effective monitoring programs are required to assess the ability of marine reserves to achieve management aims. Flexibility in management decisions may need to be incorporated to allow for unforeseen circumstances i.e. identification of further threats to conservation of species and/or habitats.

3.10 MARINE ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

Marine ecosystem processes are generally not well understood in the SW. The majority of available research focuses on the Leeuwin Current and to a lesser extent the Capes counter-current. A few researchers in particular have devoted much of their research careers to understanding the structure and function of these major currents and their associated influences, on the delivery, retention and advection of larvae and propagules to and away from coastal ecosystems.

3.10.1 THE LEEUWIN CURRENT

The Leeuwin Current is a warm (17 – 19 °C) southward flowing current of lower salinity (35.7 – 35.8 ppt) water that flows from Exmouth to Cape Leeuwin, where it then turns eastwards and continues into the Great Australian Bight (Church et al. 1989; Pearce 1991; Cresswell & Peterson 1993). The current is approximately 50 km wide and 300 m deep, is stronger during autumn and winter than during the summer months, and brings tropical water to southwestern Australia. Considerable research over the past forty years has demonstrated that the Leeuwin Current has a major influence on regional climate, commercial fisheries and coastal development. However, the extent to which the Leeuwin Current penetrates into the nearshore environment of the SW region is largely unknown (but see Hanson 2004; Hanson et al. 2005).

Research reviews and literature on the Leeuwin Current includes: a synthesised literature review by Pearce (1983); and a more recent bibliography of physical oceanography studies in WA see Pearce (1993). The Department of Environment and Heritage are also constructing a bibliography of physical oceanography studies in WA (pers com. Andrew Coleman - DEH).

There are numerous studies that have shown that Leeuwin Current processes influence many of the states commercial fisheries such as; the western rock lobster (Pearce & Phillips 1991; Phillips et al. 1991; Caputi et al. 1996; Caputi et al. 2001; Griffin et al. 2001; Caputi et al. 2003; Clarke & Li 2004); southern bluefin tuna (Davis & Lyne 1994); mudcrabs (Gopurenko et al. 2003); and inshore finfish fisheries (Lenanton et al. 1991; Ayvazian & Hyndes 1995; Pearce et al. 1997; Fairclough et al. 2000).

Various other studies have shown the influence of the Leeuwin Current on; corals (Hatcher 1991); coastal climate (Cresswell 1991; Gentilli 1991; Pearce 1991; Pearce & Walker 1991; D'Adamo & Mamaev 1999); and marine plankton (Pearce et al. 1992; Hanson 2004; Hanson et al. 2005); and seabirds (Wooller et al. 1991).

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3.10.2 THE CAPES CURRENT

The Capes current is a cool northward counter current that flows inshore of the Leeuwin Current southeast of Cape Leeuwin between the months of October and March (Pearce et al. 1996; Pearce & Pattiaratchi 1999). The current is believed to reach north of the Abrolhos Islands (Pearce & Pattiaratchi 1999) although current measurements are yet to be made specifically within the Capes Current. The Capes current is thought to be important in assisting the recruitment of post-larval western rock lobsters (Pearce & Pattiaratchi 1999), the northward migration of adult Australian salmon (Pearce et al. 1996) and the transport of larval tailor to fisheries further north (Lenanton et al. 1996). In comparison to the Leeuwin Current, little is known about the Capes Current and its influence on marine ecosystem processes.

3.10.3 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - MARINE ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

Continued monitoring of Indian Ocean oceanographic processes will add to our knowledge of these links between physical and biological conditions in the ocean. This knowledge will benefit the management of; sustainable fisheries with a greater understanding of recruitment processes; climate variability and rainfall prediction; regional interconnectedness with relevance to MPAs; anthropogenic and catchment related impacts; and a general improved understanding of the marine ecosystem.

Other marine ecosystem processes that have received much less attention but have an indirect influence on ecosystem function include tides, wind forcing, waves and barocline currents.

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4 THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT - OVERVIEW OF EXISTING INFORMATION

4.1 SHORELINE STABILITY

Erosion risk is a significant issue affecting shoreline stability in several areas across the SW region. Various studies have identified areas where erosion risk is high. In Mandurah’s Shoreline Study, Rogers & Associates (1999) identified Halls Head Beach and Roberts Point as areas of high erosion risk. Similarly, the DPI (2004) estimate that the Locke Estate foreshore within Geographe Bay has a natural shoreline recession rate of approximately 2m/yr. To combat erosion groynes and rivetments that disrupt the natural processes are constructed, which can exacerbate erosion risk for other locations and often lead to a need for beach renourishment. Areas with a high erosion risk are generally a result of development that has been inappropriately located or where coastal setbacks have not necessarily been adhered to.

Port construction can also threaten shoreline stability. As a direct result of the Port Geographe development the Department for Planning and Infrastructure has been asked to approve the construction of two groynes at Wonnerup Beach to address erosion problems. Sand bypassing is also being used to further nourish Wonnerup Beach (pers comm. Vince Beard – Port Geographe Action Group).

While the stability of the shoreline is often most threatened in areas of intense coastal development, other areas that are sparsely populated can also be at risk of erosion due to inappropriate recreational activities. For example Black Point has been identified as being particularly susceptible to erosion due to four wheel drives, sand boarding and un-restricted pedestrian access. Dune blowouts between Hardy Inlet and Black Point have been mapped over time (since 1976) by the DPI Coastal Assets Branch. Further information on dune blowouts and shoreline stability between Augusta and Walpole can be found in the Augusta-Walpole Coastal Strategy, Background Information, see Carman-Brown (2003).

The endnote library contains two appendices (combined in the one document), Appendix 3 - Historic Coastal Protection Works and Appendix 4 - Sites in WA with Currently Active Coastal Problems that list sites within WA that have been identified as historically needing coastal works to address shoreline stability, and sites with current shoreline problems (see DPI 2006a). There are also other relevant documents addressing erosion and shoreline stability in the Endnote library (see DCE 1982; Bruun 1988; Jones & Hayne 2002; DPI 2004; Bicknell 2006; DPI 2006b; JFA Consultants 2006).

4.1.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS – SHORELINE STABILITY

Besides Black Point there are likely to be other areas in the SW region where four wheel drives are having a significant impact by exacerbating coastal erosion. In general little is known about the way tourists and locals choose to recreate on the coast. Coastal activities like four wheel driving and sandboarding may have a significant impact as they often occur in areas that are already eroding e.g. dune blow-outs.

At present there is little information on shoreline movement in the SW. It’s vital for the future of sustainable coastal planning and management that shoreline movement information does becomes available. Studies

31 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 focusing on coastal processes, such as volume of sand and wrack movement during long shore drift and storm events, may well provide the information coastal planners require to make appropriate decisions.

Experience to date suggests that it is difficult to design modified shorelines without side-effects. However, the development of appropriately designed coastal infrastructure may reduce erosion of shorelines by allowing natural processes to occur as well as reducing the costs of ongoing maintenance.

4.2 COASTAL HABITATS

The Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (IBRA) categorises the Australian continent into regions of like geology, landform, vegetation, fauna, and climate. Across Australia there are 80 bioregions with 26 in WA and two regions within the study area, namely the Swan Coastal Plain region and the Warren region. For a review of these two biogeographic regions see SWCC (2005). Further information on IBRA can be obtained from the DEH website, see appendix II for URL.

The south-west corner of Australia has been identified as one of the worlds 25 ‘biodiversity hotspots’ and is the only area classified as such in Australia (Myers et al. 2000). For classification as a biodiversity hotspot the authors specify that an area needs to have exceptional concentrations of endemic species and undergoing exceptional loss of habitat. Further information on the south-west as a biodiversity hotspot can be found on the WWF website at http://www.wwf.org.au/articles/feature04.

The Peel-Harvey Estuary is recognised as one of the most important estuaries in south-western Australia as a conservation area for waterbirds, with the tidal flats and shallows around Creery Island forming one of the most important habitat areas for waterbirds (Taylor Burrell Barnett & Gresley Abas 2005). Samphire flats and saltmarshes are also common in the estuary and provide important habitat for waterbirds (DCE 1983). The heathlands and shrublands of the coastal plain also support many endemic and endangered plants and invertebrates (Peel Development Commission 2005). The Peel-Yalgorup system, which includes the Peel Inlet, Harvey Estuary, Lake Mealup, Lake McLarty and the Yalgorup Lakes, is a Ramsar listed wetland, which has world-wide recognition as a major environmental asset. Despite its ecological significance the estuary is considered one of the worst in WA in terms of water quality (Peel Development Commission 2002). Since the construction of the Dawesville Cut the biota of the Peel-Harvey estuary has become significantly more marine in composition (Young & Potter 2003). Algal blooms in the waterways, land clearing for urban and rural purposes, rising salinity, weeds and feral animals, sand bypassing at the estuary mouth have all been identified as being major challenges threatening biodiversity values and habitats in the Peel-Harvey area.

The Leschenault Inlet is another prominent estuary and important coastal habitat for many native species of flora and fauna. Of particular significance to the estuary are the white mangroves which represent the most southerly occurrence of this species in WA. White mangroves form local stands in three settings along the shores of the Leschenault Inlet in brackish, hypersaline and marine environments (Semeniuk et al. 2000). The paper by Semeniuk et al. (2000) documents the changes in the mangroves over the last 60 years, up to the year 1996. Other plant species of special interest to the Leschenault Peninsula and Inlet include the dune sedge (Carex pumila), with the only record in WA, and a previously unrecorded species of the family Brassicaceae (Rorippa sp.). The area also contains extensive samphire flats, large well developed stands of Peppermint and

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Tuart trees, one of the largest populations in south-western Australia of the annual Native pellitory (Parietaria debilis), and provides significant breeding areas for many waterbirds and animals (CALM 1998a). Prior to 1990 the Leschenault Peninsula was used as a disposal site for acid effluent produced as waste from the production of titanium dioxide (CALM 1998a).

In the year 2000 the Royal Society of Western Australia published a multi-disciplinary compendium of 21 papers on the Leschenault Inlet, detailing its physical environment, water quality, aquatic flora and fauna, avifauna and management issues. The general conclusion from these studies suggests that the impact of nutrients on the estuary is negligible. However, they also caution that the long-term effects of developmental impacts on the unique characteristics of the estuary are presently unknown. Management practices need to be implemented before the condition of the estuary degrades to a state from which it can no longer recover. Further information can be obtained form the Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia (RSWA) The Leschenault Inlet Estuary, Vol. 83 Part 4. PDF files are also available for many of the studies in the endnote library.

Further south is the highly modified Vasse-Wonnerup system near Busselton. Extensive draining of the system, to prevent waterlogging on the over-cleared catchment, has resulted in highly modified flows to its estuaries. Modification’s to the catchment in conjunction with high nutrient loading, due to poor land practices, has led to algal blooms, deoxygenation events and fish kills in the area. The estuary also has the notoriety of having the greatest input of nutrients per square metre of catchment of all estuaries in Western Australia (McAlpine et al. 1989; DoE 2004). The catchment drains into Geographe Bay via its estuaries and artificial drainage ditches with reports suggesting that water quality has worsened significantly over the past decade (SKM 2003). A review of the Lower Vasse River Cleanup Program by Paice (2005) addresses the efforts of GeoCatch and the Shire of Busselton toward improving the ecological health of the river. The review also provides an assessment and summary of the major projects completed and identifies future actions and recommendations for future works. The Vasse-Wonnerup wetland supports tens of thousands of birds (WAPC 2005a), and was listed as a wetland of ecological importance under the Ramsar convention in 1990.

From Cape Naturaliste to Augusta the coastal habitat is predominantly vested in the Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park. However, the area is becoming increasingly popular with tourists and is the most visited national park in WA with more than a million visits every year (Thomson-Dans et al. 2003). The permanent population is also on the increase in the SW (WAPC 2005b) with many individuals and families choosing to move out of the major centres looking for a change in lifestyle. For a general description of the habitat within the national park see the Leeuwin-Naturaliste Management Plan (DCLM 1989).

Groundwater springs and small wetlands on the Leeuwin-Naturaliste coast support three distinct forms of tufa (i.e. small microbial communities of cyanobacteria, green algae and diatoms on freshwater calcium carbonate deposits) (Burne & Moore 1987). The Cape Leeuwin Wetland System (adjacent to the waterwheel on Cape Leeuwin) also supports several threatened plant communities and the largest known population of the rare and threatened Cape Leeuwin Freshwater Snail (Austroassiminea letha) (Elscot & Bancroft 1999). The Western Australian Threatened Species and Communities Unit (WATSCU) have listed the tufa communities near the waterwheel at Cape Leeuwin as a threatened ecological community.

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Not unlike the Capes coast the majority of the coast between Augusta and Walpole is National Park and managed by CALM under either the Conservation and Land Management Act or by management orders under the Land Administration Act (LAA). National Parks along this stretch of coastline include the D’Entrecasteaux National Park and the Walpole-Nornalup National Park. In the area there are a number of estuaries and inlets of significance. These include Hardy, Broke and Walpole-Nornalup Inlets, and other inlets associated with the Donnelly, Warren, Meerup, Doggerup and Gardner rivers. The Semeniuk Research Group (1999) have conducted a baseline survey of the Walpole-Nornalup Inlet environment for the Shire of Manjimup which covers many detailed aspects of the inlet. The Walpole-Nornalup System is considered unique to the SW of WA with open waters adjacent to high hillsides clad in tall karri and red tingle forests (Carman-Brown 2003). Habitat values are high with many species of waterbird and 37 species of fish known to the estuary, which is closed to commercial fishing.

