Lindenmeier, 1934-1974
CONCLUDING REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS
Edwin N. Wilmsen and Frank H. H. fLoberts, Jr.
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 SERIES PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
Emphasis upon publication as a means of "diffusing knowledge" was expressed by the first Secretary of the Smithsonian. In his formal plan for the Institution, Joseph Henry outlined a program that included the following statement: "It is proposed to publish a series of reports, giving an account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in all branches of knowledge." this theme of basic research has been adhered to through the years by thousands of titles issued in series publications under the Smithsonian imprint, commencing with Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge in 1848 and continuing with the following active series: Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics Smithsonian Contributions to Botany Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology In these series, the Institution publishes small papers and full-scale monographs that report the research and collections of its various museums and bureaux or of professional colleagues in the world of science and scholarship, the publications are distributed by mailing lists to libraries, universities, and similar institutions throughout the world. Papers or monographs submitted for series publication are received by the Smithsonian Institution Press, subject to its own review for format and style, only through departments of the various Smithsonian museums or bureaux, where the manuscripts are given sub stantive review. Press requirements for manuscript and art preparation are outlined on the inside back cover.
S. Dillon Ripley Secretary Smithsonian Institution
Lindenmeier, seen from the heights to the west of the site. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY • NUMBER 24
Lindenmeier, 1934-1974
CONCLUDING REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS
Edwin N. Wilmsen and Frank H. H. KobertSj Jr.
ISSUED MAR -61979
SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS CITY OF WASHINGTON 1978 ABSTRACT
Wilmsen, Edwin N., and Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. Lindenmeier, 1934-1974: Con cluding Report on Investigations. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, number 24, 187 pages, 166 figures, 3 maps, 109 tables, 1978.—The excavation and analysis of Paleo-Indian artifacts from the Lindenmeier site in northern Colorado are described in detail. The site was excavated from 1934 to 1940 by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr.; the history of these excavations is summarized. Roberts died in 1966 without completing an analysis of the excavated materials. In the same year, Wilmsen began work on the collection. The goals and strategies of the original work, as well as methods employed in the field, are reconstructed to the extent permitted by existing archival materials and publications. A detailed discussion of the physiographic features of the site location and of its Recent geologic history is presented. It is suggested that common stream meander processes are responsible for the present appearance of the site and that appeals to climatic change are unnecessary. The floral and faunal composition of the area at the time of Folsom occupation is considered in terms of preserved samples of soil, charcoal, resin, and pollen, along with molluskan and mammalian remains. A new radiocarbon age is reported and compared with an age 'reported previously by Haynes and Agogino (1960). These two ages are compared according to the method proposed by Long and Rippiteau (1974) and found to be indistinguishable statistically. The bulk of the report is devoted to an analysis of the stone artifacts in the collec tion. A method for assessing the comparability of measurements of artifacts made by different observers is introduced. This method also yields a basis for estimating the accuracy of observations and for rejecting a statistical result obtained from these observations. The artifacts are analyzed both in terms of sets of technological and functional variables and' of their spatial clustering. Technologically, the artifacts are found to conform to the predictions of the wave model proposed by Speth (1972). Five major categories are defined in terms of functional variables. The spatially discrete sets of artifacts are found to be identical technologically and to possess only minor functional differences. These clusters are interpreted to be the debris remains of camps occupied periodically by socially and economically inter acting units. Stylistic variation among projectile points is found to be highly signifi cant and spatially discrete. These findings are used to support a hypothesis of social segmentation among the early inhabitants of the site.
OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Wilmsen, Edwin N. Lindenmeier, 1934-1974. (Smithsonian contributions to anthropology ; no. 24) Bibliography: p. I. Lindenmeier site, Colo. I. Roberts, Frank Harold Hanna, Jr., 1897-1966, joint author. II. Title III. Series. GN1.S54 no. 24 [E78.C6] 301.2'08s [978.8'1J 76-608398 Contents
Page PREFACE xii' INTRODUCTION History of Investigations Coffin Collection Location of Excavation Units The 1934 Season 4 The 1935 Season 4 The 1936 Season 8 The 1937 Season 9 The 1938 Season 9 The 1939 Season 13 The 1940 Season 13 Summary of the Excavations 16 Camp Life 17 Roberts' Goals and Strategies 19 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODS 22 Condition of Records 22 Interpretation 24 Limitations 24 Theoretical Considerations 24 Categorization 25 Hypotheses 26 Sampling Assumptions 27 Analysis 27 Error Components 27 Statistical Techniques 28 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 30 Location 30 Landforms 30 Geologic History 30 Stratigraphy of the Site 33 Construction of Profiles 33 Stratigraphic Sequence 34 Work by Others 37 Regional Sequence , 37 Soils 38 Radiocarbon Measurements 39 Flora 42 Pollen 42 Wood Charcoal 43 Fossil Resin 45 Seeds 45 Fauna 45 Vertebrates 45 Invertebrates 49 vi SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4
Page Environment of the Lindenmeier Valley 4" DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 53 Site Units 53 Unit A 54 Unit B 54 Unit C 55 Unit X 57 Unit F 57 Units G, H, I, and Y 58 Unit Densities 59 Fitted Fragments 59 Bison Pit (Unit E) 60 Materials above the Folsom Levels 60 Artifacts 62 Procedures 63 Measurement Accuracy "5 Comparability of Measurements 65 Variables 67 Attributes 70 Unifacial Specimens 70 Unit Descriptions '0 Category Descriptions 83 Special Descriptions 85 Channel Flakes 101 Bifacial Specimens 101 Bifaces 101 Projectile Points 102 Preforms 103 Points 108 Miscellaneous Chert Objects 113 Cores and Raw Material 114 Sources of Cherts and Quartzites 114 Other Stone Specimens 121 Choppers and Pounders 121 Sandstone 121 Limestone 125 Minerals Other Than Stone 126 Bone Artifacts 126 ANALYSIS 135 Initial Data Segregation 135 Tests for Normality 135 Criteria for Accepting Differences 136 Initial Test for Unit Differences 136 Category Variation 137 Variation in Stone Materials 140 Variation among Preforms 144 Variation among Channel Flakes 144 Variation among Points 145 Variation among Bifaces 145 Spatial Variation 146 ANALYTICAL CONCLUSIONS 161 The Meaning of Category Variation 161 The Meaning of Point Variation 170 CONTENTS
Page The Meaning of Unit Variation 174 EXTENSIONS AND SPECULATIONS 175 APPENDIX: A Report of Field Work of the Colorado Museum of Natural History at the Lindenmeier Folsom Campsite, 1935, by John L. Cotter 181 LITERATURE CITED 185
Figures
Frontispiece: Lindenmeier, seen from the heights to the west of the site 1. In the Smithsonian laboratory xvi 2. Sequence of excavation in Area I and the Big Pit 3 3. Sequence of excavation in Area II 4 4. The initial excavations in the main arroyo, 1934 5 5. Early stages of excavation in the arroyo, 1934 5 6. The 1934 excavation 6 7. Trench A, 1935 6 8. Trench A being cut into Big Pit 7 9. Field Party in 1935 8 10. Excavations in 1936 8 11. Area 3, 1936 9 12. Excavation in squares OF and IF, Area 2, 1936 10 13. Field party in 1936 10 14. Part of the 1937 excavations 11 15. Field crew in 1937 11 16. Excavations in 1938 12 17. Trench E, 1938 12 18. Part of the 1938 field crew 13 19. The 1939 excavations 13 20. Details of excavation, 1939 14 21. Field crew in 1939 14 22. Excavation of squares 9-15 in lines A and B (1940) 15 23. Excavations in squares 8Z-13Z (1940) 15 24. Field party in 1940 16 25. Ted Peterson and Ray Bear backfilling the 1940 excavations 16 26. The Lindenmeier field camp in 1939 17 27. Frank and Linda Roberts in camp, 1939 17 28. Monument erected at the site 18 29. Ed Lohr and Bob Stafford 19 30. Thunderstorms around the Lindenmeier Valley, 1936 20 31. "Waiting for camp to dry out," 1935 20 32. Satellite view of the Lindenmeier Valley 21 33. Facsimile of Roberts' 1935 notebook 22 34. Facsimile of Roberts' 1938 notebook 23 35. The Lindenmeier Valley perched on the Colorado Piedmont escarpment 31 36. The upper part of the Lindenmeier Valley 31 37. The Colorado Piedmont 32 38. Looking up the Lindenmeier Valley 33 39. The Lindenmeier Valley, its containing ridges, the Colorado Piedmont, the foothills, and the Rocky Mountains 34 40. Cross-section through the Lindenmeier Valley 35 41. Fossil bison skull 48 42. Fossil bison skull 48 viii SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24
Page 43. Fossil bison horn core 48 44. The large meadows at Brennigan Springs 50 45. Brennigan Springs 50 46. A grove of willows on Spotwood Creek 51 47. A small, intermittantly running slough tributary to Duck Creek 51 48. Locations of units in Area I 54 49. Locations of units in Area II 55 50. Frequency of occurrence of Area I specimens in vertical increments 57 51. Vertical distributions of specimens in Areas 2 and 3 (1936) 57 52. Frequency of occurrence of Area II specimens in vertical increments 58 53. Density of chipping debris in Area I 60 54. Density of chipping debris in Area II 61 55. Proportional frequency of squares with chip densities ranging from 0 to 1100 per square "4 56. Plot of fitted fragments, Area I 62 57. Plot of fitted fragments, Area II 63 58. Points from the upper levels of the site 64 59. Points from the surface 65 60. Measurement control specimens 65 61. Artifact landmarks and measurement points for unifacial specimens 67 62. Proportional frequency polygons for length by area 71 63. Proportional frequency polygons for width by area 72 64. Graphs of frequency of maximum width position by area 73 65. Proportional frequency polygons for thickness by area 74 66. Graphs of frequency of maximum thickness position by area 75 67. Proportional frequency polygons for platform thickness by area 76 68. Proportional frequency polygons for platform width by area 77 69. Proportional frequency polygons for flake angle by area 78 70. Proportional frequency polygons for axial angle by area 79 71. Histograms of distal edge angle by area 80 72. Histograms of left lateral edge angle by area 81 73. Histograms of right lateral edge angle by area 82 74. Representative specimens of unmodified flakes 84 75. Representative specimens of utilized flakes 84 76. Representative specimens of distal edge tools 84 77. Representative specimens of single edge tools 84 78. Representative specimens of double edge tools 85 79. Representative specimens of tips 85 80. Representative specimens of notches 85 81. Proportional frequency polygons for length by category 87 82. Proportional frequency polygons for width by category 88 83. Graphs of frequency of maximum width position by category 89 84. Proportional frequency polygons for thickness by category 90 85. Graphs of frequency of maximum thickness position by category 91 86. Proportional frequency polygons for platform thickness by category 92 87. Proportional frequency polygons for flake angle by category 93 88. Histograms of distal edge angle by category 94 89. Histograms of left lateral edge angle by category 95 90. Histograms of right lateral edge angle by category 96 91. Manufacturing splits 98 92. Endscrapers reharpened by laterally applied burin-like blows 98 93. Specimens displaying evidence of reuse after breaking 99 94. Specimens resembling classical paleolithic types 100 CONTENTS IX
Page 95. Channel flakes with lateral and longitudinal dorsal scars 101 96. Representative bifaces 104 97. Representative bifaces 105 98. Reused bifaces 106 99. Projectile point and preform landmarks and measurement points 106 100. Representative preforms 107 101. Point manufacturing failures (hinge fractures) 109 102. Point manufacturing failures (splits) 110 103. Detailed drawings of point manufacturing splits Ill 104. Finished whole points 113 105. Detailed drawings of points from Area I 114 106. Detailed drawings of points from Area II 115 107. Proportional frequency polygons for point variables 116 108. Unaltered tip fragments 117 109. Unaltered base fragments 117 110. Pseudofluted points 118 111. Unfluted points 118 112. Miscellaneous chert specimens 118 113. Cores and raw material pieces 119 114. Choppers and pounders 122 115. Sandstone abrading and grinding stones 123 116. Grooved sandstone tools 124 117. Sandstone rubbing tools 125 118. Distribution of pigment grinders and mineral pigments in Area I 126 119. Distribution of pigment grinders and mineral pigments in Area II 127 120. Limestone specimens 127 121. Hematite specimens 128 122. Cut bone specimens 129 123. Bluntly pointed rib-section tools 130 124. Flat, abraded bone sections 131 125. Pointed bone tools 131 126. Bone needles 131 127. Sharply pointed bone tool 132 128. Decorated bone pieces 132 129. Bone bead 133 130. Plot of bone artifact distribution in Area I 133 131. Plot of bone artifact distribution in Area II 134 132. Average outlines and sizes of artifacts 145 133. Unit population as a function of estimated area 146 134. Unit outline maps rotated and superimposed 146 135. Effects of artifact breakage upon variance 162 136. Wear patterns on utilized flakes 163 137. Wear patterns on utilized flakes 164 138. Wear patterns on single edge tools 165 139. Wear patterns on single edge tools 166 140. Wear patterns on distal edge tools 167 141. Wear patterns on distal edge tools 168 142. Wear patterns on double edge tools 169 143. Fragments of points broken in use 171 144. Compound functional failure of a point 171 145. Bison vertebra with point embedded in its neural canal 172 146. Finished points with resharpened tips 173 147. Reconstructed points 173 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4
Page 148. Reclamation and secondary uses of points *' ^ 149. Point splits used as engraving and shaving tools I'J 150. Points converted to other uses 1'^ 151. Overall view of 1935 excavations 1""" 152. Locations of Colorado Museum excavations I"--* 153. Ten-foot (3.1 m) sample section, Colorado Museum pit 13 l°o 154. North-south stratigraphic profile, east face of Trench A follows 187 155. East-west stratigraphic profiles, southern half of Area I 187 156. East-west stratigraphic profiles, northern half of Area I 187 157. East-west stratigraphic profiles, Area II 187 158. North-south stratigraphic profiles, Area II 187 159. Stratigraphic profiles, West Bison Pit 187 160. Plot of recorded specimens in Unit A 187 161. Plot of recorded specimens in Unit B 187 162. Plot of recorded specimens in Unit F 187 163. Constructed oblique profile of line 3 187 164. Plot of recorded specimens in Unit G 187 165. Plot of recorded specimens in Unit H 187 166. Bison Pit excavations 187
Maps
1. Topography of lower Lindenmeier Valley 2 2. Location of Lindenmeier site in northern Colorado 30 3. Location of the modern bison and mammoth remains 47
Tables
1. Correlation of the stratigraphic nomenclatures employed by different investigators at Lindenmeier 38 2. Organic carbon content of soil samples 39 3. Comparison of pollen from Lindenmeier and other locations 43 4. Carbonized wood identifications 44 5. Vertebrate species from Lindenmeier in the USNM collection 46 6. Status of material for data analysis by units 56 7. Estimated areas of units 56 8. Mean numbers of artifact specimens per square in each unit 59 9. Dimensions of points in upper strata 60 10. Summary statistics for measurement control specimens 66 11. Analysis of variance of control series measurements made by each of four individuals . . 68 12. Summary statistics of length for total unit assemblages 71 13. Summary statistics of width for total unit assemblages 72 14. Summary statistics of maximum width position for total unit assemblages 73 15. Summary statistics of thickness for total unit assemblages 74 16. Summary statistics of maximum thickness position for total unit assemblages 75 17. Summary statistics of platform thickness for total unit assemblages 76 18. Summary statistics of platform width for total unit assemblages 77 19. Summary statistics of flake angle for total unit assemblages 78 20. Summary statistics of axial angle for total unit assemblages 79 21. Summary statistics of distal edge angle for total unit assemblages 80 CONTENTS XI
Page 22. Summary statistics of left lateral edge angle for total unit assemblages 81 23. Summary statistics of right lateral edge angle for total unit assemblages 82 24. Summary statistics for unit assemblages not used in analysis 83 25. Modal and ranere values for maximum width and thickness positions in units • 83 not used in analysis 26. Frequency of occurrence of categories and distributions of attribute values by units . . 86 27. Summary statistics of length by category 87 28. Summary statistics of width by category 88 29. Summary statistics of maximum width position by category 89 30. Summary statistics of thickness by category 90 31. Summary statistics of maximum thickness position by category 91 32. Summary statistics of platform thickness by category ''- 33. Summary statistics of flake angle by category 34. Summary statistics of distal edge angle by category _M 35. Summary statistics of left lateral edge angle by category 36. Summary statistics of right lateral edge angle by category 37. Dimensions of tips and notches, all units pooled 38. Summary statistics for channel flakes by unit 39. Channel flake attributes by unit 102 • 10S 40. Channel flake dorsal scar patterns by unit 41. Summary statistics for bifaces by unit 42. Summary statistics of whole preforms by unit 43. Summary statistics of whole points by unit 44. Materials of points and performs combined including fragments, by unit and area .... 112 45. Summary statistics of pseudofluted points H* 46. Summary statistics of unfluted points *1^ 47. Number of pseudofluted and basally thinned points by units 112 48. Provenience, material, and dimensions of cores and raw material H5 49. Number and proportion of material types by categories 116 • 11ft 50. Number and proportion of material types in areas Li° • 190 51. Attribute characteristics of material types Liyj 52. Provenience, material, and dimensions of heavy tools 121 53. Dimensions and descriptions of sandstone specimens VC3 54. Dimensions and descriptions of limestone specimens 1^8 55. Provenience and dimensions of bone needles 1 39Q9 56. FProvenienc scores foer andifferenced dimensions amons ogf engraveunmodified dbon flakee variables by area I 6057. FAnalysi scoress foofr variancdifferencee samon among gundifferentiate unmodified flakesd uni t(whol assemblagee specimens s only) by area 13I397 in unmodified flakes among units 139 5861.. AnalysiAnalysiss of variancvariance foamonr differenceg categors y variables ' '" in utilized flakes among units 139 5962.. Analysis of variance for differences 63. Analysis of variance for differences in distal edge tools among units 140 64. Analysis of variance for differences in single edge tools among units 140 65. Analysis of variance for differences in double edge tools among units 141 66. Chi-square test for equality of numbers of specimens per category among units 141 67. Chi-square test for equality of material content among units 141 68. Chi-square test for equality of material content among categories 142 69. Chi-square test for equality of platform preparation among materials 142 70. Chi-square test for equality of platform treatment among materials 142 71. Chi-square test for equality of platform erosion among materials - Chi-square test for equality of termination among materials 142 72. 73. Chi-square test for equality of fragmentation among m.aterial s 143 xii SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24
Page 74. Chi-square test for equality of platform preparation among units 143 75. Chi-square test for equality of platform treatment among units 143 76. Chi-square test for equality of platform erosion among units 144 77. Chi-square test for equality of termination among units 144 78. Chi-square test for equality of specimen maximum width location among units 144 79. Chi-square test for equality of specimen maximum thickness location among units . . 144 80. f-tests for differences between whole preform variables by area 147 81. Chi-square test for difference of shape of left tip edge between area preforms 148 82. Chi-square test for difference of shape of right tip edge between area preforms 148 83. Chi-square test for difference of shape of left body edge between area preforms 149 84. Chi-square test for difference of shape of right body edge between area preforms 149 85. Chi-square test for difference of shape of left base edge between area preforms 150 86. Chi-Square test for difference of shape of righat base edge between area performs .... 150 87. Chi-square test for difference of shape of proximal edge between area preforms 151 88. Chi-square test for difference of shape of ears between area preforms 151 89. F scores for differences in channel flake dimensions between areas 151 90. Chi-square test for equality of dorsal scar patterns on channel flakes between areas . . 151 91. f-tests for differences between whole point variables by area 152 92. Chi-square test for difference of shape of left tip edge between area points 153 93. Chi-square test for differences of shape of right tip edge between area points 153 94. Chi-square test for difference of shape of left body edge between area points 154 95. Chi-square test for difference of shape of right body edge between area points 154 96. Chi-square test for difference of shape of left base edge between area points 155 97. Chi-square test for difference of shape of right base edge between area points 155 98. Chi-square test for difference of shape of proximal edge between area points 156 99. Chi-square test for difference of shape of ears between area points 156 100. Chi-square test for difference in edge abrasion between area points 157 101. Chi-square test for difference in number of retouch scars per centimeter between area points 157 102. Chi-square test for difference in type of retouch scars between area points . 158 103. Chi-square test for difference in pattern of retouch scars between area points 158 104. Chi-square test for difference in direction of retouch scars between area points 159 105. Chi-square test for difference in frequency of fluting between area points 159 106. F scores for differences among biface variables by area 159 107. Correlation matrices for point variables 160 108. Summary of category characteristics 170 109. Colorado Museum of Natural History specimen counts of the Lindenmeier Folsom campsite, 1935, for excavations 6, 8, and 13 184 Preface
Lindenmeier was first brought to the attention of the archeological profession when, in 1935, Frank Roberts published "A Folsom Complex: Preliminary Report on Investigations at the Lindenmeier Site in Northern Colorado" (Roberts, 1935b). The principal purpose of this 35-page report was to record the results of Roberts' first 6-week field season at the site, which began in late September 1934. The text includes an overview of other collections thought to be roughly equivalent to Lindenmeier in age. The second report (Roberts, 1936a) is scarcely longer, consisting of 38 pages. There are, in addition, yearly field progress notices with a combined total of 19 pages of text (Roberts, 1935a, 1936b, 1937, 1938, 1939a, 1940, 1941). These reports, along with the geological work of Bryan and Ray (1940), constitute the entire published record for the seven seasons of work at the site. All have long been out of print. A considerable mystique has developed from this scantly published record. One prominant European paleolithic archeologist has called Lindenmeier "the one and only beautiful Ameri can site." While most American archeologists would not go quite so far in their assessment, it is true that Lindenmeier serves as the standard of reference for almost all Paleo-Indian studies. The shear weight of energy expended on the site, the undocumented but large quan tity of material known by word-of-mouth to have been taken from it, and, I suspect, the high esteem in which Frank Roberts was held by his colleagues contributed to the preeminant position in which Lindenmeier has been placed. Lindenmeier is indeed unique. But it is so because of the accident of its discovery and be cause of the quality of Roberts' work there, not because it has properties exclusive to itself. There are surely other similar sites even if they are not yet known. The characteristics that distinguish Lindenmeier from other sites are ones of degree not of kind; its distinctive features are explainable most economically in terms of its place as one member location in a set of functionally related locations. My purpose in presenting this study is to place Lindenmeier in this context. My involvement in the site stems from tw o related factors: (1) the incompleteness of the published record noted above and (2) the generally held feeling that a potentially rich body of information was still to be found in the unstudied collections. Just how great was this po tential did not become clear until 1964 when Roberts retired from the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Lindenmeier corpus was transferred to the Department of Anthropology, United States National Museum1 and accessioned into its collections. Despite its reputation, no one other than Roberts had been aware of the full extent of the collection. The materials recovered in 1934 and 1935 had been enumerated and described. Those recovered from 1936 through 1940 remained until 1964 in the boxes in which they had been packed in the field. These boxes contained 85% of the stone artifacts recovered from the site. Thus, the quantity of specimens obtained during Roberts' excavations at Lindenmeier, and their variety, was not fully appreciated until the accessioning process was well under way. By chance, my request to include Lindenmeier among several Paleo-Indian sites I wished to compare coincided with these events. In January 1966, Roberts gave me permission to use some of the Lindenmeier material in my dissertation. At that time, he still hoped to prepare a complete report on the site him self, but poor health prevented him from beginning the work. After his death in February
1 With the reorganization of the United States National Museum, the Department of Anthropology is now in the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.
X1U XIV SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24
1966, a committee was formed within the renamed Office of Anthropology to decide how the Smithsonian Institution's obligation to publish the collection could best be discharged. The committee, composed of Henry Collins, Clifford Evans, Waldo Wedel, and Richard Wood bury, agreed that I should be asked to prepare the material for publication. They reasoned that, as I had already become familiar with Roberts' fieldnotes and catalogs and had sorted the entire collection into proper provenience units, I should be able to accomplish the task in a reasonable amount of time. It has taken longer than any of us expected; in compensa tion, I am certain that the report is better forthe extra time devoted to it. Frank Roberts began his investigations at Lindenmeier shortly after I was born and died as I was starting the research that led to the writing of this monograph. I never met him. Yet, any success which my endeavors may have are founded, in large measure, on the quality of his achievements. It seems, therefore, only appropriate that Frank Roberts should be named coauthor of this work. My one regret is that our association has been entirely posthumous. The title of this monograph is a free paraphrase of that of Roberts' first detailed report on Linden meier and is intended to signify the continuity of research at the site. The process, I hope, will be continued by others as new ideas and methods for the study of the past are formulated. The National Science Foundation was asked to support my research and did so gener ously after my dissertation was finished. The initial grant (GS-1751) was awarded to Emil W. Haury as principal investigator; I was appointed a Research Associate of the Arizona State Museum, stationed in Washington, D.C. Work began on 1 July 1967. The next year, after I joined the faculty of the University of Michigan, a continuing grant (GS-2339) was awarded in my name. James B. Griffin, Director of the university's Museum of Anthropology, to which I was attached, arranged an off-campus assignment for me during the period 1 July 1968 through 30 June 1969. This arrangement allowed me to remain in Washington and to complete the collection of the data presented in this monograph. My plans for carrying out the project included a four-week field season during which I intended to excavate several areas immediately adjacent to Roberts' former excavations. The purpose of these excavations was to have been to gain independent controls over Roberts' stra tigraphic profiles and distribution plots. These plans could not be carried out because I could not gain access to the site. My interest in and approach to archeology are different from those of many others. This report inevitably reflects my own bias. Nonetheless, throughout my work on the Lindenmeier collection I have felt a double obligation. The first is to make the basic data available to others; the second, to avoid conflict between my intentions and those of Frank Roberts. I have, accordingly, tried to maintain a clear separation between the original work and my own contribution. The organization of this monograph is designed to carry out this intent. The introduction contains a brief history of the Smithsonian Expedition to the Linden meier site along with a consideration of Roberts' research goals and strategies. Roberts' own analyses and conclusions are found in his two most important publications about the site (1935b, 1936a). My own research design is presented on pages 24-29. A theoretical justifi cation for my approach and its methodological structure are outlined in sufficient detail to give this monograph independent coherence. The arguments are developed more fully in other publications (Wilmsen, 1973, 1974), and, as these are readily available, I see no need to repeat them here. The bulk of the text is devoted to a description of the site and its contents. The materials are analyzed statistically in those cases for which suitable data are obtainable; where such data cannot be generated, less rigorous assessments of significance are made. All analytical methods are fully presented. In the concluding sections, an attempt is made to place Lindenmeier in a social and spatial context. Many people helped bring this work to completion. First among these is Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., whose foresight in the field made this study possible long after the original pur pose of his excavations had passed. His fine excavating techniques and careful recording practices have made it possible to convert thousands of observations into data pertinent to a number of anthropological problems that, in his day, were not thought to be approachable by PREFACE XV archeologists. It is true that I was frustrated by the lack of certain kinds of information, but Roberts cannot be faulted for failing to anticipate what another person, 30 years later, might wish to do with his collection. Next, my thanks are due to the field crews whose consistent at tention to detail made it possible for me to use all of the field records with confidence. Their names are listed in the history of the expedition summarized in the introduction to this volume. The members of the committee formed to oversee the Lindenmeier collection were helpful in many ways. Richard Woodbury, especially, has been a wise and generous counselor and friend. Clifford Evans, too, while chairman of the Department of Anthropology in the Smith sonian Institution, gave valuable advice. William Fitzhugh and Donald Ortner gave crucial help and most welcome encouragement in seeing the manuscript through the press. Other people at the Smithsonian were also extremely helpful and generous with their time. Clayton Ray and Mario Pichardo, Division of Vertebrate Paleontology, guided my work with the bison bones. Many of these bones were, at the time this study began, still in plaster jackets from which they had to be removed before they could be measured. Harold Banks and John White, Department of Mineral Sciences, identified the different minerals, and Joseph P. Morrison, Department of Invertebrate Paleontology, identified the mollusks. Jack W. Pierce, Division of Sedimentology, analyzed the small soil samples and suggested the hy pothesis that the strata of the artifact bearing zones result from stream meanders rather than climatic change. Dante Piacesi and his staff in the Information Systems Division helped plan the data recording procedures, prepared computer cards and tapes, and computed the initial descriptive statistics. Warren Minami, who was then on Piacesi's staff, deserves special thanks for writing an exhaustive edit program by which the data were made essentially free of de tectable errors. Charles R. Gunn, New Crops Research Branch, Department of Agriculture, identified the seeds and provided distribution and habitat information. Vorsila Bohrer, then in the De partment of Botany, University of Massachusetts, Boston, did the pollen analysis. Curt Beck, Department of Chemistry, Vassar College, identified the resin specimen. Richard I. Ford, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, identified the charcoal. Graham Curtis, who was at the time in the Department of Radiology at Georgetown University Hospital, made the X-ray planogram series that revealed the exact relation between the point found in the neural canal of a bison vertebra and the bone with which it was associated. Because of the unusually fine quality of their work, two people deserve special mention. The beautiful landscapes of the Lindenmeier area were drawn by E. G. Cassedy, an illustrator in the former Bureau of American Ethnology, who also prepared the basemap that appears in the second report on the site (Roberts, 1936a, map 1) and, with subsequent excavation loca tions added by me, as Map 1 in this monograph. He also made many drawings of specimens from Lindenmeier, which are now published for the first time. The other line drawings of artifacts were done by Marcia Bakry, illustrator in the Department of Anthropology. I think these are among the finest drawings of artifacts ever prepared. In them, the most minute details of form and texture are delineated so clearly that these drawings are valuable com parative documents in themselves. Figures 34, 37, 38, 40, 79, 80, 105, 106, 118, 154, 155 were drawn by Cassedy. Figures 91-95, 98, 103, 114, 116, 117, 144, 147, 148, and 149 are by Bakry. John Antieau prepared Figures 62-73, 81-87, 162, 164, 165. Polly Wiessner drew Figures 160 and 161. The rest of the line drawings are by the senior author. The photographs that appear as figures throughout the text were taken by several persons: Graham Curtis (Figure 145b), Vic Krantz (Figures 58-60, 96, 97, 100-102, 104, 108-110, 113, 115, 120-129, 143, 146, 150), Frank Roberts (Figures 4-23, 26, 28-33, 39, 44, 45), Herbert Rutledge (Figures 74-78), Charles Scoggin (Figures 24, 25, 27), Edwin Wilmsen (Figures 1, 46, 47, 136-142), and the Smithsonian staff (Figures 35, 36, 111, 112, 145a). John L. Cotter kindly gave permission to include as an appendix his previously unpublished report on excavations that he directed at Lindenmeier in 1935. Throughout the project, I was fortunate in having the help of several extraordinary students who worked many long, hard hours collecting data and dealing with problems of NUMBER 2 4 XVI SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY
analytical procedure. They were also enthusiastic about thrashing out my ideas—not a few of which, as a result, went out the window. All deserve more than thanks and praise: Jerry Voss, John Shea, Herbert Rutledge, Karen Harbeck, Ivar Gross, Gretchen Baugh. Jerry, John, Herb, Ivar, and Gretchen carried the greater part of the burden; each spent most of a year with me in a makeshift laboratory behind the exhibits of the Hall of North American Indians in the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History. The spirit which they maintained throughout their work is reflected in Figure 1. Thousands of the museum's visitors must have wondered about the strange sounds that issued at unequal intervals from behind the dio ramas of Late Mississippian life. Cathi Dixon, Patricia Homan, Barbara Moser, and Nancy Nowak typed and corrected the manuscript.
FIGURE 1.—In the Smithsonian laboratory: (front) Herbert Rut- ledge, Ivar Gross, (rear) John Shea, Jerry Voss, Gretchen Baugh.
My colleagues in the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, generously and often gave me their time and knowledge. In addition, Richard I. Ford, James B. Griffin, John D. Speth, Robert E. Whallon, and Henry T. Wright read the entire manuscript as did David Braun and Jerry Voss. Donald Eschmann and William A. Farrand read parts of the manu script. Polly Wiessner and Robert Reynolds did much of the statistical work. As is customary, my feelings of gratitude that are first in importance are recorded last. Carl Wilmsen and Lisa Wilmsen, then 13 and 11 years old, along with their friend Beth Ack- ermann, spent most of their Saturdays in my Smithsonian workroom. They measured, counted, and recorded data in a way that made fun out of drudgery. Unknown to them I checked their work on Mondays; they were always accurate. All of the still existing artifactual materials collected by Roberts are in the collections of the Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institu tion ; the faunal material is in the Division of Vertebrate Paleontology. In the text and tables, specimens are identified by field number when possible and by USNM number when field numbers are missing. This policy was followed in order to make use of Roberts' field notes. All of the documents developed during my study along with Roberts' field records have been de posited in the National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution. In addition, the data are stored in a sequential file on a magnetic tape in the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. LINDENMEIER, 1934-1974
Edwin N. Wilmsen and Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr.
Introduction
Roberts (1935b) has given a detailed account of the After the Folsom excavations and Renaud's visits had events that led to his work at Lindenmeier. Although the put their discovery into a new perspective, Major Coffin site had been known to a few amateurs for ten years wrote several letters to members of the U.S. Geological before he began his excavations, it had aroused no special Survey and the Smithsonian Institution. These letters interest until material collected from its surface had been ultimately brought Roberts to the site. referred to in reports of surveys conducted by E. B. The Coffins, however, did not lose interest in Linden Renaud in 1930 and 1931 (Renaud, 1931:17, 1932: meier. They worked with Roberts in the Big Pit in 1934, 27-28). Indeed, Roberts appears to have been less than and Lynn Coffin was a member of the 1935 Smithsonian enthusiastic about visiting the site at all; he records that field party. The elder Coffins carried on their own ex after his first day of inspection he was "not encouraged cavations until 1938; in 1936-37, they worked immedi by what he had seen." On the second day, however, ately next to the area being excavated by Roberts and the location's potential for contributing data to then cur his crew. They accumulated a collection that was prob rent problems concerning man's association with extinct ably a quarter to a third as large as that obtained by fauna in North America became apparent. Roberts de the Smithsonian expeditions. A large part of the Coffin voted a substantial part of the next seven years of his collection is now in the Pioneer Museum, Ft. Collins, professional life to exploiting that potential. The site was Colorado; in 1968, a part was in the possession of given its name by Roberts because it was located on a A. Lynn Coffin, and part apparently has been sold. horse ranch owned by William Lindenmeier, Jr. Major Coffin (1937) published a pamphlet on his work at Lindenmeier, and in a survey of chert sources from which Indian artifacts had been made in northern Colo History of Investigations rado he included material from the site (Coffin, 1951).
COFFIN COLLECTION LOCATION OF EXCAVATION UNITS The Lindenmeier site was discovered in 1924 by three relic collectors, Judge Claude C. Coffin, his son A. Lynn In this section, all of the excavations are described. Coffin, and C. K. Collins. They, along with the judge's The site units themselves are located with respect to each brother, Major Roy G. Coffin, who was a professor of other. The cumbersome notations employed by Roberts geology at Colorado State College, visited the site several to designate excavation units and their parts are simpli times and between themselves collected nearly 200 arti fied. Some grid designations, for example, were assigned facts from or just below the surface. Collins, a National to as many as six squares scattered about the site. Forest Service ranger, was transferred to another station Although I am more or less able to keep track of these and took no further part in collecting from Lindenmeier. units (after working with the material for six years), I do not expect others to attempt to break through the Edwin N. Wilmsen, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., confusion inherent in this situation. I have, therefore, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 (deceased). converted Roberts' grid notations where necessary to SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 conform to a single, nonredundant reference system. thus rotated through 90° and the reference corners were This converted notation is employed throughout the text not changed, all reference corners in Area II are the of this monograph. I have also adopted the following southwest (that is, the lower right) corners of squares. conventions for indicating relative positions within the Throughout, citations to Roberts field notebooks are site. Area I is the name assigned to the large, contiguous given by year and page number with the prefix NB block of excavations in the western portion of the site (notebook) placed in front of the year. For example, (including squares 1-17 of Trench A). Area II refers to (NB36:17) refers to page 17 in the notebook for 1936. the other large block, which is eastward from Area I. Map 1 shows the location of all the recorded excava Note that Roberts used Arabic numerals as area indices tions with the exception of the small test pits put down and that I retain that usage when referring specifically in 1935 by the Colorado Museum of Natural History to field-labeled locations. field party. The locations of the omitted pits are given From 1935 through 1937, the principal axis along on the map (Figure 152) which accompanies the which excavation proceeded was oriented in a north- appendix. Trench A on map 1, represented by the long, south direction; the southeast (that is, the lower left narrow element that bisects the valley between its corner) of each square was the reference marker. This southern edge and the arroyo, is used as the reference system applies to all of Area I. In 1938, however, base from which distances to other excavation units are Trenches F and J were oriented on east-west rather measured. than on north-south axes; as before, the lower left The series of excavation units centered about Trench corner was designated the reference marker. Then, in A has been designated arbitrarily Area I; this area is 1939, the excavations which encompassed these trenches shown in Figure 2 upon which square layout and ex were reoriented to a north-south axis; as the axes were cavation sequence are indicated. Trench A is the long
MAP 1.—Topography of lower Lindenmeier Valley. INTRODUCTION
unit with larger squares, each of which is 3.1 m (10 ft) on a side. In the field, the squares for this trench were all given the prefix "A" and numbered sequentially from south to north. In this monograph, the letter prefix has been replaced with 7; thus, for example, A-l becomes 701 and A-ll becomes 711. All other squares are 1.5 m (5 ft) on a side. The small, isolated block of squares to the east of Trench A is called "Area 3" in Roberts' 1936 field notes. Square numbers in this area are completely redundant with those in the larger excavation block. To remedy this situation, column designations have been changed from 1935 1, 2, 3, to 07, 06, 05, respectively. The nonrectangular (hatched) unit near the bottom 1936 of map 1 was dug without horizontal or vertical con 1937 trols and was called "Small Trench East of Trench A." Its shape and size are not recorded; therefore, the boundaries shown are approximations based on oblique references in various field notebooks. This unit is here designated 08A. Area II is located approximately 100 m (330 ft) east of Trench A. The same information given for Area I is provided for Area II in Figure 3. Map 1 also specifies the locations of the 1938 trenches F, G, and J. The two narrow extensions from the main body of the excavations are only one-half square wide. They were excavated to test the levels of strata in the direction of the valley edge; very little cultural material was found in them. The two-letter row designators, OA through OH, have been converted to single letters; thus, OA in Roberts' notation becomes Z, OB becomes Y, and so forth. Only the three conversions that are pertinent to subsequent discussions are shown on Figure 3. The third major excavation was carried out in the Bison Pit. This unit is 406 m (1335 ft) east of Trench A. Only a small portion of the Bison Pit was excavated under controlled conditions (Figures 41, 42). Other excavation units are Trench B, 15 to 30 m (50-100 ft) west of Trench A; Trench D, approxi mately 30 m (100 ft) east of Trench A; Trench E, about 52 m (175 ft) east of Trench A. There are, in addition, and exclusive of those sunk by Cotter, 23 test pits and trenches at various points on the site; the maxi mum distance between these is 910 m (about 3000 ft). Notice especially the locations of the five test pits in the north wall of the modern tributary arroyo (map 1). The previously reported 14C age was derived from mate rials collected near these pits. The notes for Trench B are not very informative; artifacts and bones seem to have been moderately dense in some sections, but nothing FIGURE 2.—Sequence of can be done with the available information. Trench D excavation in Area I and yielded very few specimens of any kind; only one test the Big Pit, by year. (Large squares 10' x 10'; pit (No. 3 in the north arroyo bank) produced more small squares 5' x 5'.) than a half-dozen specimens. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4
1938 O 1939
1940
FIGURE 3.—Sequence of excavation in Area II, by year. (Squares 5' x 5'.)
THE 1934 SEASON vember (Figures 4, 5). As far as I am able to deter mine, the work was done entirely by Roberts and the After his first day on the site, Roberts in his own Coffins. The major effort was concentrated in the Big words "was not sanguine over the prospects for getting Pit ("Area 2" in Roberts notes) in the arroyo bank; but more information beyond that already obtained . . ." an area of undetermined size was also opened on the (Roberts, 1935b:3). His pessimism was founded upon southern edge of the valley bench opposite the Big Pit his opinion that colluviation and wind deflation had (Figure 6). Of the 189 cataloged specimens, 27 came removed all but small remnants of the artifact-bearing from this second excavation which Roberts called "Area stratum. This opinion was based upon a careful inspec 3." The location of the original Coffin finds was desig tion of the southeastern portion of the ancient valley nated "Area 1"; it later came to be called the Bison Pit. where most of the previously collected specimens had been found. Roberts' assessment of this area was not correct as later excavations would prove. THE 1935 SEASON On the second day of his inspection, Roberts turned his attention to the arroyo, which cuts through the center Three major areas and one smaller section were ex of the valley, and discovered a deeply buried bone and cavated during this season which lasted from the "first artifact concentration. Excavation in this area began of June" to "early September." The largest by far was immediately and continued into the first week of No designated "Trench A"; it connected the two productive INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 4.—The initial excavations in the main arroyo, 1934, may be seen in the far (south) bank just to the right of, and parallel with, the car. From Roberts (1935a, fig. 54.)
FIGURE 5.—Early stages of excavation in the arroyo, 1934, looking south.
'tfmfaffi .^s " (^h m SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24
FIGURE 6.—The 1934 excavation at the point that would become the southern end of Trench A, looking north. A.L. Coffin in picture.
FIGURE 7.—Trench A, 1935, looking north. Workers in square 710. INTRODUCTION areas (the Big Pit and Area 3) dug in 1934. Trench A me to place most of the material recovered from squares was 3.1 m (10 ft) wide and 82.3 m (270 ft) long 704-716 in their proper spatial contexts. Except for (Figure 7). It was dug in 10 X 10 foot (3.1 X 3.1 m) those of a few items, the find locations of the remaining squares beginning at its southern end. Profiles of the Trench A specimens are unknown. east and west sides as well as of the northern face of each On 8 August, work began in the Big Pit and proceeded square were drawn as each was completed. The southern along the line laid out for Trench A (Figure 8). Be end of Trench B was located approximately 22.9 m (75 cause of the deep overburden covering the Folsom level ft) west of Trench A; it too, was 3.1 m wide and was in the northern 15.2 m (50 ft) of the trench, a team and aimed straight for the Big Pit. It was excavated in the slip was used to remove sediments above this level (Fig same way as Trench A. Work on Trench B stopped after ure 8). Roberts made extensive use of this form of only 45.7 m (150 ft) of its proposed length had been power machinery to save hand labor; almost all backfill excavated. Roberts felt that information obtained from ing was done with the aid of horses, and overburden it simply duplicated that of Trench A and that his labor was often scraped off in the same way. force could be more productively used in completing The third major excavation of 1935 was in the Bison this latter trench. Pit, dug next to the location of the Coffin's original finds. The notes for Trench A contain little locational data, The surviving field notes for this season contain not a but the field catalog lists the items found in each square word about this area; consequently, I will be able to add and most of the chipped stone material uncovered in this little to what has been published about it (Roberts trench is preserved in the collections. It was possible for 1936a: 13-17). The last, small, area to be excavated was
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FIGURE 8.—Trench A being cut into Big Pit, looking south; note use of team and slip to remove overburden. (From Roberts, 1936b, fig. 75.) SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4
2 and 3 of the 1936 excavations straddle the Small 3 » Trench; consequently, three of its boundaries can be established with reasonable certainty. The 1935 crew (Figure 9) was composed of W. C. Beatty, Jr., C. T. R. Bohannon, E. G. Cassedy, Lynn Coffin, Loren Eiseley, Carl F. Miller, Roger Mixter, H. L. Mason, and Wayne Powars. George L. McLellan was the cook. The Colorado Museum of Natural History also sup ported a field program in 1935. The party was under the direction of John L. Cotter. Fifteen testpits were dug and one of these, No. 13, was expanded to a total area of 83 m2 (900 ft2). Cotter's report, along with a map showing the locations of his tests, are published for the first time as the Appendix to this monograph. The collection remains in the Denver Museum of Na tural History.
FIGURE 9.—Field party in 1935: (seated) Beatty, Miller, McLellan, Bohannon, (standing) Coffin, Eiseley, Mason, Cassedy, Mixter. THE 1936 SEASON (Powars not present.) The Bison Pit was expanded in 1936 and two areas next to Trench A were opened (Figure 10). The field called "Small Trench East of Trench A." There are no season began on 12 June and ended on 4 September. notes for this area either, but there are 66 catalog entries From my point of view, one of the major developments and nearly 300 waste chips along with an unspecified in this season's work was the fact that exact specimen number of bones recorded from excavations here. Areas locations were recorded for the first time. The other
FIGURE 10.—Excavations in 1936, looking west; Area 2 in foreground (where two heads are visible), Area 3 in background (where man is standing). (From Roberts, 1937, fig. 66.) INTRODUCTION important change in excavation procedures was that THE 1937 SEASON large, horizontal floor areas were exposed. Both of these changes in technique made it possible for me to recon In 1937, field work was carried on between 12 June struct accurately the distribution of materials recovered and 23 August. A single large area was excavated. It in this and subsequent seasons. began where 1936 Area 2 was stopped and continued Area 2 was located just east of the Small Trench and northward parallel to Trench A for 25.9 m (85 ft) Area 3 was dug between the Small Trench and squares (Figure 14). C. T. R. Bohannon, Kenneth Brooks, 3-6 of Trench A (Figure 11). Figure 12 shows the Robert Easterday, Greenacre (no initials recorded), W. manner in which excavation of squares progressed in this W. Kraxberger, Ed Lohr, David McAllester, Wayne season; this method was followed in all of the seasons Powars, and Charles Scoggin were the excavators (Fig thereafter. Squares were taken down as individual blocks ure 15). According to Roberts' notebook, someone by natural levels; care was taken to expose an entire level named "Noah" was the cook. of one square before adjacent squares were excavated to that same level. Often—perhaps always, I cannot be cer THE 1938 SEASON tain about this—alternate squares were excavated before intermediate squares were dug. Although Roberts says During the 1938 season, which lasted from 12 June nothing about his reasons for following this procedure, it to 27 September, the space between the 1937 block and was apparently an attempt to reduce the chance of acci- Trench A was partly excavated. This was not a very large dently mixing materials between squares. Three small test space, only 3.1 m (10 ft) by 15.2 m (50 ft). Although pits were dug in the western part of the valley. specimen density was still moderately high in the last set The fieldcrew in 1936 included John L. Cotter, Rob of squares, Roberts chose not to continue excavations in ert Easterday, W. W. Kraxberger, Kenneth MacLeish, this area; he did not record his reasons for this decision. David McAllester, Wayne Powars, Charles R. Scoggin, A block of 11 squares was also excavated just west of and Chester A. Thomas; again the cook was George Mc Trench A. Lellan (Figure 13). The bulk of the season's efforts was spent on a series
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FIGURE 11. Area 3, 1936, looking northeast; slumped fill of 1935 small trench is visible behind men. NUMBER 2 4 10 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY
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FIGURE 12.—Excavation in squares OF and IF, Area 2, 1936, looking northeast.
FIGURE 13.—Field party in 1936: (front) Cotter, Thomas, Krax berger, (rear) McLellan, Scoggin, Powars, Easterday. (MacLeish and McAllester not present.) INTRODUCTION 11
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FIGURE 14.—Part of the 1937 excavations, looking north; man with shovel is in square 02P.
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FIGURE 15.—Field crew in 1937: (seated) Greenacre, McAllester, Easterday, Scoggin, Brooks, (standing) E. Lohr, Powars, Krax berger. (Bohannon was not present.) 12 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24
FIGURE 16.—Excavations in 1938, looking west; Trench F is the large cut; man is standing in Trench H; back dirt of Trench E in middle distance.
FIGURE 17.—Trench E, 1938, looking north. INTRODUCTION 13 of large trenches (labeled D through I) which were opened at nearly equal intervals for a total distance of approximately 140 meters (about 460 ft) east from the previous excavations (Figure 16). Trenches F, G, and J bracketed the area that would become the focus of attention in 1939 and 1940. The care with which excava tions were carried out is apparent in Figure 17. If there ever was an officially labeled Trench C, there is no record of it. I assume that the 1935 Small Trench East of Trench A (the third opened on the site) was thought of as Trench C, but there is no recorded infor mation to establish the correctness of this assumption. The crew for the year was composed of John A. Brad bury, Don Cutter, J. E. Gillis, Jr., Wallace Hankins, Ed Lohr, David McAllester, Larry Oppenheimer, and Charles Scoggin. Charles Eberhart, Wallace Parker, and FIGURE 18.—Part of the 1938 field crew: Roberts, E. Lohr, Parker, Bob Stafford worked for short periods during the season. Eberhart, Stafford, Scoggin. Mr. and Mrs. W. E. McCracken were the cooks. Figure 18 shows part of the crew; Frank Roberts appears in this, one of the few photographs of him taken at the The crew for the season, which lasted from 17 June site. In 1938, Kirk Bryan and Louis L. Ray completed to 12 September, consisted of Bert Greenwood, Bert their geological work, begun in 1935 (Bryan and Ray, Lohr, Ed Lohr, Ted Peterson, Charles Scoggin, Bob 1940). Stafford, and Bill Wallrich. Beulah Lohr, Bert and Ed's sister, was cook (Figure 21).
THE 1939 SEASON THE 1940 SEASON The major efforts of 1939 were expended in the im mediate area tested by Trenches F and J (Figures 19, This, the last excavation season at Lindenmeier, was 20). A few small test pits were also opened; the most the longest and most productive in terms of recovered interesting of these were dug in the north bank of the specimens. The field party operated between 3 June and recent arroyo. These pits revealed a series of strata simi lar to that encountered in the main excavations; a few artifacts and bison bones were also uncovered. FIGURE 19.—The 1939 excavations, looking southwest.
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gsagk NUMBER 24 14 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY
FIGURE 20.—Details of excavation, 1939; the half-square wide cut along line 3 is visible on the right. (From Roberts, 1940, fig. 94.)
21 September. Roberts was away directing the Chaco Canyon Fieldschool during the month of August; in his absence, Charles Scoggin directed the work at Linden meier. The high standard of excavation and record keep ing established by Roberts was maintained (Figures 22, 23). A large area was excavated between the 1939 opera tion and Trench G (1938). In addition, nine test pits were sunk in widely scattered parts of the valley. None of these latter produced more than an occasional chip or scrap of bone. The season ended as the others (Figure 25); there is no indication in Roberts' notes that he intended this to conclude his work at the site; on the other hand, there is no indication that he intended to FIGURE 21.—Field crew in 1939: Greenwood, Wallrich, Scoggin, return. Bert Lohr, Stafford, Peterson, E. Lohr. The crew was the same as in 1939 except that Wall- INTRODUCTION 15
FIGURE 22.—Excavation of squares 9-15 in lines A and B (1940), looking southwest.
FIGURE 23.—Excavation in squares 8Z-13Z (1940), looking southwest. 16 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 rich was absent and Robert Easterday, who was a mem ber of the 1936 and 1937 parties, returned (Figure 24).
SUMMARY OF THE EXCAVATIONS
In the major areas alone, over 1800 square meters (more than 19,300 ft2), were excavated. In addition, 23 test pits were dug. Approximately 580 days were spent in the field; 31 men took an active part with Roberts in the excavations. Field records total 1557 pages. There are 5478 catalog numbers for chipped stone, many applied to several specimens, along with 46,380 enumerated waste flakes and chips. (Roberts' criteria for distinguishing between these categories are considered on page 24.) FIGURE 24.—Field party in 1940: (front) E. Lohr, Beulah Lohr, These are minimum counts, especially for waste flakes Peterson, (standing) Stafford, Greenwood, Easterday, Scoggin. and chips. No records of any kind were kept of these (Wallrich not present.) latter materials in 1934 and everything that was not an "implement" was discarded. The records for parts of 1935 (particularly for the beginning and end of the artifacts, 1 piece of used magnetite, and 68 pieces of season) are hardly better. Thus, almost all of the ma worked hematite and ochre complete the artifact inven terial uncovered in the Big Pit, in both ends of Trench tory. A, and in most of Trench B will remain forever unknown. I would conservatively estimate that 10,000 to 20,000 Besides these chipped stone artifacts, many other stone animal bones were found during the excavations; of specimens were recovered; most of these were discarded these, a depressingly small sample remains. A large num without substantive comment. Only 80 objects remain. ber of mollusk shells, some seeds, an unspecified amount Of these, 18 are pieces of raw material in varying stages of charcoal, and one piece of fossil resin were also found. of core development. In addition, there are 31 tools of Samples of all these were saved along with a few small the sort called "choppers" or "pounders," 27 sandstone samples of sediments from different locations and levels. artifacts, and 4 pieces of used limestone. Finally, 69 bone As this brief summary makes clear, Lindenmeier is by
FIGURE 25.—Ted Peterson and Ray Bear backfilling the 1940 excavations with the aid of Bear's team. INTRODUCTION 17
FIGURE 26.—The Lindenmeier field camp in 1939. any measure the largest Paleolithic site yet discovered in reveals a littered disarray typical of most young men's the Western Hemisphere. The quantity and variety of rooms. There is a strong implication that the delinquents materials preserved here is greater than that yet found soon changed their ways. Linda B. Roberts, Frank's at any other site of comparable age in the New World. wife, also contributed to the work. Mrs. Roberts spent Before describing the site and its contents in detail, it large parts of each season at the camp (Figure 27) and, will be necessary to examine the goals that Roberts estab when there, was responsible for cataloging all speci lished for his work at the site and the strategies that he mens. employed to realize these goals. First, however, as this is (in part) a historical reconstruction of another man's work, I would like to set down my impressions of the spirit in which the fieldwork was carried on.
CAMP LIFE
Roberts' field diaries, although terse and always to the point, reveal a feeling of comradeship among the people in the camp. Only once do they contain a note of repri mand: "August 7, Cook went to town. Fell off curb and broke his ankle. Not in line of duty, not at camp." The notion of duty, too, runs through the diary. The meticu lous excavations for which techniques were constantly being improved certainly testify that a high standard was expected and achieved by everyone. The camp, too, was kept immaculately tidy and clean (Figure 26); among the photographs is one labeled "How to keep a tent" and FIGURE 27. — Frank another "How not to keep a tent." The first shows a and Linda Roberts in neatly arranged interior behind the tent flap; the other camp, 1939. 18 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2.4
A series of monuments and signs was continually en The work and the camaraderie engendered a long- larged from year to year (Figures 28, 29). Although the term dedication; six members of the field crews partici rhymes on these signs are less than immortal, they cap pated for several seasons: Scoggin was present for five ture the spirit of pride and fun that prevailed. Occa years; Ed Lohr for four; Easterday, Powars, McAUestar, sionally, indications of this spirit also appear in the field and Stafford each for three. Six others worked two sea notes where they have survived possible censorship im sons apiece. And last, Frank Roberts' own sensitive posed during transcription of the original square sheets photographic landscapes and camp scenes (Figures 30, into the permanent notebooks. 31) and Cassedy's fantastic global view of the region
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DEDICATED TO THE FOLSOHHAN WHO LONG AGO' TOUCHED THE SPARK5 FIRST CAHPFIRE AT THIS ANCIENT SiT£ A.O. !936 •L8RFHHRPSR-GWC0PMCATRE-KMLWWKJCFWP C-EGCLL>TSBAE-S-
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FIGURE 28.—Monument erected at the site by the 1936 field party whose initials appear cryptically jumbled on the bottom lines of the inscription. The only obscurity is in the letters "PSR," which refer to Roberts' black chow, Punky. David McAllester is putting the finishing touches to the painted inscription, and Gog, a pet purple martin, is perched on top. INTRODUCTION 19
(Figure 32) capture the mood and the feeling that not appear to be promising, the search was expanded characterized the entire Folsom Man expedition. westward in the valley. When specimens were found in an undisturbed stratigraphic context in the recent arroyo that dissects the valley, excavations were begun, which Roberts' Goals and Strategies subsequently satisfied Roberts' goal. The fact of asso ciation was all that was necessary; undoubtedly, this is Frank Roberts had several successive goals in mind the reason for the fragmentary nature of the field records for each excavation campaign. Some of these are clearly for the 1934 season. Precise specimen locations and exact stated in several publications; others are strongly implied. details of stratigraphy were thought to be unimportant They can be summarized in a few words. In 1934, the to the reasearch objective and were not recorded. goal was simply to evaluate the site and to estimate its The goals of the 1935 season were different. Roberts potential for further, more intensive work. The criteria now wished to establish the stratigraphic position of the for judgment stemmed from the association of fluted Folsom materials and their associated extinct fauna. By points and extinct bison discovered at the Folsom site a so doing, he hoped to shed light on the chronological few years earlier. Roberts wished to determine if Linden position of Lindenmeier with respect to other fluted point meier could substantiate that association, and, more im sites and thus to contribute to the construction of a more portant, if the site could add information that would complete temporal record for American prehistory. The expand archeological understanding of the "presumably two long trenches were designed to accomplish this ob early hunting people" represented at Folsom. His strategy jective and they did so. Two trenches rather than one was direct and effectitve. A surface survey in the area of were begun so that the consistency of stratigraphic the Coffin finds was initiated, and, when this area did sequences could be checked. Work on one of these
FIGURE 29. Ed Lohr and Bob Stafford increasing the water supply of the still active spring, which was buried 11,000 years ago. Contrary to the sign's message (left center), the spring could not have been available to "Old Folsom Man.'' 20 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24
A
FIGURE 30.—Thunderstorms around the Lindenmeier Valley, 1936, looking east. (Photo by Roberts.)
....
i i •*>
LOORE 31.—Roberts labeled this photograph, "Waiting for camp to dry out," 1935. (Photo by Roberts.) INTRODUCTION 21
he again changed his field procedures. Large areas were uncovered in order to reveal complete living floors and thus to increase the chances of recognizing hut locations and of finding burials. Neither of these objectives was realized and this became a source of frustration and dis appointment to Roberts. These are, of course, entirely different kinds of objectives from those of the first two years. Their realization depends upon the accuracy of two assumptions: (1) that dead were buried within the living area and (2) that huts were constructed in such a way that traces of them would remain in the ground. Excavation was meticulous and recording was superb; but, although Roberts selected a reasonable strategy, his chances of success were not great. Failure was probably due to the fact that assumption 1 was wrong and that assumption 2, even if correct, was negated by decay or by an inability to recognize hut remains. In sum, Roberts' work was carefully planned and executed. His strategies were well designed for his goals; his fieldwork was superb even by today's standards. Per FIGURE 32.—Satellite view of the Lindenmeier Valley and sur haps the greatest professional tribute that can be paid rounding area drawn by E. G. Cassedy; Folson Man Hill at top. him is that his work remains relevant and useful long after it was done. Elsewhere (Wilmsen, 1974) I have stressed the relations between Roberts' goals at Linden trenches was terminated when the information obtained meier and a set of general problems that have charac from both was found to be similar. As one would expect, terized American archeology since its birth—the ques the field records for this year stress stratigraphy; again tions of typology, chronology, and origins. Essentially, precise specimen locations were immaterial to the pur Roberts' first work at the site was concerned with typo poses of the research, and they were seldom given. logical association; his second interest was in chrono In 1936 and thereafter, Roberts wanted to uncover logical succession; and, after these two questions were hut remains and human skeletal material. Appropriately, satisfied, he concentrated upon the issue of origins. Research Objectives and Methods
The rationale underlying this study, an assessment of the excavations and of specimens. Together these form the quality and completeness of the materials upon which an extensive documentation of the Lindenmeier site. As it is based, the assumptions prerequisite to the analytical already noted, certain kinds of information were not program, and control procedures instituted to monitor recorded, and some classes of material were haphazardly data collection are presented in this chapter. discarded. Despite the fact that lacunae exist, however, the records contain a thoroughly identified and indexed assemblage of artifacts along with meticulously detailed Condition of Records notes covering all phases of the accomplished work. All The corpus of the Lindenmeier collection consists of specimens, with rare exception, are individually num four parts: (1) the assemblage of artifacts and asso bered and the cross-referencing system maintained by ciated faunal and floral material, (2) the field notebooks Roberts is superbly accurate. Sample pages of the 1935 and catalogs, (3) drawings of stratigraphic profiles, of and 1938 field notebooks are reproduced as Figures 33 distribution plots, and of specimens, (4) photographs of and 34 to illustrate the nature of these records.