Between Augusta and Walpole 57 species of threatened flora have been recorded, with 8 species protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. Tufa communities have been recorded at Black Point and listed by CALM as a threatened ecological community, as are the peat paluslopes of several endangered swamps found between the D’Entrecasteaux National Park and Walpole. Both these habitats are known to be vulnerable to trampling, fire, changes to the hydrological regime, changes to water quality and the potential for invasion by weeds (Carman-Brown 2003). DEC is the statutory body charged with ensuring threatened taxa and critically endangered taxa do not become extinct in WA. This is achieved through the preparation of a Recovery Plan (RP) or Interim Recovery Plan (IRP), which outlines the recovery actions that are required to address the threatening processes most affecting the ongoing survival of certain taxa in the wild. With the help of DEC staff Local Flora Recovery Teams, consisting of representatives from DEC, community groups, local Shires and various government organisations, then implement the IRPs.

The introduction of exotic weeds has been identified by DEC as a key threatening process that presents a serious threat to the survival of WA endemic species in the wild. Nationally, weeds are responsible for causing detrimental impacts worth billions of dollars to the sustainability of Australia’s productive capacity and natural ecosystems (National Weeds Strategy undated). The extensive economic, social and environmental damage caused by weeds has stimulated a joint initiative between ARMCANZ, ANZECC and forestry ministers to develop a Weeds of National Significance (WONS) program, where national significance criteria could be developed to prioritise weed problems for national action under the National Weeds Strategy. Weeds of national significance that are present in the SW region include African love grass, arum lily, Bathurst burr, blackberry, bridal creeper, golden dodder, gorse, hydroctyl, narrow leaf cotton bush, Paterson’s curse, salvinia, St John’s wort and watsonia. Further information on the Weeds of National Significance can be found at http://www.weeds.org.au/docs/WONS/index.html.

4.2.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - COASTAL HABITATS

There are many coastal strategies and plans in place in the SW that list goals, objectives and issues for sustainable management of coastal habitats (see fig 5.1). A common consensus from these documents is a general lack in knowledge of coastal processes and the causative effects of these processes on coastal habitats and communities. It is also apparent that coastal managers are coming under increasing pressure to provide

34 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 greater recreational access to the coast across the SW region. The desire for accommodation to be located near or adjacent to the coast is likely to compound this issue further. Thus an understanding of coastal processes is paramount to avoid an ad hoc or uncoordinated approach to coastal development.

A National cooperative approach to achieving ecologically sustainable development through Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) has been developed by the NRMMC to encourage a more proactive approach from planners and management in the rehabilitation, protection and improvement of coastal and marine assets Australia wide (see Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council 2006).

Other issues of importance in the SW region include the fragmented or scattered nature of many of the national parks with unmanaged private lands dividing national park boundaries. This is likely to increase the impacts of edge effects (such as weeds, domestic and farm animals, fire, and tourism and recreational uses) to coastal habitats especially those areas of ecological significance, or potential areas of significance. Management of private coastal lands remain an issue for coastal planners and managers.

Carman-Brown (2003) suggests that the lack of terrestrial flora information of islands is a major gap in our understanding of coastal habitats. Many of these islands in the SW are important habitats for breeding and nesting seabirds as well as important haul out areas for marine mammals.

CALM researchers suggest that coastal vegetation and regional ecosystem mapping is limited in the SW, with current mapping of low resolution, and a further gap in knowledge. In addition, they also suggest that; many reserves have limited vegetation mapping available; most reserves don’t have long-term survey data on species presence or absence for invertebrates and vertebrates; with no quantitative data on the effect of exotic predators, weed colonisation, fragmentation, fire or mineral extraction (Mitchell et al. 2002).

There is currently no monitoring of the condition and status of the closed mangrove scrub within Leschenault Inlet. Losses of mangroves and saltmarsh areas through land reclamations, drainage and other development may affect fish and other sea life which use these as nurseries and feeding grounds.

4.3 COASTAL FAUNA

Feral animals pose a significant threat to native Australian animals with National Park Management Plans listing introduced species such as horses, cats, dogs, pigs, foxes, deer, rats, dingos, mice, birds, fish, bees, snails, cane toads and rabbits. Management issues arising from introduced species include the predation of native and endemic species, displacement of native species, destruction of vegetation, spread of weeds and disease and disruption of pollination processes. Threat abatement plans have been developed by the Department of Environment and Heritage to provide for research, management and any other actions necessary to reduce the impact of a listed key threatening process on a threatened species or ecological community. However, these plans are limited to merely a few introduced pests (cats, foxes, goats, pigs and rabbits).

Other animals that are not necessarily introduced, but have adapted and now thrive in areas of high human settlement, can also pose a threat to native animal populations. Seagulls, ibis and raven numbers have significantly increased around coastal centres; largely due to poor refuse management. Better refuse

35 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 management near beachside towns to reduce artificially high gull and raven numbers may be beneficial in promoting the return of endemic marine and coastal birdlife to coastal nesting and breeding habitat.

The Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation publishes Wildlife Management Programs to provide detailed information and management actions for the conservation of threatened or harvested species of flora and fauna. As a result there are now many recovery plans available for various threatened animal species in WA.

Several species within the SW region have been identified and listed as vulnerable under the EPBC Act 1999. Caranby’s black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus latirostris) was recently listed as endangered by the EPBC. Land clearing has resulted in few breeding habitats remaining and starvation for chicks due to the increased distances between nesting and feeding areas. Introduced species and illegal trapping have also been identified as being detrimental to the cockatoo’s breeding success. For other bird species listed as vulnerable or endangered see the EPBC webpage (see appendix II for URL).

Although not classified as endangered or threatened by the EPBC Act 1999 the DEH has listed the Western hooded plover (Thinornis rubricollis tregellasi) as a near threatened species. The hooded plover breeds on the SW Western Australia coast between Cape Naturaliste and Eyre and on inland lakes such as the Yalgorup Lakes (DEH undated). As such the plover is likely to be under increased pressure from further coastal development and beach traffic. The Peel Preservation Group have been tracking the movements of the hooded plover in Yalgorup National Park and wherever sighted. The Australian Wildlife Conservancy (AWC) has classified the hooded plover as threatened priority fauna.

Other species of particular interest to the SW include several species of frog including the rare white-bellied (Geocrinia alba) and orange-bellied (Geocrinia vitellina) frogs. Under the EPBC Act 1999 the white-bellied frog is listed as endangered with the orange-bellied frog as vulnerable, both species are restricted to the lower south-west of WA. However, under the Commonwealth Endangered Species Act 1992 the white-bellied is listed as vulnerable and the orange-bellied as endangered. Threat abatement plans and recovery plans for both species are available through the DEH website (for URL see appendix II).

Several mammals from the SW region are listed under the EPBC Act 1999 as endangered or vulnerable. The chuditch or western quoll (Dasyurus geoffroii) is listed as vulnerable (threat abatement plans and chuditch recovery plan are available from the DEH). The western ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus occidentalis) is also listed as vulnerable; however no recovery plan or threat abatement plan was uncovered. The woylie or brush- tailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi) is not classified under the EPBC Act 1999 however the IUCN has listed this species as lower risk (conservation dependent). The woylie once inhabited more than 60% of the Australian mainland but now occurs on less than 1% in response to land clearing and predation by introduced foxes (Australasian Marsupial & Monotreme Specialist Group 1996). The south-west of WA is one of the few remaining places in Australia where natural populations still remain (Maxwell et al. 1996).

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State threatened wildlife recovery plans are also available for many of the species listed above, including Carnaby’s black cockatoo, chuditch, woylie and orange-bellied and white-bellied frogs. These are available via the DEC website (see http://www.naturebase.net/plants_animals/watscu/recovery_plans.html. )

4.3.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - COASTAL FAUNA

The laws that apply in WA to protect the habitats of endemic flora are covered by a wide variety of State and Commonwealth statutes. Priorities for faunal species on the other hand lag well behind. Species’ can only be registered once they become endangered, which then requires a recovery plan to be implemented by the state body (DEC in WA). Recovery Action Plans are also expensive and have no legislative force under WA law.

The State of the Environment Report WA 2006 draft suggests that there are significant gaps in our knowledge of many species and ecosystems with knowledge of threats to biodiversity values inadequate (EPA 2006).

It was beyond the scope of this project to identify gaps in knowledge for this section. To identify gaps would require an understanding of the distribution and biology of the many coastal species and their habitats. Potential knowledge gaps could be discussed with the Department of Environment and Conservation.

4.4 COASTAL WETLANDS

The Directory of Important Wetlands in Western Australia (ANCA 1996) provides a national assemblage of Australia’s important wetlands (Elscot & Bancroft 1999). The directory is a collaborative project between Federal and State Governments that was established to promote better management and conservation of Australia’s wetlands. Several criteria for determining the importance of wetland areas were identified and include representativeness, rarity, biodiversity, wetland functions, and historic and cultural significance. The ANCA (1996) suggest endemism of wetland plant species of the SW region is relatively high, especially in the ephemeral wetlands. Coastal wetlands of National importance within the SW region include; the Peel-Harvey Estuary; the Yalgorup Lakes System; the Vasse-Wonnerup Wetland System; McCarley’s Swamp (Ludlow Wetlands); the Blackwood River (lower reaches) and Tributaries System; the Cape Leeuwin System; the Broke Inlet System; and the Gingilup-Jasper Wetland System which also has a very high significance to Aboriginal People. Other wetlands which are considered to be important include the Tutunup Road Swamp, Ludlow-Abba Wetlands and the Broadwater Floodplain.

The Lake Preston wetlands area is an important part of the coastal ecosystem in the Shire of Harvey supporting large populations of waterbirds. Lake Preston is a permanent water body that provides refuge from drought for many bird species.

The Water and Rivers Commission (Pen 1997) have published an overview of the environmental values of the various wetlands, rivers and estuaries between Busselton and Walpole. This report provides a description of the state of individual wetlands, rivers and estuaries and evaluates the ecological importance of each wetland. The commission has also completed a mapping and classification project for wetlands between Augusta and Walpole (Water and Rivers Commission 1997). Wetlands were classified by a combination of location and duration and timing of water retention.

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A study carried out by the Semeniuk Research Group (1997), and funded by the Australian Heritage Commission’s National Estate Program, recommended four wetland sites adjacent to Flinders Bay (between Augusta and Walpole) for inclusion on the Register of the National Estate. These include the Alamein Suite and Gingilup Swamps, the D’Entrecasteaux Suite, the Balgamup Suite and Bolghinup Lake. These wetlands were selected due to their significant habitat value for invertebrates and fish and because of the unusual flora associated with each system.

The Statewide Wetlands Database Project 2005, funded by NHT, stores data on wetlands across the state. DEC, Murdoch University and Edith Cowan University contribute data to the database which can be accessed online. The online database contains information on sampling conducted to date for many of the wetlands in the SW region. Other information available includes general site information such as tenure, hydrology, geomorphology, threatened flora and fauna. Maps and reports can also be generated on the wetland of interest with GPS coordinates given. See http://www.naturebase.net/projects/wetlands_database.html for further information.

4.4.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - COASTAL WETLANDS

Coastal wetlands are being degraded by nutrient run-off, stormwater drainage, herbicide and pesticide run-off, infilling, land clearing, wildfire and other intensified activities. Despite the concentrated research focus on a few of the SW regions important wetlands many wetlands, and their associated flora and fauna, remain understudied with their ecological links poorly understood. Additionally, the majority have no management plans guiding their protection.

Government funding for formal wetland inventory and evaluation is currently limited. Mapping of wetland habitats is also limited, especially in areas that fall within private estates, which represents a gap in our understanding in the values of the area. Coastal wetlands need to be managed appropriately to maintain their natural values, ecological processes and linkages. Where development is proposed abutting wetland areas methods for waste removal, rather than seepage tanks, may need to be implemented to reduce contamination and further degradation of the system.

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5 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING MARINE AND COASTAL PLANS

There is an extensive body of literature on coastal management and planning in the SW region including many summary documents. These have been compiled by DEC / CALM, WAPC, Coastcare, Local Councils, NHT, etc. with many of these references included in the Endnote database. As this document is focussed on guiding future investment by SWCC, we have identified where management plans are in place and highlighted geographical gaps in coastal management (i.e. where coastal management plans are not in place). The aforementioned literature has also been consulted to collate gaps, issues or threats within the SW region, identified within (for a concise list of the major issues highlighted by the various coastal management plans see section 6.6.1). The standout issue regarding these documents is the currency of the information contained within. That is, many of the plans and strategies identified are at least 5 years old (date of publication) with information contained within likely to be gathered many years prior to publication. Furthermore, we were unable to locate coastal management plans for several key areas where threats from development may be the greatest (see fig 5.1).

5.1 COASTAL MANAGEMENT PLANS

Generally, once knowledge of an impact is identified it is dealt with some efficiency. There appears to be a significant coverage of coastal management plans across the SW, with coastal National Parks managed by the Department of and Environment Conservation and local governments responsible for the majority of remaining crown lands. The exception is private land (freehold) where management is inherently more difficult to assess. There needs to be a more concerted effort directed at anticipating where impacts are likely to occur before they intensify, especially when we consider the forecasted growth rates for the SW region (see table 5.1). This is likely to require more detailed baseline information and regular monitoring to help identify minor impacts before they escalate into larger, and more expensive to remediate, impacts.

Management is likely to be difficult to achieve in reserves where the boundaries are fragmented by private land, as in the Leeuwin-Naturaliste and Yalgorup National Park’s. Corridors for natural species movements need to be maintained. Similarly, the impacts from weed invasions, fire, grazing by stock and urbanisation are likely to be much easier to control and manage where the boundaries are more continuous and less fragmented.

Where there are no recognised coastal townsites or settlements, coastal management plans or strategies do not appear to exist, for example no management plan was located for the Shire of Nannup.

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Table 5.1: Population projections – SW NRM Region 2006 2011 2016 2021 Preston Bunbury 31,700 32,500 33,400 34,000 Capel 10,700 13,300 15,200 16,200 Collie 9,000 9,000 8,900 8,700 Dardanup 10,300 12,700 14,900 17,000 Donnybrook-Balingup 4,800 5,000 5,300 5,500 Harvey 19,100 20,900 22,600 24,000

Vasse Augusta-Margaret River 11,900 13,400 15,000 16,600 Busselton 26,800 30,100 33,300 36,500

Blackwood Boyup Brook 1,600 1,500 1,500 1,400 Bridgetown- 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,000 Greenbushes Manjimup 10,000 10,100 10,000 9,900 Nannup 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200

Total South West 141,200 153,900 165,400 175,000

Source: Western Australia Tomorrow (WAPC 2005b), extracted from the SWDC website.

5.2 LOCAL GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

Many of the local governments in the SW region are pro-active in addressing marine and coastal planning issues with projects such as the Leafy Sea Dragon Clean Drains Program in the Shire of Augusta - Margaret River, and the Fairy Tern Habitat Conservation Area adjacent to Mandurah’s marina. However, many initiatives are driven by ministerial conditions as part of the approval process for coastal development. Nonetheless, there are many projects in the SW region where local governments have enlisted the help of community groups to better manage the natural environment. There are also strong partnerships formed between community groups and local government. To list all projects would require extensive documentation. NHT list the many projects that have received funding in their annual reports. In this section we have briefly discussed the groups that are actively involved in assisting the planning process within their local region and provided a map (figure 5.1) of the status of coastal planning across the SW region.

5.2.1 COASTSWAP

CoastSWap, or the South West & Peel Coastal Management Group, assists with coastal management and planning in the South-West and Peel region. The group achieves this by lobbying for resources, encouraging collaboration and facilitating regional initiatives. For more information on CoastSWap activities contact Margaret Smith via email [email protected]

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5.2.2 GEOCATCH

GeoCatch, or Geographe Catchment Council, is a community based management body that was formed to deal with and manage land and water issues to the catchment of Geographe Bay. This is achieved using an integrated catchment management approach to support and conduct research, provide advice for management, and educate the general public with the aim of rehabilitating, protecting and promoting sustainable development of the catchment.

GeoCatch have developed a Geographe Catchment Management Strategy (1999) where thirteen issues were identified. Issues include eutrophication of waterways, loss of native vegetation, impacts of land use on marine areas, best land use management practices, use of water resources, drain management, wetlands, the communities voice in the catchment, coastal/shoreline change, waste disposal, pests and weeds, salinity and cultural resources. See Ecoscape (1999) for the Strategy and further details of the issues identified.

5.3 STATE GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

The State Planning Strategy (WAPC 1997) provides overarching guidance for land use planning in Western Australia. Principles are set forth by which planning is to be carried out. The draft Coastal Zone Management Policy for Western Australia (WAPC 2001) (currently out for public comment since 2001) provides a broad policy framework for users of the coast (planners, developers, managers and other users) to operate in. Planning policies are created under section 5AA of the Town Planning and Development Act (1928) and prevail over local schemes should any inconsistencies arise. The Statement of Planning Policy 2.6: State Coastal Planning Policy (WAPC 2003) is a key document in the Endnote library that provides guidance to the WAPC in the undertaking of its planning responsibilities to other State agencies and groups involved that influence the use and development of the coast. This document also provides information on the appropriate level of planning which needs to be in place before an application to develop a new stretch of coastline can be considered (Pedersen 2002). This statement also recognises the coastal threats and pressures identified in the draft Coastal Zone Management Policy for Western Australia.

The WAPC (see DPI 2005b), annually audits the status and currency of coastal planning documents across the state. Gaps are identified in various regional and local planning documents. Where gaps are identified, actions are discussed to fill in these gaps. Similarly, the WAPC also makes suggestions where plans may need to be developed and implemented. The 2006 report is currently in the process of being completed (pers. comm. C. Longley DPI). The DPI have developed a Coastal Protection Policy for Western Australia (DPI 2006b) with guidelines for coastal development.

Pedersen (2002), from the DPI, suggests that the WA coast is generally in a ‘fine condition’, due to two reasons: the practice of keeping reasonable coastal setbacks between private land and public foreshores; and the relative lack of population in WA. The premise for this positive assessment is largely due to extensive development of the strategic planning framework for coastal areas in WA, where there is a ‘good coverage’ of strategic coastal plans across the state (Pedersen 2002). However, not all the coast in the SW is covered by strategic plans, in particular private lands.

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The Department of Fisheries is developing a series of Fisheries Environmental Management Reviews and complementary Management Plans for the marine regions of the State as well as inland fisheries. The first review was for the Gascoyne Region. Each regional review will cover all fisheries and fishing activities in WA out to the 200 nm Exclusive Economic boundary. The reviews take a ‘first look’ at the possible effects of WA fisheries on the aquatic environment as well as noting any potential external pressures to each fishery and the habitats that support them. The present Environmental Management Plan is limited by the data available and policy development. However, subsequent Plans will evolve to reflect the progress of the Agency in their capacity to report on Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) objectives (see Australian Government Initiatives section 5.4). The Plans will also be refined to reflect a greater regional perspective in terms of ESD.

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Figure 5.1: Coastal Planning – Current and outstanding management plans and strategies.

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5.3.1 COASTWEST

Coastwest is administered by the DPI on behalf of the WAPC and provide funding for projects that encourage coastal protection through research, education and protection works. Coastwest grants are designed to provide opportunities and resources to local coastal managers to improve the condition and amenity of the coastal zone in WA. By enlisting the help of community groups coastal managers can apply for Coastwest funding to assist with projects that address specific objectives to better care for the coast or contribute to the implementation of existing coastal management plans. See Coastwest website for further information on eligible Coastwest activities and Coastwest funded grants (for URL see appendix II).

5.3.2 CALM / DEC MANAGEMENT PLANS

National Parks and Nature Reserves in Western Australia are vested in the National Parks and Nature Conservation Authority (NPNCA). The NPNCA and DEC are responsible for the preparation of management plans for all lands vested in the Authority. The National Parks, Marine Parks, Nature Reserves and Conservation Parks in the SW region have gazetted management plans. These include the Yalgorup National Park, Leschenault Peninsula Conservation Park, Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park, Shannon & D’Entrecasteaux National Park and the Walpole-Nornalup National Park (see fig 5.2). Several management plans are also in draft or in the process of being updated.

The Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park Management plan, dated 1989-1999 has not been finalised or renewed, and is at least seven years out of date. It is important that a review of these lands occur, to properly reflect their importance to science or the economies of local and regional communities. Elscot & Bancroft (1999) provide a brief description of the Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park values and boundaries.

The proposed Capes Marine Reserve and indicative Management Plan was released in September 2006 for public comment. Similarly, a draft management plan for the Walpole Wilderness Area is currently out for public submission. The Shannon-D’Entrecasteaux National Park Management Plan is currently undergoing revision.

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Figure 5.2: Map of CALM / DEC Managed National Parks, Marine Parks and Conservation Parks and status of their current management plans for the SW NRM region

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5.4 AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

5.4.1 NATURAL HERITAGE TRUST

The Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) is a major national program with the broad aim of improving the management of Australia’s natural resources. Under NHT there are various complimentary partnerships between all levels of community and government. NHT provide assistance to local community groups for projects that provide protection of land, water and associated vegetation to ensure sustainable use. A Natural Resources Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC) has been established to address issues affecting natural resource management across Australia. The NRMMC oversees the implementation of NHT activities.

ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) is an Australian Government initiative (coordinated by the NRM Standing Committee) that requires all Australian fisheries to demonstrate how well they are contributing to, and meeting the objectives of ESD. ESD is driven by the EPBC Act 1999 and defined as: “Using, conserving and enhancing the community’s resources so that ecological processes, on which life depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, now and in the future, can be increased.”

5.4.2 COASTS AND CLEAN SEAS PROGRAM (UNDER NHT 1 FROM 1996 - 2002)

COASTCARE

The aims of Coastcare, funded by the Natural Heritage Trust, are to protect and restore Australia’s coastal and marine environments. They achieve this by supporting activities that reduce marine and coastal pollution, prevent or control the introduction and spread of introduced marine pests and coastal weeds, improve the sustainable use of fisheries resources and by supporting other activities that enhance the commitment and knowledge of coastal and marine managers. Under NHT 1 the Coastwest/Coastcare program supported over $1.8 million in funding for the SW region between 1995 and 2001.

CLEAN SEAS PROGRAM

The Clean Seas Program, funded under NHT, provides funding for both Federal and local component projects that address wastewater pollution of coastal, marine and estuarine environments. Priorities are given to projects that; encourage wastewater reuse; that considerably improve the quality of coastal, marine and estuarine waters; and those that spread the benefit of innovative technologies and management techniques to the broader community. Both Federal and local component projects are listed State by State on the NHT website (see appendix II for URL).

5.4.3 DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT AND HERITAGE

The Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH) are in the process of finalising their planning strategy for the new framework for Marine Bioregional Planning under the EPBC Act. An ecological report for the SW region should be available on the DEH website in the near future (pers. comm. Paula Tomkins DEH) (see http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/index.html ).

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5.4.4 COASTAL CRC (ENDED JUNE 2006)

The Cooperative Research Centre for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management (Coastal CRC) is a collaborative joint venture between numerous participating organisations such as, universities, and local and state government departments. This group provides decision-making tools and knowledge necessary for the effective management and ecosystem health of Australia's coastal zone, estuaries and waterways. By using a joint approach the Coastal CRC network are able to provide research outcomes that are considerably greater than smaller organisations can manage. The main aim of Coastal CRC is to improve the health of Australia’s coastal waterways. Further information on the CRC Programme can be found at their website (see Appendix II). The CRC website contains information on various publications that the CRC are involved with, including a book on Australian Estuaries, which outlines recommendations and framework options for improved management of Australian estuaries. The website is due to close in June 2008.

5.4.5 REGIONAL NRM DELIVERY

The Australian Government has been working in association with State and Territory Governments to identify regions across Australia to facilitate integrated delivery of NRM priority issues, known as Regional NRM Delivery. As a result it is considered that there is now a much greater level of professionalism and strategic thinking in the way natural resources are being managed than under previous programmes and projects. Using this current approach projects are being funded that not only protect and preserve natural resources assets but also repair and restore those that have been degraded. Facilitators and project officers have been employed by governments and regional organisations in order to build the capacity of local communities and organisations. According to Keogh et al. (2006) the current programme structure allows for regions to be more flexible in how they engage stakeholders, how they prioritise and invest in projects, and how they deal with natural resource and demographic issues specific to their regions. However, there is some concern that governments may not fully recognise that NRM is a major issue that requires a long-term commitment of at least 10-20 years to see real improvements on-ground and in community attitudes. For more information on Regional NRM Delivery see http://www.nrm.gov.au/ .

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6 ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT THREATS AND POTENTIALLY THREATENING

PROCESSES

Coastal locations, especially in the SW, from south of Mandurah to Margaret River, continue to experience record levels of regional growth. All major centres within the SW feature in the top ten “hotspots” growth areas. Greater Bunbury has the highest growth followed by Busselton-Dunsborough. Augusta-Margaret River and Warren-Blackwood are at positions nine and ten respectively (see http://www.hotspotting.com.au ). With high levels of regional growth forecast to continue, combined with significant increases in tourists and locals recreating by the coast, the threats to marine and coastal communities are likely to intensify accordingly. Climate change is also expected to heavily impact the SW in the near future with changes to rainfall patterns and small changes in sea-level likely to have profound impacts across the SW region. Contaminants and the introduction of exotic species in the marine and coastal environs are also likely to increase if effective management strategies are not put into place to deal with increasing demands. The threat to natural resources is also likely to increase in the near future with greater numbers of fishers and improvements in technology that increase the capacity to locate and capture fish. To remediate the impacts of increased growth in the SW there clearly needs to be a greater emphasis placed on obtaining crucial baseline information to further our understanding of natural processes which will then allow more informed and effective management decisions to be made.

6.1 INTRODUCED MARINE PESTS

Ship-vectored marine pests and diseases are likely to pose a significant threat to communities in the SW as shipping into major ports increases as coastal communities expand and demands for goods and services increase. Reports by the Fisheries Research and Development Council (FRDC) suggest that introduced pests and diseases may pose the most important long-term threat to coastal fisheries and communities (see Cappo et al. 1998). An example of this in WA is the near collapse of the Australian pilchard fishery in the mid nineties, and again in the late nineties, from an exotic pathogen (herpes virus) which the Australian pilchard was naïve to (Fletcher et al. 1997; Hyatt et al. 1997; Gaughan et al. 2000).

The FRDC suggests the threats to coastal fisheries and communities from introduced pests and diseases are due to three main reasons; • Pests and diseases spread widely to the limits of their physiological tolerance and often over a wide geographic range. • Complete eradication has historically been difficult. • The ecological roles and impacts of invading species are limited by our knowledge of their biology and ecology in donor regions.

6.1.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - INTRODUCED MARINE PESTS

There is a lack of baseline data on the endemic composition of marine life in the SW that may impede our ability to detect introduced marine pests. Furthermore, introduced pests may be more likely to occur and thrive in environments that are already stressed or degraded. It is therefore imperative that we acquire a greater understanding of the interactions between pressures, such as introduced marine pests, and ecological

48 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 communities if management of marine communities is to be effective. This is only going to be achieved if long-term monitoring programs are implemented, especially where there is an increased likelihood of an introduction. Hewitt and Martin (1996) suggest that ports should be re-surveyed every 3-5 years for introduced marine species. Further investigation into the impact and spread of introduced species is required for better environmental management of SW WA’s coastal waters.

6.2 CONTAMINANTS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Contaminants in the marine environment are generally referred to as any input of substances that are not normally found in the marine environment. Sources of such contaminants include: domestic waste water and industrial ocean outfalls; agricultural runoff; stormwater runoff; runoff from acid sulphate soils; aquaculture discharge; hydrocarbon spills; groundwater discharge; commercial shipping; recreational boating; port developments; marinas; and harbours. Contaminants include among others; heavy metals (tributyltin, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium and zinc), herbicides, pesticides (e.g. DDT), fungicides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, dibenzofurans, oil, other hydrocarbons and other fossil fuel combustion by- products, pathogens, faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci, and marine debris or litter (see table 6.1).