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»'-. - CriSr't/ if nit <* ••• J», " - OaniyC'mfait ~ JAned dark PreaAs»fon B-9-^ resumes Th't/fnjM/ho/e {'lied w/fy QgQth Of S-^S-fAfj SC" do* o-fr or* diset,r>e. clou noaolfi Qn *5 FIGURE 33.—Facsimile of Roberts' 1935 notebook, pages 38 and 39. 22 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODS 23 Stefan OS- R. Stcl/en Ol-R, Face Of. Th,\ beefi'o; combined vvith Oi-a IA Ariv.oa' r, fi'-ge fliinxbcr of bone chtpi ant ipt.nft,-- ,H it ago-*' sfuWei/g «f impteir-fi-f}. Oat tafereifmd feature wat tttaf fht atsfhi bfaet at bone etna" 9fane -a botif secti.fts n/«i an affi'trimnfafu tn* Sa«\e /***/. Tllfrt tv*i ffi-y t'lti/* slap* to fa* ofd turf*** 1hraufi\ theft settle**. ' l"/Va.tn of tin* t? touch,,,'* /,„> »ot S'V" 6*teW fne Jar- •fact in tbt sfafn beta the b°latn-t a war***- » 6 'i* JavfA of tui t Sft" ga3f0f /,,* "o* yt'j," be/on ikt aorfn,* c?t ff ot tfattr/kurr n portion at S-faVe ffntft Jtiper. Specimen " £-<••?. ' ' ' rfSjt* S»*tn of/tAt S. t'f %"****/*//,*•+ "Oi ft/"btlou, •fit Sorfate ,i? fife bSoot- foyer, nfM(/"i« #nif* Spaumfn «f-6f. ' * J /it" Josf* of Lot Sj /oVx- we,/ of tine «i>3, yz'%* btiow the Stirface/ in fit afantVeartt be/i-ny t/if blaett o bmatf Inter. A/a. t°} on Ciei-f. Sper/n,e/\ * £•&£, S"S°»ft,of/,ne S ftftVetfaf/tiif *o3 $' ? 'b' be/an t»* Surface IA ft' ata.i'*'car/A be/ore ft* e/actr o /on*f/nife ifAif* of jasper, tft.3, onfAoaf. Speciacn * JT-tiT. Sy Sa.fi ei'Me ft- iVorth af/ineh] ZTfaffaff/ite "of S3'-<* te/o« 1ht 'Surface j/n trie of swellearn, bat'*/ fA e 6/acn:; a for f/to of a Smnti Side- xroprr. cIm/eedonr. fVo If on cnarf specimen " Jf -7t l'*\" tlorlli of line ?; f I" faitef/iAe "cr¥, S'fbe'ow the 3o/-fate ,A tae o~fain be/*** me 6/acn* layer, a f*rfe e~ fat piece o-e chalcalana ma1*e,a(, Af. *<. on chart, speiml.-ve-?*. A, fori,on. of a chaaaal-flake flat had been tear/tea" tara< fmT or c, dr,H, vtas -fon,H in the screen it hen the dirt fron, tat blaiif fauer was st-ft**, •>p«c,n,en » >F-73 a\ flame with «3i1\*t)jtra-it r po.nT vi/as recovered erlt/i ti d,rt -fron, the ifoinedearth taver r*as s>ftrd- Speximei, * *-7lt Sect am o > • <» anil oi-i 't.f .f section s 03-& a •id oj-ff flt*at,-n> .1 ifrfl/m lt,->r.r,r, crib.,., /, .•>, ' l r.i.r *•. i-li Jl-ne> ,n br.„„, ,3.at, ,~ yt 1 ' 13 c-7t is i-rt « it tt i-Sl «T til. » • If It 3t t It S3 17 7o * »r M til J '1 to i-7t »> HI si il 71 4-71" ai in 1 . it 11 lit J9 US ST Hi 7i i-7* to ti'l d -7tr/7 S i.U XA if st (.11 Si Ct' 7} its 1, ill * ill ti b-lt It t.i *-, iff 71 ill ti i il Mg_ 7 it ft t)S 11 i fl ft l-ti 7S itr « ill \~ 8 If a; kit « I fi s FIGURE 34.—Facsimile of Roberts' 1938 notebook, pages 23-24, 27-28. 24 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 INTERPRETATION recorded the presence of hearths or firepits. Similarly, bone distributions are incompletely specified. The pres The excellence of Roberts' recording procedures not ence of bone debris seems always to have been noted, withstanding, I did find a few ambiguities in the notes; and counts are often given; but bone elements are these led to some minor problems of interpretation. Only seldom identified as to part and are frequently referred one of these seriously affected my work, but all should to vernacular terms. Consequently, analyses of group be noted here in order to give readers a clear compari spacing and of animal carcass distribution cannot be son with my own procedures and terminology. Roberts attempted. seems to have reserved the term "artifact" for speci mens that I call "tools"; he also employed a number of implement names in an inconsistent manner. Although Theoretical Considerations these differences in terminology were occasionally an noying, they were usually supplemented by other in Although the analyses contained herein are not car formation, for example, specimen color, that allowed ried out in a traditional manner, this monograph is a particular items to be positively identified. Supplementary site report in the traditional archeological sense. Its aims information was needed only in cases in which a single are, first, to present a description of a body of excavated field number was assigned to two or more specimens. material and, thus, to make the contents of a site known After all artifacts had been identified and their proper to others. Accompanying this aim, and inextricably positions in the site ascertained, I abandoned Roberts' intertwined with it, is the need to set forth some accounts nonmenclature in favor of my own and artifact type of these contents. In offering them, I have departed names were no longer at issue. from the traditional form of site reports. Interpretations There was one other terminological problem. Roberts are always deeply colored by the preconceptions of the interchangeably used several names for each of the individuals who make them. Mine are no exception, but stratigraphic units that he recognized. I could always I have attempted to frame the majority of them in the cross check the names, however, and have simply adopted form of deduced consequences, and, thus, to free them, one of them for each stratum. to some degree at least, from unverifiable subjectivity. The most critical ambiguity lies in the fact that This attempt has not been entirely successful; its failure Roberts often impressionistically recorded quantities is due largely to the fact that theoretical grounds for rather than actual counts. This is particularly true for connecting material items to social behavior is still in faunal remains but also applies to unrecorded stone adequately developed. I feel that such theory will be chips and flakes (which are not artifacts in Roberts' forthcoming in the foreseeable future; the work presented terminology). I am, of course, unable to judge whether here is intended to help prepare the ground for the for or not "many," "numerous," and "a quantity of" are mulation of such theory. equivalent terms. Thus, much potentially valuable in In keeping with the function of a site report, I have formation has been lost. On all distribution plots, I have given much attention to methods for extracting data clearly distinguished between actual counts and impres from a body of information and for analyzing those data sionistic estimates. With few exceptions, I had no diffi in terms suitable to the specific problems which gave culty in working with the collections. them rise. In doing so, I have hoped to underscore the difference between (1) deduced conclusions obtained LIMITATIONS through a series of logically controlled steps and (2) interpretations based upon intuition or experience. The bulk of the Lindenmeier assemblage consists of Deduced conclusions may be compared with other chert artifacts and bone debris. Most other materials similarly obtained results and a measure of the degree are missing; thus, although certain inferences about the to which they are defensible may thus become known. use of such things as wood and cordage will be possible, They also can offer at least a partial explanation of certainty about their production and function are out of observed phenomena if they place these phenomena in reach. Additional information about perishable items a logically and empirically necessary and sufficient con would be a welcome addition to the description of the text. Thus, the truth status of a deduced conclusion is site, but its absence will not affect the analyses that more easily established than is that of an interpretation, follow. because different conclusions can be shown to be more More serious limitations are imposed by the absence or less compatible on consistant grounds while inter of data for some classes of remains. Roberts noted the pretations are always subject to ad hoc modification. presence of charcoal in many of the squares, but he These considerations persuaded me to work with highly gave no information about relative densities and rarely precise methods of analysis whenever possible. I have RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODS 25 tried to adhere to methods which increase the accuracy CATEGORIZATION of artifact description and reduce the uncertainties of results of analysis. Throughout this monograph, I have employed the As this monograph is principally concerned with term 'category' in referring to subsets of artifacts taken empirical evidence and its documentation, the artifacts from the total assemblage. I mean by using this term are described in detail. Where possible, they are treated to delimit those specimens that share certain specified as aggregate data sets rather than as individual speci characteristics. Part of the analytical procedure em mens; that is, specimens are considered to be alternative ployed is designed to show that, in sharing these char combinations of commonly held characteristics rather acteristics, the member specimens of a category are than unrelated entities. This view, of course, is based demonstrably the products of a certain specified set of upon the notion of variation. The term 'variation' as forming processes that set them apart from the mem used here is taken to apply only to differences that can bers of other categories. This procedure is logically be measured on the same scale and in the same dimen different from that of designating types and subsequently sion. Except in a limited manner, for example, a tool identifying members of the type. Because of this differ classified as an "end scraper" cannot be directly com ence, I have shunned the terms 'type' and 'typology.' pared with another specimen called a "waste flake." Yet The divisions into which artifact specimens have been it is essential to the purpose of this study that detailed, cast are not typologically based. This assertion must be precise comparisons be made between objects in different defended. categories. To make such comparisons, it is necessary to Archeological debate over the concept of types is well use scales that apply to distinguishable characteristics recorded (e.g., Krieger, 1944; Brew, 1946; Spaulding, (such as standardly defined measures of size and shape) 1953; Ford, 1954; Gifford, 1960; Rouse, 1960; Dunnell, that may be unambiguously isolated on specimens in 1971). I do not intend to enter that controversy here. many categories. Variation, as so understood, applies to It is only necessary to note that, whatever else may be properties of objects rather than to objects themselves. imputed to them, most archeologists agree that types Consequently, variation among artifacts is not simply are ideal standards to which individual specimens are the sum of a number of unique measurements but is matched. This view has a long and respectable history rather the product of a series of processes that combine and appears to conform to most philosophical notions in the shaping of artifacts. It follows that a procedure about the matter. designed to investigate the characteristics of specimens The fact, however, that controversy over the typo independently of pre-established typologies can deal more logical concept has never been resolved in archeology directly with these forming processes and thus have a suggests that there are severe limitations to the notion better chance of clarifying the nature of their operation. of ideal standards and that it would be rewarding, at Such a procedure was suggested by Wilmsen (1970) and least potentially, to look to other conceptual frameworks is further developed in the analyses that follow. for guidance in organizing into intelligible units the The scales employed are, where practicable, quanti particulars known to exist in the archeological record. tative, but a number of qualitative codes are employed. Korner (1970) has made an especially stimulating These scales and codes, as well as the definitions of the analysis of classification systems. His distinction between variables and attributes to which they apply, were first arbitrary classes (types) and maximal kinds (categories), carries implications for constructing an empirical inves defined by Wilmsen (1970). In most cases the original tigation of the sort presented in this monograph. definitions are adhered to in this study, but a few are altered. When such alteration has occurred, appropriate That types are arbitrary classes need not be argued. note of that fact is made. Summary statistics are exten Whether or not they are thought to conform to some sively used to describe a data set. Measures of central contemporary or past reality (that is, to an archeologist's tendency and dispersions are applied to data grouped or to a native's view of the natural order of things), according to several criteria of association in space or the typological set always consists of entities selected of membership in a category. Distributions of values for after a standard form has been defined. The fact that each variable and attribute so ordered are graphically auxiliary statements about forming processes (for ex presented. Brief definitions of the statistics employed are ample, "edge scars are made by pressure flaking") are given, but for complete discussions of these and of the often appended to type definitions does not alter the other statistical methods employed in this study, readers a posteriori nature of typological assignment. Categories are referred to a standard reference on the subject, are not so constructed. "To categorize all objects into such as Dixon and Massey (1969) or Afifi and Azen maximal kinds is—explicitly or implicitly—to apply (1972). a notion of logical implication" (Korner, 1970:8). 26 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 Categories have no idealizations; there are no type speci manufacture, (3) functional applications, (4) expres mens to which other specimens are matched. sion of the social context in which the artifacts circulate. Categories, to be sure, are constructed, but they are All artifacts are the products of some manufacturing not based upon the recognition of a perceived form. process; they all possess a substantial technological com Instead, the reasoning underlying their construction is ponent in their morphology. Some artifacts are put to derived from the statement: if there is a conjunction of some use; they will, in addition to technological varia controlling conditions ki . . . kj and there are On . . . Om tion, possess a functional component of form. Still others objects that exist within this conjunction (n^l), then have had one or more of their parts altered by the the objects On . . . Om are in category K. There is no direct application of shaping forces (e.g., pressure re mention of the appearance of objects in this statement; touch). Among stone artifacts, there should, correspond membership in a category depends entirely upon posses ingly, be three major categorical divisions into which sion of characteristics associated with specified forming specimens fall. These are (1) unmodified flakes, (2) conditions. The conditions are first specified; only then utilized flakes, and (3) tools. The first category con are artifacts assigned to categories. tains specimens that are solely the products of tech Use of this sort of categorical framework sidesteps nological processes. The second contains specimens the pitfall that endangers all ideal type divisions. A which have, in addition, edge or surface modification typologist is not required to know the ideal standard that is entirely the byproduct of functional applications. purposes for which types exist; hence, all interpretations Tools, in contrast, have been purposefully shaped by of type significance are post hoc speculations. This leaves retouch. These considerations lead directly to an enu the typologist in the unfortunate position of being un meration of the hypotheses to be tested. able to defend types except on the ground that they Hypothesis 1: The three categories should be alike in are plausible. Even types that may actually have logical technological variables (Pt, ft) but different in func and ontological validity cannot be more strongly de tional variables (8D, SL, 8R). (See page 67 for definitions fended because arguments connecting them to forming of variables.) processes are not embedded in type definitions. The Hypothesis 2: If the units are technologically alike, amount of mischief brought about by this situation is there should be no differences in their unmodified flake great; generations of archeologists have been frustrated characteristics; furthermore, all categories should be in their efforts to "put flesh on the dry bones" of their alike in platform characteristics and flake angle. discoveries and to escape the writing of "conjectural Hypothesis 3: If the units are functionally alike, there history." I have tried to avoid this pitfall by abandoning should be no differences in shape and edge size among the concept of types and by adopting a more systemic the utilized flake and tool categories represented in each categorical framework. unit. A basis for assessing the significance and function of HYPOTHESES stylistic variation is not so well developed in archeology. Consequently, the following discussion is offered as a The initial stratification of the data is based solely on speculative framework for future elaboration rather than criteria of spatial clustering. Artifact variation that may as established theory. be independent of location is not considered. If such The analysis of projectile points cannot follow that of spatially independent variation can be identified, much unifacial specimens; this is so because most of the of it should be due to the mechanical properties that mechanical traces of point production have been ob underlie artifact form. If there is residual variation un- scured. Within chipped stone assemblages, however, pro explainable in mechanical terms, it may be examined jectile points should be especially suitable for stylistic for stylistic content. analysis and they are commonly thought to be diag The criterion by which specimens are initially cate nostic of the presence of different population units. The gorized is, of course, visual; namely, the presence or distinguishing characteristics should be a function of the absence of wear damage or retouch. If, however, the greater input required to manufacture a projectile point categories have any deeper significance (that is, if they as compared with most other artifact categories. A large are more than simply descriptive classes), they will be proportion of the variation present on cutting and scrap differentiated by other characteristics that are associated ing tools can be attributed to the constraints of flake with the underlying processes which formed the arti production and use. Tool resharpening provides the facts rather than with the results of some particular major intervening constraint. Projectile points, on the application alone. other hand, are passed through a number of transfor Artifact form results from four distinct sources: (1) mational stages in each of which one or more of several the operation of random chance, (2) the technology of manufacturing alternatives may be imposed. The scope RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODS 27 for social input in the form of stylistic constraint be randomly distributed. I should point out that these (whether conscious or subliminal is immaterial) should, are analytical statements of the form "if things are therefore, be greater than it is for most other chipped different, those differences should be detectable in pre stone artifacts, and, for this reason, points, along with dicted ways." Such statements do not explain differences. other similarly manipulated items, may be said to be This is an important point to remember. For if we detect style rich. stylistic differences between Lindenmeier occupation Thus, stylistic variation is structurally deeper than units, as we shall, we will nonetheless be unable to say variation in fashion or mode and does not depend, as what social mechanisms caused these differences. We does the latter, upon the popularity or even the explicit will only be able to say that some degree of social dis recognition of its constituent elements. Among other tance appears to separate the unit groups. Until ade things, stylistic change in space is a function of restruc quate theory connecting social rules with material varia turing of the boundaries which partition independent or bles is developed, we must limit ourselves to inferential quasi-independent social units. It is because of these interpretations of this kind. characteristics that stylistic variables, when isolated in the archeological record, may serve to differentiate pre SAMPLING ASSUMPTIONS historic social units. The degree of differentiation offers, in turn, a first approximation of the distance between Site units, taken as individual entities, are considered social units. Friedrich (1970) has recently demonstrated to be chance representatives of the very large set of camp the structural relations between proximity, interaction localities laid down through time by groups referred to as intensity, and stylistic variation among potters in a hunter-gatherers. They may be more restrictively thought Tarascan village. She has argued that similar relations of as being drawn from LIpper Paleolithic, or even from should be discoverable in the archeological record. no more than Paleo-Indian, locations. In any case, they Projectile points may serve as diagnostic items not are an extremely small sample and cannot be thought because they perform esoteric or especially significant to represent the entire range of such camp locations. extractive functions—reducing a carcass to pieces of This fact will not restrict intrasite analysis, nor will it usable size by cutting it with a flake knife is as special reduce the scope of applicability of the analytical struc and significant a function as reducing a live animal to ture ; but the site unit analysis can only reveal the nature a carcass by piercing it with a projectile—but because of a segment of the range of locational alternatives. they are the products of manufacturing processes that Unit assemblages, on the other hand, are more or inherently amplify morphological differences. The spatial less restricted fractions of the original populations of arti distributions of projectile point styles should, therefore, facts deposited in each. They cannot, therefore, be con provide some insights into underlying social partitioning. sidered to be random samples drawn from those popu If social input does increase with increased shaping, lations. Compensations for this fact are made in the as postulated, then, for nonceramic assemblages, points analyses of assemblage contents. should be the best source of data about social variation. Category inventories are considered to be representa The two assumptions that must be made are (1) that tive of the range of variation to be found in category objects such as points are made within the social group populations. The large sizes of the inventories, plus the that uses them and (2) that increasing degrees of social fact that no discernible bias interfered with specimen separation will be accompanied by increasing prob selection, would appear to justify this assumption. ability that differences in the application of manufac Category inventories are, therefore, taken to be random turing techniques, whether random or systematic, will samples of specified kinds of artifacts. become fixed in different groups. If these differences are sufficiently pronounced, they will be measurable on the Analysis objects that are made. Such differences may be termed stylistic. Two basic principles of data division are employed. Three possible spatial consequences stem from the The first, association in space, follows well-developed assumptions listed above: (1) if groups maintain closed archeological procedure. The second, possession of de boundaries, stylistic elements associated with each will rived characteristics, is developed in detail in this mono occur in discrete clusters; (2) if group boundaries are graph. Spatial association is considered first. only partly closed so that some individuals from each may cross to others, stylistic elements will be distributed ERROR COMPONENTS between areas in proportion to the degree of interaction; (3) if boundaries are completely open, that is, if there Any set of measurements will possess an inherent un is no distinction between groups, stylistic elements will certainty that is characteristic of the measurement proc- 28 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 esses employed and not of the particular results obtained. X0 — the mean of all #i's for one variable, one speci Archeologists have long been aware of the fact that their men, metrical observations are inaccurate and imprecise to n = number of observations. varying degrees. To my knowledge, no attempts have been made to specify the probable extent of this uncer A is the computed standard error of the mean measure tainty. The increasing use of mathematics and statistics ment values for a variable and, thus, serves as an indica in all phases of archeological research must force upon tor of measurement precision for that variable. the profession an increasing concern for the accuracy In order to obtain an estimate of measurement accu and comparability of reported results. Archeologists have racy, both error terms (systematic and precision) must developed their analytical techniques to the point where be combined. Eisenhart (1968) suggests that U.S. they must heed Eisenhart's (1968:1201) stricture: "A Bureau of Standards guidelines be followed when incor reported value whose accuracy is entirely unknown is porating precision factors into uncertainty estimators. worthless." For such use, these guidlines require the precision factor A procedure for estimating the inherent error in meas to be multiplied by 3 or 4. urements was employed by Wilmsen throughout the data I have no way of computing the systematic error that collection phase of this project. The calculated estimators is inherent in the measuring processes that I employed. are tabulated (Tables 10, 11) and discussed fully below. I will assume, however, that it is negligible for the linear They are indispensable for evaluating the analytical re measurements. For measurements of angles, I will use sults presented. They should also be useful to other 25% of A as an estimate of the systematic error. Thus, workers who wish to assess the comparability of their the uncertainty of linear measurements is ± 3A and that results with those reported in this monograph. The error of angular measurements is ± 3.25^1. The resulting components with which we are concerned are (1) assumed accuracy of values is considered more fully when systematic error, the magnitude and direction of the each specific variable is described. tendency of a process to measure something other than what was intended, and (2) precision, the typical close ness of successive independent measurements generated STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES by repeated application of the process under specified conditions (Eisenhart, 1968:1201). An effort is made to use only the most straightforward Four artifacts were selected to serve as controls of inferential statistical methods: one-way analysis of vari measurement consistancy (Figure 60). ance, Student's t, Fisher's Exact, and chi-square. These test statistics are chosen for two reasons: (1) they add Each person involved in the project measured each information beyond that of the descriptive statistics by control specimen at irregular intervals during the year indicating, at a given level of probability, whether a in which data were collected. All four specimens were difference between two or more samples may be a result measured on the same day but at different hours and in of random chance; (2) the actual size of nonrandom dif different order each day. Records were kept of all meas ferences that are computed may be examined in the urements made by each individual. Values of all deter original measurement scales. minations are pooled to produce the statistics. Means (X), standard deviation (s), and principal direction of The size of a difference between means in analyses of deviation are given. Table 10 also contains an estimated variance or Mests and of row and column percentages average deviation (^4) from mean values for each in chi-square tables can be of considerable practical variable calculated from the combined data for all speci importance. Dixon and Massey (1969:82) noted: mens according to the following formula: A statistically significant departure from a hypothesis may or may not be of practical interest in a particular study. If the sample size is large, statistical significance may occur for a difference LV+LV+LV+D* which is of marginal practical importance. For example, a dif %, (1) ni-l)4-(n2-l) + (n3-l) + (m~-l ference of one pound in weight may be of great importance in infants but negligible in adults. Each would show as significant where if the sample were sufficiently large. The same is true in the case of small variances; two i=i n— 1 sample means may be very close, yet the samples, because of very small variances, may be distinct from one another = variance of measurements of one variable made and, thus, statistically different when in fact they repre by all persons on one specimen (;' = 1, 2, 3, 4), sent the same thing. Xi = a single measurement of a variable on one speci For all of the following tests, the significance level for men, rejecting null hypotheses is set at p = 0.01 in order to RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODS 29 be conservative in accepting an alternative hypothesis. In 7 of the 8 ANOVAS between categories and 12 of 32 Only in the case of F-tests dealing with equality of vari between units, the assumption of equal variance is vio ances is the 0.05 level used. Student's t is used to test lated. In some cases, the variance of one sample is as the null hypothesis of equal sample means in those cases much as 3 or 4 times that of another with which it is where two sample sets are compared. This applies to all compared. To compound the problem, such inequalities variables measured on points, preforms, bifaces, and often coincide with borderline cases of null hypothesis channel flakes. Because unit sample sizes are often small rejection. An alternative to analysis of variance, which in these cases, units are combined according to their not only tests the null hypothesis of equal sample means respective areas in order to increase sample sizes for despite unequal variances but also gives a confidence analytical purposes. F-statistics are used to test the interval comparable to that of Scheffe, must be used for assumption of equal sample variance. The /-test for these cases. The /-statistic for unequal variances satisfies unequal variances (Dixon and Massey, 1969) is substi these requirements (Afifi and Azen, 1972); it is used tuted for the standard t when this assumption is violated. for separate pair-by-pair comparisons of the samples. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to test For example, in a five sample difference of means test, the null hypothesis of equal sample means in all cases /-tests are given for the following pairs: 1-2 (sample where more than two samples are compared for any 1 with sample 2), 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 3-4, particular variable: (1) between units A, B, F, G, and H 3—5, 4-5. A 99% confidence interval is constructed for for all unifacial artifacts considered as a group; (2) the difference of means for each pair separately; conse between units A, B, F, G, and H with each category quently, there is 90% confidence that all 10 intervals treated s*.o.ra>ly for both unifacial and bifacial tools; correctly specify whether or not both members of a pair (3) between the categories of artifacts with all units are from the same population. The multiple / intervals lumped together; (4) between a series of measurements should then be roughly equivalent to the Scheffe simul taken by individuals on specific artifacts to check for taneous intervals in that they both delineate 90% confi measurement error. dence regions for the same 10 contrasted pairs. Of the 170 confidence intervals for which it is necessary to use The ANOVA output includes: (1) an F-statistic which the multiple-/, only 6 cases of conflict with results ob tests the null hypothesis that the sample means are equal; tained using Scheffe intervals occur. Because of the un (2) an F-statistic to test the hypothesis that all variances equal variances, the results of the multiple-/ method are equal; (3) Scheffe 90% simultaneous confidence should be the more accurate. intervals for contrasts between all combinations of pairs of samples; (4) the actual differences in the means of Chi-square and Fisher's Exact tests are used to deter these contrasted samples; (5) a table of the mean, mine significances of differences between stylistic attri standard deviation, and sample size of each group. butes and material types of points, preforms, and channel The Scheffe confidence intervals provide perhaps the flakes associated with the two areas. Pearson's chi-square most useful results of the ANOVA output. When the F-test is used for all tests except in the case of 2 X 2 tables rejects the null hypothesis of equality of all sample means, where Fisher's Exact is more accurate. The 0.01 level the confidence intervals pinpoint exactly which contrasts is used for rejection of the null hypothesis of inde are significant and which are not. To prevent the tables pendently distributed attributes. in this monograph from becoming too complex, only the For some attributes, the expected frequency tables had contrasts that reject the null hypothesis are listed. The fewer than five observations in more than 25% of the corresponding means, standard deviations, and sample cells. For these cases, compatible attribute characteristics sizes of both samples in a significant contrast, as well as were combined when possible. If cells could not be so the difference between the two means, are included in collapsed those having fewer than two observations were the tables to indicate the actual size of the differences eliminated from the analysis. The second parts of all considered. The summary information for all samples chi-square tables list cell values and give missing data is given in the tables of descriptive statistics. information for the appropriate initial data sets. Physiography and Environment Location This ridge upon which the Lindenmeier Valley is perched, along with those to the south and west, forms Lindenmeier is located in Larimer County, Colorado, part of the escarpment of the Colorado Piedmont. This approximately 2.8 km (1.75 mi) south of the Wyoming latter physiographic feature is a huge basin cut below state line and about midway between Colorado's eastern the surface of the plains by the South Platte-Cache and western boundaries (Map 2). Its specific location la Poudre river system (Figure 37). The foothills, a series in the U.S. Geological Survey quadrangle system is Sec of eroded, tilted uplifts, begin immediately west of the tion 27, T. 12 N., R. 69 W., Sixth principal meridian. site (Figure 38) and build rapidly to the Rocky Moun The site's elevation is 2011 m (6600 ft) above sea level. tain massif itself. Peaks with elevations greater than 3000 It has been designated 5 LR 13. m (3048 m = 10,000 ft) are common just 48 km (30 mi) west of the site, and Long's Peak, at 4345 m (14,255 ft) the highest point in the Front Range, is 92 km (58 Landforms mi) to the southwest (Figure 39). The only major stream in the vicinity is the Cache la Poudre River, which at its The site is situated on an ancient valley remnant, which closest point flows 23.5 km (14.5 mi) southwest from abuts a long, narrow ridge (Figure 35). This ridge is Lindenmeier. part of the Rocky Mountain foothill system that extends irregularly into the High Plains; it is among several Thus, Lindenmeier is located in a physiographically ridges that together form the outermost foothill extension complex area, which includes high mountain, rugged to be found along the Front Range. Figure 36 shows foothill, flat plain, and dissected upland features within this ridge and the intact upper portion of the Lindenmeier a 50 km (approximately 30 mi) radius. This diversity Valley; the site lies below the end of the range. The has both geologic and ecological implications for the transition from mountains to plains is also clearly depicted study of the site. in this figure, which is oriented toward the east; from here, the unobstructed, almost flat plains spread east Geologic History ward across the continent. The Tertiary and Quaternary history of the Linden meier region has been discussed by Bryan and Ray (1940). Kirk Bryan began the geological investigations in 1935, but the bulk of the work was done by Louis Ray during the 3-year period 1936-1938. The resulting publication is a somewhat revised and extended version of Ray's Ph.D. dissertation. At present, there exists some difference of opinion about the validity of the conclusions presented by these authors. The dispute is almost entirely confined to their correlations of mountain moraines with river and pied mont terraces and with the glacial sequence and its chronology inferred from these correlations. Their at tempts to link the glacial features of the Southern Rocky Mountains with those of the continental ice masses of North America and Europe are also open to severe criti cism. But the methods which they employed in these attempts were similar to those used by most other geolo MAP 2.