Monitoring of heavy metals is possible using bio-accumulator organisms, such as bivalves (Bremner & Richardson 1986; Martin & Richardson 1991; DAL 1999; Lemmens & Sim 1999). Epiphyte assemblages on seagrasses have also been used as indicators of anthropogenic impacts like eutrophication (Hillman et al. 1991; Westera 1994). Thompson et al. (1992) reviewed the current management practices and legislative requirements relating to hazardous wastes in Australia. They note that the Australian regulation of chemicals and hazardous wastes is extremely complex due mainly to ‘The States and Territories taking primary responsibility for these matters, resulting in a lack of uniformity nationwide’.

6.2.1 MARINE DEBRIS

Every year over a million seabirds and some 300,000 marine mammals are killed by marine debris worldwide. In every square kilometre of ocean, there are more than 18,000 pieces of plastic which is a danger to many endangered and vulnerable species (Palmer 2005). There are many endangered and vulnerable species listed under the EPBC Act 1999 that are adversely affected by this threatening process in the SW, including, whales, birds, turtles and sharks (DEH 2003).

Taylor and Taylor (2005), from Tangaroa Blue, report on the findings from a marine debris beach clean up in the Capes region. The aim of this report was to highlight the marine debris problem in the Capes by identifying the amount, and type of, marine debris and the origin of the debris. Marine debris was collected from more than 30 beaches between Cape Naturaliste and Cape Leeuwin. Plastics were the major source of debris and accounted for 90% of the 9,244 items collected. The data collected from the annual clean up will be used to identify and monitor trends in pollution along the Capes coast.

6.2.2 METALS AND PESTICIDES

Heavy metals and pesticides may accumulate in the marine environment as a consequence of domestic and industrial wastewater disposal, agricultural run-off and antifouling paints. Heavy metals such as tributyltin

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(TBT) leach out of antifouling paints and can affect water quality. TBTs have been implicated in leading to imposex (the imposition of male characteristics on female gastropods) in marine snails elsewhere in WA (Kohn & Almasi 1993; Reitsema & Spickett 1999).

Monitoring activities in the Peel-Harvey Estuary have revealed elevated levels of heavy metals such as chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, cadmium and zinc (City of Mandurah 1997; Gerritse et al. 1997). The majority of samples analysed that were in excess of EPA guidelines were found in the Harvey Estuary, Peel Inlet and at the tidal sections of the rivers (City of Mandurah 1997).

The City of Mandurah monitors faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci in Mandurah Ocean Marina and Port Mandurah on a regular basis. Some spikes in bacterial levels have occurred however they suggest that this is not unusual for long-term environmental sampling programs. The majority of results are within EPA guideline levels with no adverse long-term trends identified (City of Mandurah 2004).

The City of Mandurah (1997) suggest that water quality in the Peel-Harvey Estuary has improved significantly in terms of nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll a and Secchi depths (transparency) since completion of the Dawesville Channel. This they suggest is due to improved flushing of the system, particularly during the summer months, rather than any dramatic change in usage of the estuary and associated catchment.

6.2.3 NUTRIENTS

In Western Australia the State Water Quality Management Strategy (WQMS) applies to all significant water resources, including the marine environment (Government of Western Australia undated). This strategy refers to uses of the environment that are important for a healthy ecosystem, public benefit, welfare, safety or health, and those which require protection from the effects of pollution, waste discharges, and deposits according to ANZECC & ARMCANZ (2000) requirements.

The Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) is the primary agency charged with protecting the environmental quality and integrity of the marine environment from the effects of waste discharges and infrastructure development. The DEC recommends various environmental values and environmental quality objectives to the EPA for consideration and approval. Once implemented, the EPA then uses this framework to guide environmental impact assessment, regulation and environmental quality when assessing development proposals that it considers are likely to have a significant effect on the environment. This is to ensure proponents take primary responsibility for protection of the environment and that proposals meet relevant environmental objectives.

Currently, the EPA is examining ways of progressing the development of a Water Quality Improvement Plan as part of the Coastal Catchments Initiative for the Peel-Harvey system (EPA undated). The plan aims to reduce pollution to the system by identifying best management practices, establishing nutrient trading programs, pursuing economic incentives, and by supporting reform and capacity building to address sustainability for the long-term.

There are a number of studies containing water quality data from the study area, however the distribution of these data hotspots is patchy and primarily limited to coastal waters adjacent to the main population centres. Of

50 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 these studies the majority were specific to water quality from Geographe Bay and the Peel-Harvey Estuary. These studies were prompted by local concerns over the health of seagrass beds and the increasing signs of eutrophication and degradation of nearshore habitats.

Three documents were located relating to the wastewater treatment plant at Augusta (EPA 1990; WAWA 1993; Bunbury Dive and Outdoor 1995). The treatment and disposal of wastewater within Geographe Bay was addressed in a 1995 strategy document by Lord & Associates (1995), and a consultative environmental review by Kinhill Pty Ltd (1998). Van Oorschot and French (1996) dealt with wastewater treatment options for Perth and the SW.

Between 1993 and 1995 The Water Authority of WA funded a series of studies to investigate the impacts of nutrient discharge on the benthic communities of Geographe Bay (Lord & Associates 1995). This study, commonly known as the Geographe Bay Study comprised three concurrent interlinking studies. One of these was to provide a comprehensive assessment of the total loading of all contaminants into Geographe Bay (Holmes 1995). In this report Holmes (1995) assessed the various rivers and drains, groundwater discharges, and discharges from wastewater treatment plants and unsewered areas adjacent to the coast for levels of contaminants, in particular total nitrogen and total phosphorus. This report showed that the greatest proportion of nutrients flowing into Geographe Bay was derived from the Leschenault Inlet.

Recent monitoring of Geographe Bay indicates that water quality has worsened significantly over the last decade due to the increased pressure from agricultural and urban land uses (SKM 2003). Of particular importance is the Vasse-Wonnerup Estuary, which despite being listed as a wetland of ecological importance under the Ramsar convention in 1990, is recorded as having the greatest input of nutrients per square metre of catchment of all estuaries in Western Australia (McAlpine et al. 1989). This system suffers from frequent toxic algal blooms (Paice 2005), fish kills (Lane et al. 1997) and deoxygenation events (White 1999). Aggregated emissions of total nitrogen and total phosphorus are estimated using the Catchment Management Support System (CMSS) Model, as outlined in Letcher et al. (1999).

The Aquatic Sciences Branch (DoE/DoW) is in the process of completing a project for SWCC on ‘Nearshore Contaminants’. The initial focus is establishing a contaminants pilot program for Geographe Bay catchment sources, such as the various artificial drains associated with Vasse-Wonnerup estuary (see DoE 2006). It is anticipated that this will be expanded in the future to include other sensitive areas of the region, including the Bunbury Port and the Peel-Harvey and Hardy Inlets. The project aims to identify on-land contaminant threats to nearshore marine waters. This information will then be used to develop and implement a baseline monitoring program where parameters to measure and monitor can be characterised and quantified. Management actions addressing contaminant threats will be defined and the success of these management actions will be measured against environmental/resource condition targets. (pers com. Helen Astill).

Various organisations store data on water quality management, contaminants in the marine environment and monitoring programs across WA. Individual port authorities conduct monitoring for spills and pollution. This monitoring data is collected in a central database for ports and managed by the Department for Planning and Infrastructure (DPI) to improve emergency response and planning. The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) stores data on major contaminants entering the marine environment. Access to this database could

51 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 provide useful information in the assessment of anthropogenic pressures entering the system. The complete ban of tributyltin (TBT) in antifouling paint by international convention (October 2001) by 2002 should see a reduction in its accumulation in the marine environment. There are also several key documents that provide sources of information on monitoring and management of water quality, these include: • The Australian Guidelines for Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) is a useful guide for the assessment of water quality that provides information on how to conduct baseline and long-term water quality studies with specific information on design, analysis, sampling protocol, reporting and interpretation; • National Water Quality Management Strategy (NWQMS) was developed by the Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments in 1992 in response to community concern over the condition of the nation’s water bodies and the need to manage them in an environmentally sustainable way (for policies, processes and guidelines see http://www.deh.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/index.html ); • The Manual for Managing Urban Stormwater Quality of Western Australia (1998), available from the Water and Rivers Commission; • Effluent Management Guidelines for Dairy Sheds (1999), available from the Australian Water Association P O Box 388 Artarmon NSW 2064 - Ph: 02 9413 1288; and • Guidelines for Groundwater Protection in Australia (1995), available at http://www.mincos.gov.au/nwqms_docs.htm

6.2.4 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - CONTAMINANTS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

The State of the Environment Report 2006 draft version – Marine section (EPA 2006) suggests that the majority of Western Australia’s waters are generally in excellent condition with ‘pressure’ from contamination confined to ports, sewerage outfalls and areas adjacent to development. However, this report also highlights that pressures on the marine environment are growing with increasing demand for coastal development. This is likely to be exacerbated in the SW with typically high growth forecasted for major centres over the entire region (WAPC 2005b).

Across Australia there is a lack of well designed studies with defined monitoring objectives that have been implemented to examine the local occurrence of contaminants in the marine environment and the impact of catchment practices on the nearshore environment. Regulation of contaminants are usually on a 'sectoral' basis, with different legislation (and different government departments) relating to the protection of public, occupational health, consumers and the environment. The monitoring of water quality is usually limited to areas that are already severely affected by contaminants, is generally not ongoing, and often only occurs after significant anthropogenic impact has occurred. There is a need for a marine management framework to manage multiple uses of marine areas, rather than attempting to deal with each issue or resource independently. Further work is also needed on point sources for major contaminants entering the nearshore marine environment.

Key findings from the State of the Environment Draft Report 2006 (EPA 2006) highlight a general short fall in specific research on marine contaminants with baseline data lacking in the majority of areas. This report also suggests that pressure from ports and related infrastructure is expected to increase with population growth and the expansion of resource industries and export markets.

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Currently there is no regular monitoring of the benthic communities around ports. Ballast water treatment is considered prohibitive because of the cost, the enormous quantities of water that needs to be treated and logistical problems with disposal. Monitoring programs, and baseline surveys, investigating benthic and pelagic marine life around and on port infrastructure need to be developed. It may also be necessary to inspect the composition of organisms attached to visiting vessels, particularly those international vessels which have travelled from areas known to be sources of introductions in other temperate Australian waters.

Marine contamination is usually localised, however with future growth in coastal populations in the SW the likely outcome is that pressure from contamination is going to dramatically increase with the impacts to the marine environment more widely spread. In particular, the volumes of wastewater discharged from Mandurah, Bunbury and Busselton are expected to significantly increase (Water Corporation 2003). Additionally, the expansion of the WA economy may result in more ports, with greater traffic to ports adding to greater contamination pressure. Therefore, it is imperative that a better understanding of the environmental quality effects of pollutants are determined, from health effects for humans and marine ecosystems to more subtle sub- lethal effects.

The transfer of nutrients (phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia and silica) to and from sediments is outside the scope of the Australian Guidelines for Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting (ANZECC & ARMCANZ 2000). However, the transfer of nutrients, or nutrient loading, is an important process affecting water quality and methods for its detection still need to be developed for WA (for WA applications of these methods see Bastyan et al. 1994; Bastyan & Paling 1995; Hooten & Carr 1998; Hale & Paling 1999).

A monitoring network was proposed to the Federal Government (Bremner & Richardson 1986) but evidence of this being implemented could not be located. The Department of Health and local councils do some sampling of beaches, although the information is not publicly available or reported.

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Table 6.1: Major anthropogenic pollutants Pressures Sources Major stressor Nutrient inputs Land runoff Water quality of catchments Ocean outlets Urban development Sedimentation Land runoff Water quality of catchments Ocean outlets Urban development Dredging Activity Port development Sand bypassing Heavy metal pollution (e.g. copper, lead, Urban storm water Urban development cadmium, zinc, mercury, tributyltin) Industrial effluent Water quality of catchments Sediments from mining Port activity Antifouling paints Other commercial activities Ports Land runoff Hydrocarbon pollution Urban runoff Urban development Sewage Commercial activities Spills during fuelling Recreational boating Shipping spills Shipwrecks Organochlorine pollution (pesticides etc) Urban storm water Water quality of catchments Industrial runoff Urban development Toxic contamination Marinas, harbours, jetties Port and marina development Sewage and micro-organism contamination Ocean outlets Urban development Introduced species Marine transportation Other commercial activities Recreational boating Litter Local catchments Urban development Dumps Other commercial activities Fishers Shipping

6.3 COMMERCIAL AND RECREATIONAL FISHING

6.3.1 COMMERCIAL FISHING

The Department of Fisheries manages commercial and recreational fishing in WA. Commercial fisheries are regulated by management plans in accordance with the Fish Resources Management Act (1994), which incorporate research, compliance, industry reporting and breeding stock protection (Penn et al. 2005). The Department of Fisheries are also responsible for the management of all fishing and aquaculture activity in DEC managed marine conservation reserves, Fish Habitat Protection Areas (FHPAs) and Habitat Protection Areas (HPAs), covered under the Fish Resources Management Act (1994).

Within the SW NRM region there are ten main commercial fisheries. These fisheries target elasmobranchs (3 shark species), teleosts (finfish), various crustacean species (including the western rock lobster, blue swimmer and deep sea crabs), and molluscs (in particular abalone). Various catch methods are used by commercial fishers including; gill nets, beach and purse-seine nets, lobster pots, otter trawls and diver collections (DoF 2002b).

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Each year the Department of Fisheries WA produces a document, State of the Fisheries Report, which is supplemental to the Annual Report to Parliament. This report provides a detailed level of information in support of the Department of Fisheries non-financial activities. Included in this report, but not limited to, are changes to management and compliance, monitoring and assessment of stock levels, monitoring of breeding stocks and environmental assessment and other research data. The structure of the report is divided into bioregional sectors to enable ecosystem-based fisheries to be managed more efficiently. The most recent report (Penn et al. 2005) highlights the need to constantly make adjustments to management initiatives in order to keep up with both natural and anthropogenic fluctuations in stock abundance and fishing efficiency in both the commercial and recreational sectors. The bioregions applicable to the SW NRM region are; the west coast bioregion (from Kalbarri to Augusta) and the south coast bioregion (east of Augusta to the South Australian border).

In line with the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) all Commonwealth Government managed fisheries and state export fisheries are subjected to an independent assessment to determine whether each fishery is managed in an ecologically sustainable way. In addition to this federal initiative the state government in conjunction with the Department of Fisheries have implemented an Integrated Fisheries Management (IFM) initiative which began in 2004 (Western Australia State Government 2004). The IFM initiative was designed and adopted to best manage risk to fish stocks, marine communities and the environment. As a direct result appropriate management structures are to be implemented across all user groups in order to facilitate future sustainability. This requires a sustainability report is prepared for each fishery in accordance with the Policy for the Implementation of Ecologically Sustainable Development for Fisheries and Aquaculture in Western Australia, which is to be approved by the Executive Director of the Department of Fisheries. There is currently no ecological assessment for the majority of commercial fisheries or recreational fishing. Presently, the western rock lobster, abalone and the west coast demersal finfish are the only fisheries included in the IFM process. The EPA has recommended that this process of accreditation needs to be expanded to cover both minor and low value fisheries. Furthermore, the EPA suggests that there needs to be an increased focus on developing an ecosystem based management system for all marine resources.

A discussion paper by DoF Protecting and Sharing of Western Australia’s Coastal Fish Resources – The Path to Integrated Management (2000) examines commercial and recreational fishing in terms of their growth and contribution to the State’s economy, and puts in perspective their increasing value and importance as well as their impact on fish stocks. This paper also examines issues, such as the effects of population growth, the impact of improved fishing technology, marine planning and the expansion of marine reserves, fish stocks at risk, and important new marine activities, such as aquaculture and charter fishing.

Ecosystem based fisheries management (EBFM) is an Australian Government initiative currently being implemented by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) to address sustainable fisheries management. By using an integrated approach EBFM considers the impact fisheries have on all components of the broader marine environment. Through ecological risk assessments, improved data collection, bycatch reduction incentives and good communication with fishers EBFM aims to better manage: the impact of fishing on target species as well as bycatch species; threatened, endangered and protected species; and habitats and

55 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 communities. Further information and progress reports on EBFM can be obtained from the AFMA website http://www.afma.gov.au.

A range of expertise and community interest groups are consulted in the process of determining fisheries management and reviewing of stock assessments. These include, but are not limited to; • Department of Fisheries, WA • Department of Environmental Protection, WA • Marine and Coastal Community Network • Western Australian Fishing Industry Council (WAFIC) • Recfishwest • Aboriginal Lands Trust • Recreational Fishing Advisory Committee • Conservation Council of WA • Museum of WA • The University of WA

6.3.2 RECREATIONAL FISHING

There is a growing realisation among fisheries managers worldwide that recreational fishing is having a major impact on the environment (see Davidson 2001; Coleman et al. 2004; see Cooke & Cowx 2006). This is contrary to the perceptions of many recreational fishers who believe that they only have a minor impact (both individually and collectively) on fish stocks and that commercial harvests are the primary cause of actual or perceived fish declines.

The Department of Fisheries WA have realised that recreational fishing in WA has the capacity to severely diminish fish stocks. And state that "Continual growth in tourism, local fishing participation and coastal populations – particularly in the South-West – will impact directly on all inshore and estuarine fish, prawn and crab stocks”. Such that, “the time will come when constraints on recreational fishers will need to include controls on the number of participants, or total days of access to the fishery (e.g. as in the marron or metropolitan abalone fisheries)" (DoF 2000). They also suggest that there are only a limited number of management tools or strategies that can be applied to manage recreational fisheries such as, bag limits, boat limits, possession and trip limits, legal size limitations, closed seasons and closed areas, gear and method restrictions and licensing. A fisheries management paper (DoF 2004) provides a brief outline of the major recreational fishing management tools used in WA, including their strengths and limitations.

From 1990 to 2000 a 300% increase was recorded in recreational fishing effort in WA (DoF 2001a). This equates to approximately 30% of the WA population taking part in recreational fishing, with the majority of effort confined to three main localities; the Perth urban area and the south-west and lower west coasts. In WA there are nine major multi-species recreational fisheries targeting species in marine, estuarine and freshwater environments. There are also licensed single species fisheries for the western rock lobster, abalone, and marron. WA is divided into several bioregions and within each of these there are substantial variations in target species and catch and effort. This catch effort has been analysed for the Gascoyne Region (Penn et al. 2005) with all other regions yet to be analysed.

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The current State of the Fisheries report 2004/05 (see Penn et al. 2005) provides estimates of recreational catch for finfish, blue swimmer crab and rock lobster. However, estimates of recreational catch (both boat-based and shore-based) are likely to be understated due to the logistical difficulties of obtaining precise catch figures from all recreational fishers.

Many species of finfish, crustacean and other invertebrates are targeted by recreational fishers in the SW region, these include: various whiting species; Australian herring; skipjack trevally; southern sea garfish; Westralian dhufish; various wrasse species including blue groper and baldchin groper; harlequin fish; blue swimmer crabs; western and southern rock lobster; green and black lip abalone and squid. Recreational fishing surveys conducted by researchers from the Department of Fisheries indicate that rock lobster (in particular western rock lobster) (Melville-Smith & Anderton 2000) and blue swimmer crabs (Malseed & Sumner 2001; Sumner & Malseed 2004) are the most commonly taken recreational species followed by various finfish species (Sumner & Williamson 1999) in the SW region.

In 2001 the Department of Fisheries in conjunction with the West Coast Recreational Working Group produced a discussion paper ‘A Five Year Management Strategy for Recreational Fishing on the West Coast of Western Australia’ (DoF 2001a). The goal of this strategy was to develop a long-term management strategy to protect fishing quality, address resource sharing issues and meet the long term needs for a sustainable future. This paper also included risk assessments for the major recreationally fished species including recommendations for change to bag, size, possession and boat limits. Recommendations include; annual catch surveys to establish baseline information; volunteer angler log books in key recreational centres; priority areas of research for key species; and the use of indicator species for quality of fishing. This strategy is at least 5 years old and may require review and updating to address whether the aims of the strategy have been met.

6.3.3 KNOWLEDGE GAPS – COMMERCIAL AND RECREATIONAL FISHING

To identify all the gaps in knowledge of fishing related impacts is beyond the scope of this study. However, it is clear that knowledge of the marine environment is biased toward commercially viable species with little known about the impacts of fishing on other species. Nonetheless, EBFM should address this and other issues and should be promoted and implemented in the SW. Ideally, the EBFM process should provide further information on the indirect impacts of fishing activity, such as the effect species removal has on other species and food webs within the ecosystem.

There also appears to be a lack of quantitative information on non-targeted fish. These may play an important role as a food source for targeted fish, may have an important ecological role, or may be valued in terms of biodiversity and conservation. Knowledge is also needed on whether fish populations build-up when fishing pressure is removed and how fish assemblages in closed areas might influence adjacent fished areas in terms of ‘spillover’ of fishes, eggs and larvae. Such studies will need to take into account the displacement effect, which is the redirection of fishing effort when certain areas are closed to fishing.

Recreational fishing is currently managed using bag and size limits. However, Department of Fisheries surveys show the majority of recreational fishers are not reaching daily bag limits of particular fish species (4% for boat-based fishers, 0% for shore-based fishers in the Peel-Harvey Estuary). Further creel surveys may be

57 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 required to monitor recreational catch and long term trends in the catch rates of targeted species in the bays and estuaries of the SW (for information on Creel surveys contact Neil Sumner, Department of Fisheries).

The effects of trawling on the sea floor are poorly understood. Benthic trawling may have a significant impact on local recreational and commercial fishing yields by impacting benthic habitat. Knowledge is also needed on the recovery rates of benthic communities following trawling activity. It is also clear that resource sharing (allocation of resources between commercial, recreational and indigenous sectors) is an increasing problem in WA with potential for conflict between all user groups. Other areas that could be investigated with respect to various fish species include: age at maturity; fecundity; adult, juvenile and larval lifecycles; and recruitment. These issues were beyond the scope of this project but would have application to temperate waters of the southwest of Western Australia, including the SW region. These issues should be discussed with the Department of Fisheries and other finfish research institutions.

6.4 MARINE ECO-TOURISM

“The future of tourism in Western Australia is likely to rely heavily on the maintenance of the quality of the environment and the management of natural attractions and their associated cultural values” (EPA 2006). The SW is Western Australia’s second most visited tourism region, with Margaret River, Dunsborough and Busselton amongst the most popular destinations (Tourism Western Australia 2004). Some literature on the management of several specific tourist icons in the region has been produced. Lewis and Newsome (2003) and Newsome et al. (2004) addressed planning for tourism management of stingray-visitor interactions at Hamelin Bay, assessing tourist satisfaction, potential dangers to humans and the impacts of interactions on behaviour and health of the stingrays. O’Neill et al. (2001) produced a best practise manual for human-dolphin interactions, based on input from staff of the Dolphin Discovery Centre, Koombana Bay, Bunbury. The historic Busselton Jetty is a tourist icon of the region; the Underwater Observatory opened in December 2003 (BJECA 2006), allowing tourists to view the fish and invertebrate communities of the jetty pylons (Storrie 2003). Whale watching and dive wrecks (such as the Swan wreck at Dunsborough) are also significant attractions (Tourism Western Australia 2004). Surfing has also been identified as an important marine-based attraction (Augusta Margaret River Shire Council 2005). The safety of surfers prompted the State Government-directed closure of rock lobster fishing, in November 2005, at 31 surf breaks in the Capes region (Augusta Margaret River Mail 2005).

Marine ecotourism is a rapidly expanding industry throughout WA, with both the whale and dolphin watching industries growing in the SW. Although eco-tourism is considered to be a clean industry there may be negative environmental impacts associated, including beach and dune erosion, loss of habitat, declines in wildlife and fisheries, loss of water quality and alteration to the natural cycles (circadian ‘daily’ rhythm) of the observed animals. Hall (2001) provides a review of the marine and coastal tourism literature with a focus on the environmental impacts associated with marine and coastal tourism (also see table 6.2 for list of environmental and ecological impacts of tourism). The Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) have identified various marine fauna in the SW region where management priorities should lie (see DEC 2006 for further information). Fauna identified by DEC is given a ranking based on their relative conservation level that is likely to be impacted.

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The State of the Fisheries Report 2004/05 provides basic information on ecotourism in the SW. However, it is difficult to determine the level of effort that is focused in the area of study, as the SW NRM region overlaps two fisheries bioregions, the West and South Coast, and includes waters from the South Australian border to just south of Shark Bay, north of Kalbarri. Nonetheless, ecotourism appears to be a vibrant and growing industry with a steady increase in the number of tours recorded over the three year period to 2004. Activities conducted on these tours included fishing, diving, snorkelling, wildlife observation and sightseeing. Of these tours the vast majority still involve fishing alone however ecotourism activities have increased from 36% of all tours in 2002 to 47% in 2004. This trend is reversed for the South Coast Bioregion with fishing alone accounting for up to 82% of all tours in 2004, which is up from 54% and 47% of all tours for 2002 and 2003, respectively (see Penn et al. 2005).

There are several ecotourism organisations within the study area, these include among others; • The Dolphin Discovery Centre, Bunbury • Naturaliste Charters, whale and dolphin watching • The Busselton Jetty, marine observation and education • Capricorn Kayak Tours, adventure eco-tourism, Perth based extended weekend trips • Cape Kayaks, adventure eco-tourism, Dunsborough • Cape Dive, scuba diving & whale watching • Wow Wilderness Cruises, Walpole • South West Yacht Charters, skippered charters, Busselton • Outdoor Discoveries, adventure eco-tourism - abseiling, canoeing, caving, rock climbing • The Dive Shed, Busselton

In February 2000, the Australian National Guidelines for Cetacean Observation and Areas of Special Interest for Cetacean Observation was published by ANZECC the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council. These guidelines are a national policy statement endorsed by all jurisdictions (the Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments) and establish a national framework for the regulation of interactions between people and cetaceans (whales and dolphins). The guidelines apply equally to both commercial and recreational whale watching activities with the aims designed to; • Minimise the impacts of whale and dolphin watching on individuals and populations of whales and dolphins; and • To ensure that people have the best opportunity to enjoy and learn about the whales and dolphins found in Australian waters by teaching people how to act appropriately when watching whales and dolphins. • These guidelines have recently been built on and replaced by the Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching 2005 and can be obtained from the Department of Environment and Heritage. A copy is available in the Endnote library.

All commercial whale, dolphin and seal watching operations are required to be licensed through the DEC. Tourism Western Australia is the State statutory authority charged with the development and marketing of WA as a tourism destination. Their role is to ‘accelerate the sustainable growth of tourism for the long term benefit of Western Australia’ and are encouraged to ‘promote and facilitate the development of new tourism ventures throughout WA and improve existing tourist services and facilities to meet visitor needs’ (Tourism Western

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Australia 2004). Regional managers work with stakeholders to identify infrastructure gaps and develop strategies to minimise the impact of tourism in their region.