—Location of Lindenmeier site in northern Colorado. Site gists at the time, and it would be unreasonable to censure is marked with a solid circle. their work on these latter grounds. 30 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 31 FIGURE 35.—The Lindenmeier Valley perched on the Colorado Piedmont escarpment, looking northwest; the site is located at the center of the figure. FIGURE 36.—The upper part of the Lindenmeier Valley seen from the southern flank of the ridge, which contains it, looking east; the site lies on the small section of valley floor demarcated by the corner of the ridge and the recent arroyo cut. 32 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 FIGURE 37.—The Colorado Piedmont seen from Lindenmeier, 1936, looking southeast. The following outline of the pre-Wisconsinan history region were cut down through nearly horizontally bedded of the Colorado Piedmont-Rocky Mountain region gen sedimentary structures; during this process, a number of erally follows that of Bryan and Ray, but it is extensively pediments were developed on more resistant rocks. These supplemented by information summarized in the more pediments are capped by Quaternary alluvial deposits recent review of the area's geology by Scott (1965). (Scott, 1960) whose general sequence has been confirmed The Southern Rocky Mountains, on the front of which to be nearly identical throughout the region (Scott, Lindenmeier lies, are composed of Precambrian and 1965:245). Tertiary crystalline and igneous rocks flanked by steeply This history of planation and aggradation is summar dipping sedimentary formations of late Paleozoic and ized by Scott (1965:247-248): Mesozoic age. Much of the sedimentary mantle has been removed by erosion but, in the vicinity of Lindenmeier, The overall result of the surficial processes is a landscape a succession of eroded anticlines with north-south axes marked by gently sloping surfaces at three general levels: (1) the high, poorly preserved, pre-Quaternary surfaces cut on Pre forms a corrugated apron of the foothills. The outermost cambrian rocks of the Front Range, (2) the intermediate, well- ramparts of these, upon one of which Lindenmeier is preserved early and middle Quaternary pediments cut on perched, are formed by eastward extending arcs that sedimentary rocks at the mountain front, and (3) the low, well- depart from this basic orientation. The high, nearly ver preserved late Quaternary fill terraces along modern streams. tical faces of all these hogbacks expose many interbedded strata of limestone and sandstone. At some places, the Only the more recent episodes of level 3 above will upper members of these sediments contain chert, and, concern us. Figure 40 shows a cross-section through the at others, the lower members contain excellent quartzite. outlying foothill ridge system, across the lower end of The piedmont and other basins of the intermontane the Lindenmeier Valley and through a portion of the PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 33 >* —me** FIGURE 38.—Looking up the Lindenmeier Valley; Trenches A and B are faintly delineated by dotted lines (left center) below the prominence of Folsom Man Hill. piedmont; the geomorphology of the area is clearly profiles. One of my first tasks, therefore, was to construct encapsulated in this drawing. such profiles for every line for which adequate drawings existed in the notes. I was able to construct 44 profiles, 13 of which have been selected for presentation as Stratigraphy of the Site Figures 155-159. It would have been impractically costly and repetitious to have included drawings of all the pro files; those selected fall at approximately equal intervals Roberts and the men who worked with him drew within the excavated areas and display all of the detail accurate, detailed stratigraphic profiles of at least one necessary to describe completely the stratigraphic se face of virtually every square that was excavated from quence. 1935 through 1940. In the great majority of cases, the north face of each square was selected. This series of profile drawings documents more thoroughly the strati CONSTRUCTION OF PROFILES graphic relations within an early American site than does any other set of records yet published. With them I followed a uniform procedure in constructing all of it is possible to observe the precise positions of each the profiles and in preparing drawings for publication. stratum, as well as of each former stabilized ground First, two xerox copies of all of Roberts' field notes were surface at 1.5 m (5 ft) intervals over distances up to made. One copy was bound for reference use. Each section drawing was cut from the second copy; drawings 39.6 m (130 ft). In addition, profiles of the north-south of adjacent square faces were joined together with trans faces of the major trenches were drawn; these drawings parent tape and given sequential designations, which cover 82.3 m (270 ft) and include almost the entire keyed each to its appropriate location in the excavations. breadth of the original valley floor lying south of the Profiles to be published were traced from these paste-ups. recently cut arroyo which transects the valley. Other, Before tracing, each xerox copy was carefully checked shorter, profiles exist for each excavated test pit. for accuracy of scale, and, when necessary, proportional The Trench A profiles have been published (Roberts, adjustments were sketched on an overlay. Scale dis 1936a, fig. 1), but at such minute scale that they are crepancies occurred because of differential shrinking and illegible even with the aid of a ten-power lens; the pub stretching of the paper in the notebooks and the xerox lished figures also contain too little detail for any but the copies. Discrepancies were easily detected because each most general studies. I have redrawn the east face profile section is of a standard width and transit readings of of Trench A from Roberts' field notes and this drawing the elevations below datum are given for the top and is reproduced here as Figure 154. bottom of each section corner. The original sections As far as I am able to determine, none of the other were drawn on eight lines to the inch grid paper at a square faces were ever assembled to form continuous 34 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 FIGURE 39.—The Lindenmeier Valley, its containing ridges, the Colorado Piedmont, the foot hills, and the Rocky Mountains in their juxtaposed positions. Long's Peak is on the left horizon. View toward the southwest. (Drawing by Cassedy.) scale of 1 inch = 2 feet (1:24) ; this fact allowed me coordinate designation (such as, 01E); and (8) each to maintain a high level of dimensional accuracy in profile is given a designation, which is a circled number developing the continuous profiles. (such as ©). In addition, each has a designation that In most cases, when drawings were matched, strata keys it to Roberts' excavation grids; this key specifies in adjacent sections were precisely aligned. Sometimes, the appropriate grid coordinate line or lines along which however, strata were 2-5 cm (approximately 1-2 in) the profile was taken. (scale dimensions) out of line; these minor differences were simply smoothed in the constructed drawings. Occa sionally, larger differences were noted; no corrections STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE were made in these cases and stratum lines are discon tinuous across the section boundaries involved (Figure 45 ® for examples at lines J and H). Final drawings The profiles will first be described in detail and then were made on dimensionally stable Kronaflex drafting correlated with the more recent work at Lindenmeier medium. carried out by Haynes (Haynes and Agogino, 1960) and The following conventions were adopted for the profile with the general regional sequence presented by Scott drawings: (1) continuous, undulating lines indicate the (1965). Some stratigraphic interpretations will be offered actual shape of strata recorded in the field; (2) con on the basis of these comparisons. tinuous, ruled lines indicate projections of strata between The east face of Trench A is shown in Figure 154. recorded corner depths below datum; (3) heavy dashed Roberts' notes repeatedly state that excavations in the lines indicate approximate positions of unrecorded strata trench were carried to the white clay substratum (Brule) within excavated areas; (4) long, thin dashed lines indi surface but not below. Consequently, I assume that the cate relatively certain connections across unexcavated bottom line of the profile marks the top of the Brule areas; (5) short, thin dashed lines indicate possible posi formation except as otherwise determined. The modern tions of strata in unexcavated areas; (6) the two sets of surface has a vertical drop of 3.8 m (approximately large numbers across the tops of the profiles indicate 12 ft) from south to north. Datum levels are given for square corner ground surface distance below datum; the the ground surface to line 720 and for the bottom of upper set is in metric units, the lower in Roberts' original the section from line 720 onward. In the first section, English notation; (7) the small numbers and letters to erosion has removed all of the modern soil formation and the right of each reference line indicate that line's grid has exposed a postglacial alluvium on the surface. A dark PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 35 FIGURE 40. Cross-section through the Lindenmeier Valley and adjacent features at a point several hundred meters east of the site. black layer, 7.5-15 cm (3-6 in) thick, is the lowermost yellow clay that intervenes between the Brule substratum stratum in sections 701 through 703; artifacts and bone and the black layer as well as in the black itself. remains were found on the lowest surface. Roberts Second, the pair of yellow clay lenses in sections 715 (1935b: 14; 1936a: 14) describes this black layer as and 716 (NB35:59-60, 63-64) are potentially signifi a "siltlike strata of dark soil" that has the nature of a cant for interpreting certain aspects of the stratigraphic marshy or bog deposit with gravel scattered through it and faunal record (pp. 38, 46-47). in various places. References to gravel inclusions in the After line 719, Roberts' field profiles become very black stratum are also found in the notebooks (NB36: sketchy and from 723 onward are not readily interpret- 140, NB38:129). able. Consequently, in my reconstruction, I have simply This stratum is overlain by a lighter gray stratum blocked in the major divisions from 720 to the arroyo (called the "light black" by Roberts) 30 cm (1 ft) to 55 opening. For these last sections of Trench A, Roberts cm (1.75 ft) thick. A layer of recent alluvium covers inconsistently noted a series of sand, clay, gravel, and soil these sections. This alluvial blanket covers the entire layers as well as other strata labeled "stained," "light," length of the trench and, indeed, almost the whole or "mixed." I have chosen not to try to interpolate these valley; it has a minimum thickness of 30 cm (1 ft) at strata in detail for two reasons: (1) I would probably line 702 and increases steadily to a maximum of 2.9 m misrepresent the real situation; (2) the exact alluvial (9.5 ft) near the arroyo. sequence at such high elevations above the archeological The black layer stops in section 704 against the side levels would not contribute greatly to the discussion in of a slight elevation of the Brule substratum. The Brule any case. slopes downward again in section 710; the black layer Profiles of trench faces perpendicular to the longi has either been eroded from this ridge or was never tudinal face of Trench A are shown in Figures 155 and deposited upon its crest. The light black becomes pro 156. Each profile is extended to include the most nearly gressively, but irregularly, thinner and disappears in sec matching face in the adjacent excavations. The trench tion 708. A few gravel lenses are recorded in the alluvium sections are identified by the coordinate designations beginning in 705. The lowermost of these features be A4W, A4E to A13W, A13E. Figure 155 0 also includes tween 708 and 710 is labeled "sand-clay nodules" the face of line B of the 1936 Area 3; 155 ® includes (NB35:32, 36). This feature overlies the southern light line F, 1937. Similarly, the profiles in Figure 156 are black member and underlies its northern counterpart; labeled according to the appropriate coordinate lines it thus establishes the chronological priority of the former which are represented in each. over the latter but tells us nothing about the age of the The general stratigraphic sequence in these drawings black layer. is identical to that of the large trench. Profile ®, Figure The black stratum and the overlying light black main 155, shows part of the fill from the 1935 excavation of tain relatively uniform thicknesses (18-40 cm for the the Small Trench East of Trench A. The black layer former; 22-48 cm for the latter) between 710 and 723. extends across the entire profile in a relatively uniform The alluvium'increases in thickness from 50 cm at 708 thickness (12-15.5 cm (5-6 in)); the lower stain is to 244 cm at 723; it is also characterized by a number very thin (5-10 cm (2-4 in)) but the light black is of discontinuous gravel lenses. Two things should be relatively thick at this point (20-33 cm (8-13 in)). Pro noticed on the drawing of this section (Figure 154): file (D, Figure 155, displays a more complex sequence First, the bison bones located on the Brule surface in between OF and 3F. The Brule substratum is overlain the black (NB35:48). The same stratigraphic position by a mantle of mixed material referred to as "stained is noted in NB35:39, 43; Roberts (NB35:59) also states earth with yellow clay" (NB36:187, 189, 191). The that in section 715 specimens occurred on and in the 36 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 lower stain abuts this material and does not continue continuously over the rise or portions have been eroded across the entire face. The overlying black extends across from the surface of its crest. the entire face, and light black is divided into two units, Except for the priority of the light black at 710 over stained earth and light black. All of the strata in 155 (D that at 708 mentioned in the description of Trench A, are highly varied in thickness. no chronological inferences can be made on the basis of Profile ®, Figure 155, records a situation similar to the existing profiles. that of 155 ©. The lens that lies on the substratum On the other hand, the irregular surfaces of the strata between 05F and 03F is called' "stained earth, tufa suggest that some sort of stream action occurred in some nodules" (NB37:23, 25). The lens between 02F and 2F parts of the site. The remnants of alluvium that remain is labeled "sand, clay, gravel" (NB37:29-33); from as lenses on the substratum and the many interbedded, OF to 2F it is said to merge with the substratum. The discontinuous gravel and sand layers that occur in the black stratum is generally thicker in this profile—up to covering alluvium suggest that cycles of deposition and 38 cm (15 in) in 02F—but thins markedly to less than erosion have been common. The deep sections in 156 ® 7.5 cm (3 in) toward the east. and 156 © also point to such a conclusion for even older periods of time. These considerations will be more Figure 156 ® and ® contain sections taken from the fully developed. Another feature of the ridge must be only squares dug immediately west of Trench A. A series noted, its surface is densely covered with large stones of sand, clay, and gravel units are interbedded to a (Figure 14). Such stones are extremely rare in the rest depth of 83.8 cm (2.75 ft) below the lower stain. Above of the site except on the surface of another ridge near this unit, the strata are like those already described. A the Bison Pit. mantle of clean sand (NB37:157, 159, 161, 163) covers the substratum between 01M and 3M. This sand is about Despite indications of surface degradation, the distri 20.3 cm (8 in) thick. Profile ®, Figure 156, displays bution of specimens does not support the supposition no remarkable condition. All of the remaining faces in that erosion was extensive on the surfaces upon which this excavation area (from line Q to line W) are vir occupation took place. There is no suggestion of sorting tually identical to those in Figure 154 © and are, there among the artifacts and bones; neither do the specimens fore, not presented here. show any sign of rolling. These surfaces were surely subjected to water action, but erosion seems to have As a group rather than individually, these profiles been light subsequent to their occupation. The strata record a number of important facets of the site's history. shown in Figure 159 are similar in appearance and super First, those strata with which artifacts are associated position to those just discussed. The eastern ends of these (light black, black, lower stain) are all discontinuous. profiles are approximately 90 m (292 ft) from the west Furthermore, the discontinuity is systematic and is re ern ends of those near Trench A. Given the complex lated, in part, to the existence of the low rise in the depositional history inferred from the differential con Brule clay that cuts across a portion of the excavation. tinuity of the strata shown in Figures 154-156, it should This ridge is clearly demarcated in squares 704-709 be apparent that it is even more unlikely that these two (Figure 154), square 03F-04F (Figure 155), and sets of strata are continuous and, hence, absolutely con squares 01J-02J, 3M-05M (Figure 156); it becomes temporary. It is probably true that they are roughly of progressively lower and less well defined toward the the same age, and later (p. 179) I make some inferential northeast and does not appear at all in the profiles from arguments for the simultaneous exposure of some of the line Q, 1937 northward. surfaces, but there is no basis for specifying which par The progressive termination of one suite of strata ticular surfaces are involved and I do not claim to make can be followed from the southwest toward the northeast. such specifications. The black unit is present across the entire face of 155 The only unusual feature revealed in the profiles of ®; it ends at OF in 155 ©, between 04F and 03F in Figure 157 is at 7C in 157 ©. A pit appears to be 155 ®, between 02J and 01J in 156 ®, and at 1M shown penetrating the light black, but in his notes, in 156 ©. The lower stain and light black behave simi Roberts makes no mention of its character. larly. Concurrently, another black unit accompanied by Figure 158 shows two profiles taken along north-south associated upper and lower members appears in the lines 3 and 7 of the 1939-1940 excavations; these pro western part of face J, 156 ® and extends beyond 01M, files are perpendicular to those in Figure 157. They 156 ©. The two black units coalesce in face P, 156 ®, indicate, by comparison with Figure 154, that the slopes but the light black and lower stain are still separated. of the ancient surfaces were reasonably uniform across These latter strata, too, merge in subsequent sections. the entire length of the site. Clearly, the rise has been a modifying factor in the for Figure 159 displays three profiles of the West Bison mation of these strata. Either they were never deposited Pit. This excavation unit lies approximately 350 m (1146 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 37 ft) east of Trench A. Profile ®, Figure 159, indicates Lindenmeier itself; their principal interest was in defin that the same discontinuity of strata exists in this part ing a regional sequence. Nonetheless, they do describe a of the valley as in those locations already discussed. Two general stratigraphic sequence for the site. They (1940: charcoal-ash lenses are shown; at 2B and at 6B. Another 11-13) recognized but four units: (1) the Brule sub lens is shown in face A, which is 1.5 m (5 ft) to the stratum, (2) an alluvial blanket, (3) the cultural layer south of face B (Figure 159 ®). These lenses are pre described as "brownish black sandy clay" containing sumably hearths; a minimum of three superimposed pebbles and, (4) an overlying rubble. Their brownish occupations is consequently indicated. The line of bones black stratum appears to correspond to Roberts' light depicted in section 4B is on the same surface as one of black, black, and lower stain taken together. the charcoal lenses. These lie on the Brule surface; More recent and much more detailed descriptions of Roberts refers to this as the occupation level in this the Lindenmeier strata have been provided by Haynes area (NB36:39, 41), although many specimens also (Haynes and Agogino, 1960:7-11), who recognizes occur at the level of the uppermost lens. eight depositional units separated by unconformities or Profile ©, Figure 159, was drawn across an otherwise disconformities: (1) The Brule substratum. (2) Depo undocumented part of the West Bison Pit. It is important sition A: unsorted alluvial grit with coarse gravel and to note that the orientation of this profile is opposite to interlaminated sand; gravel is granitic (probably derived that of the other north-south profiles. South is to the from the Arikaree arkosic conglomerate that caps the left in 159 ® while north is to the left in 154 and 158 ® valley sides) and sandstone (from outcrops in the head and ©. The slope of the strata in all of these sections of the valley). These gravels were deposited before the is in the same direction and has about the same inclina valley was beheaded a mile west of the site. (3) Deposi tion. tion B—two units: (a) massive, light buff, well-sorted A condition, unlike that found in other portions of silt, apparently eolian loess; (b) tan, irregularly jointed, the site, is revealed in 159 ©. For most of its length, the and clayey paleosol. (4) Deposition C: interbedded black stratum in the West Bison Pit area rests directly light buff, alluvial silt, sand, and gravel; silt fraction upon a thick layer of alluvium which slopes upward to reworked from Deposition B. (5) Deposition D: gray, form part of the modern surface to the south of the fine-grained, calcareous, humic, clayey silt (with dis excavation. The black follows this upward slope and persed gravel, 1960:12). Folsom occupation at lower crops out as a narrow band of the modern ground surface. contact and throughout this unit. (6) Deposition E: It was here that the Coffins made their original finds. gray, fine-grained, calcareous, humic, clayey silt. (7) Lenses of alluvium which are older than the occupation Deposition F: interbedded alluvial silt, sand, and gravel zone have been noted in several places, but these earlier (color, in some places at least, is orange-buff, 1960:12). deposits remain extensive only in the Bison Pit and the (8) Deposition G: grayish brown, humic, moderately deepest parts of the sections shown in Figure 156 ® calcareous, arkosic, poorly sorted, gravelly sand and silt and ©. colluvium with weak soil development. We must now turn our attention to the regional con All three descriptions (those by Roberts, Bryan and text in which the Lindenmeier Valley exists. The profiles Ray, and Haynes) agree reasonably well when allowance just described may be better interpreted after they have is made for the different amounts of detail that are given been correlated with other stratigraphic sequences that by each. All of the authors begin with a Brule sub have been developed for the site and for the southern stratum and, to varying degrees, recognize the presence Rockies as a whole. These sequences are assembled in of locally overlying alluvial material. This latter unit is Table 1. In the table, the six strata recognized by Roberts Haynes' Deposition A. Depositions B or C could, either are used as the base against which corresponding strata one, correspond to the lower stain as identified by named by others are plotted. Roberts; alternatively, both could be facies expressions of this unit in different parts of the site. Roberts' black layer clearly corresponds to Haynes' Deposition D and WORK BY OTHERS his light black to Haynes' E. Bryan and Ray's brownish In this section, research into the stratigraphic history black sandy clay brackets all three of Haynes' units of the Lindenmeier site will be reviewed and sum C-E. The covering sand, clay, and gravel (Roberts) or marized. The initial work of this kind was done by rubble (Bryan and Ray) correspond to Depositions F Kirk Bryan and Louis L. Ray (1940). Subsequently, and G (Haynes). C. Vance Haynes (Haynes and Agogino, 1960) carried REGIONAL SEQUENCE out detailed investigations. No other systematic geologi cal work has been reported for the site. Table 1 also shows a proposed correlation of the Bryan and Ray spent very little time and effort at Lindenmeier strata with the Southern Rocky Mountain 38 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 1.—Correlation of the stratigraphic nomenclatures employed by different investigators at Lindenmeier and a suggested incorporation of the site's strata into a regional sequence LINDENMEIER STRATIGRAPHY REGIONAL SEQUENCE Estimated Roberts Bryan Haynes Scott Richmond age Ray Agogino (years) (1936b) (1940) (1960) (1965) (1970) sand-clay- Piney Creek Neoglacial grave 1 rubble G series Altithermal F Broadway Late Pinedale alluvium 10,000 light brownish E black black Wisconsin black sandy D soil Pinedale clay Interstade 10,780 4 C 11,200 low stain ^X^ B loess 12,000 sand-clay- A Louviers Middle Pinedale gravel a 1luv ium alluvium Early Pinedale > 25,000 Brule Brule Brule Tertiary Tertiary nonglacial stratigraphic sequence established by Scott be reddish brown (Scott, 1960:1543) or grayish brown (1960, 1965). Scott's substratum is labeled "Tertiary," (Scott, 1965:247). Deposition G, the topmost unit a term which encompasses the Brule formation. A series clearly belongs to the Piney Creek alluvium series that of Quaternary alluvial deposits cap pediments cut into Scott describes as being light brown and grayish brown in the Tertiary beds; those of concern to this study are color. Archaic to Woodland artifacts and Bison bison of Wisconsinan age and younger. are characteristic of this unit and have been found both The Louviers alluvium was described by Scott (1960: in the upper strata of the Lindenmeier site and at nearby 1542) and assigned an early Wisconsinan age on the locations. basis of its contained fossil fauna. It lies 12-25 m (40-80 In compiling Table 1, I have followed Scott (1965) ft) above modern streams and, along small streams, and Richmond (1965, 1970) in placing the stratigraphic consists of a yellowish brown silty facies; a coarser sequence outlined above into the framework of Rocky grained facies found along larger stream beds contains Mountain glacial events. The important thing to note clay, silt, and sand (Scott, 1965:247). Diagnostic mam is that this interpretation places the Folsom occupation mals are Bison antiquus Leidy, Mammuthus columbi at Lindenmeier within the Pinedale Interstade of the Falconer, and Camelops sp. This alluvium fits Haynes' late Wisconsinan stage. Such placement is compatible description of Deposition A and matches well the de with the two radiocarbon age determinations obtained scriptions of the remnant alluvial deposits noted in the from charcoal collected from the black stratum. The profiles. The elevation of these materials at Linden occupation is thus equivalent in time to some part of meier above the present streams is difficult to determine the earlier portions of the Valderan substage in the mid- from available maps, but it appears to be about 6-18 m continent nomenclature (Frye, Willman, and Black, (20-60 ft). Scott's younger loess should then correspond 1965; Wayne and Zumberge, 1965; Broecker and to Deposition B. Deposition C should be a reworking of Farrand, 1963). A and B as suggested by Haynes. Depositions D and E, the black and light black, would then correspond to the late Wisconsinan soil of SOILS Pinedale Interstade age (Scott, 1965), if this correla tion is valid. The overlying alluvium (Deposition F) Several small vials of soil samples from the black and described as orange-buff in color by Haynes must then lower stain were collected in the field. Table 2 presents be a unit of the Broadway alluvium which is said to the results of organic carbon content analysis carried out PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 39 TABLE 2.—Organic carbon content of soil samples (HC1 = treated with hydrochloric acid) USNM Analysis Sample Number Location Stratum HC1 X s R 443827 Trench A Black yes 1.61 0.10 1.46 1.69 443827 Trench A Black yes 1.35 0.28 0.76 - 1.67 443827 Trench A Black no 2.77 0.05 2.74 2.84 443829 Bison Pit Black yes 1.38 0.06 1.33 1.46 443822 01Q Lower stain yes 0 .48 0.05 0.40 0.52 443822 01Q Lower stain no 1.21 0.19 1.01 1.40 on these samples; the work was done by J. W. Pierce This sample has a peculiar history. It was collected in of the Smithsonian Institution. 1949, apparently at Roberts' request, by a man named The characteristics of samples from the black layer Jack Moomaw. The location from which the sample compare favorably with others derived from environ was collected is shown on Map 1. Moomaw urged caution ments rich in plant material growing and decaying in assigning the sample to any stratigraphic unit, as the under moist soil conditions. A seasonally or perennially following excerpt from his letter to Roberts (dated wet meadow is suggested and is in keeping with Roberts' 26 December 1949) clearly testifies. interpretation of this stratum. In contrast, the lower After looking over some fifteen arroyo walls, from Boulder, stain is poor in organic carbon; its gray color might be Colorado north to the Wyoming line, I find that bits, and some due to leaching from the overlying black. Roberts' use times small concentrations, of charcoal are characteristic of all of the term "stain" implies that he attributed the color depositions, from sod to bed-rock, in this area, even when the of this stratum to water transport of black particles. alluvium is thirty feet in depth. I also find that scattered bone fragments are imbedded in this deposition almost everywhere. Many photographs (e.g., Figures 19, 20) display fea Therefore it would seem that neither bones nor charcoal have tures in the lower stain that are most easily interpreted archaeological significance unless associated with flint chips or as the result of degrees of penetration by the overlying artifacts. With the above in mind, I went back to the Linden material. Downward movement of water would have meier site where I examined the charcoal spot thoroughly. There is no question about it being in place, but there could be some been halted at the impervious Brule surface thus creat doubt that the charcoal stratum is the Folsom horizon. The lone ing a differentially stained layer between the black and flint chip which was in place (the flint scraper was loose at the the substrate. Significantly, at those locations where the top of the talus slope a few inches below the charcoal) is all of material intervening between the black and the Brule such evidence found. I went over the gravel and clay of the removal very carefully for even the smallest flint chips but none clay is deep, the lower margin of the lower stain is were found. I was unable to recognize any ash but, I suppose, it amorphous. Roberts (NB40:7) describes the transition would be difficult to see after so long a time. The stratum con as "indefinite and difficult to follow." The evidence pro taining the charcoal, although ten feet and seven inches below vided by soil analysis supports that of stratigraphy in the present surface, is still a few feet above the chalk bed. It referring the lower stain to Haynes' Depositions B and might be pointed out that it is possible that the charcoal could have accumulated in a wash long after Folsom occupation. How C (locally, perhaps, to the upper parts of Deposition A). ever, the strata at this spot are fairly straight and seem to be The color of these units was probably changed, locally, undisturbed but, on a flat wall, one can not tell what lies hidden by the incorporation of material from the overlying a few feet within the bank or what may have existed a few feet Deposition D. outward in the deposition that has eroded away. Obviously, the sample should never have been run. Radiocarbon Measurements Moomaw's cautions should have been heeded. No strati graphic work has ever been done in the collection Four radiocarbon measurements have been obtained locality. The best that can be said is that Moomaw's from material collected at Lindenmeier. The first observations suggest th'at the sample was taken from (C-451) was from material submitted in 1950 by the overlying sand, clay, gravel material which, as has Roberts and analyzed by Libby (1952:678; 1955:113); been pointed out above, could at this place include it yielded an age of 5020 ± 300 14C years: 3070 B.C. contributions from the Broadway alluvium of the Late 40 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 Pinedale substage, as well as alluvia from any or all of The second sample, identified as LIN-B1, consists of approxi the recent Piney Creek series. mately 156 grams of carbonized bone. This sample is not in its original field container. It was placed in paper bags when The second radiocarbon age (1-141) was calculated collected and stored with the rest of the collection until 1964. by Isotopes, Inc. from charcoal flecks collected by After accessioning, the sample was stored in open paperboard Haynes and others in 1959-60 from the north arroyo boxes but in closed drawer storage units until 1967 when I began bank in the vicinity of Roberts' 1939 Test Pits 1-3 to work with the collection. The sample has been handled much more than has LIN-C1. You will notice that some of the pieces (Map 1) (Haynes and Agogino, 1960). This sample are numbered with India Ink. This sample was collected from bore the field designation L-25a (Haynes and Agogino, five adjacent squares in the 1936, Area 2 excavation (0D, 0E, 1960:12); it is, however, incorrectly (?) referred to OF, ID, IE) at a depth of 3'-7" [1.1 m] to 4'-0" [1.2 m] below as L-24a in a quote from Isotopes' laboratory report the surface in the lower part of the black layer and on the to Haynes (Haynes and Agogino, 1960:5). The ana contact of this layer with the underlying stained earth. The sample comes from a dense concentration of artifacts, chips, and lyzed material consisted of many tiny flecks of charcoal bones. Folsom points are in intimate association. This sample is that were dug from the contact between the black obviously not an ideal one and you may advise against running it; stratum (Deposition D) and the underlying Deposition however, if it is suitable, I would like to have both the carbonate C. Some chips and bone scraps were also recovered and the collagen fractions assayed. during the collecting operation. The radiocarbon age obtained is 10,780 ± 375 years: 8830 B.C. (Haynes The determined ages of these samples along with and Agogino, 1960:5). For unstated reasons, this age laboratory specifications excerpted from Geochron's is listed as 10,850 ± 550 in Haynes (1967:270) and analytical report are as follows: elsewhere. The material dated was taken from the un 1. GX-1282 (LIN-C1, charcoal); 11,200 ± 400 14 conformity (Z4) which forms the contact between Depo C years: 9250 B.C; pretreatment: cleaned and treated sitions D and C, as well as from the upper 5.1-10.2 cm with hot dilute HC1 and NaOH; 14C halflife = 5570 (2-4 in) of C. In Roberts' terms, the lower stain should years. correspond to Deposition C; consequently, the obtained 2. GX-1283 (LIN-B1, bone fragments); 8400 ± age should pertain to an occupied surface between the 14 500 C years: 6450 B.C. (collagen? fraction); 960 ± black and lower stain. 