Tourism WA has developed destination strategies for the State’s five tourism regions including the SW. Australia’s South West, Destination Development Strategy - An Action Plan Approach 2004-2014 was developed in 2004 (see Tourism Western Australia 2004). This report lists the various existing marine tourism assets in the SW and makes suggestion for increasing visitor attendance. Listed in this report as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the SW, and heritage listed, are the Busselton Jetty and the Underwater Observatory, which has received ‘iconic attraction’ status by Tourism WA. The report suggests that the observatory has an insufficient visitor movement capacity, yet fails to recognise the deterioration of the jetty and the restoration that is required to maintain the iconic status of the Busselton Jetty. Tourism WA suggests the creation of a facility to enable tenders from International cruise ships to drop off and pick up passengers at Busselton Jetty to increase the visitor capacity.

Key documents and programs on eco-tourism include: • Fisheries Resources Management Act (1994) all charter boats operating in Western Australia have to be licensed under this Act. • Nature-based Tourism Strategy for Western Australia (WATC & DCLM 1997) • National Ecotourism Strategy (Allcock et al. 1994). • National Eco-tourism Accreditation Program (see the Tourism Council website for further information http://www.tourismcouncilwa.com.au/site/ ).

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Table 6.2: Environmental and ecological impacts of tourism in the SW region Destruction of habitats and damage to ecosystems • Unmanaged human interactions with wildlife and/or specific species of flora and fauna (i.e. feeding of stingrays in Hamelin Bay and dolphins in Bunbury) • The opening of new areas to ecotourism may threaten their near pristine values • Careless tourists and/or deliberate vandalism • Concentrated recreational and charter fishing in sensitive marine habitats • Incidental disturbance to other wildlife, such as shore birds, or other vulnerable communities, such as intertidal and subtidal reefs Environmental degradation and pollution • Pollution by littering • Wastewater discharge and sewerage pollution may lead to degradation of ecosystems if inadequately managed • Coastal water pollution and siltation due to nearshore construction of resorts Loss of marine and coastal resources • Coastal ecosystem damage and destruction through construction of major tourism infrastructure (e.g. marinas, harbours, walkways, carparks and roads) • Construction may impact local marine environments by encouraging a greater influx of visitors to the area than would otherwise visit. • Impacts on wildlife and habitats from concentrated boating activity (i.e. damage from small boat anchors, boat groundings, regular swimming with wildlife) • Destruction by tourist activities (i.e. saltmarsh and wetland impacts due to excessive visitation and/or unmanaged exploitation of those resources • Introduction of exotic or feral species (i.e. boats and 4WD’s unwittingly introducing pests on hulls and seeds/spores on the undercarriage)

6.4.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS – MARINE ECO-TOURISM

There has been no systematic study of the environmental impacts of tourism for the SW region. Base-line data, i.e. information regarding the condition of the natural environment prior to tourism development is relatively poor, with the exception of National Parks. The growth of eco- and nature-based tourism activities, may contribute to a decline in the physical environment unless research into the impacts of tourism is increased.

The use of management regimes such as signage, guidelines/codes of conduct could be developed and implemented with little cost. Indicators to monitor the impacts of tourism on wildlife may also need to be developed and/or adapted from other areas where they have been shown to be effective in minimising the impacts to wildlife by increasing community awareness. There is also concern that some individuals that enter the eco-tourism industry are either unqualified or inexperienced and therefore have limited knowledge and understanding of the responsibilities which should support nature based eco-tourism. Commercial operations could be encouraged to positively contribute to the ongoing conservation of natural areas in their local area of operation. Further development of the potentially lucrative nature based eco-tourism industry in the SW is likely to be dependent on a considerate and sustainable approach to the use of the coast.

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Various models are in place to manage ecotourism and visitors in terrestrial National Parks across Australia. See McArthur and Sebastian (1998) for model descriptions and further information on visitor management plans.

6.5 MARINE AND COASTAL INDUSTRY

The SW region is an integral part of the State’s resource sector with heavy mineral sands, alumina, coal, tin and gold all mined in the SW. The vast majority of mining operations generally occur outside of the marine and coastal environment with the exception of Cable Sands whom operate on the shores of Koombana Bay with a dry separation plant adjacent to the port in Bunbury. Further information on mining in the SW NRM region can be found in Economics Consulting Services (2002).

The marine-based industry is a growth sector across Australia with annual growth rates reported at around 8%. This represents a value in excess of $30 billion that marine-based industry contributes to Australia’s total economic production (GDP). This and other information on key issues and future prospects for potential growth and further development to the marine industry across Australia (including aquaculture, fisheries, tourism and recreation) are covered in the Australian Marine Industries and Science Council (AMISC) development strategy. AMISC is an advisory body set up by the Federal Government to identify issues and opportunities for the development of marine-based industry. The Marine Industry Development Strategy 1997 can be viewed on the DEH website at; http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/oceans-policy/publications/marine-ind- dev.html

The Department for Planning and Infrastructure (DPI) website (see Appendix II) contains information on coastline movements, maritime infrastructure including developments which are designed to protect the coast (groynes, seawalls, and breakwaters), jetties, boat launching ramps and navigation aids (also see table 6.3 for location of coastal infrastructure). There is also information on marine use boundaries such as, mooring control areas. The DPI is responsible for the management of a wide range of facilities varying from major metropolitan boat harbours, to single jetties, quarries and commercial ports.

The New Coastal Assets Branch of the DPI is responsible for maintaining navigable access for recreational and commercial boat owners to regional waterways and maritime facilities throughout WA. This is achieved through maintenance dredging, sand bypassing and groyne, breakwall and revetment construction. The DPI publish various documents outlining their operations across WA; for a general overview of New Coastal Assets Branch core business see DPI (2005a); for maintenance dredging see JFA Consultants (2006); and for review of sand bypassing at Dawesville and Mandurah see Bicknell (2006).

For a comprehensive list of boat ramps in the SW visit http://www.dpi.wa.gov.au/imarine/recboating/1171.asp

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Table 6.3: Coastal facilities managed by the Facilities Management Branch within the DPI and other known facilities within the SW NRM region. Owned and managed by DPI (√), owned by DPI and managed/leased by others () and other facilities available (+). Table modified from DPI.

Site

Dredged Channel / Waterway / Waterway Channel Dredged Breakwaters Basin Harbour Service Jetty/Wharf Jetty Recreational Mooring Pens & Walkways Area Mooring Slipway Ramp Boat Recreational Carpark Roadways Amenities Building Office Building Leased Area - or Jetty Land lease for Available - Land etc) (buffers Other - Land -LV Elect Rec Water Services Dawesville √ √ √ + + √ Mandurah √ √ + + + + + Augusta √ + √ √ √ √ Bunbury √ √ √ + √ √ √+ √+ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Australind + Binningup Beach + Blackwood River + Busselton + + Canal Rocks + + Collie River + + Cowaramup Bay + + Donnelly River + Forrest Beach + Hamelin Bay + + + Myalup + + Quindalup + + + + + Margaret River + Walpole Inlet + + Dunsborough + + +

6.5.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS – MARINE AND COASTAL INDUSTRY

It was beyond the scope of this study to examine knowledge gaps for the marine and coastal industry. However, it is recommended that industries which do not need a coastal location should be located away from the coast. Consultation with, local state and federal governments as well as other state departments such as the DoE, EPA and the DPI may be beneficial in determining knowledge gaps.

6.6 COASTAL DEVELOPMENT AND RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Two databases, [the Coastal Data Centre (CDC) and WALIS] store information on coastal developments and use of the coastal environment in the study area (see Appendix 1 for URL). Areas zoned for recreational activities and fishing are also described. The WALIS database provides information on the location of infrastructure including: harbours, slipways, groynes, boat ramps, break walls, wharves, jetties, seawalls, and pens across WA. Environmental referral documents lodged with the EPA provide information on proposed developments and are available to download from the web (see appendix II for URL).

Anthropogenic impacts associated with development of the coastal environment include habitat loss from coastal urban and industrial developments, shipping and port development, extractive industries (commercial and recreational fisheries), and mining (petroleum, shellsand and salt). The earliest document found on

63 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 development impacts was by Frawley (1976), who produced a document for the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) on the perception of environmental change at Augusta.

Concern over sedimentation in Geographe Bay resulted in the Public Works Department commissioning a report on sedimentation in the Bay (Searle & Logan 1978). Clegg (1986) recognised the Cape Naturaliste area as under increasing pressure from recreation and development, and urged its inclusion in coastal management plans for protection. In planning for development impacts on the natural environment, the South West Regional Strategy for Natural Resource Management (SWCC 2005) contains a review of current condition, threats, threatening processes and trends. Threats identified in the strategy include; • Eutrophication • Sedimentation • Chemical pollution • Foreshore and habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation • Coastal development • Recreation • Introduced flora and fauna • Commercial and recreational fishing Each of the threats identified in the strategy is described in some detail with a description of the affects these threats have on the natural assets in the SW region.

Threatening processes identified in the strategy include; • Aquatic habitat degradation (nutrients, sediment/turbidity, toxins) • Climate change • Fisheries • Habitat degradation (engineering works, inappropriate recreation, pest control) • Habitat fragmentation • Habitat loss (engineering works, urban/industrial) • Introduced flora and fauna (aquatic, terrestrial) • Tourism interactions • Water use Each of the threatening processes have been presented in table format and given a ranking of low, medium or high and is based on a threat prioritisation framework.

Recreational activities pose a significant threat to coastal habitats and wildlife in the SW. For example if inappropriately managed, coastal recreational activities (such as fishing, sand boarding, four wheel drives, and camping in remote locations) may lead to excessive dune erosion, trampling of bird nests, trampling of vegetation, introduction of non-native plants, collection of timber for fires and accumulation of litter. Fish populations may also be impacted during pulses of mass recreational fishing effort, such as the targeted salmon run along beaches of the Warren coast. The threat to fish stocks will likely increase with increases in coastal development associated with population growth and availability of boat ramps and other marine related infrastructure.

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Inadequate coastal setbacks are a concern and threaten the stability of the coastal environment. Problems have arisen, and continue to arise, where infrastructure such as roads, buildings and pathways are located too close to the marine coastal interface. To combat erosion or reduce erosion risk coastal developments may then require continuous sand nourishment. This in turn creates further issues to other coastal locations.

CASE STUDY: GEOGRAPHE BAY

Concern regarding the proposal to build the Port Geographe Marina north-east of Busselton prompted research into its potential and actual impacts. Walker et al. (1987) addressed the likely impacts of the proposed development on the benthic marine communities and produced a seagrass map of the Bay for the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA). Le Provost Semeniuk and Chalmers (1988) produced a three- volume Environmental Review and Management Plan (ERMP) for Port Geographe. In 1989, the EPA approved the Port Geographe Development (EPA 1989), and in 1990 a monitoring program for the impacts of the development was designed (LeProvost 1990). According to Le Provost (1992), the Port Geographe development presented a good example of an environmentally responsible tourist development. However, the project has had many impacts. Sand and seagrass wrack has been accumulating to the west of a rock wall built as part of the development, requiring sand bypassing and the removal of this wrack to Wonnerup Beach by truck (Rogers & Associates 2005). Further information and assessment of the management of this development was prompted by the Commonwealth Government Resource Assessment Commission’s coastal zone inquiry into the management and use of the resources of Australia’s coastline (Resource Assessment Commission of Australia 1993), who reported on a case study on the Management of Geographe Bay undertaken by Meridian Environmental (1993).

Ongoing issues exist between a local lobby group Port Geographe Action Group (PGAG), the developer (Axiom Group) and the State Government. Concerns stem from works on sand bypassing activity and wrack build up on the western breakwater to Guerin Street and the consequent erosion to Wonnerup Beach on the eastern breakwater. M P Rogers & Associates Pty Ltd have produced a number of reports on the progress of seagrass wrack removal and sand bypassing for Port Geographe. However, PGAG are concerned over the lack and frequency of planned and ongoing maintenance. They have also expressed concern over the lack of baseline information before building of the groynes.

We were unable to find evidence that the proponent commenced, or is in the process of implementing, (as per the deed and Bulletin 783, June 1995 from the EPA): • a sand dune stabilisation and management programme; • a suitable beach monitoring programme; • an appropriate seagrass and wrack management programme; • water quality monitoring prior to and during development. According to PGAG water quality monitoring began well after development began in 2005 (pers comm. Vince Beard - PGAG). The developer, Axiom, was contacted and asked to comment on the above programs but no reply was received.

6.6.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS - COASTAL DEVELOPMENT AND RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Where it is essential for development to be located on the coast constraints need to be put in place to minimise the threats to coastal environments (e.g. stringent pollution control measures). Any new development on the

65 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 coast needs to be separated from the established permanent vegetation by managed foreshore reserves to a width that allows natural processes to occur; • For the movement of fauna through natural corridors; • For the protection of stabilising vegetation; • For the maintenance of visual amenity and; • For recreational needs and opportunities

Major issues highlighted by coastal management plans are listed below. • A lack of guidance for local government in the design or specifications of management infrastructure on the coast resulting in ad hoc management approaches. • Coastal planning recommendations are often not reflected in town planning schemes. • The community desires greater coastal access but landholders maybe reluctant; there is also some question over the ability of private landowners to manage susceptible areas such as coastal dunes. • Ad hoc impacts of tourism poorly understood (i.e. camping on dunes, sandboarding) and a general lack of knowledge about how people recreate, especially along the less developed coasts. There is a need to identify the full recreation/tourism potential of the coastal area. • The location of some coastal development in high risk areas (susceptible to flooding, erosion, storm impacts etc.). • Assessments need to be made into the carrying capacity of the region to support increases in population and recreational activities, especially in the near pristine areas. • Coastal management documents are not statutory and therefore are not always considered when planning decisions are made. • Further involvement of indigenous people in natural resource and land management is considered desirable. • There is a lack of strategic planning into coastal development (identified in past reports and inquires). • Demand for better community education of nature to promote greater participation in conservation (nature appreciation). • There is a lack of firm guidance to decision makers and developers regarding setback of infrastructure from the coast. • Coastal development should not be supported unless justified through a physical coastal processes study undertaken in compliance with the State Coastal Planning Policy (SPP2.6). • Population growth in the SW is inevitable leading to a greater demand for coastal land and access to the coast. • Limiting access to the coast is likely to exacerbate the pressure of ad hoc 4wd access. • Generally a poor understanding about regional environmental impacts. • Future subdivision will likely place increased demand for access to the coast.

6.7 CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA LEVEL RISE

Climate change is considered one of the most significant environmental challenges facing WA with changes to the WA’s biodiversity and water resources already evident. Ironically, WA is also considered one of the largest per capita greenhouse gas emitting societies in the world with greenhouse gas emissions continually rising across WA with industrial development and the increased demands for energy resources blamed (EPA 2006).

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Climate change has the potential to affect biodiversity directly through changes in temperature, rainfall and extreme events, and also indirectly through altering the nature and scale of existing biodiversity pressures (e.g. loss of wetlands and land clearing). Climate change may also result in ecological community shifts and loss of species and ecosystems. Sea level rise and resulting tidal incursion into freshwater wetlands is also likely to increase, whereby severely modifying their ecology. Migrations of native species of flora and fauna are also likely to occur with climate change. However, with the level of habitat fragmentation species migrations in response to climate change is likely to be severely impeded.

Across Australia the majority of states and territories require a Bruun-Rule [process for estimating impacts (coastal erosion) of sea level rise] calculation to be incorporated into coastal planning. In WA the Western Australian Coastal Statement of Planning Policy takes into account global sea level rise in their calculation of coastal setbacks and is based on recommendations from the IPCC Working Group (Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change), which also uses the current climate change model or Bruun model (Jones & Hayne 2002). The IPCC produce regular reports dealing with the science of climate change. The IPCC’s third report has been internationally accepted as representing the current state of knowledge on climate change science, impacts and mitigation techniques. The most recent report was published in 2001 and can be downloaded chapter by chapter from links on the IPCC website (see appendix II for URL).

Impacts from climate change are expected to be most obvious in the SW, with modelled temperature increases of several degrees Centigrade resulting in significant reductions in rainfall (Indian Ocean Climate Initiative 2005) and up to 0.38 metre change in vertical sea level rise (38 m horizontally), according to the Bruun-Rule, (Bruun 1988; Jones & Hayne 2002) this century. These changes are likely to have a significant impact on coastal systems and infrastructure across the SW.

The IOCI held a workshop in Perth 2005 (see report by Dracup et al. 2005), to help identify the key issues associated with climate change facing the south-west of WA. This report provides a thorough account of the key impacts of climate change to the different sectors and the current and future responses to those impacts.

Projections of areas most likely to be affected by sea-level rise are available from Google at the following link http://flood.firetree.net/?ll=-27.8390,138.1640&z=13&m=7. It is recommended to first install the free software “Google Earth” (http://download.earth.googlepages.com/?gclid=CKnwxLDTpIgCFQ8aYQodqH-0Xg) to view this.

6.7.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS – CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA LEVEL RISE

The potential impacts from climate change on biodiversity are significant and becoming increasingly well recognised but there remains considerable gaps in our understanding with research poorly supported. Furthermore, the extent of the effect of climate change and the enhanced greenhouse effect on natural systems remains uncertain.

Jones & Hayne (2002) suggest process orientated analyses of sediment budgets should be undertaken around Australia to provide accurate estimations of potential erosion. Future responses to address climate change in the SW are discussed in the report from the IOCI workshop by Dracup et al. (2005).

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6.8 SEA CHANGE

The world wide ‘sea change’ phenomenon is placing enormous pressure on coastal communities and coastal managers as they struggle to cope with rapid population growth from metropolitan cities and inland areas. In Australia the movement of the populace to the coast is occurring in every Australian state and is expected to continue for the next 10 to 15 years. The retirement of the so-called ‘baby boomers’, the high capital city house prices and those individuals and families that seek a change in lifestyle away from the congestion of the city are believed to be driving this phenomena. Statistics released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in March 2005 showed growth rates of coastal local governments where 60% higher than the national average growth rate.

In response to the sea change phenomenon 27 high growth councils from around Australia met in February 2004 and formed the National Sea Change Taskforce (NSCT). The taskforce has been established as a national body to represent the interests of coastal councils and communities where the effects of rapid population and tourism growth are most apparent. The taskforce now represents more than 60 coastal councils from all Australian states. A report Meeting the Sea Change Challenge: Sea Change Communities in Coastal Australia (Gurran et al. 2006), produced for the NSCT highlights the major issues affecting coastal communities as a result of the sea change phenomenon. This report provides 140 examples from around the world of best practice planning principles for managing the effects of rapid coastal growth.

The WWF and IUCN joined forces to produce a policy outline Creating a Sea Change (WWF/IUCN undated) that is designed to address the impacts of sea change on the marine and coastal environments. They stress that nowhere is it more important to address the issues of sea change than in the marine and nearshore environment. Wetlands, estuaries, salt marshes and mangrove swamps are said to produce more wildlife, in terms of sheer volume, and more primary plant growth than any other terrestrial habitat. Seagrasses and mangroves also trap and consolidate sediments, clarify (oxygenate and clean) the water, as well as provide nurseries, shelter, and food for an array of marine life. Many of these habitats are found throughout the SW region with many adjacent to areas where sea changers are most attracted to.

6.8.1 KNOWLEDGE GAPS – SEA CHANGE

The coastal environment in the SW is at significant risk from excessive growth in population and tourism. Uncontained growth of the regions coastal communities has the potential to severely exacerbate degradation of coastal environments through further losses to biodiversity, water quality, increased habitat fragmentation and loss of important coastal wetlands – especially in sensitive areas and those already degraded. Preparations need to be put in place to address sustainable management of growth in coastal areas to minimise environmental degradation and the loss of character through inappropriate development. For example, the development of urban guidelines for coastal towns may reduce the impact to the town’s character. Regional centres may need to become more actively involved in state coastal planning policy to ensure development is appropriate for their region, in particular environmental and infrastructure planning.

7 SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE GAPS AND SETTING PRIORITIES

A “baseline” for the marine and coastal environment is a point of reference from which managers can assess the effects of natural or human induced changes. For example we must know the number of species, their

68 Project C1-G1 South West Catchments Council - October 2006 abundance and size to assess biodiversity of a region and how it changes over time, whether that is coastal vegetation, marine communities or some other asset. Similarly, to assess whether an activity such as nutrient runoff from the land has affected seagrass meadows in the marine environment we need a baseline of information on seagrasses. Baseline knowledge, and defining natural change in the marine and coastal environment, is necessary to measure potential impacts.

The commonality between many of the knowledge gaps that are highlighted in this report is a lack of baseline data that provides information on the composition of species (i.e. the number of species, the abundance of individuals for each species and their biomass or size). Data must also span logical time frames (i.e. a number of years) to account for natural changes that may results from El Nino and its influence on the Leeuwin Current or different weather patterns between years. Table 7.1 provides a summary of issues, knowledge gaps and priority actions. This was drawn from the findings of the literature review and liaison with stakeholders. It is designed to stimulate discussion and debate among stakeholders and the community in the workshops, about future priorities for marine and coastal the SW region. It is anticipated that stakeholders and members of the community will be able to contribute substantial knowledge to the development of priorities for the SW region and participation in the workshops is strongly encouraged.

The phrase “reference sites in representative areas” is regularly used in Table 7.1 and refers to sites that are similar to a larger area in terms of depth, seafloor type, habitat type, proximity to currents etc. These sites, if properly located, can provide a subset of data that is “representative” of a larger area. Potential regions are listed where limited data, or no data, was located in the literature search and consultation phase of the project. Precise locations for on-ground works is suggested throughout but should be discussed at the workshops.

Many of the priority actions could be combined into single projects that investigated a number of marine or coastal communities. For example any seagrass mapping should incorporate mapping of all seafloor habitats in a given area, and surveys of marine communities should incorporate algae, invertebrates and fishes. This would maximise the value of any investment by SWCC.

It is suggested that there is a spread of investment geographically and also across a range of marine and coastal issues, and that projects proposed from the workshops should complement, but not duplicate, existing projects being funded by SWCC or other institutions. For example, proposed projects may be able to build on knowledge contained in existing marine and coastal projects or management plans (from local and state government departments) that are described throughout this document. Existing SWCC funded projects in the region include, among others, C1.01 Marine contaminants - Geographe Bay region, CM.01a Benchmark study of marine reef communities in the Capes region, and CM.01b Establishing benchmarks of seagrass and water quality in Geographe Bay.

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Table 7.1: Issues, knowledge gaps and priority actions that should be considered and debated in the SWCC stakeholder workshops. Interested readers should refer to more comprehensive sections on each issue, which are contained within the body of this report (see contents page).

MARINE

Issues Knowledge gap/s Priority actions Seagrass communities The extent of seagrass Seagrass mapping surveys. These could incorporate mapping meadows and their of certain areas of the seafloor including reef and sand, which species composition in best represent larger areas i.e. it is probably not necessary to the Mandurah to Capel map the entire region. Baseline data should also be collected region and the Augusta to from reference sites in representative areas of seagrass. Walpole region.

Reef associated benthic Baseline data for the Baseline data collection from reference sites in representative communities - corals, Mandurah to Busselton reef areas. algae, invertebrates region and the Augusta to Walpole region. Surveys of rocky intertidal areas could be incorporated into high school or broader community projects.

There are several coral reefs in the SW region that represent some of the most southern occurrences of particular coral species in the Southern Hemisphere. The health of these should be investigated particularly in light of global warming and potential changes in water temperature that may affect coral growth.

Sandy bottom Baseline data for the Baseline data collection from reference sites in representative communities south west region. areas. Combine with work on reef associated benthic assemblages, fish surveys and invertebrate surveys.

Fishes Baseline data for the Baseline data collection from reference sites in representative Mandurah to Busselton areas. Combine with work on reef associated benthic region and the Augusta to assemblages, sandy bottom communities and invertebrate Walpole region. surveys.

Deep water fish Potential community projects involving deployment of assemblages greater than underwater video apparatus to measure fish assemblages. 25m. Investigations into the biology of certain key fish species.

Invertebrates Baseline data for the Baseline data collection from reference sites in representative Mandurah to Busselton areas. Combine with work on reef associated benthic region and the Augusta to assemblages, sandy bottom communities and fish surveys. Walpole region. Investigations into the biology of certain key invertebrate species.

Vulnerable marine Threatened flora, fauna Compile inventories of threatened or vulnerable flora and communities and and communities. fauna for the SW region from all existing knowledge. Conduct species surveys of the location of these and incorporate into conservation reserves.

Baseline data collection from reference sites (for other issues) may provide necessary data on what is vulnerable or threatened.

Investigations into fish species listed as vulnerable to overexploitation (e.g. blue groper and baldchin groper).

Entanglement risk for Litter reduction programs are necessary to minimise the risk of marine mammals. entanglement in discarded nets, box straps etc.

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MARINE (continued)

Issues Knowledge gap/s Priority actions CAR Marine reserve Long-term data to assess Reference sites in sanctuary zones and other comparative system the effects zoning on areas. This is underway for the proposed Capes Marine biodiversity. Reserve but should also be considered for any future marine reserves in the SW.

Table 7.1 cont: Issues, knowledge gaps and priority actions that should be considered and debated in the SWCC stakeholder workshops. Interested readers should refer to more comprehensive sections on each issue, which are contained within the body of this report (see contents page).

COASTAL

Issue Knowledge gap/s Priority action Shoreline stability Effects of recreational Investigate the effects of four wheel drive usage on dunes and usage on dunes and shoreline stability at key locations in the SW (e.g. Black Point, shorelines (e.g. four Yeagerup dunes, Warren River mouth). Local knowledge from wheel driving, workshops will be important to highlight other areas that unmanaged access tracks, warrant investigation. sandboarding).

Natural shoreline Investigations into natural shoreline movement in the absence movement of human made structures such as groynes and marinas.

Coastal habitats Effect of habitat Investigate the effects of habitat fragmentation on key species fragmentation. of flora and fauna in the SW (e.g. reptiles, small mammals, plants).

Promote the use of wildlife corridors on private lands. This may require incentive schemes.

Flora and fauna of coastal Surveys of flora and fauna on St Alouarn Island, Seal Island, islands. Flinders Island, Hamelin Island, Sandy Island and Needles Point Island.

Coastal vegetation Mapping of coastal vegetation and inventory of native coastal mapping. flora, weeds and exotic plants.

Mangrove scrub. Annual monitoring of the extent and growth of mangroves in the Leschenault Inlet.

Coastal wetlands Lack of wetland Promote the introduction of management plans for coastal management plans wetlands. This will require liaison with local councils and the Department of Environment and Conservation.

Effects of septic tank Promote sewage infill schemes, closed composting systems or leachate on wetlands. sewage waste removal. Particularly in areas of high conservation significance e.g. Broke Inlet.

Ensure adequate buffer zones for developments near wetlands.

Coastal development Please refer to Section 6.6.1 of this report.

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Table 7.1 cont: Issues, knowledge gaps and priority actions that should be considered and debated in the SWCC stakeholder workshops. Interested readers should refer to more comprehensive sections on each issue, which are contained within the body of this report (see contents page).

CURRENT THREATS AND POTENTIALLY THREATENING PROCESSES

Issue Knowledge gap/s Priority action Introduced flora and Marine pests. Natural Heritage Trust project underway. Refer Department of fauna Fisheries.

Terrestrial coastal weeds. Inventory of coastal weeds and eradication plans where feasible.

Contaminants in the Effects of agricultural Currently being investigated by SWCC projects C1.01 Marine marine environment and urban run-off on the contaminants and CM.01 Establishing benchmarks of seagrass marine environment. and water quality in Geographe Bay.