180 14G years: A.D. 990 (carbonate fraction); pre- Two other 14C analyses have been performed on treatments: cleaned and washed briefly in dilute HC1 material from Lindenmeier. In 1968, Geochron Labora then hydrolyzed to recover both carbonate CO2 and tories, Inc. analyzed two samples which I selected from collagen; the collagen was of doubtful nature, perhaps the original material collected by Roberts. Descriptions because of deterioration, or because of burning and/or of these samples and their find locations are quoted subsequent alteration; 14C halflife = 5570 years. from my letter of transmittal, 6 February 1968, sent When informing me of the results of the analysis in along with the samples to Geochron. his letter of 16 June 1968, Harold W. Krueger, Tech One sample, identified as LIN-C1, consists of approximately nical Director for Geochron, had this to say about the 2.4 grams of wood charcoal. This sample is in its original glass bone sample: field container with cotton packing. The container was opened once in 1965 when the museum accession number was inserted The bone sample GX-1283 is somewhat discouraging. We ana into it and again in October 1967 when I weighed the sample on lyzed this material for both the carbonate fraction and the a metal scale. Since the collections from Lindenmeier were stored collagen or organic fraction as you requested. The organic frac in unopened boxes from the time of collection until they were tion seems to give a date which approximates the age of the site accessioned by the Smithsonian Office of Anthropology in 1964- at 8,400, but the sample was very small and I fear that some 65, it is probable that this sample has not been exposed to the contamination has certainly occurred due to excessive handling. open air except as stated above. This sample was collected from The carbonate fraction gave an apparent age of less than 1,000 a small lens of charcoal approximately 8" [20 cm] in diameter, years which is not really unusual. We have found in samples of which was found in place in Section 0A of the 1939 excavations. This lens was at a depth of 3'-7" [1.1 m] from the surface, in the this type that the carbonate fraction is often badly contaminated. lower part of a black layer. Throughout the extensive excavated Our findings are confirmed by those of G. Vance Haynes and area, this layer is associated with Folsom occupation. In the others who have worked with this type of material. Although the square and at the same level from which this sample was col carbonate date is obviously of no use in determining the age of lected, as well as in several adjacent squares, Folsom points, the bone it may be useful in confirming the fact that severe several other kinds of tools, chips, and bone scraps were found. contamination has occurred and that the collagen fraction should The sample was collected by a man named Wallrich under the also be considered a minimum as I suggested above. Both of direction of Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts of the Smithsonian Institu these fractions were very tiny which limited the analytical tion. The latter was in charge of all the work at this site. precision. LIN-C1 was the only piece of charcoal large enough The samples upon which these 14C measurements for radiocarbon analysis. have been made may be evaluated as to their associa- PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 41 tion with a Folsom occupation according to criteria pro posed by Waterbolk (1971:15-33). (3) 1. Sample C-451 meets none of the criteria and must be eliminated from consideration. 2. Sample 1-141 meets criterion ID—reasonable where possibility of association (Waterbolk, 1971:16). The evidence is circumstantial, however; no artifacts that o-i = reported standard deviation associated with d. can be unambiguously assigned to the Folsom complex The relevant calculations are were encountered in the zone from which sample L-25a 2 2 2 2 was collected—all specimens were nondescript. Neither s _ 2[(10780) + (11200) ] -[10780+ 11200J were identifiable bones recovered. Furthermore, Haynes n 4 (2- 1) and Agogino (1960) do not document the depth below 2(241648400) - (483120400) the modern surface at which the stratum from which the sample was taken lies. Nonetheless, their description (4) of the strata at the collection point suggests that place = 4410, ment in some one of the several Folsom occupation sur and faces is justifiable. 3. Samples GX-1282 and GX-1283 both meet a l 1 ) Waterbolk's criterion IB—high probability of associa ( + \j375)2 (400)2/ tion. GX-1283 is subject to criteria IV and V, however, and, as Krueger suggests, its analysis is thus inapplica 1 ble to the Folsom occupation. / i 1 1 > i f Pretreatment of 1-141 does not appear to have in \ 140625 160000 ) cluded procedures for removing possible organic con = 75187. taminates; consequently, the determined age may be somewhat too young. Pretreatment of GX—1282 in The F statistic is obtained by 2 cluded leaching with NaOH to remove organic materials. s Waterbolk's evaluation criteria have been applied in F= *" (4) order to record the nature of the assayed samples. Other a2 criteria must be invoked to determine the contempora neity of the ages obtained from the two acceptable Substituting values we have samples. Setting aside for the moment questions about 4410 the compatibility of results obtained by different labora 75187 tories, we resort to standard statistical tests for this pur pose. Spaulding (1958) apparently was the first to sug = 0.06. gest such an approach, at least in the archeological We are justified in concluding that the dates are statis literature. Long and Rippeteau (1974) have presented tically coeval. Given the degree of certainty with which a more detailed account. the charcoal samples (especially GX-1282) are asso The authors of both cited papers employ the F-test ciated with cultural debris, we may infer that Folsom to answer the question: Do two independent radiocarbon occupations at Lindenmeier are contemporary with the dates represent "a duration of time significant with assayed ages. For convenience, I will use an average age respect to the precision of analyses" (Long and Rippe of 11,000 years for these occupations. teau, 1974:210)? To calculate the F statistic it is first The compatability of radiocarbon dates obtained by 2 necessary to obtain the variance of the sample mean (s ) different laboratories is yet another matter. It is gen and an estimate of the variance of the population mean erally the case that one's only guide is one's intuitive 2 {or ). These are given as rejection or acceptance of a certain degree of "fit" (refer to the many discussions of the issue in Olsson, 2 2 s* n2(G) - (2Ci) 1970). I am not qualified to resolve the issue. I have == ~ . » (2) n n(n — 1) tried to present in painful detail all of the relevant fac where tors surrounding the acquisition of all the radiometric n = number of dates, readings obtained from Lindenmeier material and have d = value of a single date, subjected these to the most stringent criteria of admiss- and ability that are presently available. I have elected a 42 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 conservative attitude toward these data. Another re Table 3, which also lists modern pollen frequencies from searcher may choose a different course; for those who two locations near Lindenmeier and one in the Shirley wish to do so, the material contained in this section Basin, Wyoming, along with comparative data from should be helpful in framing alternate arguments. Animas (Maher, 1963), northeastern Colorado (Shoen- Before proceeding, I must comment further upon wetter, 1965), and Yellowstone (Baker, 1970). C-451. The published announcements of this sample's Pine completely overshadows the other genera in the age are inadvertantly misleading and state that char Lindenmeier spectrum, but spruce and oak are also coal was removed from "a hearth in the fill of a second represented among arboreal species (pine = 82%, ary channel" (Libby, 1952:678, 1955:113). This was spruce = 2%, oak = 1.5%). Composites and grasses later transmuted into an Altithermal channel by Haynes are reasonably well represented (7% and 3%, respec (1968:607, 621), but there is no indication in Moo tively), considering the dominance of tree pollen. maw's letter that either a hearth or a channel was The sediment also contained epidermal leaf cells char observed in the collection area; in fact, Moomaw implies acteristic of Gramineae and xylem cells of dicotyledonous that the charcoal was scattered in a patternless manner. 14 origin. It contained only one xylem fragment with the Subsequently, Haynes (1967:9) obtained a C meas characteristic bordered pits of a gymnosperm. The piece urement from another sample collected by him in the represented the intersection of ray cells with tracheids. modern tributary arroyo. The obtained measurement, 14 The pitting in the cross field can be described as cupres- 9440 ± 780 C years: 7490 B.C. (A-749B), was in soid (Jane, 1956:95). This pitting is characteristic of terpreted by Haynes to indicate that the age previously 14 Juniperus and other members of the family. An earlier obtained from C-451 (5020 ± 300 C years) is in count revealed a single pollen grain of Salix sp. error. Such an interpretation is unnecessary. Both the calculated age of A-749B and the brown sand from There is little with which to compare this pollen record. which it was obtained agree well with an assignment of Baker (1970) obtained a pollen sequence from Yellow Deposition F to the Broadway alluvium. C-451 could stone Lake which is some 620 km (380 mi) northwest also be approximately correct and pertain to one of the of Lindenmeier; the sample locality is approximately overlying Piney Creek facies of Deposition G. 305 m (1000 ft) higher than Lindenmeier. A radio carbon age of 11,550 ± 350 years marks the 7 m level Two 14C determinations (1-473 and 1-632, sic) are of the pollen diagram as being approximately contem erroneously attributed to Lindenmeier by Martin (1967: porary with Folsom occupation at Lindenmeier. The 91). In his listing, "1-632" should read "1-622." Both identified taxa and their approximate percentages are measurements were made on material obtained from the Pinus (70%), Picea (2%), Abies (present), Juniperus Dent site (Trautman and Willis, 1966: 172). (1 %), Salix (1 %), Betida (present), Pseudotsuga The foregoing discussion of the stratigraphy and radio (2%), Artemisia (18%?), Compositae (2%), Cyper- carbon dating of the site can hardly be considered final; aceae (present), and Arceuthobium (2%). Baker does nonetheless, it does have the merit of drawing together not specify the pollen sum for his diagram; consequently, a number of disparate scraps of information into a it is possible to make only gross comparisons with Linden coherent and plausible reconstruction of the site's geo meier. On this basis, the Yellowstone pollen appears to logic history. represent a somewhat more boreal forest than does the Lindenmeier material. Flora In comparison, pollen found in present-day surface deposits at nearby Brennigan Springs and Spotwood The vegetation in the vicinity of Lindenmeier during Creek (both about 4 km (2.5 mi) from Lindenmeier) the time of the Folsom occupation may be inferred from contains about 30% pine and only traces of spruce. I several sources of evidence: pollen, wood charcoal, and collected these samples in 1970; Susie Kitchen Fish did fossil resin. the pollen analysis. Composites, grasses, and cheno-ams (22%, 18%, and 11%) are heavily represented. At the POLLEN Shirley Basin location, about 305 m (1000 ft) higher, pine grows in small, widely spaced stands within 1 km Pollen counts were made by Vorsila Bohrer, Depart (0.5 mi) of the sampling station, and the pollen record ment of Botany, University of Massachusetts, Boston. reflects this fact in a higher pine count. Otherwise, the Sediments from which the pollen was extracted were three modern samples are approximately alike and differ found by Wilmsen sealed in the horncore of an immature in important ways from earlier samples. Arboreal pollen bison recovered in 1938; only the innermost sediments is greatly reduced and the contributions of dry plains were used in the analysis. The results are tabulated in herbs is correspondingly increased. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 43 TABLE 3.—Comparison of pollen from Lindenmeier (black layer) and other locations (digits in parentheses = number of samples at site, f = frequency of occurrence, p = proportion of total, f's not available for northeastern Colorado and Yellowstone samples) Yellow Linden- Spotwood Duck Shirley Animas 23 Animas 24 Animas 25 NE stone meier(8) Creek(8) Creek(5) Basin(h) Colorado(5) Park f p f p " "1 p " f p " Pinus , 164 0.82 502 0.31 316 0.32 362 0.45 272 0.55 46 0.16 50 0.10 0.21 0.70 Picea 4 0.02 5 <0.05 7 0.01 2 <0.05 39 0.08 5 0.02 4 0.01 0.02 Abies , 2 <0.05 7 0.01 7 0.01 3 0.01 1 <0.05 <0.05 Pseudotsuga., 0.02 Juniperus..., 65 0. 32 0.03 18 0.02 2 <0.05 22 0.08 16 0.04 0.01 0.01 Alnus , 4 <0. Salix , 54 0. 3 <0.05 6 0.02 4 0.01 0.01 Betula 1 <0. 2 0.05 <0.05 Quercus 3 0.01 26 0. 27 0.03 27 0.05 93 0.32 41 0.09 Juglans 3 <0. 2 <0.05 Leguminosae. 41 0. 24 0.02 47 0.05 Eriogonum... 0.02 Artemisia... 0.03 118 0. 52 0.05 125 0.15 8 0.02 3 0.01 6 0.01 0.16 0.18 Compositae.. 0.04 209 0. 191 0.19 50 0.06 9 0.02 12 0.04 11 0.03 0.22 0.02 Gramineae... 0.03 348 0. 216 0.22 100 0.12 31 0.07 8 0.03 82 0.17 0.15 Cheno-Am.... <0.05 150 0. 124 0.12 29 0.03 17 0.04 10 0.04 104 0.22 0.25 Sarco"batus. . <0.05 Ephedra 0.01 3 <0. 05 2 <0.05 4 <0.05 7 0.01 <0.05 Euphorbia... 2 <0. 05 11 0.01 Cyperaceae.. 1 <0.05 32 0. 02 15 0.02 2 <0.05 4 0.01 4 0.01 <0.05 Areeuthobium 0.02 Portulaca... 1 <0.05 Platypuntia. 4 <0.05 2 <0.05 Unknown 0 42 18 12 5 8 22 Total 200 1611 1000 799 488 292 477 Schoenwetter (1965) reports spectra for several sur Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, who face samples in Weld and Logan counties in the piedmont performed the analysis of this material. zone of northeastern Colorado. Typical dry grassland associations are apparent with Artemisia, composites, Eight charcoal samples from nine provenience areas [Table 4] are, unfortunately, all that have survived. Without exception, grasses, and cheno-ams predominating. Maher's (1963) each specimen is very small and distorted. Even where several painstakingly detailed analysis of modern pollen rain growth rings are present, they are compacted and render cross- from several locations at different altitudes in the San section identification difficult; nonetheless, identification to the Juan Mountains provides useful comparisons. All of the genus level was possible. A high-powered, vertical illuminating microscope was used to examine anatomical features visible in Animas spectra reveal a more varied flora than is present the radial and tangential sections. at Lindenmeier. Sample 25, from 2160 m (7200 ft), The three identified woods—Juniperus sp., Populus sp., and contained a pollen suite much like those from north Ulmus sp.—are not now important components of the plant eastern Colorado; sample 23, collected 100 m (330 ft) communities in the vicinity of the Lindenmeier site, and their higher, resembles Lindenmeier in nonarboreal but not in presence today may, in fact, represent recent reintroductions. Juniper, represented by 51 of 53 specimens, occurs most fre arboreal pollen. quently; however, the predominance of juniper may not reflect Thus, none of the compared modern sample localities its actual proportion in the vegetation on the prehistoric land duplicate the Lindenmeier environment, which appears scape. to have contained a higher proportion of coniferous trees Juniperus sp. than do present mountainous forests at approximately Probably Juniperus scopulorum Sarg. equal elevations to the southwest. Rocky Mountain juniper, red cedar Fifty-one specimens are assigned to this genus. The fragmen WOOD CHARCOAL tary condition of the charcoal and a lack of knowledge about the paleophytogeography of junipers 11,000 years ago makes species identification rather speculative. Today the Rocky Mountain A detailed discussion of the wood charcoal analysis is juniper grows in the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains given in the following report by Richard I. Ford (1974), and has recently spread eastward into western Nebraska and by 44 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 4.—Carbonized wood identifications (dash = not observed) Radial USNM Location Identification Number of length Number of Comments pieces (mm) rings 440963 A West Bison Pit Juniperus 2 5 Knot 440963 B West Bison Pit Juniperus 10 - Amorphous resinous 443651 Area I, 8B Juniperus 3 3 7 443663 Area I, 4C Juniperus 6 8 19 Parafin treated 443790 Area I, 03U Ulmus 1 9 11 443824 Area I, OT Juniperus 3 3 18 1/2 twig 443793 Trench G Juniperus 10 7 3 443709 Area II, 4F Juniperus 5 3 8 443752 Area II, 8H Juniperus 12 2 7 443790 Unknown Populus 1 3 5 extrapolation into extreme northeastern Colorado (Pool, 1919: Moisture is the important limiting environmental variable of 35). It is not common in the area surrounding the Lindenmeier this fast growing tree. Thus, in the semi-arid high plains it fre site (Wilmsen, pers. comm.). At one time, however, this species quents the riverbottoms of flowing rivers or grows in small groves was considered a variety of the eastern red cedar (Juniperus along the banks of intermittent streams or ponds. The cotton- virginiana L.) which extends as far west as southwestern Ne wood would have occupied areas quite distinct, and for the most braska and northwestern Kansas. If the evolutionary differences part, spatially separate, from the juniper. which distinguish these otherwise closely related species evolved during the post-Pleistocene, then assigning a known species iden Ulmus sp. tification would be foolish. The anatomical similarities of the Elm Family charcoal do not resolve this problem. Identification of this single specimen is the most surprising. At Junipers in this area grow on dry, rocky soils that are cal present, hackberry (Celtis occidentalis L.) is the only native careous or alkaline. The juniper is well adapted to the rigors of member of the elm family growing anywhere near the Linden the western plains where it can withstand extreme seasonal tem meier site. The American elm (Ulmus americana L.) is a recent perature variations as well as limited droughts. It is not unrea introduction from the eastern United States. Yet this specimen sonable to speculate that when the Lindenmeier site was in use, is more similar to the latter species than it is to the hackberry. the dry limestone and sandstone escarpments, adobe soils of the Before hypothesizing further, one wonders if the crew that exca plains, and well drained uplands were studded by occasional vated the Lindenmeier site burned some crates or stakes that juniper trees. contaminated their exacavations a year or so later. Generally speaking, juniper trees grow slowly, but their long If this specimen is of prehistoric origin, we would expect it to tap roots and shade tolerance in the seedling stage enable them grow with the cottonwood on the moist soils of bottom lands or to pioneer successfully rocky crevices and to invade established in swampy areas. It is more shade tolerant than is the cottonwood grasslands. In eastern Colorado they attain the height of a small- and will grow in the understory of this tree. sized tree. Junipers are attacked by insects, plant parasites, and In an attempt to find seeds in the few soil samples available rusts. The Lindenmeier charcoal is probably derived from dead from the site, the contents of bison horns and bones were exam wood that accumulated around the bases of these trees or limbs ined at a magnification of 10. No seeds were recovered. One that were broken off the growing tree. Sample 443824 represents small charcoal fragment of juniper was found. a twig greater than 6 mm in diameter (not corrected for shrink Soil from the site was also examined for floral remains. Sam age) and samples 443663 and 443709 are from limbs with a ple 443829 from the bison pit yielded no seeds, charcoal, or bone. minimum diameter of 7 cm. Sample 443793, which contains Four separate vials labeled 443827 were also devoid of macro- several pathological specimens, suggests that this wood was dead biological remains. prior to its collection. A limited series of small and sometimes deformed charcoal Populus sp. samples from the Lindenmeier site suggest that the drier uplands and flats in this region of Colorado had some juniper trees Cottonwood growing at the time the site was occupied. In this case, however, Only one specimen is referred to this genus. Today the plains the charcoal evidence does not demonstrate the frequency of Cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. occidentalis Rydb.), a mem junipers in the prehistoric plant communities. In areas where ber of the willow family (Salicaceae), grows in well-watered water accumulated or along stream banks, moisture-loving cotton- areas of eastern Colorado. This is the most common species; but woods and elms possibly grew, but skepticism about their pre in the past P. angustifolia James, the narrow leaf cottonwood, historic presence still lingers. Based on this important but limited could have been locally available. The extremely poor condition evidence, all the charcoal represents dead wood that was col of this single specimen prohibits, at this time, a specific deter lected for fuel, with preference accorded to juniper. mination. The provenience of this specimen is unknown; hence, People do not choose their firewood at random from an envi its relevance to the Lindenmeier assemblage is not clear. ronment. They classify it according to several principles includ- PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 45 ing heat value, rapidity of burning, smoke production, and viz Schraufite and Flysch-resin from Austria. These are definitely crackling. At Lindenmeier, juniper was the preferred wood as far coniferous and on that basis I would say that the Lindenmeier as we can ascertain. (The elm and cottonwood, which were resin must also be coniferous, but I cannot be more specific than found together, may be more recent in origin.) Burned bone was that. also found in two samples. It may have served as a fuel as well or it may be nothing more than slivers which accidentally flew into a fire during butchering operation. SEEDS The use of juniper as a fuel is not surprising. It produces high heat, which permits quick cooking with little smoke. Its disad A cluster of seeds was found in the West Bison Pit vantages are that for long periods of continuous food preparation (NB35:2). The seeds were at the bottom of the black its rapid burning rate requires more wood to sustain a fire than do many other woods and its sparks can prove dangerous for layer and in the top of the underlying sandy gravel. indoor heating. Comparatively speaking, however, with a heat Roberts states that they may have been in a rodent hole value of 73%, juniper is more desirable as a fuel than is elm because the matrix in which the seeds were found was (68%) or cottonwood (58%) (Graves, 1919:29; Reynolds and softer and finer than the surrounding earth, but no defi Pierson, 1942:7). nite traces of a burrow could be found. Charles R. Gunn, U.S. Department of Agriculture, identified the seeds as FOSSIL RESIN Lithospermum sp. He notes (pers. comm.) that Colorado has records of L. caroliniens, L. incisum, L. multiflorum, One piece of fossil resin was recovered from the same and L. ruderale. These species mature in late July area that yielded the 14C sample GX-1282. The Smith through early September in Colorado and Wyoming; sonian Conservation-Analytical Laboratory tested the they are all usually found on sandy, gravelly slopes or in specimen. Jacqueline S. Olin (18 December 1967) re open pine-rabbitbush woods. Both habitats were probably ported the following results. present around Lindenmeier during the period of occu An infrared spectrum was prepared and the absorption bands pation but, because of the ambiguous circumstances compared to those given by fossil resins and reported by Beck surrounding their recovery, the seeds can neither be and co-workers in Archaeometry, 8 (1965). placed in time nor be considered part of the human Archaeometry SOA sample activity remains of the site. O-H 2.7-3.2 2.92 C-H 3.42 and 3.50 3.42 and 3.49 C-O 5.65-5.90 5.81 Fauna C-H 6.9 6.83 C-H 7.25 7.23 VERTEBRATES cyclohexane 9.5-10.5 9.65 C-H 11.3 11.51 Twelve species (11 mammals, 1 reptile) belonging to A broad band at 6.38 in the SOA sample is not listed for those 9 genera have been identified; these, along with element samples described in Archaeometry but can be assigned to aro frequencies, total counts, and minimum individual num matic constituents. The solubility of the resin material was tested with the follow bers, are listed in Table 5. This list includes all bones ing resin solvents and in all cases the sample was not soluble: currently in the collection but cannot be considered rep acetone, carbon tetrachloride, turpentine, benzene, ethanol, car resentative of the faunal assemblage originally deposited bon disulfide. This suggests that the sample is a fossil resin, as at Lindenmeier. By far the greater portion of bone ma these are insoluble in the normal resin solvents. terial recovered from the site was discarded in the field The material is also insoluble in water. The SOA sample was tested for the presence of succinic acid or laboratory. Mario Pichardo identified the bison ma (a known constituent of some fossil resins) and gave a positive terials. Jane Wheeler Pires-Ferrera, Richard Redding, test. and Karen. Harbeck identified the smaller mammals. George Zug identified the turtle. The specimen was sent for further analysis to Curt A prairie dog (Cynomys) tooth was found in a dis Beck, Department of Chemistry, Vassar College, who turbed situation; it appears to be in fresh condition, reports (letter dated 28 April 1970) : unlike the teeth of the other species recovered. These The Lindenmeier Site resin is tough rather than brittle and facts, coupled with the presence of a great many rodent has a conchoidal rather than a crystalline fracture. In these re burrows throughout the site area, suggest that this speci spects it behaves like Baltic amber and like the copals of Central and South America. That in itself raises an old problem: the men is intrusive; therefore, Cynomys is not attributed to copals are not a coniferous resin. However, known coniferous the Lindenmeier fauna. resins are usually brittle with crystalline structure. So the Linden Three other species are accompanied by no direct evi meier resin, like Baltic amber, seems to straddle two categories. dence linking them to the Folsom occupation. The first However, the structural evidence on the basis of infrared and of these is Bison bison, a nearly complete skeleton of nuclear magnetic resonance spectra, line up the Lindenmeier resin very closely with certain fossil resins of Southeast Europe, which was found about 1060 m (3477 ft) east of Bench 46 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 5.—Vertebrate species from Lindenmeier in the USNM collection (2 = total number of bones per species, No. = minimum number of individuals represented) Species (X 03 (0 01 Cd -i 4J a) co U U It, AJ JJ TO QJ S-i TO to nj a to a> _c Lepus americanus (Snowshoe hare) 1 1 Lepus townsendii (White-tailed jack rabbit) 12211114 4 17 35 2 Cynomys ludovicianus (Black-tailed prairie dog) 1 1 1 Canis lupus cf. nubilus (Gray wolf) 1 6 9 1 Canis latrans (Coyote) 1 1 1 4 1 Vulpes fulva (Red Fox) 1 2 5 12 1 Vulpes velox (Swift fox) 1 1 Camelops sp. (Camel) 2 5 7 1 Antilocapra americana (Pronghorn) 1 13 13 10 2 Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed deer) 1 3 6 1 Bison cf. antiquus (Long-horned bison) 3 14 97 20 7 6 11 11 11 4 10 80 76 40 1 19 114 524 13 Unidentifiable 128 Total 741 Mark 1; this animal was excavated in 1940 (Map 3). West Bison Pit and are apparently from a single left foot As far as I know, no one has claimed association of this of an individual camel. The semiarticulated remains of skeleton with a Folsom occupation. About 160 m (25 ft) 9 bison (B. antiquus Leidy) were found in the same farther southeast from the B. bison locality, a mammoth area. It is difficult to argue that so much of the camel tusk was excavated from an arroyo bank (Map 3). would have disappeared while the bison remained essen Roberts (1939a: 106, 1939b: 538) seemed convinced tially intact. that the animal to which it belonged was part of the More important is the fact that exact stratigraphic Lindenmeier assemblage although he made only cautious locations are not given for any of the material found in assertions to that effect. The tusk was recovered from a this part of the excavations. Several points must be re black layer that appeared to Roberts to be similar, if iterated : (1) The black stratum in the West Bison Pit not identical, to that of the Folsom occupation; the is underlain by a thick bed of older alluvium (Figure tusk's distance (1220 m) from the occupation zone plus 159). The same stratigraphic condition seems to have the fact that no artifacts of any kind were found in its been noted in the 1935 Bison Pit excavations (Roberts, vicinity, do not support Roberts' conclusion. The asso 1936a: 13). (2) Camelops is commonly present in at ciation of mammoth with man at Lindenmeier cannot least one of the Pleistocene alluvial deposits of the be documented. Martin (1967:91) alone among later Southern Rocky Mountains. This is the Louviers forma authors appears to accept this association. tion of early Pinedale age (Scott, 1960:1542). (3) There is no doubt, however, that the Pleistocene Roberts' notes (NB36:8-37) frequently state that spe camel, Camelops sp., is considered by many to be asso cific artifacts and bones were found in the alluvial ciated with the Lindenmeier Folsom occupation (cf. stratum below the black; Roberts also states this to be Roberts, 1936b: 72, 1939b:538; Haynes and Agogino, the case in his second report of work at the site (1936a: 1960:19; Martin 1967:91). The evidence for such a 14). belief is shaky at best. There are only 7 bones of this ^ In my opinion these facts point to the conclusions that species from the site. They were all found together in the Camelops is not associated with the Folsom occupation PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 47 has been overly emphasized, but it is important to note the variety of animals that were used by the inhabitants of the site. Pronghorn, deer, two species of hare, wolf, coyote, two species of fox, and turtle, as well as bison, were used. All of these animals would have been readily available in one of the nearby physiographic zones. Assignment of deer to the faunal assemblage is tenuous and is based primarily upon Roberts' field identifications. Roberts (1939a: 103, 1939b:538, 1941:82) persistently mentions deer among the animals recovered: "There is no question, however, of the presence of bison, antelope, deer and rabbit" (1940:92), but positive identification of deer is difficult due to the fragmentary condition of existing materials. Two other identifications, those of snowshoe hare and swift fox, are secure despite the small amount of material on which they are based. Both identifications were made from mature, complete, well-preserved bone material with the aid of the excellent comparative faunal collec tions in the museums of anthropology and zoology at the University of Michigan. Finally, Roberts' (1940:92) suggestion that some of the beads recovered from the site might have been made from bird bone, although criteria for identification had been removed in the manufacturing process, cannot be confirmed. There are no bird bones in the extant collec MAP 3.—Location of modern bison and mammoth remains exca tion nor are there records of positive bird identifications. vated by members of the Lindenmeier field crews. Area covered by Map 1 is shaded. The bison remains have been assigned to B. antiquus on the basis of horn core characteristics visible on one badly damaged skull (Figures 41, 42), and one nearly complete but distorted horn core (Figure 43). Previous at Lindenmeier and that the recovery of camel bones identifications by Figgins (in Roberts, 1935b:31) re during excavation of the West Bison Pit can most eco ferred to Stelabison occidentalis taylori and B. oliverhayi nomically be explained as an accident of preservation. and by Gazin (in Roberts, 1936a: 17) to B. taylori. The dense lower limb bones of ungulates are among those These names no longer have independent taxonomic skeletal elements most likely to survive longest in the status but are considered to be synonyms of B. antiquus ground. The seven bones of Camelops in question were (Skinner and Kaisen, 1947); thus, all materials are probably in place in an alluvial context at the time of referred to this single species (Table 5). The carpus and occupation. During the course of time, bison remains tarsus represent the maximum number of nonduplicatable from the occupation layer would have sunk into the elements (Table 5). There are 13 right astragali. The underlying alluvium to be discovered later in fortuitous, scaphoid, lunate, cuneiform, magnum, calcaneum, and but apparently primary, association with camel. Jelinek cubonavicular each also approach a dozen per side. The and Fitting (1963:534), on the basis of radiometric minimum number of individuals represented is, thus, 13; analyses, reached similar conclusions for the camel and due to the incomplete condition of the collections, how horse remains reported from Blackwater Draw, and ever, this cannot be taken to represent the actual number Jelinek (1967) withdrew his earlier (1957) acceptance of animals recovered during the excavations. Inconsistent of a Camelops-Fohom association at Lindenmeier. field retention practices are responsible for the fact that comparisons among unit bone contents would be mean The other animals at Lindenmeier are clearly assigned ingless, hence they are not attempted. All that can be to the Folsom occupation. Unfortunately, the faunal list said is that bison probably provided the bulk of meat and, hence, the entire faunal analysis can never be com to the inhabitants of Lindenmeier during their stay at plete. Of the thousands of bones recovered, only 741 this location. remain; the rest were discarded in the field or destroyed without accessioning after being examined in the labora Deer are not commonly found today in the immediate tory. The presence of the extinct species Bison antiquus vicinity of Lindenmeier, but a few miles away, in valleys 48 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 * i m » FIGURE 41.—Fossil bison skull, USNM 16800, dorsal view. The whole skull suggests post mortem flattening with breaking or slight separation at sutures. Both horn cores are broken off about 130 mm from the skull. Numerical designations and measurements follow Skinner and Kaisen (1947): (6) vertical diameter of horn core at right angle to longitudinal axis, right side, 85.0 mm; (7) circumference of horn core at right angle to longitudinal axis, right side, 305.0 mm; (9) width of condyles, 123.3 mm; (12) trans FIGURE 42.—Fossil bison skull, USNM 16800, occipital and verse diameter of core at right angles to longitudinal axis, right ventral views. side, 107.0 mm; (13) width between bases of horn cores, 280.2 mm; (14) width of cranium between horn cores and orbits, 334.6 mm; (20) M^M3 alveolar length, 101.0 mm; (21) angle of posterior divergence of horn core, 80°; (22) angle of proximal horn core 11,000 years ago, should have found the Lindenmeier depression, 23°. Valley an attractive habitat, as would also have turtles. Foxes and coyotes are still abundant in the region; wolves have been exterminated within the last century. that still have adequate water and on the wooded slopes Pronghorn and jack rabbits live in large numbers in of the hogback ridges to the west, I have often seen nearby basins and on the plains; they would have been a dozen or more mule deer in a single day. These animals, equally available 11,000 years ago. FIGURE 43.—Fossil bison horn core; beeswax reinforcing bridge is visible; plaster jacket was intact on waxing; right side is twisted with respect to longitudinal core axis. Numerical desig nations and measurements follow Skinner and Kaisen (1947) : (2) greatest spread of cores on outside curve, 852.0 mm; (3) core length on upper curve, tip to burr, left side, 268 mm. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT 49 INVERTEBRATES been altered drastically from its end-Pleistocene condition. At present, within the region, and quite near Linden Roberts (1936a: 33) lists nine species of mollusks that meier, moderately large stands of pine with a few ad were recovered from the excavations and identified by mixtures of other conifers may be found growing on Horace G. Richards, then of the New Jersey State northwestern slopes and in protected valleys. Ponderosa Museum. Joseph P. Morrison, Department of Inverte is by far the dominant pine, but pinyon groves (some brate Zoology, Smithsonian Institution, identified another times with associated juniper) grow in a few places. The group of mollusks that came from the 1939 and 1940 closest such grove to Lindenmeier that I have seen is excavations; he recognized two species not included on 24 km (15 mi) to the southwest near Owl Canyon. Oak the original list. Of these invertebrates, two, Vertigo sp. and willow, often associated with shrubs, are common and Succinea grosvenori, require moisture and live near along streams and in canyons. Marshes and meadows are moving water; another, Zonitoide arboreus, requires tree dotted all along the escarpment in shallow depressions cover. Gastrocopta armifera, Pupilla muscarum, and vary in size and permanence in relation to the Pupoides inornatus, and Vallonia gracilicosta are found substrate upon which they lie. Most of the area, however in grass or leaf cover. Succinea avara and Hawaiia (and every flat, exposed surface), is covered by short minuscula have wide tolerance of moisture and cover grasses intermingled with many composites. conditions. Two species, Gastrocopta ashmuni and All of these vegetation zones are represented to some Pupilla sonorana, no longer occur as far north as degree in the Lindenmeier pollen assemblage. Thus, it is Colorado. reasonable to conclude that they were nearby at the time Information on habitat requirements was taken from of Folsom occupation. The macrofossil and molluskan Pilsby (1948), Hibbard and Taylor (1960), and assemblages help to establish the character of the valley Henderson (1924). Henderson (1924:103) says that itself. Several of the snails (Vertigo sp., Succinea V. gracilicosta does not now occur below about 1680 m grosvenori, and Zonitoide arbor eus) cannot survive with (5500 ft) in Colorado. Two species require moist condi out water or tree cover. The fact that juniper (an excellent source of deadwood) was used as firewood tions near water, and one must have tree cover; the other suggests that this species grew in the immediate vicinity. six regionally extant species can survive in relatively dry, The heavy representation of pine in the 11,000-year old open habitats as well as in more watered, protected pollen spectrum (827c), when compared with modern locations. samples gathered from the same area (about 307©), and It is impossible to determine the proportional repre the presence of spruce, suggest that both trees grew much sentation of each of these species in the collection. Only closer to Lindenmeier than they now do. The organic a few shells remain; many more were discarded. Conse carbon content of the soil supports an interpretation of quently, the mollusks can give no clue of the degree to the occupational strata, the black units, as being of wet which different habitat zones were present in the Linden meadow origin. meier Valley. The best that can be said is that water must Lindenmeier may then be envisioned as a relatively have been present in places and that at least a few trees lush component of a highly varied regional environment. (scattered individually or in small stands) must have Water was present in a small stream or in seeps; ground grown in the valley. vegetation was moderately rich and varied; trees grew on A single specimen of a Miocene-Pliocene gastropod, the slopes of the bounding ridges of the valley, if not on Helix sp., was identified by Erie KaufTman, Division of its floor; animals of several species lived in and near the Invertebrate Paleontology, Smithsonian Institution. This valley. There is no reason to believe that Lindenmeier fossil species is commonly found in the Wyoming basins was the only such favored location in the region. Al and in the western parts of South Dakota. It is possibly though the plains and piedmont were probably charac native to the Lindenmeier area; thus, there is no basis terized by relatively xeric floral communities similar to for supposing that the specimen was imported to the site those of today, many groundwater-fed meadows prob by man. ably existed along the escarpment and the mountain front just as they do today. Environment of the Lindenmeier Valley The processes of meadow formation and maintenance were also, no doubt, in the past similar to those of the The evidence is consistent in supporting the inference present. Groundwater circulating in the Brule substratum that the Lindenmeier Valley about 11,000 years ago sup issues through joints where this formation intersects the ported a different plant and animal community than it surface (Bryan and Ray, 1940:9-10). Topography plays a major role in determining the form of water does today, although the mountain-plains-piedmont discharge and its subsequent distribution over the sur- transition region in which it is found probably has not 50 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 i* : ;,'•;' 1%>" FIGURE 44.—The large meadows at Brennigan Springs, looking northeast. *<:, FIGURE 45.—Brennigan Springs, looking north; note contrast between spring-fed (darker) and dry-ground (lighter) vegetation. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY 51 W?m$w FIGURE 46.—A grove of willows on Spotwood Creek, looking south. FIGURE 47.—A small, interimttantly running slough tributary to Duck Creek, looking southwest. 52 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT NUMBER 24 face. Where gradients are steep, such as in a gully, water formed which carry water to another low place; this emerges as springs and is rapidly drained off in ephemeral process is also clearly indicated in Figure 45. streams without much effect on the vegetation. But in Roberts (NB35:21, NB36:43, NB38:99, NB40: locations with more gentle slopes, water is discharged over 7263) frequently mentions small channels or erosional a wider area and collects in depressions where it is held surfaces that were cut at some places in the black stratum. by the impervious clays before it runs off through gaps A small spring-fed stream similar to Spotwood and in the slopes. Vegetation in these meadows differs Boxelder creeks is indicated. Such a stream would char markedly from that of the surrounding area. Many such acteristically degrade portions of its bed at the same time meadows exist in the region today. that other portions were aggrading; its channel would A few of those near the Lindenmeier site are typical: change position from time to time as meander loops were Brennigan Springs, 4 km (2.5 mi) northeast of Linden filled or cut through. Schumm and Hadley (1957) and meier (Figures 44, 45); Spotwood Creek, 3 km (2 mi) Leopold, Emmett, and Myrick (1966) describe this to the north (Figure 46); Big Muddy Spring, 8.2 km process, which adequately accounts for all of the history (5.1 mi) northwestward; Boxelder Creek, 8 km (5 mi) of deposition and erosion recorded in the Lindenmeier to the west; and a small unnamed slough about 7 km profiles. (4.5 mi) to the northeast (Figure 47). Some of these, The covering alluvium, too, with its many indications like the named locations mentioned above, are perennial; of channel activity, as well as the currently active arroyos, others contain water only seasonally (Figure 47). With are most economically interpreted as the products of this the addition of a few scattered trees, the late Pleistocene same cycle of small stream development. Bryan and Ray Lindenmeier Valley probably looked much like these (1940:18) attribute the end of meadow formation in present-day meadows. the valley to groundwater piracy when the southern The stratigraphic sequence of the site also makes sense margin of the escarpment was cut deeply enough to drain in these terms. A succession of climatic changes, as pro the upper portions of the Brule. posed by Haynes and Agogino (1960), need not be It remains only to remark that there exist essentially invoked to explain the different strata. The various black no quantitative data applicable to an analysis of the strata are most easily explained as the products of dif prehistoric environment at Lindenmeier. For this reason, the foregoing discussion of the end-Pleistocene environ ferential filling of the lower lying portions of a gently ment at Lindenmeier has been qualitative and informal; undulating surface; as the surface level of an area was the conclusions reached are interpretive inferences rather raised above that of neighboring depressions, some of than deductive results. Other conclusions are possible, and these latter began to be filled in turn. Recall that the some are probably defensible. I have chosen to recon black, organic stratum never covers the slight ridge crests struct the Lindenmeier environment as I have because it in the profiles of the excavations (Figures 156, 157) and seems to me to account for the available information in notice that in Figure 45 the meadow vegetation is not the most economical fashion. The fewest number of ap continuous across ridges although it does extend well up parent exceptions in the data must be rationalized on an on their sides. Instead, when a depression is filled to a ad hoc basis, and no major perturbations in climatologi- point that water can overflow its rim, small streamlets are cal and geological processes need be invoked. Description of the Data Occupation units are defined in terms of their spatial square that contains artifacts with incomplete locational locations and stratigraphic positions with respect to each information. other. In addition, calculated unit areas and specimen This procedure is applied principally to Units A, B, densities, along with specimen distributions, are given. In and F; as demonstrated below, specimens in the area of some places in the site, specimen locations are ambiguous Units G and H often cannot be stratigraphically segre with respect to units, and several techniques are em gated. Locational information was given for very few ployed to determine if more than one unit is represented specimens called "chips and flakes" by Roberts; these and to assign specimens to proper units. For these cases, items are not included on the unit plots but do enter into detailed accounts of the methods employed are presented. square density calculations. As with the profiles, the square sheets had never been All bones for which coordinate locations are recorded assembled to form continuous area plots. The procedures in the notebooks are plotted. Those with positions actu which I followed in constructing such plots are similar ally drawn on square sheets have been traced. Bones to those used in developing the profiles. specified in the notes, but which are not drawn on square All specimens whose coordinate locations are given in sheets, are represented by open circles at the appropriate the field notes are drawn in their exact positions on the points; the relative density of unlocated bone material in unit maps which follow. In those cases where exact each square is indicated by identical circles arranged in locational information is absent, one of two compromises a grid pattern: the larger the number of circles, the is made. In Trench A square content indicators are greater the density of bone. grouped in columns. This is done to stress the fact that These procedures were adopted in order to render exact, specimen locations are unknown. The total num clearly the relative density of specimens in each square. ber of items in each category recorded for each trench square is given. The same notation is used for the Small Trench East of Trench A and for those parts of the Bison Site Units Pit in which coordinate locations are not recorded. Items which were dislodged during excavation or Figures 48 and 49 show the locations of the major which were found on screens cannot, of course, be located occupation units that can be isolated; units are tabulated precisely. Such items which can be unambiguously in Table 6. An X in a square indicates that that square assigned to a particular stratum and square are included cannot be assigned to any unit. The reasons for inde in appropriate unit inventories and are plotted randomly terminacy vary and are discussed for each individual case. in the figures for each unit. The procedure follows: In Area I (Figure 48), Units A, B, and C are readily 1. All of the items from a single square with unknown isolated except in the eastern corners of the excavated coordinate locations are listed in numerical order by field areas. The black stratum becomes very thin—as little number (the average number of such items per square as 10 cm (4 in)—in these two places; the light black is less than two). and lower stain are even thinner. It is not now possible 2. A 12 X 12 grid is superimposed on the square (grid to assign individual specimens in these squares to a par lines are equally spaced). There are thus 144 grid inter ticular level. The indeterminate squares in the center of sections in the square; these are numbered from left to the excavation are those through which extends the Brule ridge identified in Figures 157 and 158. Records for right in rows from top to bottom. squares 717-725 in Trench A and the Big Pit are sketchy 3. Random numbers from 1 to 144, inclusive, are and do not allow units to be recognized. drawn until each listed item is assigned a number. 4. Each item is plotted at the grid intersection cor Unit F in Area II (Figure 49) is unambiguously sep responding to the number assigned to it in step 3; the arate from others except on its eastern and southern symbol for the category to which the item is assigned is fringes. Units G and H, however, overlap extensively in used. the center of the excavation where strata are thin and the 5. Steps 1-4 are repeated independently for each density of material is high. This area is further compli- 53 54 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 cated by the presence of an overlying occupation that is associated with the upper surface of the black. For these reasons, the entire central position of Area II is relegated to indeterminate status with respect to unit divisions. Large proportions of the material associated with Units G and H cannot be segregated, but it is possible to dem A-25 725 onstrate that three different levels were occupied and portions of the collection can be assigned to particular units. The methods employed will be presented. The same considerations apply to the row of indeterminate squares across the bottom of Unit F. Estimated unit areas are recorded in Table 7. UNIT A N • Unit A includes 710 through 716, Trench A, and the Unit C adjacent portions of the 1937-38 excavations in Area I (squares 04-03, M-V; 02-0, P-V; 1, Q-U; 2, Q-S; and 3R plus 010-08L and 08M) (Figure 160). The unit contains 186.5 m2 (2000 ft2) after indeterminate squares have been subtracted. Obviously, parts of Unit A remain unexcavated, but the proportion unexcavated is probably not large. The squares to the west of Trench A produced very little. To the north, Roberts (NB35:65) recorded a "noticeable drop in number of 'flints' " in square 718 (NB35:68). Figure 50a documents the fact that Unit A is stratigraphically distinct from other units. The slight peak at the top of the black is caused by the small amount of Unit C material found in the squares between 3Q-5Q and 2U-3U. Two clusters of bones are apparent on the plot. One centered around squares OS and OT, covers eight squares—including those for which bone location on oio 09 08 plots are not available. The other extends from square 03Q to 05M and into 711 of the trench. This second cluster contains ten squares plus unknown parts of the trench and the unexcavated strip between; it is, thus, probably, roughly twice as large as its counterpart. UNIT B Unit B encompasses squares 701 through 704, Trench A; all of 1936 Area 3; most of 1936 Area 2 along with adjacent squares (1-2, A-B; 1C-3C; 01D-3D; 03-3, E-F; 02G-4G; 01H-3H; 01-21); and all of the area called Small Trench East of Trench A (Figures 48 and 161). Trench A squares 701 and 702 contained very little material and 705 through 709 were completely sterile. Small parts of this unit, too, are unexcavated, but the principal difficulty in analysis stems from the fact that no provenience records were made for material from the A -2 2 702 Small Trench (08A). Unit B contains 179 m (1920 FIGURE 48.—Locations of units 2 A "I in Area I. (Large squares 10' x ft ) ; this figure includes an estimate for the Small 701 10'; small squares 5' x 5'.) Trench. Figure 50b displays the frequencies of specimens DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 55 N n Wm Unit F IS Unit G Unit H 01 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 FIGURE 49.—Locations of units in Area II. (Squares 5' x 5'.) at 2.54 cm (1 in) intervals above and below the upper UNIT C and lower contact surfaces of the black stratum for all squares south of line J. Unit B, represented at the lower Unit C was only partly excavated by Roberts. Part of surface, is clearly distinct from overlying material on the this unit (in the area immediately east of Roberts' exca upper contact surface. vation) must have lain within the area dug by the In order to establish the continuity of the occupation Coffins in 1937. The material in the Coffin collection level between the separately excavated parts of Unit B, is not sufficiently documented to be useful in a detailed a profile is constructed joining line 2, 1936 Area 3, with study such as this and, in any case, is not available for line 03, 1936 Area 2 (Figure 51). Depths below the sur investigation. Consequently, Unit C is only summarily face of all specimens within 71.1 cm (2 ft) of these lines described here; its contents do not enter into subsequent are plotted on this profile. The specimens form a uniform analysis except in those instances where all specimens in zone along the lower black contact. the collection are lumped for specific analytic purposes As in Unit A, two clusters of bone are apparent (Fig or when Area I is considered as a whole. That part of ure 161). One, encompassing 11 squares, is centered on the unit which is included in the excavation lies between squares OF and IF. The second cluster is centered on lines G through Q and 1 through 5 plus six other squares 07C and probably covers an area equivalent to seven in columns 0 and 1 (Figure 48). or eight squares when unexcavated sections and unre Frequencies of specimen depths are shown in Figure corded parts of Trench A are taken into account. 50c. As can be seen, Unit C is unmistakably associated 56 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 6.—Status of material for data analysis by units Area Unit Remarks I A material used in all phases of analysis B C material used in category and area analyses X ii ii ti ii n n M II F material used in all phases of analysis G H FH material used in category and area analyses KG „ „ ,i ,, „ „ .1 J II IT II 11 'I If II Y II II IT II II IT II I material not used in analysis Big Pit D only point data recorded not used in analysis Bison Pit E material used in category analysis only Surface S only point data recorded not used in analysis TABLE 7.—Estimated areas of units Character A B F G H Gross number of excavated squares 106 89 38 66 5k Net number of excavated squares 71 60 38 66 5>+ (eliminates low density squares) Adjustment (includes estimate of 78 60 ^5 72 72 net unexcavated area) Area (square yards) 21*4 151 123 198 198 Area (square meters) 179 127 103 166 166 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 57 to Units A, B, or C. The only specimens relegated to this unit that enter into analysis are projectile points. UNITF This unit is located west of line 6 and north of line D in Area II (Figure 162); it is clearly incomplete. Parts are intermixed with Unit H to the east; from line G southward, parts grade into materials from a subsequent occupation; and finally, parts of the unit remain un excavated. Again, two clusters of bones are indicated, each probably equivalent in size to those of Unit B. ° be Figure 52a displays the specimen depth frequencies for the area in which Unit F is located. The unit is asso FIGURE 50.—Frequency of occurrence of Area I specimens in vertical increments of 2.54 cm (1 in) below datum: a. Unit A; b. ciated with a lower black contact and (excluding the Unit B with part of Unit C; c, Unit C with part of Unit B. (Sur indeterminate squares) does not appear to be contami face I between the black stratum and the lower strain; surface II nated with material from other occupations. Figure 163 black and light black strata. Strata depths were averaged, for every is an oblique drawing in which parts of two parallel square independently, over the four-corner readings for each square; profiles (lines L and D) are joined by the constructed depths of specimens in a square were plotted with respect to average strata depths for that square. Horizontal scale in percent; vertical profile of line 3 which lies perpendicular to and inter scale in inches; letters refer to aliquot parts of distances greater sects them. The depths below surface of all specimens than 7 inches separating surfaces I and II.) lying 71.1 cm (2 ft) or closer to these lines, on either side, are plotted. This figure clearly shows the relation ship of Unit F with the lower black contact, and, in with the upper surface of the black stratum and, thus, harmony with Figure 52a, suggests that the materials establishes clearly a stratigraphic sequence of Folsom may have been deposited on an undetected surface that occupations for Lindenmeier. Notice that 20% of the was exposed slightly before the recorded black lower specimens represented in Figure 50c are associated with stain contact was formed. A group of materials centered the lower black contact. Compare this situation with in the middle of the black stratum appears near line I that recorded in Figure 50b in which 28% of all speci (Figure 61). Specimens are continuously present at this mens are associated with the upper contact. These two level to line D and sporadically across this latter face. At percentages complement each other and reflect the over about line 6 and through line 11 in face D, another set lapping presence of both Units B and C in about 14 of materials is associated with the lower black and the squares. underlying stain; there continues to be a large amount of material higher in the black. These two sets of speci mens are assigned to Units G and H, respectively. Beyond UNITX line 11 the strata become too contorted to follow and this part of the profile is not shown. Unit X is the designation for all Area I materials from the main body of the excavations that cannot be assigned In Figures 52 and 163 a small amount of material is FIGURE 51.—Vertical distributions of specimens in Areas 2 and 3 (1936) showing stratigraphic continuity of Unit B. 58 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 possible connection can be followed only tenuously across the unexcavated space between lines 3 and 7, this ma terial is relegated to an indeterminate unit. All the squares surrounding this unexcavated area contain mod erate to high densities of materials; it is reasonable to assume that a similar density should be found in the inter + 3 vening space. On the west, however, rows Z, Y, and X >. nt 0 yielded a total of seven plotted specimens; on the east, -3 A-E square columns 16 and 17 (Trench G, 1938) are almost -t-3 n empty and 15Y and 15X produced three unworked 0 ^v flakes only. Specimen density appears to fall off rapidly to the south as well; 2X yielded only four plotted speci -5 A—F mens. These squares probably delimit three sides of + 5 v_ Unit G. ^^^ I Unit H (Figure 165) is not so easily delimited. All material in columns 16 and 17 are at a higher level than -5 that of Unit H; these along with other material at a ^ comparable level in more central squares have been assigned to Unit I (discussed below). On the west, Unit J4 ?« 4 • H merges with Unit F; materials in squares 6D-11D are o b designated indeterminate Unit FH in recognition of the fact that their constituent specimens cannot be assigned FIGURE 52.—Frequency of occurrence of Area II specimens in vertical increments of 2.54 cm (1 in) below datum: a, Unit F; to either F or H. The materials from the higher levels b, Units G, H, I. (Surface I between black and lower stain strata; recognized between lines D and I in Figure 163 prob surface II between black and light black; surface III between ably are part of the occupation remains that formed Unit light black and sand, clay, gravel stratum. Horizontal scale in per H, but this cannot be demonstrated and they have been cent; vertical scale in inches.) placed in indeterminate Unit J. Unit H clearly projects for some unknown distance into the unexcavated area to the north. recorded at the upper surface of the light black stratum. Since most of the sediments at this level were removed Units G and H overlap extensively in an area where by team and slip, most archeological specimens must strata thicknesses are less than the usual vertical distri have gone unnoticed. For this reason, material from this bution of specimens about a single occupation surface. level is relegated to an indeterminate Unit I and ignored The presence of Unit I material on a closely overlying in all subsequent analyses. surface complicates the situation. The squares in this area are labeled Unit Y; Figure 52b displays the relation ship between specimen depth and stratigraphic surfaces UNITS G, H, I, and Y between lines C and E from lines 7 through 13. As the figure shows, there are three peaks associated with three Units G, H, and Y can only be partially segregated surfaces; these correspond from top to bottom with Unit and must, therefore, be considered in conjunction with I, Unit H, and Unit G. Unit I is underrepresented be each other for many purposes. These units are in Area cause higher level sediments in this area were removed II (Figure 49). Unit G is composed of all squares desig with the aid of a team and slip; consequently, specimen nated 7-15, X-B, plus 6C-8C (Figure 164). Unit H recovery was incomplete. Even though three superim contains all squares north of line E (except 11E-12E) posed occupations are demonstrated, in most cases indi and east of line 7 plus 14D-15D (Figure 165). Unit Y vidual artifacts and bones cannot be assigned with confi consists of the indeterminate squares between Units G dence to any particular unit. The plots shown in Figure and H. 50 suggest that objects associated with a single surface The limits of Unit G can be fairly well estimated. The can be expected to occur frequently at least 10.2 cm (4 material west of line 6 probably is part of G, but as a in) above and below that surface. Thus, in the squares DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 59 composing Unit Y (where surfaces are an average of of this unit. Unit Y values range from 3 to 7 times that 10.8 cm (4.25 in) and 12.7 cm (5 in) apart), almost of average single unit values reflecting its three-com all specimens from any surface are intermixed with those ponent content. One conclusion stands out: Area II from another. No attempt is made to separate units in units consistently have denser concentrations of each this area. Specimens are neither plotted nor do they enter category than do Area I units. Some possible reasons for into unit analyses, although they are used in pooled data this difference will be given further on. analyses. FITTED FRAGMENTS UNIT DENSITIES The foregoing descriptions of specimen distributions Unit density statistics for chips, tools, points, preforms, and densities accord with division of the site into discrete and channel flakes are tabulated in Table 8. Chip density units of occupation. To investigate the integrity of these varies markedly between units; values for Units A and units, an intensive search was undertaken for fragments B may be somewhat suppressed because the larger un of artifacts that could be shown to have come from the modified flakes from these units were recorded indi same specimen. Only pieces the fractured edges of which vidually as "specimens." Nonetheless, the values given in fit together are accepted as evidence. Roberts occasionally the table should be accurate reflections of the relative mentioned such pieces, but many more were found in the densities between units. Densities for squares are displayed course of data collection for this monograph. The loca in Figures 53 and 54; the frequency of squares contain tion of all fragments that could be paired with at least ing specified densities of chips is given in Figure 55. As one other are plotted on Figures 56 and 57. The 58 links can be seen, chip density gradients are associated with joining 111 different fragments have been recorded. the units that have already been defined. The highest These data support the contention that the defined densities are found in Unit Y in which three units are units represent autonomous episodes of occupation. With superimposed. but one exception, both members of all pairs are con Mean tool densities are uniform among all units ex tained within a single unit. In the exceptional case, two cept H and Y. Unit H, in fact, has the highest mean pieces of a single tool were recovered from Unit B and square density among single, unmixed units in every a third from Unit A (Figure 56). Notice especially that category under consideration; this phenomenon is due linked pairs in Units G and H sometimes extend into in part to the underrepresentation of the fringe areas Unit Y but never into the opposite unit (Figure 57). TABLE 8.—Mean numbers of artifact specimens per square in each unit (N = number of non- overlapping squares in unit; 2 = total number of specimens, excluding unmodified flakes; X = mean number of specimens per square; R = range of number of specimens per square) Channel flakes Unit Chips Implements Points Preforms N Z N E X N £ X R 70 M58 63.68 5-218 70 368 5-25 0-16 70 17 0.2k 0-3 70 22 0.31 0-1+ 70 1+3 0.61 0-5 68 3220 1+7.35 0-317 68 356 5.15 0-25 68 ik 0.20 0-2 68 29 0.1+2 0-1+ 68 1+6 0.67 0-7 39 3815 97.82 O-2U1 39 182 it.66 0-11 39 18 0.1+6 0-7 39 19 0.1+8 0-3 39 81+ 2.15 0-9 1+3 71*2 166.09 3-529 1*3 168 IJ.OO 0-16 1+3 1+6 1.07 0-3 1+3 ^9 1.13 0-5 1+3 165 3.83 0-lU 25 5331 213.32 U5-U11 25 190 7.60 0-20 25 28 1.12 0-5 25 29 1.16 0-1+ 25 98 3.92 0-16 17 6903 U06.05 67-1150 17 2^1 1^.17 0-26 17 15 0.85 0-1+ 17 1+2 2.1+7 0-8 17 223 13.11 0-28 60 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 Roberts (1941:79) mentions another pair, one-half of which was found in Unit B and the other in Unit G, approximately 137 m (450 ft) apart, but these pieces cannot now be found in the collection. BISON PIT (UNITE) Plot layouts of the lowest level occupation in the Bison Pit are given in Figure 166. No distributional information is available for higher levels. Little that is definitive can be said about this unit. The dubious status of the camel remains recovered in the West Pit has already been discussed (p. 46). The distribution of materials in the small part of this unit in which locations were controlled suggests that artifact and bone distribu tions are complementary rather than coterminous. The hearth, as is also true for the only other plotted hearth for which adequate associational information is avail able (in square OA, Area II), is not immediately sur rounded by dense concentrations of artifacts and bones. Two Yuma point fragments were found at a higher level at the same depth as another hearth; these will be dis cussed next. MATERIALS ABOVE THE FOLSOM LEVELS Specimens from several occupation levels above the Folsom levels are recorded for a number of places within the site but the information available for these higher levels is sparse. Most of these occupations were destroyed in the process of removing overburden in order to ex pose the Folsom occupations. The possibilities for investigating chronological or cultural successions are, thus, absent. The available material will be described but not used in any analysis. Measurements of all points discussed in this section are given in Table 9. TABLE 9.—Dimensions (mm) of points in upper strata (dash = no measurement taken) Specimen L w T 659 37.0 12.5 h.O 8lU 28.1+ 17.0 8.8 837 27.0 17.0 r.k 12U8 1+3.1 22.2 " FIGURE 53.—Density of chipping 32.0 A" I debris in Area I. (Large squares E373 61*.5 - 701 10' x 10'; small squares 5' x 5'.) Gkkk 5^.3 23.2 " DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 61 01 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 FIGURE 54.—Density of chipping debris in Area II. (Squares 5' x 5'.) Roberts (1937:74) reported two Yuma point frag flaking, this point falls into the Eden class. Again, no ments from the West Bison Pit, and, on the basis of specific location or association is available. their superior stratigraphic position, attributed them to Unit C is, of course, also associated with the upper a period later than that in which Folsom points were black surface. As this unit is accompanied by relatively characteristic. The points—Numbers 814 and 837 (Fig good associational information, its points are included ure 58a, c)—were found in the approximate locations in the overall analysis of points. shown in Figure 166. The notes (NB36:1, 3) state that Three stemmed points were recovered in the excava both were found on the same level—88 cm (35 in) tions; these are shown in Figure 58. Specimen 1248 below the surface and 43.2 cm (17 in) above the "occu (Figure 58/i) is often referred to as a Gypsum Cave pational level"—and in the same stratigraphic position, point, but it does not closely resemble the type specimen in the top of the black. Now, this is the same depth— for this class of points (compare similar specimens from exactly—recorded for the upper hearth shown in Figure Lamb Springs). Specimen 1248 was found in the upper 1590. It seems clear that an occupation floor existed alluvium of square 3C, Area 2, 1936; its exact location at this level but it is not documented in the field notes. is not known because it was found under disturbed con Another Yuma-type point (specimen 659, found in ditions (NB36:98). Specimens E373 and G444 fit the 723, Trench A) is recorded for a higher level; it is type definition for Alberta points (Wormington, 1957: depicted as Figure 586. With its fine, parallel, oblique 134, fig. 44). E373 (Figure 58*') was found in the top- 62 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 BIG PIT FIGURE 55.—Proportional frequency of squares with chip densities ranging from 0 to 1100 per square. soil 17.8 cm (7 in) below the surface in square I, Trench E, 1938 (NB38:133). G444 (Figure 58;) was found in square 12E, Area II, 94.6 cm (37.25 in) below the surface and 23.5 cm (9.25 in) above the "bone-stone-Folsom artifact layer" (NB40:125). The strata here are badly distributed and distorted; con sequently, nothing can be said about the position of this specimen. Figure 59 contains photographs of all the projectile points found on the surface of the site. These specimens are recorded here simply to complete the site inven tory. The tanged base fragment (Figure 59a) may be similar to 1248 (Figure 5Sh). The specimens in Figures 59c-/ are similar to those designated Types aa and bb at the LoDaisKa site (Irwin and Irwin, 1959). A small number of flakes, chips, and tools of several kinds were attributed to the upper strata of the site. But as most of these can no longer be given provenience locations, they are not described in this report. Artifacts FIGURE 56.—Plot of fitted fragments, Area I. (Large After all specimens had been assigned to appropriate squares 10' x 10'; small units or eliminated from further consideration, the squares 5' x 5'.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 63 L K J / 1 / _!_ H I t i _^ G / 1 F d t E • • D /?s /#\ c /i\ 7^7" ,:" N B • i i h v A V d OA=Z ~~~5 OB = Y -1 OOX 00 OE OF OG OH 01 0 i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 FIGURE 57.—Plot of fitted fragments, Area II. (Squares 5' x 5'.) collection of artifact data was begun. All chert speci ogy, University of Michigan, also store data in single mens that can be assigned to one of the following units line format so that they continue to be easily recalled. are included: A-C, E-J, Y, FH, KG. Summary de Notations for the data begin with specimen field scriptions and discussions of the variables and attributes numbers. Quite a few specimens, however, especially employed are presented below. among those in Units A and B, had been recorded only by the square from which they were obtained; these specimens are listed without any sort of identifying PROCEDURES number. Next, unit and square designations are given. The identification sequence is followed by entries for Data are recorded on forms designed to facilitate 10 variables and 2 associated attributes, which are de keypunching when transferred to computer cards. Each signed to give an adequate description of the geometry specimen is represented by a single card which, in turn, of specimens in the assemblage. Last, coded notations is printed as a single line on all output. Thus, each for 18 qualitative attributes are recorded for each speci specimen can be easily referenced at any time during men. Linear measurements were made with Vernier the analytical process. This has proved to be a great calipers and angular measurements with a polar co convenience for cross-checking results. The files on the ordinate grid. Each student began work on a single unit magnetic tape stored at the Museum of Anthropol and continued to work on that unit until all specimens 64 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 Mi rfi]iiiii]i>iiiiiiL. kwwim FIGURE 58.—Points from the upper levels of the site: a, 814; b, 659; c, 837; d, 1513; e, E535; /, 25; g, G436; ft, 1248; i, E373; j, G444. (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 65 FIGURE 59.—Points from the surface, USNM 443832; none were given field numbers. (Actual size.) had been exhausted. Consequently, most units were point where this ridge curves laterally toward the right measured by a single individual. A method was em edge of the specimen (this is so because the bulb termi ployed for monitoring measurement precision and for nates at a comparable point on the ventral surface of controling comparability between the measurements of the tool). The specimens selected contain among them each observer. selves a reasonably representative range of the decision making problems that confront anyone who attempts to measure chipped stone tools. MEASUREMENT ACCURACY Clearly, the precision of measurement is high for linear dimensions, as well as for the angles, except in Iterative measurements were taken of eight variables the case of the left lateral edge (Table 10). on four specimens. The specimens (Figure 60) were The size of the standard deviation in proportion to selected because each presented different problems to the mean is also a measure of the closeness of results; the analyst for deciding exactly where a certain meas 25 of the 30 standard deviation results are within 10% urement should be made. For example, the length of of their respective means and 16 of these are within 5%. specimen 1164 (Figure 60c?) might be measured either at a point just on the farther section of the distal edge or at one just inside the deep irregularity (because the COMPARABILITY OF MEASUREMENTS medial axis lies along the edge of this irregularity). Thickness of specimen 1705 (Figure 60b) might be Another concern in the statistical manipulation of measured on the center dorsal ridge or just beyond the data is that observations made by different investigators FIGURE 60.—Measurement control specimens: a, 1155; b, 1705; c, E425; d, 1164. (Actual size.) 66 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 10.—Summary statistics for measurement control specimens (see text for explanations of variables; N = number of measurements made by all observers, ± = direction from mean of average deviation of measurements obtained as sign of summed deviations, A = estimated average deviation from mean values, dash = no measurement) Specimen p S number L W T t 8 6D L 6R 1155 N 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 58 X 34.7 26.6 5.9 5.9 70 55 59 55 s 1.35 1.00 0.33 0.18 2.1 5.5 5.3 4.8 + + - - + + + _ + 1164 N 60 60 60 60 60 40 0 40 X 56.3 40.6 6.9 5.0 78 35 43 s 8.90 1.36 0.23 0.14 4.1 3.1 2.1 + — — "" + — - " 1705 N 39 39 39 39 38 0 39 39 X 50.9 40.2 6.1 2.6 83 40 39 s 0.36 0.27 1.15 0.40 2.0 5.6 4.6 + + + + + - - E425 N 40 40 40 40 39 35 37 40 X 29.5 21.4 7.4 4.2 76 63 60 44 s 0.49 0.20 0.65 0.20 1.6 2.6 5.9 3.0 + _ - + + + + A 0.74 0.46 0.54 0.20 1.61 2.74 4.46 2.56 3A 2.22 1.38 1.62 0.60 4.83 9.15* 14.71* 8.44* * obtained as 3.25A be comparable. In order to control for such compara observer 4 records a larger proportion of the highest bility in the data collected by the participants in this mean values and largest variances than do the others. project, the observations of each person were subjected Observer 2 displays the opposite tendency. Accordingly, to an analysis of variance to determine if variation in Unit A, measured entirely by observer 4, may be ex measurements made by any individual was greater than pected to have slightly elevated mean values and greater that of the group as a whole. The results appear in variances, while Unit F, measured exclusively by ob Table 11. The observations of all four persons who took server 2, should have lower means and variances. These 907c of the measurements are summarized for three expectations are confirmed; 62% (5) of Unit A vari of the control specimens. Data sheets for the fourth ances are the highest for their respective sets and 50% specimen (1164) were inadvertantly discarded during (4) of those for Unit F are the lowest for their sets. my move to Ann Arbor. There is no difference, at the No observer, however, consistently measured any par 0.01 level of significance, between 13 of the mean meas- ticular variable differently than did others, that is, among urment values among all 4 persons in 23 sets of varia the control artifacts, for no variable is the maximum bles. In 18 of these sets, the largest average measure or minimum value or variance associated exclusively ment value for a particular variable recorded by one with a particular observer. Therefore, except in a few person is equal to or less than 10% of the smallest mean cases, internal variation in one observer's measurements value for that variable. Variances are equal in 14 of is no greater than that for all observers' measurements. the 23 cases. The conclusion is warranted that, in general, the meas Half of all means and variances of all observers fall urements are comparable. There is, however, an excep within the center of the computed variations. However, tion. Values for the means of left lateral angles are DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 67 widely different and the variances, though equal in all WIDTH (W).—Maximum lateral dimension measured cases, are excessively large. Reasons for these discrep perpendicular to the medial axis (Figure 61a). Our ancies will be considered when this variable is described. measurements of this variable appear to be the most pre cise and comparable of all those taken. POSITION OF MAXIMUM WIDTH (Wmax).—The seg VARIABLES ment of specimen length within which width is measured (Figure 61a). A five-point scale is used in place of the Figure 61 displays the artifact landmarks and the seven-point scale employed previously (Wilmsen, 1970: locations of all of the variables measured on unifacial 14). artifacts; it also shows the manner of determining maxi THICKNESS (T).—Maximum transverse dimension mum width (Wmax) and maximum thickness (Tmax) measured below the bulb (Figure 61b). The comments scores. The definitions given here follow those found in appended to the definition of length apply here as well Wilmsen (1970:10-21, figs. 3-10). In some cases, but with considerably less force. Although there appears definitions are somewhat more precisely specified than to be some uncertainty involved in the selection of the in the original work; one modification in measurement points of measurement on some specimens, precision and procedure is made. The dorsal surface, in all cases, is comparability of observations is generally high. the reference surface. The proximal (platform) end is POSITION OF MAXIMUM THICKNESS (Tmax).—The at the top; the right and left lateral edges are on the segment of specimen length within which thickness is right and left of the specimen viewed in this position. measured (Figure 61 b). The scale is the same as that for Wmax. P w-^M* PLATFORM WIDTH (PW).—The maximum lateral di mension of the striking platform measured along a line parallel to the ventral surface (Figure 61a). This vari able is described but not used in analysis because it was found to be redundant with platform thickness. PLATFORM THICKNESS (Pt).—The transverse dimen sion of the striking platform measured at the point of impact perpendicular to the ventral surface (Figure FIGURE 61.-—Artifact landmarks and measurement points for uni 61b). Measurements of this variable are characterized facial specimens. (L = length, Pt = platform thickness, Pw = by low variance. Statistically they are somewhat impre platform width, T = thickness, W = width, /3 = flake angle, cise, probably because the increment of measurement 5 = edge angle, do = distal edge angle, 5L = left lateral edge angle, (0.1 mm) is proportionately large compared to the 5B = right lateral edge angle.) quantity measured. FLAKE ANGLE (ft).—The angle between the plane of LENGTH (L).—Longitudinal dimension from the the striking platform and that of the ventral surface impact point on the platform to the distal edge meas (Figure 61b). The imprecision of measurement of this ured along the medial axis (Figure 61a). Systematic variable is less than the increment of measurement (2°) error may be more a factor for this variable than for employed. There is generally good agreement between other linear dimensions because the distal edge tends to different observer's results, but there appear to be some be more irregular than do other edges. This should be possible exceptions as indicated by specimen E425. especially true for unmodified flakes—as is the case in EDGE ANGLES (SD, SL, 8R).—Angular dimensions be the illustrated specimen 1164 (Figure 60d). Measure tween the distal and ventral surfaces measured at the ments of the length of this specimen have a degree of edges of a specimen (Figure 61c, d). 8 is measured on imprecision greater than do those for other measurements D the distal edge and S and 8 on the left and right lateral of length, and, since the measurement procedure was L R edges, respectively. Measurements of the distal angle are always the same, it seems likely that this is due to in both precise and uniformly comparable within the incre consistencies in the selection of points between which ment of measurement (5 °); those of 8 also have a rela measurements were made. This observation is, however, R tively low degree of uncertainty. based upon results obtained from a single specimen, itself selected because it was difficult to measure. No systematic 8L, however, is neither accurately nor consistently efforts were made to ascertain the generality of this con measured on the control specimens. The reasons why dition. Variances among measurements of this dimension measurements of this variable should be less certain by different observers tend to be higher than they are than others are not clear. The left lateral edge of speci for other linear variables. Measurements of length are men E425 is quite battered and, therefore, difficult to probably the least reliable of all linear measurements. measure, but those of the other control specimens present 68 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 11.—Analysis of variance of control series measurements made by each of four individuals (see text and Figure 61 for explanation of variables; minus 1 and 2 in columns s2 and s indicate number of zeros implied immediately right of the decimal) Summary statistics Test statistics Specimen Variable Observer X Sig. 1155 10 35.0 1.20 1.10 10 34.9 0.14 0.38 X 9.54 0.00 14 33.2 0.11 0.33 s2 8.45 0.00 10 34.7 1.56 1.23 10 25.4 1.32 1.34 10 26.9 0.24 0.49 X 4.68 0.01 14 26.0 0.24 0.49 s2 4.94 0.00 10 26.6 0.93 0.97 10 6.0 0.89 -2 0.94 -1 10 5.6 0.23 0.48 X 8.11 0.00 2 14 5.7 0.36 -1 0.19 s 7.28 0.00 10 6.0 0. 0. Pt 10 6.1 0.43 -1 0.21 10 6.0 0.22 -1 0.15 X 2.93 0.03 14 5.9 0.73 -2 0.85 -1 s2 3.82 0.02 10 6.0 0. 0. 3 1 10 69.8 0.40 0.63 2 10 69.9 2.32 1.52 X 3.32 0.02 3 Ik 69.0 5.69 2.39 s2 5.29 0.00 4 10 72.2 4.40 2.10 1 10 «D 57.5 23.61 4.86 2 10 54.0 10.00 3.16 X 2.35 0.07 3 14 57.5 68.27 8.26 «2 2.23 0.06 4 10 51.0 37.78 6.15 h 1 10 64.5 8.06 2.84 2 10 50.0 11.11 3.33 X 10.45 0.00 3 13 57.7 27.56 5.25 .s2 4.65 0.01 4 10 71.0 26.67 5.16 SR 1 10 61.0 4.44 2.11 2 10 54.5 13.61 3.69 X 1.39 0.26 3 13 55.4 18.59 4.31 s2 4.33 0.01 4 9 57.8 13.19 3.63 1705 L 1 8 50.8 0.28 --1 0.17 2 9 50.9 0.36 --2 0.60 - X 2.08 0.12 3 9 50.7 0.16 0.39 s2 6.96 0.00 4 10 50.9 0.49 0.22 W 1 8 40.1 0.42 - 1 0.21 2 9 40.2 0.25 - 2 0.50 X 1.21 0.32 3 9 40.2 0.78 - 1 0.28 s2 5.50 0.00 4 10 40.3 0.56 - 1 0.24 T 1 8 5.1 0.31 - 1 0.18 2 9 4.9 0.36 --2 0.60 - X 28.10 0.00 3 9 6.9 0.50 0.71 s2 14.67 0.00 4 10 6.9 0.91 0.95 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 69 TABLE 11.—Continued Summary statistics Test statistics 2 Specimen Variable Observer N x" s s F Sig. Pt 1 8 3.1 0.51 -1 0.23 2 9 2.3 0.18 -1 0.13 X 28.72 0.00 3 9 2.3 0.24 -1 0.15 s2 2.25 0.08 4 10 2.7 0.94 -1 0.31 B 1 8 80.6 0.27 0.52 2 9 82.1 2.86 1.69 X 2.98 0.05 3 9 81.4 2.53 1.59 s2 3.81 0.05 4 10 82.9 4.99 2.23 6D no observation made «L 1 8 33.4 11.98 3.46 2 9 36.1 4.86 2.20 X 18.11 0.00 3 9 44.4 15.28 3.91 s2 1.77 0.15 4 10 44.0 26.67 5.16 «R 1 8 41.0 3.14 1.77 2 9 37.8 6.94 2.64 X 1.83 0.16 3 9 38.9 29.86 5.46 s2 5.29 0.00 4 10 40.5 2.50 1.58 E425 L 1 8 29.8 0.54 -1 0.23 2 9 29.6 0.15 0.38 X 15.10 0.00 3 9 28.8 0.78 -1 0.28 s2 0.84 0.47 4 11 29.7 0.15 0.38 W 1 8 21.4 0.40 --1 0.20 2 9 21.5 0.23 -1 0.15 X 0.74 0.54 3 9 21.4 0.64 -1 0.25 s2 0.78 0.50 4 11 21.5 0.31 --1 0.18 T 1 8 6.7 0.81 -1 0.29 2 9 6.7 0.26 -1 0.16 X 63.32 0.00 3 9 7.8 0.15 0.39 s2 3.09 0.03 4 11 8.0 0.26 --1 0.16 P 1 8 4.3 0.70 -1 0.26 t 2 9 4.2 0.19 --2 0.44 -1 X 1.26 0.31 3 9 4.2 0.86 --2 0.93 -1 s2 7.02 0.00 4 11 4.3 0.32 --1 0.18 B 1 8 73.3 1.07 1.04 2 9 75.0 0.25 0.50 X 8.48 0.00 3 9 75.3 1.50 1.22 s2 9.67 0.00 4 11 77.9 11.69 3.42 6D 1 8 61.0 1.43 1.20 2 9 65.0 0. 0. X 4.45 0.01 3 9 62.2 13.19 3.63 ,2 3.52 0.03 4 6 62.5 7.50 2.74 6L 1 8 63.4 4.84 2.20 2 9 51.1 4.86 2.20 X 17.59 0.00 3 6 64.2 24.17 4.92 «2 3.87 0.01 4 11 62.7 36.82 6.07 6R 1 8 43.4 3.13 1.77 2 9 43.9 4.86 2.20 x. 4.62 0.01 3 9 42.2 13.19 3.63 s2 1.43 0.23 4 11 46.4 5.45 2.34 70 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 no obvious complications. Jerry Voss has suggested that PREPARATION.—Preconditioning of the impact surface the explanation lies in the fact that this variable must be leaves scars on the platform. These may be essentially measured (on a polar coordinate grid) with the specimen featureless and are then labeled "flat." Alternatively, a in reverse position, often with its dorsal rather than its series of small scars may be present on the platform; ventral surface aligned with the grid reference line. these are labeled "transverse," "lateral," or "multiple," Whatever the reason for these discrepancies in the control according to their principal orientation. set, readers should keep the above cautions in mind when EROSION.—Notation of thinning or removal of the assessing the significance of results of tests into which platform. Often it is an unintentioned byproduct of the this variable enters. flaking process. TREATMENT.—Notation of the presence of evidence of predetachment abrasion or crushing of platform edges ATTRIBUTES or of its surface. This attribute was called "abrasion" by Wilmsen (1970:14). Although 18 attributes are coded only 7 are employed in the analysis. Data for one other, material source, have been gathered by the University of Michigan, Museum of Unifacial Specimens Anthropology, Neutron Activation Laboratory. Another, dorsal scar pattern, is most often indeterminate in char The division of the assemblage into unifacial and acter or is composed of a combination of scar patterns; bifacial categories follows usual archeological practice. it is, therefore, ignored for all categories other than Since some diversity exists in the criteria for assigning channel flakes. The other nine attributes are stored on specimens to one or the other of these categories, the the data tape for the use of those who wish more detailed following definition is used throughout this study. On descriptions of specimen shape and appearance. unifacial artifacts, the ventral surface is essentially free MATERIAL.—In this study chert materials are arbi of modification except that some specimens display a trarily divided into three groups; chalcedony, jasper, and series of small scars along one or more edges. Such grainy chert. The latter is almost certainly cortex material scars, confined to the immediate vicinity of an edge (2-3 from a nearby source. The sole difference between mm), are sometimes the products of retouch but most chalcedony and jasper as here defined is that the former often are the remainders of wear reduction resulting is transparent to translucent while the latter is opaque. from use. The other importantly represented material is quartzite For descriptive and analytical purposes, the unifacial which is silicified sandstone. Other materials present inventory is stratified first according to unit assemblages in the assemblage are oolite, obsidian, and basalt. Divi and second by categories. Units have been defined (p. sion of artifacts into material groups is made primarily 53); category definitions will be given when each cate as a first step in source identification, but a few tests gory is introduced. for differences in specimen attributes are made with the data set stratified according to material designation. CATEGORY.—A notation of the principal functional UNIT DESCRIPTIONS characteristic of a specimen by means of which unused flakes, utilized flakes, tools, and specialized forms are Summary descriptions of the 10 variables and of width stratified for independent analysis. Each of these cate and thickness positions are given in Figures 62-73 and gories is defined more specifically on page 83. Tables 12-23. The data are organized in these figures FRAGMENT.—This is primarily a bookkeeping attribute and tables according to specimen membership in Units by which whole, unbroken specimens can be segregated A-B and F-H. These data are the only ones employed from others, but units and categories are investigated in subsequent analyses of units. Summary statistics for for differences in specimen breakage patterns. specimens in other units are presented in Tables 24, 25; TERMINATION.—A notation of the cross-sectional shape these data, because they belong to specimens found in of the distal edge of a specimen. Hinge termination pro indeterminate contexts or (in the case of Units C and duces a strongly incurved ventral surface, which truncates E) in very small unit assemblages, do not enter into unit the core. At the opposite end of the scale, step fracture analyses. They are presented here merely to complete sharply truncates the flake before the core end is reached. the site record. Unit attributes are summarized in Table In straight termination, the ventral surface lies essentially 26. in a flat plane. Incurved and outcurved terminations The important points to notice about these data are: are intermediate. (1) all distributions are based upon large numbers of There follow three attributes associated with striking observations; (2) all linear dimensions are unimodally platforms. distributed and meet the requirements of tests for which DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 71 TABLE 12.—Summary statistics of length (mm) for total unit assemblages 2 Unit N X 5 s A 595 30.08 212.56 lh.57 B 1039 27 18 133.76 11.56 F 195 27 78 183.1*5 13.51* G 175 23 06 120.31 IO.96 H 210 27 08 188.89 13.7k in m 10 in U1 «N •0 5 00 8 .05. 1 F 0 II 52 66 37 14 7 5 3 1 0 0 G 0 II 52 58 31 14 8 2 1 0 0 0 H 0 15 53 57 43 26 9 5 1 0 0 1 FIGURE 62.—Proportional frequency polygons for length (L) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. 72 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 13.—Summary statistics of width (mm) for total unit assemblages 2 Unit N X s s A 595 2U.89 120.36 10.97 B 1039 25.52 98.38 9.91 F 195 21.99 76.63 8.75 G 175 19.05 59-31 7.70 H 210 22.32 81.22 9.01 .30 a b c* (N m m S , m m •o •— — « M n c> NI — 7 ^ 5 3 15. 1 10. 1 25. 1 3Q 1 35. 1 50. 1 40. 1 55.1 - m m 45. 1 60. 1 A 0 2 61 166 144 145 52 47 19 II 10 f 0 1 15 26 57 43 24 13 5 7 1 0 2 B I 5 88 204 265 201 129 70 35 23 9 G 0 0 II 27 42 55 16 14 5 4 0 1 0 c 0 I 10 20 27 22 21 4 4 3 2 H 0 1 16 25 47 49 35 27 6 4 0 2 0 FIGURE 63.—Proportional frequency polygons for width (W) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 73 TABLE 14.—Summary statistics of maximum width position for total unit assemblages (N = number of observations, M = modal interval, R = range) Unit N H B A 595 3 o - 5 B 1039 2 3 o - U F 195 3 o - i* G 175 3 o - i* H 210 3 o - it .48 .48 a b .42 .36 .36 .30 .24 .24 .18 .12 .06 A 14 157 90 238 18 II F 10 24 44 102 16 0 36 66 33 0 B 68 207 323 325 122 0 G 12 29 0 C 2 10 33 41 18 0 H 10 41 57 82 20 FIGURE 64.—Graphs of frequency of maximum width position (Wm«x) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. 74 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 15.—Summary statistics of thickness (mm) for total unit assemblages Unit N X 2 s s A 595 5.29 10.97 3.31 B 1039 5.03 10.1+6 3.23 F 195 4.03 6.24 2.49 G 175 3.61 7.41 2.72 H 210 4.36 12.28 3.50 .60 a .40 .30 .20 .20 .10 •o •0 •o f FIGURE 65.—Proportional frequency polygons for thickness (T) by area: a. Area I; b, Area II. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 75 TABLE 16.—Summary statistics of maxi mum thickness position for total unit as semblages (N = number of observations, M = modal interval, R = range) Unit N M R A 595 3 o - 5 B 1039 2 - 3 o - 4 F 195 3 o - 4 G 175 3 0 - 4 H 210 3 0 - 4 .48 .48 a b .36 .36 .18 .12 .06 l_Q 13 A 15 303 53 45 8 I F 79 54 41 7 0 G 8 B 65 425 300 192 57 0 45 39 70 14 0 H 16 C 15 71 40 55 20 0 77 55 53 5 0 FIGURE 66.—Graphs of frequency of maximum thickness position (Tm«x) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. 76 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 17.—Summary statistics of platform thickness (mm) for total unit assemblages Unit N X s2 s A 245 2.98 4.32 2.07 B 422 2.80 4.07 2.01 F 89 2.23 1.48 1.21 G 84 2.12 1.50 1.22 H 88 2.28 2.58 1.60 b .60 a .50 .40 .30 .20 .10 1 — ^ \iij_j_j_j_TTTTT + X j_ j_ 1 3.1 - 5.1 - 9.1- 1 7.1 - CO 15.1- 1 17.1- 1 •-piiriKoti—*riuiKO< 19.1 + A 7 199 58 23 9 5 I 0 0 0 0 F 5 66 18 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 B 21 300 83 29 14 5 3 I 0 0 0 G 1 52 7 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 C I 29 12 7 I I I 00 10 H 6 61 15 4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 FIGURE 67.—Proportional frequency polygons for platform thickness (Pt) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 77 TABLE 18.—Summary statistics of platform width (mm) for total unit assemblages Unit 2 N X E s A 245 8.85 40.50 6.37 B 422 8.33 28.28 5.32 F 89 7.75 47.65 6.90 G 84 6.99 12.78 3.57 H 88 7.20 22.77 4.77 .60 a .60 .50 .40 .40 m co m — minKo — minKO — co \ 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 + 1-2 1 1- 3 1-2 3 1-1 7 « ," im I I 7 TT 7 7 7 1 + CO m K o CO m K o> CO •- co in K ©•'•-" co u-l K <> ~- co — ^ CN CN .- t— — — 1— CN CN F 0 22 30 16 13 5 1 1 1 0 0 1 A 0 14 70 70 61 29 18 7 10 6 3 3 12 2 BO 14 89 128 69 50 34 14 13 10 8 4 II G 1 3 15 21 13 5 1 2 3 1 0 0 0 C04 9I5 776I0I02I H 0 7 26 21 16 7 4 1 1 3 1 0 1 FIGURE 68.—Proportional frequency polygons for platform width (Pw) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. 78 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 19.—Summary statistics of flake angle (degrees) for total unit assemblages 2 Unit N X , . A 215 63.20 209.74 14 48 B 409 64.93 169.72 13 02 F 88 62.58 128.48 11.33 G 83 60.44 188.91 13 74 H 84 60.86 141.90 11 91 .30 b 25 co K •• m I I 1 I \_ CO CO co •a ih 2 N5 R R fc CO m co 0- CO CO in K CO i> * s i CO B si 3 •O R & A 1 5 2 10 21 17 26 12 30 24 32 20 19 17 F 0 1 1 1 5 7 8 8 11 19 6 9 5 4 3 1 1 10 9 B 1 4 6 21 14 19 45 38 40 49 48 60 37 35 G 0 0 0 2 6 II 5 7 7 4 6 4 7 4 0 0 1 10 14 C 0 0 0 0 2 42227 17 532 H 0 0 1 6 5 8 9 9 11 10 8 8 4 5 1 1 0 1 c FIGURE 69.—Proportional frequency polygons for flake angle (/3) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 79 TABLE 20.—Summary statistics of axial angle (degrees) for total unit assemblages 2 Unit N X , s A 287 9-19 52 97 7.28 B 458 8.55 45.68 6.76 F 91 6.75 26 77 5.17 G 62 7.56 43 50 6.60 H 87 7.62 30.15 5.49 - •" CN CN CO CO CO co CO CM ,_ ,_ _ _ ,_ _ - « V. J2 M is, CN CN in CO O CO •o co CO CO CN 3 -N CO CO CO A 5 62 69 39 36 16 24 10 14 6 4 2 0 0 F 8 19 26 12 10 8 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 B 32 75 104 75 66 41 28 II 15 4 3 0 2 2 G 4 22 5 12 5 5 5 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 C I 12 21 9 2 0 I 110 0 0 0 0 H 4 14 28 15 8 10 4 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 FIGURE 70.—Proportional frequency polygons for axial angle (a) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. 80 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 21.—Summary statistics of distal edge angle (degrees) for total unit assemblages 2 Unit N X s s A 159 45.22 428.27 20.69 B 367 32.82 386.22 19.65 F 79 45.94 337.87 18.38 G 75 53.00 345.95 18.60 H 71 44.36 359.95 18.97 a .30 .30 25 .25 .20 .20 .15 .15 .10 .10 .05 _J1 m m m m m m m m m — CN CN CO m CO 0 i - Ml 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •0 •0 O >o •o 0 FIGURE 71.—Histograms of distal edge angle (SD) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 81 TABLE 22.—Summary statistics of left lateral edge angle (degrees) for total unit assemblages 2 Unit H X R s A 347 39-97 299.13 17 29 B 717 32 99 229.80 15 15 F 138 37 06 238.22 15 43 G 122 43 27 328.83 18 13 H 135 4o 03 250.56 15 82 b .30 a .30 .25 .25 .20 .20 .15 .15 .10 05 — CN r- CN w ui to m m ui m m CN CO A O 19 84 76 67 77 76 29 5 0 F 0 II 42 38 27 33 B I 90 217 208 128 89 41 21 II 4 G 0 7 21 28 25 33 C 0 6 9 20 II 18 19 3 0 0 H 0 9 35 36 33 41 FIGURE 72.—Histograms of left lateral edge angle (8L) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. 82 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 23.—Summary statistics of right lateral edge angle (degrees) for total unit assemblages Unit N X ^2 s A 344 4o.o4 278.21 16.67 B 708 33.il 223.73 14.95 F 138 38.84 249.01 15.78 G 119 45.37 367.86 19.18 H 134 39.44 258.52 16.07 a b .30 .30 .25 .25 .20 .20 .15 .15 .10 .10 .05 .05 • Ul m Ul Ul Ul Ul Ul Ul ui CN CO Ul K CO VI 7 1 1 «0 1 + i m' m' Ul ui ui ui >ri ui CN (O T ui O K 00 A 0 16 67 74 84 80 Ul 31 2 F 0 10 32 41 32 26 15 9 I 60 4 G I 7 16 32 25 26 24 10 6 f B 0 79 202 222 123 90 21 10 43 3 H 0 6 36 46 27 32 23 5 2 c 0 5 9 1 1 14 21 6 2 H 0 FIGURE 73.—Histograms of right lateral edge angle (SR) by area: a, Area I; b, Area II. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 83 TABLE 24.—Summary statistics for unit assemblages not used in TABLE 25.—Modal (M) and range (R) values for analysis (see text for explanation of variables) maximum width and thickness positions in units not used in analysis Variable Unit N X s2 s W T Unit max max L C 117 34.07 239.68 15.48 M R M R E 203 31.68 194.43 13.94 FH 77 30.18 135.33 11.63 C 3 0 4 2 0-4 KG 49 34.05 255.67 15.99 J 53 30.38 212.08 14.56 E 2 0 - 4 1 0 - 4 Y 223 33.31 194.97 13.96 I 95 27.80 126.67 11.25 FH 3 0 4 3 0 4 W C 117 27.08 121.08 11.00 KG 3 0 4 1 0 - 4 E 202 25.63 81.48 9.03 FH 77 25.93 112.19 10.59 J 3 0 - 5 1 0 4 KG 49 25.86 91.47 9.56 J 53 26.82 135.21 11.63 Y 3 0 4 1 0 - 5 Y 223 27.52 73.63 8.58 I 95 24.85 53.17 7.29 I 3 0 4 3 0-4 T C 117 6.33 9.55 3.09 E 203 5.53 12.09 3.48 FH 77 5.87 25.97 5.10 KG 49 5.61 9.49 3.08 J 53 6.11 6.46 2.54 normal distributions are assumed; (3) each variable Y 223 6.34 8.77 2.96 exhibits similar ranges of variation among the units; I 95 5.41 4.95 2.23 (4) among units, modal intervals of linear variables are C no more than one unit apart; (5) angular variables Pt 53 3.83 9.01 3.00 E 89 2.36 1.57 1.25 vary in modality, and edge angles tend to bimodality FH 37 3.29 5.55 2.36 but, except in the case of SD for which Unit C has few KG 18 2.32 4.77 2.18 observations, this tendency is not pronounced and will J 26 3.60 3.84 1.96 Y 116 3.34 4.88 2.21 be ignored in the initial screening tests; and (6) the I 38 2.63 2.32 1.52 position of maximum width is uniformly in the distal half of specimens, that of maximum thickness varies 8 C 47 66.30 92.61 9.62 E 85 59.98 208.29 14.43 more markedly but tends to be in the proximal half of FH 35 69.69 177.46 13.32 specimens. KG 18 59.94 185.23 13.61 J 21 65.38 187.25 13.68 Y 98 64.95 190.96 13.82 CATEGORY DESCRIPTIONS I 37 61.54 141.53 11.90 6D C 39 53.72 311.47 17.65 Three major specimen categories are isolated; they E 106 47.22 435.28 20.86 become the units of investigation in important parts of FH 39 43.59 369.67 19.23 KG 31 49.52 428.93 20.71 the analysis: unmodified flakes, utilized flakes, and tools. J 23 55.00 504.55 22.46 The last category is further divided into three subcate Y 78 54.23 403.95 20.10 gories: distal edge tools, single (lateral) edge tools, and I 49 52.96 290.54 17.05 double (lateral) edge tools. Two other categories of tools are defined, tips and notches, but are handled separately 6L C 86 42.09 253.80 15.93 E 170 41.79 371.47 19.27 in the analysis. A series of specimens assigned to each FH 60 40.50 333.64 18.27 category is illustrated in Figures 74-80. KG 36 39.03 336.89 18.35 J 44 41.93 200.25 14.15 UNMODIFIED FLAKES.—Specimens that exhibit no Y 170 48.29 330.85 18.19 macroscopic evidence of retouch or use (Figure 74). I 81 43.58 306.40 17.50 UTILIZED FLAKES.—Specimens which exhibit wear and damage but no retouch (Figure 75). 5R C 79 44.18 291.30 17.07 E 167 40.69 354.79 18.84 TOOLS.—Specimens whose shapes have been purpose FH 53 39.62 396.01 19.90 fully altered by retouch: (1) distal edge tools: specimens KG 41 36.34 341.28 18.47 with retouch on essentially all of the distal edge (they 16.52 J 40 43.63 273.06 may also have lateral retouch) (Figure 76); (2) single Y 166 51.48 331.90 18.22 I 85 45.18 302.05 17.38 edge tools: specimens with retouch on one lateral edge 84 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 K V FIGURE 74.—Representative specimens of unmodified flakes. (One-half actual size.) FIGURE 76.—Representative specimens of distal edge tools. (One-half actual size.) MS. , I "N -•-• f FIGURE 75.—Representative specimens of utilized flakes. FIGURE 77.—Representative specimens of single edge tools. (One-half actual size.) (One-half actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 85 (part of the distal edge may be involved) (Figure 77); (3) double edge tools: specimens with retouch on both lateral edges (again, part of the distal edge may be involved) (Figure 78). TIPS (Figure 79) AND NOTCHES (Figure 80).—Tools whose principal functional components are sharp, pointed projections or rounded concavities. Such attributes are considered to be accessory forms and are analyzed in a manner different from that used for other categories. Figures 81-90 and Tables 27-36 contain the sum mary descriptions of the category data. Platform width is not included among the variables because, as has been mentioned, it is redundant with platform thickness. Table 37 tabulates the statistics for tips and notches. The important characteristics are: (1) all are based upon large numbers of observations; (2) values for all vari ables, without exception, are distributed unimodally; (3) the different categories have different modal inter vals and ranges for most of the variables; and (4) the position of maximum width tends to fall in the distal ends of specimens while that of maximum thickness is concentrated proximally for all categories except distal edge tools. FIGURE 79.—Representative specimens of tips. (One-half actual size.) SPECIAL DESCRIPTIONS Several specimens deserve special descriptive attention because they exhibit certain features that are uncommon FIGURE 78.—Representative specimens of double edge tools. FIGURE 80.—Representative specimens of notches. (One-half actual size.) (One-half actual size.) 86 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 26.—Frequency of occurrence of categories and distribution of attribute values by units (A0 = Unit A excluding unmodified flakes, B0 = Unit B excluding unmodified flakes) B H Category Unmodified flakes.. 227 0.38 691 0.66 13 0.07 7 0.04 20 0.09 Utilized flakes.... 106 0.18 149 0.14 56 0.28 41 0.23 61 0.29 106 0.29 149 0.43 Distal edge tools.. 51 0.08 31 0.03 38 0.19 36 0.20 34 0.16 51 0.14 31 0.09 Single edge tools.. 103 0.17 0.08 45 0.23 47 0.27 44 0.21 103 0.28 0.25 Double edge tools.. 79 0.13 58 0.05 22 0.11 27 0.15 27 0.13 79 0.22 58 0.14 Tip 26 0.04 20 0.02 15 0.08 15 0.08 18 0.08 26 0.07 20 0.06 Notch 0 1 <0.05 4 0.02 1 <0.05 5 0.02 1 <0.05 Indeterminate 0 10 1 2 0 0 Channel flakes 96 57 87 210 106 Bifaces 64 43 26 37 19 Nl 592 1038 193 174 209 365 347 Fragment Whole 240 0.42 372 0.36 66 0.34 71 0.41 60 0.28 Proximal 134 0.23 282 0.27 46 0.23 46 0.26 46 0.22 Medial 59 0.10 126 0.12 19 0.10 8 0.04 28 0.13 Distal 108 0.19 131 0.13 40 0.20 26 0.15 53 0.25 Lateral 32 0.05 112 0.11 24 0.12 23 0.13 23 0.11 Indeterminate 22 26 1 3 0 N2 573 1023 195 174 210 Platform preparation Flat 173 0.59 274 0.60 50 0.57 37 0.55 48 0.58 Transverse 109 0.37 155 0.34 38 0 43 27 0.40 32 0.39 Lateral 4 0.01 20 0.04 0 3 0.04 2 0.02 Multiple 6 0.02 5 0.01 0 0 0 Indeterminate 55 42 4 22 6 N2 292 454 88 67 82 Platform erosion None 216 0.38 233 0 25 77 0.39 29 0.25 79 0 38 Thinned 128 0.22 261 0 28 19 0.10 64 0.55 24 0 11 Removed 230 0.40 421 0 46 99 0.51 23 0.20 107 0 51 Indeterminate 12 6 0 1 0 N2 574 915 195 116 210 Platform treatment None 89 0.31 151 0.32 20 0.21 15 0.20 14 0.16 Abrasion 188 0.66 273 0.57 51 0.54 56 0.74 55 0.62 Crushing 7 0.02 52 0.10 23 0.24 5 0.06 19 0.21 Indeterminate 67 20 0 13 0 N2 284 476 94 76 88 Termination Hinge 2 <0.05 2 <0.05 0 0 1 <0.05 Incurve 222 0.59 474 0.68 88 0.85 113 0.66 73 0.66 Straight 97 0.26 151 0.21 10 0.10 40 0.23 27 0.24 Outcurve 51 0.14 69 0.10 6 0.05 17 0.10 9 0.08 Step • 1 <0.05 0 0 0 0 Indeterminate • 29 222 92 6 99 2 N 373 696 104 170 110 iTotal excludes indeterminate specimens, channel flakes, and bifaces. 2Total excludes indeterminate specimens. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 87 TABLE 27.—Summary statistics of length (mm) by category a .30 ,.2 Category N X s Unmodified flakes.... 1007 26.10 102.1*9 10.12 Utilized flakes 639 32.77 206.ou lfc.35 .25 Distal edge tools.... 327 31.02 7U.95 8.65 Single edge tools.... 509 31*.85 253.26 15.91 Double edge tools.... 283 U0.31 ski. l£> 18.1*7 .20 .15 .10 .05 / ) m m tn ui in m •/) NI -8 5 — 9 5 — 7 5 -11 5 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 -10 5 in m m m m m in in m •o 00 FIGURE 81.—Proportional frequency polygons for length •- « co at m 105 . (L) by category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized flakes; c, f 0 0 24 589 287 105 30 II 3 2 1 0 1 tools. b .30 .25 .20 .15 .10 .C5 m in m m m m m m •> in in in m •- w CO m -o CD 0- o K 1 NI 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + -5 5 1 + 1 — 2 5 1-4 5 i ! T 1-3 5 1 1-8 5 1-10 5 1-11 5 m m m m m m m m IT) m m m in m m m in CN m T m •o s. 00 0- O 11 « in IN 00 o 0 5 71 166 68 II 7 1 0 0 0 0 "o 1 0 24 196 199 1*9 S6 23 6 3 5 0 3 0 0 38 117 134 99 73 30 15 5 1 0 2 0 f 0 6 65 66 43 46 33 13 8 3 4 0 0 88 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 28.—Summary statistics of width (mm) by category 2 .30 a Category N X s s Unmodified flakes.... 1007 24.35 86.59 9.30 Utilized flakes 639 26.83 102.23 10.11 Distal edge tools.... 326 27.Ol* 29.51 5.43 Single edge tools.... 509 29.23 125.04 11.18 Double edge tools.... 282 30.10 114.12 10.68 — « « m w * 1- m in 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + •n 0 in 0 in 0 in o in 6 o FIGURE 82.—Proportional frequency polygons for width .- — « c>« co m m •o (W) by category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized flakes, c, 5 128 263 274 171 101 46 29 17 8 5 5 tools. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 89 TABLE 29.—Summary statistics of maximum width position by category (N = number of observations, M = modal interval, R = range .48 with at least one recorded observation) a .42 Category N M R Unmodified flakes.... 998 3 U - 5 .36 Utilized flakes 635 3 'J - 5 Distal edge tools.... 328 3 u - 5 .30 Single edge tools . 509 3 0 - 5 Double edge tools.... 282 3 0 - 5 .24 .18 .12 .06 i i 0 12 3 4 5 FIGURE 83.—Graphs of frequency of maximum width posi 0 46 233 265 339 92 3 tion (Wmai) by category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized f flakes; c, tools. .36 .30 .24 _o_ 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 12 3 4 3 6 21 26 226 46 1 37 122 175 220 78 3 4 42 113 124 183 46 5 10 59 67 109 34 90 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 30.