Commercial and Effects of fishing on Should be discussed with Department of Fisheries, Department recreational fishing particular targeted fishes. of Environment and Conservation and Recfishwest.

Biology of targeted Investigate age at maturity and range of movement of key fishes. targeted species.

Marine ecotourism Effects of human Investigate the effects of interactions with animals (e.g. seals, interactions on wildlife. stingrays, whales and dolphins) to minimise disturbance to their natural behaviour. This work may be underway and would require input and cooperation from operators in the region.

Coastal development Please refer to shoreline Must be discussed with Local Government Authorities (LGAs) and recreational stability section above and the Department for Planning and Infrastructure. activities and Section 6.6.1 of this report. Propose a memorandum of understanding (or some other agreement) for consistent approach between LGAs to coastal management and compilation of coastal management plans.

Guidance for LGAs on design and specifications of management infrastructure (e.g. marinas, seawalls, erosion prevention measures).

Climate change and sea The effects of sea level Mapping of areas likely to be affected by sea level rise. See level rise rise on the SW. Google Earth for indications of potentially affected areas (Section 6.7).

The effects of climate Climate change may affect many marine and coastal issues change on the SW. through changes in rainfall or temperature. These are broad reaching and should be addressed at a coordinated state or federal level but should nonetheless be discussed by workshop participants.

Effect of changes in sea Baseline data collection from reference sites (for other issues) water temperature on should provide necessary data on changes over time in marine seagrass, fish, algal and communities and water temperature. invertebrate communities.

Sea change Effects of increased The effects of increased population growth are likely being coastal tourism and incorporated into planning policy by local and state population growth. governments. Specific issues such as effects on water quality, or marine and coastal biodiversity are incorporated in the above issues.

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8 APPENDICES

APPENDIX I - DATABASES OF INFORMATION AND DATASETS

A number of databases were located that contain datasets of relevance to this project. These are outlined in the table below and contain information on the contents of the database, access requirements and whether the data is spatial or non-spatial. These databases may be discussed in more detail under the research topic headings in this report.

Database Contents Spatial Manager Access

Algaebase Common names, Non spatial European Union http://www.algaebase.org/ images, literature, links. ANRA Geographic information Distribution National Heritage http://audit.ea.gov.au/anra/atlas_hom database, estuaries, maps, spatial Trust e.cfm coasts, map maker Amphibians, birds, mammals, reptiles and Distributions WA Museum http://www.museum.wa.gov.au/fauna Faunabase fishes. Common names, and locations of base/prod/index.htm and WA image gallery, type specimens Faunalist taxonomic tree, family list, species search and area search. Fishbase Distributions, biology, Distribution World Fish Center http://www.fishbase.org/search.cfm diet, maturity maps Plant names, flora descriptions, interactive Distribution Department of http://www.calm.wa.gov.au/florabase Florabase identification, maps Conservation and /index.html distribution maps, Land Management botanical library Continuous water levels, Spatial, Water and Rivers surface water, rivers, in georeferenced Commission / http://www.wrc.wa.gov.au/waterinf/ HYDSTRA situ conductivity and Department of wrdata/RAIN/index.htm total dissolved solids, Water nutrient loads Water quality data for Contact Oceanica Consulting – Bunbury, Cockburn Spatial, Oceanica on behalf Environmental Data Manager Seabase Sound, Perth Long-term georeferenced of Water 9389 9669. Access may be provided Ocean Outlet Corporation on a case by case basis. Authorised Monitoring (PLOOM) users will be issued with a PIN code and the Perth Coastal that will allow online access. Waters Study. Information on habitat Recent Department of Statewide and biological information Environment and Email Dr Chris Simpson with ground assemblages and/or spatially tagged. Conservation, specific request truthing sites substrate. Wildlife Older Marine ([email protected] ) distributions in the Perth information in Conservation region (work in blocks of 5 x 5 Branch progress) nautical miles Western Australian Natural environment, Spatial, Western Australian Land planning and land use, georeferenced Land Information http://www.walis.wa.gov.au/ Information tourism and recreation. System System (WALIS) Mainly surface and groundwater, some Spatial, Water and Rivers http://portal.water.wa.gov.au/portal/p Water marine information with georeferenced Commission / age?_pageid=1318,5469694&_dad= Information aim to increase marine Department of portal&_schema=PORTAL or Database focus. Water quality, Environment telephone information officer (6364 (WIN) & rivers, estuaries, bores, 6505) or email: HYDSTRA water chemistry, and [email protected] phytoplankton.

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APPENDIX II – DEPARTMENTAL WEB SITES

Several WA and Federal government agencies provide general information on marine and coastal plans, policies, strategies, legislation and other reports that may be directly or indirectly applicable to the SW NRM region. Many of these documents are readily available and can be downloaded from their websites. The table below lists several web sites that were accessed to help compile this report. We advise accessing sites through the WA government's homepage if the addresses given below are no longer active (http://www.wa.gov.au).

Holder URL Key information Association of Australian Ports and Marine Authorities http://aapma.org.au/portindustry.php3 Port information, marine pests Australian Institute of http://www.aip.com.au/industry/fact_exploration_marine.htm Petroleum industry Petroleum Australian Marine http://www.amcs.org.au/default2.asp?active_page_id=107 Conservation Society Marine conservation Australian Maritime Safety http://www.amsa.gov.au/Marine%5FEnvironment%5FProtection/ Ship sourced pollution, oil spills, pollution Authority prevention Coastal Development Centre http://www.coastaldata.transport.wa.gov.au/ Coastal developments Coastal Cooperative http://www.coastal.crc.org.au/index.asp Australian coastal science Research Centre Coastwest http://www.wapc.wa.gov.au/Coast/Coastwest/115.aspx Local funding for coastal projects Department of Conservation http://www.calm.wa.gov.au/national_parks/rec_guide_parks.html and Land Management Marine Protected Areas Department of Environment http://portal.environment.wa.gov.au/portal/page?_pageid=233,1&_dad Environment and conservation and Conservation =portal&_schema=PORTAL Department of Environment EPBC Act, legislation, marine & coastal and Heritage http://www.deh.gov.au/ issues, MPAs, threat abatement plans Department of Fisheries http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/sec/about/pubs/index.php?0706 Fisheries reports and peer reviewed research papers Department of Premier and http://www.slp.wa.gov.au/statutes/swans.nsf/Current%20Legislation% Cabinet WA 20Version2?OpenView&Start=1&Count=600&Expand=21&RestrictT Statutes oCategory=F#21 Department for Primary http://www.dpi.wa.gov.au/imarine/703.asp Marine planning, coastal data, ports Industry Department of Water http://portal.water.wa.gov.au/portal/page?_pageid=1318,1&_dad=port Legislation, Policy, Reports, water quality, al&_schema=PORTAL WRDATA Environmental Protection http://www.epa.wa.gov.au/ EIA & SOE reports, CCI, NRM, Policy Authority Environmental Protection http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi- List of extinct, endangered and threatened and Biodiversity bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=fauna#FISHES_VUL species, communities and threatening Conservation Act NERABLE processes Fisheries Research and Development Corporation http://www.frdc.com.au/ Fisheries research Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/online.htm Climate change Marine Laboratories CSIRO Marine & Atmospheric Research Information Network http://www.marine.csiro.au/marlin/ Metadata base National Introduced Marine Introduced marine pests database Pest Information System http://www.marine.csiro.au/crimp/nimpis/ Coasts and Clean Seas Program, lists current Natural Heritage Trust http://www.nht.gov.au/nht1/programs/csp/index.html projects State by State Natural Resource Water quality management, Management Ministerial http://www.mincos.gov.au/nwqms_docs.htm MRMMC/ARMCANZ Council South West Development Commission http://www.swdc.wa.gov.au/index.php SW Development and funding The Marine and Coastal http://www.mccn.org.au/ Marine and coastal bulletins, topical Community Network The World Conservation http://www.iucnredlist.org/ Conservation status of species (international) Union Western Australian Planning http://www.wapc.wa.gov.au/ Land use planning and development in WA Commission

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APPENDIX III – LIST OF ACRONYMS

Acronym Organisation / institution / other AMISC Australian Marine Industries and Science Council ANCA Australian Nature Conservation Agency ANZECC Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council ARMCANZ Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand CALM Department of Conservation and Land Management (now DEC - Department of Environment and Conservation) CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation DEC Department of Environment and Conservation DEH Department of Environment and Heritage DPI Department for Planning and Infrastructure EBFM Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management EPA Environmental Protection Authority (currently Department of Environment and Conservation) EPBC Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act ESD Ecologically Sustainable Development FRDC Fisheries Research and Development Council IMCRA Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia IOCI Indian Ocean Climate Initiative IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature MPA Marine Park Area MPRA Marine Parks and Reserves Authority NHT Natural Heritage Trust NPNCA National Parks and Nature Conservation Authority NRM Natural Resource Management NRMMC Natural Resources Management Ministerial Council NRSMPA National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas NSCT National Sea Change Taskforce PDF Portable document format PGAG Port Geographe Action Group RAP Recovery Action Plan SCRIPT South Coast Regional Initiative Planning Team SW South West SWALSC South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council SWCC South West Catchments Council TSSC Threatened Species Scientific Committee URL Uniform resource locator (i.e. website address) UWA University of Western Australia UWA University of Western Australia WAPC Western Australian Planning Commission WATC Western Australian Tourism Commission WATCU Western Australian Threatened Species and Communities Unit - CALM WAWA Water Authority of Western Australia

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APPENDIX IV – GLOSSARY

Abiotic – non-living factors of the environment including light, temperature and gases Advection – the transfer of organisms away from the coast Algae – chlorophyll containing plants which lack true roots Anthropogenic – caused or produced by humans Ascidians – sea squirts Benthic – pertaining to the benthos (collection of things living on the sea bottom) Biomass – the amount of living matter in a given habitat (weight or volume) Biodiversity - the variety of life on our planet, measurable as the variety within species, between species, and the variety of ecosystems. Number and variety of living organisms; includes genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecological diversity. Canopy – plants that shade others from light CAR Marine Reserves - Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative for biodiversity conservation Cetaceans – whales and dolphins Crinoids – feather stars Crustaceans – aquatic arthropods such as crabs, lobsters, prawns and barnacles Deoxygenation – the act or operation of depriving of oxygen Detritivorous – eats detritus (disintegrated or eroded matter) Diversity – the range and variety of living things Echinoderms – seastars, sea cucumbers, brittle stars, feather stars Encrusting – lives or grows on the surface of a particular substrate Endemism – native to or confined to a particular area Epibenthic – lives on the benthos (sea bottom) Epiphyte – a non-parasitic plant that grows attached to another plant Estuary – lower reaches of a river that meets the sea Eutrophication – abundant accumulation of nutrients which depletes the shallow waters of oxygen Exotic – not native to a given area, either intentionally or accidentally introduced from another region Exposed – open to the elements of weather, with little protection Foliose – leave like Gastropods – snails and sea slugs Habitat partitioning – the way similar species divide their habitat Herbivorous – eats plants Hermatypic – reef building coral Homogeneity – similar in composition Hypersaline – water body with a higher salt content than standard seawater Ichthyofauna – fishes that are found in a particular area Infauna – animals that occur in the substrate Inshore – close to the coast / shore Inter-annual – variability from year to year Intertidal – littoral region that is above the low tide mark and below the high tide mark Invertebrates – animals without a backbone Keystone species – plant or animal that associated plants and animals depend upon

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Macroalgae – large multicellular algae (seaweeds) Macroinvertebrates – large invertebrates, such as crabs, lobsters, abalone, other shelled gastropods etc. Microtopography – surface features of small dimensions Molluscs – typically invertebrates having a soft unsegmented body (snails, squid, octopus and shellfish) Monospecific – containing one dominant species Nearshore – marine environment occurring immediately adjacent to the coast Oceanography – the study of the ocean and ocean currents Offshore – located some distance from the coast / shore, moving or tending away from the shore Periphyton – community of tiny organisms that lives on the surface of other plants Pinnipeds – seals and sea lions Polychaetes – worms ppt – Parts per thousand Propagules – the vegetative portion of a plant that aid in dispersal Retention – the act of being retained Revetment - structures placed on banks or cliffs in such a way as to absorb the energy of incoming waves. They are usually built to preserve the existing uses of the shoreline and to protect the slope. Ramsar Wetland – for a wetland to be listed as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention it must satisfy one or more of 8 criteria (see DEH website for Ramsar criteria, URL in appendix II) Species richness – number of individual species Substrata – surface which another plant, animal or sediment can settle on Subtidal – below tidal range Teleosts – bony fishes Thallus – part of the plant body, usually pertaining to the leaf Topography – the relief features or surface configuration Transect – a quantitative measured distance used for censuring biota Trophic linkages – food relationships between different organisms Vertebrates – animals with a backbone Wetland - Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres.

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APPENDIX V – ORGANISATIONS CONSULTED

AXIOM Developers City of Bunbury City of Bunbury Coasts & Clean Seas program CoastSWap Dalyellup Beach Project Department for Planning and Infrastructure - Bunbury office Department for Planning and Infrastructure - Coastal Assets Branch Department of Environment and Conservation - Busselton Department of Environment and Conservation - Marine Science Department of Environment and Conservation - Policy Science Department of Environment and Heritage Department of Fisheries - Perth Department of Fisheries Busselton Department of Water - Aquatic Sciences Branch Department of Water - Leschenault Catchment Council GeoCatch Murdoch University Marine and Freshwater Research Laboratory National Oceans Office Natural Heritage Trust Oceanica Consulting Port Geographe Action Group Shire of Augusta-Margaret River Shire of Manjimup South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council South West Development Commission University of Western Australia Various residents of the SW region WA Local Government Association Wilderness Society

Note: Other key organisations were contacted but did not respond.

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