—Summary statistics of thickness (mm) by category 2 a Category N X s Unmodified flakes.... 1006 4.80 7.09 2.66 Utilized flakes 638 5-90 14.93 3.8b Distal edge tools.... 327 6.92 I*.?1* 2.17 Single edge tools.— 509 6.35 12.27 3.50 Double edge tools.... 283 7.05 IO.58 3.25 .20 .10 •c — <— ex I I + >- « *- FIGURE 84.—Proportional frequency polygons for thickness (T) by category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized flakes; o 2 810 203 29 5 c, tools. b .60 .50 .40 .30 1 1 .20 \ .10 w- -c *- o p- NI 1 7 7 7 + — >o — -o *- •" •" « 127 169 10 2 1 0 432 178 26 13 4 295 189 22 7 f 134 125 22 5 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 91 TABLE 31.—Summary statistics of maximum thickness position by category (N = number of observations, M = modal interval, R = .48 range with at least one recorded observation) a .42 Category N M K Unmodified flakes.... 991 1 0 - 1* .36 631 1 0 - 1* Distal edge tools.... 328 3 0-5 .30 Single edge tools.... 507 1 u - 5 Double edge tools.... 280 1 u - 4 .24 .18 .12 .06 1 ll 3 4 ' 0 1 2 5 FIGURE 85.—Graphs of frequency of maximum thickness f 0 57 497 235 171 31 0 position (Tm»i) by category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized flakes; c, tools. .18 5 83 61 149 30 0 40 192 114 137 22 2 13 115 46 92 14 0 92 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 32.—Summary statistics of platform thickness (mm) by category Category a Unmodified flakes. .. 1*98 2.62 3.71* 1.93 Utilized flakes 319 2.88 3.94 1.98 Distal edge tools... 11*1* 3.04 2.58 1.60 Single edge tools... 189 3.51 6.47 2.54 Double edge tools... 100 2.90 2.57 1.60 t- CO « K O- "- H 1 1 n + - B «i |y » ' FIGURE 86.—Proportional frequency polygons for platform thickness (Pt) by category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized o 30 366 77 31 13 6 3 flakes; c, tools. .40 .20 — co 3 0 89 38 17 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 1 13 217 65 15 13 4 2 0 4 2 119 33 25 5 6 2 0 0 10 51 66 29 4 30 00 00 0 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 93 TABLE 33.—Summary statistics of flake angle (degrees) by category 2 Category N X E Unmodified flakes.... 1*57 63.27 173.31 13 16 301 64.20 188.44 13 72 Distal edge tools.... 134 65.17 11+2.81* 11 95 Single edge tools.... 180 64.61* 206.40 lit .36 Double edge tools.... 94 62.71 136.14 11 66 FIGURE 87.—Proportional frequency polygons for flake angle (/3) by category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized flakes; c, tools. CO K — fl s >• HI CO K — m O CO ui CO m CO K CO CO CO m in m m in N K K * m •o K oo 00 » + VI w- w- •- pi pi pi pi pi pi PL ™ i-' ui »' ff dl «* ii rf ro' N.' *-' ui »' PI K »" »in- .C-O ~- ~m CO rs CO K co ro ro v\ •n m •o K r» 00 R 00 » 0 0 1 2 7 8 15 9 18 17 1 l 16 16 7 4 4 0 9 21 27 36 23 19 27 41 32 17 27 11 10 4 1 4 2 6 13 12 14 8 18 22 17 19 19 10 8 6 3 0 2 0 1 5 9 8 II 14 1 1 14 4 8 7 1 1 0 94 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 34.—Summary statistics of distal edge angle 37 (degrees) by category a 2 .30 Category N X s « Unmodified flakes.... 326 25 92 169.15 13 00 .25 Utilized flakes 228 36 57 386.92 19 67 Distal edge tools.••• 309 64 09 102.91 10 14 Single edge tools.... 178 1*6 03 325.89 18 05 .20 Double edge tools.... 131 53 01 343.72 18.54 .15 .10 .05 U) m Ul m u» u» u» Ul Ul CO m -0 K 00 j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + \\ uT» Ul •n in in Ul ul ui in* ro Ul •O K 00 0 1 93 126 58 38 17 3 2 0 1 FIGURE 88.—Histograms of distal edge angle (5D) by f category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized flakes; c, tools. b .30 .25 .20 .15 .10 .05 .05 J m Ul ui m Ul Ul CM CO ui r* 00 1 1 J. 1 1 1 + % m in Ul m Ul ui Ul Ul Ul w~ r< CO «f ul •0 K 00 "• en 3 0 I 0 4 61 140 1 2 31 53 47 35 32 13 10 5 6 24 f 4 0 6 40 35 29 5 0 5 12 20 28 30 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 95 TABLE 35.—Summary statistics of left lateral edge angle (degrees) by category 2 Category N X a Unmodified flakes 781* 30.1*5 181 23 13 1*6 .25 Utilized flakes 500 35.84 233 26 15 27 Distal edge tools . 271 55.77 214 77 14.65 Single edge tools.... 381 1*5.80 21*8 90 15 77 .20 Double edge tools.... 247 54.26 165 60 12 86 .15 Ml I FIGURE 89.—Histograms of left lateral edge angle (5L) by 272 223 120 category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized flakes; c, tools. 3 0 2 10 39 67 78 47 10 4 0 10 46 64 96 69 25 5 5 0 2 4 48 77 66 31 5 96 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 36.—Summary statistics of right lateral edge angle (degrees) by category a 2 .30 Category N X s s Unmodified flakes 743 31.03 190.18 13 .79 .25 503 35.63 242'. 73 15.58 Distal edge tools.-.. 264 54.37 238.87 15 1*5 Single edge tools.... 379 1*8.00 247.94 15 74 .20 Double edge tools.... 240 53.66 190.1*7 13 80 .15 .10 .05 Ul ui ui ui ui m ui CO T Ul •0 00 j 1 1 1 1 •* « 1 1 1 1 + Ul Ul ui ui ui ui Ul Ul "™ at Ul •O 00 FIGURE 90.—Histograms of right lateral edge angle («5n) r* ro by category: a, unmodified flakes; b, utilized flakes; c, t 0 4 97 242 223 114 57 25 10 2 2 tools. b .30 .30 .25 .25 .20 .20 .15 .10 .05 I Ul m m m ui ui ui Ul CM CO Ul •0 K 00 SI 1 pi ,i 1 pi pi ,i + ; Ul m ui ui ui ui U) Ul CM CO t in >o K 00 4 66 58 45 8 f 1 5 41 1 12 144 98 63 32 12 4 3 30 55 76 100 70 32 6 6 2 I 39 57 28 7 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 97 TABLE 37.—Dimensions of tips and notches, all units pooled (see text for explanation of variables; N = total number of observations; i = interval size; mid = interval midpoint, same for all three edge angles; n = number of specimens in an interval; p = n/N) Variable N i TIPS L 129 10 mid - 15.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 n 8 51 41 21 7 1 0 0 P 0.06 0.39 0.31 0.16 0.05 W 129 5 mid - 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 n 2 21 32 35 17 11 7 4 P 0.01 0.16 0.24 0.27 0.13 0.08 0.05 0.03 W 122 1 0 max mid - 1 2 3 4 5 n 3 34 38 41 6 0 P 0.02 0.27 0.31 0.33 0.04 T 129 5 mid 1.0 6.0 11.0 16.0 21.0 a 0 117 12 0 0 P 0.90 0.09 T 122 1 mid 0 max 1 2 3 4 5 8 61 32 16 5 0 P 0.06 0.50 0.26 0.13 0.04 2 Pt 51 mid - 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 n 1 44 6 0 0 P 0.01 0.86 0.11 6 47 4 mid 43.0 47.0 51.0 55.0 59.0 63.0 67.0 71.0 75.0 79.0 83.0 87.0 i> 3 3 7 3 7 5 4 2 4 2 6 1 P 0.06 0.06 0.14 0.06 0.14 0.10 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.12 0.02 «D 63 10 mid - 7.5 17.5 27.5 37.5 47.5 57.5 67.5 77.5 n 5 12 9 8 12 8 7 2 P 0.08 0.19 0.14 0.12 0.19 0.12 0.11 0.03 „ 6L 102 10 5 22 24 20 13 11 6 1 P = 0.04 0.21 0.23 0.19 0.12 0.10 0.05 0.01 *R 100 10 n 8 21 27 12 6 12 9 5 P 0.08 0.21 0.27 0.12 0.06 0.12 0.09 0.05 NOTCHES L 27 10 mid 15.0 25.0 35.a 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 n • 1 8 6 6 3 2 1 0 P = 0.03 0.29 0.22 0.22 0.11 0.07 0.03 W 27 5 mid 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 n 0 4 4 4 8 6 1 0 P — 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.29 0.22 0.03 w 27 1 mid 0 1 2 3 4 5 max n 2 13 5 6 1 0 P 0.07 0.48 0.18 0.22 0.03 T 27 5 mid 1.0 6.0 11.0 16.0 21.0 n 0 18 8 1 0 P 0.66 0.29 0.03 T 27 1 mid 0 1 2 3 4 5 max n 1 12 6 7 1 0 0.25 P 0.03 0.44 0.22 0.03 Pt 15 2 mid 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 n 1 10 2 1 1 P 0.06 0.66 0.13 0.06 0.06 6 14 4 mid 43.0 47.0 51.0 55.0 59.0 63.0 67.0 71.0 75.0 79.0 83.0 87.0 n 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 0 1 1 P 0.06 0.13 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.13 0.13 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 10 10 mid 7.5 17.5 27.5 37.5 47.5 57.5 67.5 77.5 6D n 0 4 0 0 0 3 3 0 P — 0.36 — — 0.32 0.32 — 4 4 1 3 6T 23 10 u 0 4 5 2 L P = — 0.17 0.22 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.04 0.13 6„ 21 10 n 0 0 4 7 5 3 2 0 R P 0.19 0.33 0.24 0.14 0.09 98 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 tion that mimics retouch and is the result of cutting hard materials. Specimen 2240 (Figure 91c) appears to have attained its present shape through post-detachment break age, whether intentional or not is difficult to determine. The edges exhibit wear damage similar to that just described. Both specimens, along with others that are similar, have been assigned to the utilized flake category. A series of distal edge tools of the sort usually called endscrapers is depicted in Figure 92. All of these speci mens have been truncated laterally at their distal ends by burin-like blows which have removed parts of the specimens. Shafer (1970) has observed identical scars on end scrapers from late prehistoric sites in Texas; he FIGURE 91.—Manufacturing splits: a, 455, ventral face; b, 455, dorsal face; c, 2240. (Actual size.) suggests that they result from attempts to resharpen dulled tool edges. This seems a reasonable interpretation. Truncations of specimens E82 (Figure 92a) and G548 in the assemblage. These descriptions are strictly impres (Figure 92c) were unsuccessful; not only did the de sionistic and are not claimed to possess the rigor of tached spalls fail to remove the entire end of the pieces, those just presented. but they also undercut the ventral surface, thereby ren Figure 91 displays two specimens that I have labeled, dering those edges functionally useless. Specimen G914 for convenience of reference, "splits." Specimens of this (Figure 926) was apparently successfully rejuvenated. sort are quite rare in the unifacial inventory but are The distal edge appears to be functionally effective morphologically (and probably technologically and (So = 60°), and, as it exhibits wear damage, to have functionally) analogous to the more common point-splits been used. Items G492, (Figure 92d), and G420 (Fig discussed on pp. 105-107 (Figure 102). Item 455 (Fig ure 92e) are spalls that were removed from end scrapers. ure 91a, b) was probably produced during the flaking G492 and G420 undercut the specimens from which process. At the instant of detachment a flake is some they were removed and, presumably, failed to increase times longitudinally split in this way when the impact the effectiveness of the tools from which they were contact between percussor and platform is uneven; struck. Notice that G420 records multiple attempts to hinge termination is present and is also characteristic truncate, and presumably to rejunvenate, a tool; two of this type of flaking failure. Notice that both lateral incomplete scars appear on its distal end while the edges exhibit wear damage. The steep left edge displays proximal end is, itself, a truncation scar. tiny nibbling scars (Figure 91&), while the more acute Several examples of specimens that were reused after right edge (8K = 50°) displays the type of wear reduc breaking are illustrated in Figure 93. Specimen G913/ FIGURE 92.—Endscrapers resharpened by laterally applied burin-like blows: a, E82; b, G914; c, G548; d, G492; e, G420. (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 99 F274 (Figure 93a) is a distal edge tool that was broken either by a misdirected blow of the sort just described or by some other means. The larger portion of this speci men was reused on both lateral margins, and possibly on the distal-right lateral corner. The left edge, reduced exactly twice as much (2.65 mm) as the right, may have undergone two cycles of renewal. Specimen 223/1203, a double edge tool, was reduced by 2.6 mm on the left lateral edge (Figure 936). Compare the sizes of these reductions with Frison's (1968:152) estimate that uni facial resharpening should remove somewhat less than 2 mm from an edge. G611/G1065 (Figure 93c) and 960a/960b (Figure 93d) are utilized flakes, which were extensively reused on at least two edges after they were broken. Several tools that resemble classical paleolithic types are illustrated in Figure 94. The four specimens shown in Figure 94a-d are morphologically like burins in that they possess essentially planar, narrow surfaces on one or two edges. These have narrow segments that intersect with the adjacent surfaces of the specimens at approxi mately 90 degrees. They were produced by blows directed into the body of the specimen rather than by glancing off a surface, as is done in ordinary flaking. These four specimens comprise the entire number of burins in the collection. All display wear reduction either at the inter section of two spall planes or on one of their lateral edges. Specimen 1062 (Figure 94a) is a utilized flake with multiple burin scars; principal evidence of wear is along one spall edge. A specimen from the Big Pit (Figure 946) has a single spall scar which exhibits nibbling wear on its tip. Artifact 1947 (Figure 94c) is a utilized flake with both burin and tip accessory forms. This specimen displays wear damage on three unmodified edges as well as on one burin spall edge. Specimen 635 (Figure 94a*) is also a utilized flake with burin accessory. Wear damage is present on both lateral edges and along the spall edges on the proximal end of the specimen. Figure 94e—g shows three specimens that resemble tools of the kind called "limace" in the French termi nology; there are four or five (the number depends upon one's classificatory predilections) other examples in the collection. These items have been assigned to the double edge tool category. All share the same characteristics: flat or slightly convex ventral surfaces, strongly rounded, high dorsal surfaces, steep edge angles, and narrow width. They are all also strongly worn; all display a series of step fractured wear scars along at least one lateral edge. Specimen 220 has, in addition, very heavy abrasion on the left lateral edge (Figure 94«). Both 220 and 965 (Figure 94/) also have tiny, longitudinally directed FIGURE 93.—Specimens displaying evidence of reuse after breaking: a, G913/F274; b, 223/1203; c, G611/G1065; d, 960a/960b. nibbling scars on their proximal ends. Item 1558 (Figure (Actual size.) 94g) displays heavy abrasion on its proximal tip. 100 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 FIGURE 94.—Specimens resembling classical paleolithic types: a, 1062; b, USNM 443821; c, 1947, rf,635; ^220;/, 965; g, 1558. (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 101 Channel Flakes superimposed upon the lateral pattern on the proximal ends. Specimens with longitudinal scars are largely con Channel flakes are produced during the process of fined to Units F, G, H, and Y (Table 40). Figure 95a, fluting; they are the flakes whose removal leaves rela b illustrates lateral scarring and Figure 95c, d longi tively long, narrow, longitudinal scars on the surfaces tudinally superimposed scars. of fluted points. There are 948 of these flakes in the Lindenmeier collection; they are described in Tables 38 and 39, which include the distribution of these speci mens among units. Channel flakes break easily; there is only one unbroken specimen in the entire collection. Crabtree (1966:3) describes several techniques for fluting and concludes that the one of those which is most consistently successful tends to produce channel flakes that break into two or three pieces at the moment of detachment. These flakes are also extraordinarily thin (less than 2 mm in average thickness) and, no doubt, break readily after detachment. Thus, channel flake length can be expected to be a function of breaking propensity while width and thickness should be more FIGURE 95.—Channel flakes with lateral (a, b) and longitudinal 3 related to selection for certain dimensions during the (c, d) dorsal scars: a, HE; b, E102; c, 9C ; d, 90C\ (Actual size.) flaking process. Although channel flakes are generally quite uniform Bifacial Specimens in appearance, dorsal scars display two alternative pat terns (Figure 95). Most specimens are characterized In this study, bifacial specimens are considered to be solely by scars that are laterally oriented across the dorsal those upon which secondary flaking covers essentially face, but about 15% display longitudinally directed scars the entire surfaces of both faces. Retouch confined to edges or wear damage does not admit a specimen to this TABLE 38.—Summary statistics for channel class, which consists of two categories: (1) relatively flakes (mm) by unit large ovoid specimens that are usually called bifaces, and (2) projectile points. Points will be considered separately. Variable Unit N X s L A 93 20.35 7.54 BIFACES B 56 19.09 4.29 C 25 21.79 15.66 There are 241 bifaces in the collection. They are de X 25 17.92 4.09 F 85 19.24 6.59 scribed in Table 41. Figures 96 and 97 display a repre G 209 17.77 5.30 sentative series of these artifacts. Their distribution among H 105 18.53 6.35 the site units has been tabulated in Table 26. This too Y 205 15.75 5.56 is a remarkably uniform category. All variables are strongly unimodal in value distribution, and range of W A 93 16.41 2.77 variation is small. B 56 16.26 2.72 C 25 15.26 3.28 As is true for all other categories in the assemblage, X 25 15.54 7.96 bifaces were often resharpened and reused. Figure 98 F 85 14.69 2.60 illustrates this fact. Figure 98a shows a specimen that G 209 14.69 2.68 H 105 15.37 3.89 was sharpened after breaking. The larger half of this Y 205 14.06 2.54 specimen has also been used. Figure 986 shows a speci men that was probably broken during manufacture. The T A 93 1.71 0.42 break has the usual sinusoidal surface and deep edge scar B 56 1.95 0.35 characteristic of production failure. The smaller section C 25 1.92 1.32 of the specimen bears no evidence of wear damage. X 25 1.58 0.44 F 85 1.86 0.49 The artifact shown as Figure 98c, unlike most other G 209 1.94 0.67 specimens, was used on its broken edge. H 105 1.88 0.39 Y 205 1.85 0.40 Specimen 783/929 (Figure 98a) has been reduced by 4 mm on the left edge and by 5.85 mm on the right. 102 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 39.—Channel flake attributes by unit (N = total for unit, indeterminate specimens excluded; n = total for stratum; p = n/N) Attribute n p n p Material Chalcedony.... 0.66 26 0.47 50 0.65 122 0.60 53 0.56 Cortex 0.08 0 4 0.05 12 0.06 2 0.02 Jasper '0.26 27 0.49 23 0.30 63 0.31 38 0.40 Quartzite 2 0.04 0 4 0.02 0 Indeterminate. 1 8 7 10 N 55 77 202* 95* Fragment Whole 0 0 0 0 0 Proximal 15 0.16 18 0.32 18 0.23 41 0.21 24 0.23 Medial 75 0.81 36 0.64 59 0.74 144 0.74 79 0.75 Distal 3 0.03 2 0.04 3 0.04 9 0.05 2 0.02 Indeterminate. 0 0 5 15 0 N 93 56 80 194 105 Platform prep aration Flat 0 1 0.09 0 0 3 0.16 Transverse... 9 1.00 10 0.90 14 1.00 26 0.90 16 0.84 Lateral 0 0 0 3 0.10 0 Indeteminate. 6 7 4 10 4 N 9 11 14 29 19 Platform erosion None 12 0.80 8 0.47 5 0.28 27 0.75 6 0.60 Thinned 3 0.20 4 0.24 13 0.72 8 0.22 2 0.20 Removed 0 5 0.29 0 1 0.03 2 0.20 Indeterminate.. 0 0 0 3 0 N 15 17 18 36 10 Platform treat ment None 0 0 0 0 2 0.10 Abrasion 13 1.00 10 1.00 16 1.00 32 1.00 18 0.90 Indeterminate. 2 1 2 6 1 N 13 10 16 32 20 aContains one oolite specimen ^Includes two oolite specimens The amount of reduction on G1026/G1036 cannot be these, 59 are whole Folsom fluted points and 184 others measured exactly but, by interpolation from the unbroken are fragments of fluted points; 79 are whole or fragmen parts of the left edge, appears to be about 3 mm. Frison tary unfluted points; 323 are preforms or parts of pre (1968:152) calculates 3-4 mm to be the amount of forms. In addition to the later point forms already de reduction produced by each cycle of bifacial retouch; scribed (pp. 61-62), 20 fluted points were found on these specimens fall into the ranges expected for one the surface by members of the Smithsonian expedition; and two cycles of use and rejuvenation. there are perhaps 150 points from the Lindenmeier sur face in private collections. Point landmarks, attributes, and locations of measurement axe depicted in Figure 99. PROJECTILE POINTS Point variable definitions are as follows. LENGTH (L) .—Maximum longitudinal dimension There are a total of 645 lanceolate projectile point from tip to a line constructed between the basal tangs specimens in the excavated Lindemeier collection. Of of the point. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 103 TABLE 40.—Channel flake dorsal scar patterns by unit (N = total for unit, indeterminate specimens excluded; n = total for stratum; p = n/N) Unit Longi tudinal Lateral Indeterminate N n P n P n A 0 82 1.00 5 82 B 3 0.06 48 0.94 0 51 C 0 22 1.00 1 22 X 1 0.20 4 0.80 18 5 F 17 0.25 52 0.75 5 69 G 30 0.17 145 0.83 18 175 H 17 0.19 76 0.81 0 93 Y 33 0.17 143 0.83 0 176 TIP LENGTH (LT).—Longitudinal distance from tip RETOUCH PATTERN.—The form of retouch flake to a line drawn between location on both edges where arrangement along edges: ranked, lapped, alternating. tip curvature is tangent to sides of specimen. This dimen RETOUCH DIRECTION.—The angular measurement sion is not taken when point profiles do not show defin between specimen edge and retouch scar axis. able transitions at tip. BASE LENGTH (LB).—Longitudinal dimension from EDGE ABRASION.—Blunting of edges in proximal re gion. end of basal tangs to a line drawn between points of curvature change at proximal sections. The same restric In order to facilitate description and reference, point tions apply as do for LT. specimens have been divided into several subcategories, PROXIMAL LENGTH (P).—Longitudinal depth of basal which are based upon state of manufacturing complete concavity. ness and condition of the specimen. Specimens found WIDTH (W).—Maximum width of a point. on the surface and those in private collections do not TIP JUNCTURE WIDTH (WTJ).—Width at LT. enter into the descriptions that follow and play no part BASE JUNCTURE WIDTH (WBJ).—Width at LB. in subsequent analyses. PROXIMAL WIDTH (WP).—Width at proximal end of point. RIDGE THICKNESS (TR).-—Thickness at edge of flute Preforms scar. SCAR THICKNESS (TS).—Thickness at scar surfaces. Lanceolate specimens with flutes on one or both sides SCAR LENGTH (SL).—Length of flute scar visible on but which are obviously not finished projectile points point. V is ventral side; D is dorsal side. have come, conventionally, to be called preforms (Figure SCAR WIDTH (SW).—Maximum width of flute scar. 100). They are thought to represent intermediate stages Point attributes are defined: in the conversion of a blank flake into a point. This con SHAPE.—Curvature of edge profile. Points are divided vention is followed in this study. Roberts, however, called into three sections along their lengths; two of these are such specimens "Folsom knives." associated with the dimensions LT (tip) and LB (base). It is not my purpose to investigate the processes by The body of a point lies between these sections and the which Folsom points were manufactured. Crabtree basal portion is the proximal edge. Left and right edges (1966), especially, has conducted experiments into the are distinguished. Shape values are coded (1) deeply matter, and others, notably Roberts (1935b) and Witt- convex, (2) slightly convex, (3) straight, (4) slightly hoft (1952), have inferentially constructed stages of concave, and (5) deeply concave. fluted point manufacture from empirical evidence. The RETOUCH TYPE.—The form of edge retouch flakes: preform data presented in Table 42 are designed to assist expanding, parallel, contracting. others whose interest lies in the technology of fluted 104 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 wm FIGURE 96.—Representative bifaces: a, 73; b, F216/F239; c, F130/E549; d, 187; e, 72; /, 133; g, 79. (Actual size.) point production. My sole interest will be to investigate inherent in the fluting process. The most common forms the extent to which points and preforms differ between of failure are hinge fracture (Figure 101) and splitting the site areas. (Figures 102, 103). In the former, the force of channel The data in Table 42 are those upon which the flake detachment turns inward rather than traveling analysis of preforms are based. An important thing to longitudinally; as a result, the preform is cut short. The notice about preforms, and one that is germane to some distal end of the broken preform often retains part of conclusions that will be drawn about fluted points, is the channel flake material that was freed from the pre that they reveal a high incidence of manufacturing failure form core (Figure 101a- d f FIGURE 97.—Representative bifaces: a, 1641; b, 88; c, 450; d, 88; e, E183; /, G413. (Actual size.) In the second form of failure, the preform is split (1966, fig. 5a,b) have reported similar forms from the longitudinally from the point of impact, usually along Barnes site in central Michigan. The fact that some the axis of the preform (Figure 102). Wright and Roosa specimens are split obliquely suggests that splitting occurs 106 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 41.—Summary statistics for bifaces by unit (see text for explanation of variables; values for L, W, T in mm; values for 8D, <5L, 5B in degrees) Variable Unit N X s L A 64 41.21 18.51 B 43 48.16 22.83 c 14 45.53 28.82 X 13 36.17 12.36 F 26 38.16 19.04 G 37 39.58 25.94 H 19 40.40 16.56 Y 25 39.68 21.82 FIGURE 98.—Reused bifaces: a, 783/929; b, G1026/G1036; W A 64 35.39 11.31 c, 1012/1540. (Actual size.) B 43 34.20 10.77 C 14 34.73 13.49 X 13 31.74 7.38 F 26 34.27 10.94 G 37 30.70 9.13 H 19 33.85 8.53 Y 25 32.98 10.36 T A 64 8.15 2.41 B 43 10.53 4.61 C 14 8.88 3.61 X 13 8.28 2.99 F 26 8.72 3.18 G 37 8.38 2.88 H 19 9.86 3.44 Y 25 8.67 4.45 6D A 22 49.09 12.60 B 23 53.48 10.05 c 4 58.75 8.54 X 5 57.00 8.37 F 13 57.69 8.81 G 12 52.50 12.88 H 11 58.18 9.82 Y 13 56.54 9.66 6L A 35 49.14 11.01 B 28 49.29 9.40 C 9 56.67 6.61 X 10 53.00 9.19 F 19 52.37 9.18 G 26 44.42 10.61 H 15 56.67 6.46 Y 22 51.82 7.49 FIGURE 99.—Projectile point and preform landmarks and measure ment points. (L = length, L = base length, LT = tip length, P — 6R A 27 48.33 12.01 B B 25 53.00 9.46 proximal length, SL = scar length, SW = scar width, TR = ridge C 9 48.89 7.82 thickness, Ts = scar thickness, W = width, WBJ = base juncture X 10 52.50 4.25 width, Wp = proximal width, WTJ = tip juncture width; retouch F 18 53.06 7.10 patterns: a = ranked, b =: lapped, c = alternating.) G 29 43.45 13.50 H 15 54.00 6.87 Y 24 50.83 5.65 teristics of splitting failure are shown in the drawings. Specimen 353 (Figure 1026) was broken into at least along the axis of force application (Figure 102e,i,l,m,n) eight parts; the tip collapsed, the midsection fragmented and that this direction does not always coincide with into two major parts; the base split longitudinally; the that of the point axis. channel flake snapped into two pieces. Notice that this Splitting is often accompanied by hinge fracture and, specimen (and the others in this figure) was not fluted when this happens, the specimen may be broken into until it had reached an advanced stage of shaping and three or more fragments (Figure 102a,b). The charac- flaking. This condition is invariably characteristic of DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 107 FIGURE 100.—Representative preforms: a, 443; b, G803/E412; c, G430/G424; d, G995/G902/G692; e, F81; /, 2082/E161/424. (Actual size.) preform splits. Another fact worth noting is that splitting less. The specimen in Figure 1036 was broken during is proportionately about six times more common among an attempt to remove a flute from its second face; this Area I points than among those of Area II. specimen shares most features with 103a, but its edges are Figure 103 a displays a specimen broken when the curved rather than straight. Notice that in both cases, first flute was removed; both the longitudinal and the the failure begins just at the point of fluting force lateral fractures are straight, flat, and essentially feature application. 108 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 42.—Summary statistics of whole preforms by unit (see text for explanation of variables) 2 Variable Unit N X s s Variable Unit N x- s2 s L A 6 55.75 149.99 12.24 W A 6 27.43 10.84 3.29 B 9 50.25 177.01 13.30 B 9 27.12 18.20 4.26 F 6 46.40 360.50 18.98 F 6 23.21 47.87 6.91 G 18 43.29 252.12 15.87 G 18 24.38 37.93 6.15 H '5 42.38 254.95 15.96 H 5 21.20 32.50 5.70 L A 4 15.62 29.18 5.40 TR A 6 4.26 0.33 0.57 T B 9 10.88 29.15 5.39 B 9 4.40 1.25 1.11 F 6 11.88 30.61 5.53 F 5 5.16 2.36 1.53 G 15 14.20 34.60 5.88 G 7 4.10 0.40 -1 0.20 H 4 6.87 3.88 1.97 H 5 3.68 0.79 0.89 L A 6 3.23 0.37 0.60 B 10.55 7.59 2.75 TS A 6 B 9 7.93 29.37 5.42 B 8 3.56 0.66 0.81 F 6 7.78 20.48 4.52 F 4 4.70 3.10 1.76 G 10 10.90 47.45 6.88 G 7 3.28 0.91 -1 0.30 H 5 5.44 10.35 3.21 H 5 3.40 0.90 0.95 P A 6 2.45 2.07 1.43 SLV A 5 29.20 137.34 11.71 B 8 2.07 1.20 1.09 B 4 25.25 72.19 8.49 F 5 1.60 0.56 0.74 F 2 19.45 120.12 10.96 G 13 2.36 2.21 1.48 G 12 31.41 130.88 11.44 H 4 1.50 0.56 0.75 H 4 34.12 220.33 14.82 W 39.82 266.29 TJ A 4 21.42 9.64 3.10 SLD A 4 16.31 B 9 22.34 19.90 4.46 B 9 24.66 86.19 9.28 F 6 18.55 64.63 8.03 F 3 25.76 16.85 4.10 G 14 20.92 24.64 4.96 G 5 25.30 90.24 9.49 H 4 16.55 21.12 4.59 H 1 25.20 A 5 23.38 7.81 2.79 SWV A 5 13.98 30.71 5.54 V B 9 25.15 15.02 3.87 B 4 13.02 13.47 3.67 F 6 18.98 55.14 7.42 F 2 9.90 3.38 1.83 G 11 21.61 33.35 5.77 G 13 16.79 66.24 8.13 H 5 18.60 24.87 4.98 H 5 14.34 75.84 8.70 wp A 4 16.67 25.91 5.09 SWD A 6 17.06 17.99 4.24 B 7 20.84 22.60 4.75 B 9 15.72 20.02 4.47 F 6 15.18 29.14 5.39 F 4 13.40 1.47 1.21 G 13 18.03 18.76 4.33 G 8 10.11 51.53 7.17 H 5 15.28 15.88 3.98 H 2 9.45 0.12 0.35 Points cially (but also bases to a lesser extent) were subject to frequent alteration. Any analysis of shape must take Data for all whole, finished points are summarized in this fact into account. In the discussion that follows, a Table 43. Table 44 tabulates the materials from which series of unaltered tip fragments (Figure 108) and of points and preforms are made. Most specimens of this unaltered base fragments (Figure 109) are considered in kind are shown in Figures 104-106. The distributions order to obtain a better picture of unmodified point of values for all variables are given in Figure 107. These morphology. The criterion for identifying unaltered frag figures and tables organize the data according to site ments is based on the nature of the retouch visible on area; again, my major interest is to discover the degree specimen edges. Those fragments which are characterized to which these areas differ in point characteristics. by uniform retouch scars similar in size and regularity The shapes of the points included in Figures 104-106 to those found on finished midsections are considered have been modified in varying degrees by breaking and to retain their original shape. resharpening. Thus, they are only partially accurate It is clear that only those parts of points that remain representations of the initial appearance of points. Both relatively unaffected by breakage and reformation can extremities of points were routinely resharpened, pre be supposed to present a reasonably accurate indication sumably after a specimen was broken. Thus, tips espe of original shape. In essence this means that only rela- DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 109 FIGURE 101.—Point manufacturing failures (hinge fractures) : a, G893; b, 1874; c, 2169; d, Fll; e, G868; f, 2323/2210; g, 753; h, 1262; i, 1802. (Actual size.) tively intact body sections are useful for describing point pattern, of the retouch on the main body of the point; shape, if shape is taken to mean outline that is unaffected this is in contrast to resharpened point tips which display by post-forming alteration. The tip specimens in Figure a rather haphazard retouch around their distal ends. 108 reveal characteristics of point shape that do not There is also no consistent shape that is common to entirely agree with those depicted in the photographs rejuvenated tips. They range from bluntly rounded and drawings of whole points included in Figures 104- (Figure 104a) to moderately pointed (Figure 104c), 106. First, the isolated tips are uniformly and sharply but they are never as sharply pointed as are originally pointed in contrast to those of many whole points. Second, formed tips. edge retouch tends to be a continuation, in direction and Bases are not so easily handled; they may not have 110 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 r J I m n FIGURE 102.—Point manufacturing failures (splits): a, 1614/1261/1629; b, 353; c, G1049/ G1056; d, 354/2035; e, 474; f, 778; g, 6; h, 449; i, E116; ;, E127; k, F311;# I, 368/545; m, G678; n, 487. (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 111 been worked as often as were tips, and rejuvenated bases are practically impossible to distinguish from those that are in their original form. It may be that the base forms shown in Figure 109 represent a series graded from "original condition" to "several cycles of renovation." Such a proposition must be tested before its validity can be ascertained. A substantial proportion of the points are not fluted in the strict sense of that term; others are only fluted on one face and have an apparent flute on the reverse face. Apparent flutes on these specimens are remnants of the original flake surface from which the points were made. Roberts recognized this phenomenon in his first report (1935b: 20). Several examples of such psuedofluting are FIGURE 103.—'Detailed drawings of point manufacturing splits: shown in Figure 110. Slightly less than one-fifth (18%) a, E36; b, 2323 (also appears as Figure 101/). (Actual size.) of all finished fluted points in the Lindenmeier inventory TABLE 43.—Summary statistics of whole points (including fragments) by unit (measurements in mm; see text for explanation of variables) Variable Unit N X S2 s Variable Unit N X S2 s L A 7 45.35 170.66 13.06 W A 7 22.35 3.51 1.87 B 9 28.95 42.49 6.51 B 9 16.70 9.67 3.11 F 4 35.75 26.43 5.14 F 4 15.87 3.16 1.78 G 4 34.27 54.92 7.41 G 4 20.75 26.17 5.11 H 7 30.80 47.82 6.91 H 7 17.64 12.51 3.53 LT A 5 12.76 7.39 2.71 TR A 7 4.25 0.23 0.48 B 9 10.97 8.67 2.94 B 9 3.26 0.38 0.62 F 4 13.87 3.22 1.79 F 3 3.70 0.07 0.26 G 4 12.50 49.92 7.06 G 4 3.92 0.62 0.?8 H 6 10.85 5.71 2.39 H 7 3.41 0.20 0.45 LB A 7 6.28 16.22 4.02 Ts A 7 3.44 0.19 0.44 B 8 2.77 4.55 2.13 B 2 2.95 1.80 1.34 F 4 7.25 14.17 3.76 F 3 3.16 0.22 0.47 G 4 4.97 12.68 3.56 G 4 3.37 0.84 0.91 H 6 4.28 7.67 2.77 H 6 2.83 0.41 0.64 P A 7 3.57 2.44 1.56 SLy A 6 37.53 147.35 12.13 B 8 1.65 0.83 0.91 B 3 21.90 13.93 3.73 F 3 1.86 0.60 0.77 F 3 27.16 73.58 8.57 G 4 4.07 3.86 1.96 G 4 29.17 56.12 7.49 H 6 1.96 1.72 1.31 H 1 36.00 W A 6 20.95 6.17 2.48 TJ SLD A 6 35.20 119.70 10.94 B 8 14.57 12.70 3.56 B 3 20.00 30.67 5.53 F 4 14.12 1.52 1.23 F 3 26.43 63.46 7.96 G 4 18.72 46.13 6.79 G 4 28.57 67.78 8.23 H 7 15.84 6.28 2.50 H 3 22.73 109.40 10.44 A 19.51 2.22 15.18 WBJ 7 4.93 SWV A 6 18.85 4.34 B 5 15.36 8.86 2.97 B 3 11.36 3.82 1.95 F 3 14.90 5.56 2.35 F 3 10.00 3.25 1.80 G 4 19.47 15.22 3.90 G 4 13.45 21.73 4.66 H 7 16.10 13.48 3.67 H 4 10.65 6.33 2.51 13.47 WP A 7 17.01 3.15 1.77 swD J 7 9.55 3.09 B 5 14.04 11.36 3.37 3 12.80 12.04 3.46 F 3 15.30 4.71 2.17 F 3 10.30 3.87 1.96 G 4 19.15 16.27 4.03 G 4 12.00 31.89 5.64 H 7 16.11 14.95 3.86 H 6 12.11 18.47 4.29 112 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 44.—Materials of points and preforms combined, including fragments, by unit and area (indeterminate includes units FH, KG, J, Y; N = total excluding indeterminate specimens; a = total for unit; p = n/N) Unit Chalcedony Cortex Jasper Quartzite Indeterminate N n P n P n P n P n Area I 167 A 34 0.59 1 0.02 20 0.34 2 0.04 17 58 B 23 0.35 1 0.02 35 0.53 7 0.11 4 66 C 7 0.32 2 0.09 9 0.41 3 0.14 8 22a X 17 0.81 0 4 0.19 0 11 21 Area II 282 F 15 0.41 1 0.03 19 0.51 2 0.05 10 37 G 47 0.48 0 44 0,45 6 0.06 17 98b H 16 0.33 3 0.06 27 0.56 2 0.04 7 48 Indeter 44 0.44 1 0.01 48 0.48 5 0.05 18 99 minate Includes 1 oolite specimen Includes 1 obsidian specimen have pseudo-flutes on one or both faces. Table 45 gives at all. All of these are recorded in direct association with the summary measurements for these points. the other Folsom materials; there is no reason to suspect Approximately one-fourth (24%) of all finished points that they, are intrusive into the Folsom levels. Only Unit B in the assemblage are unfluted, that is, they have no flutes contains no unfluted points. Figure 111 shows a sample TABLE 45.—Summary statistics of pseudofluted points (mm) TABLE 47.—Number of pseudofluted and basally thinned points by units (digits in parentheses = proportion of total of all points in area) Var H X s R iable Unit Pseudofluted Basally 1 16 28.9 10.3 13.0 38.3 L thinned W 32 17.9 6.5 10.0 25.0 T 23 s.k 0.7 2.8 4.1 Area I L calculated for whole points only. A 4 3 B 3 8 C 4 3 X 1 4 TABLE 46.—Summary statistics of unfluted points (mm) Total 12(0 .06) 18(0.09) Var X R Area II iable F 3 0 18 30.8 9-0 18.2 U5.1 G ll c H 67 1.75 13.1 32.9 1 W 20.9 Y 4 5 3 T U3 k.k J..3 2.9 7.0 Total 20(0 .06) 7(0.02) LL calculated for whole points only. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 113 FIGURE 104.—Finished whole points. Area I: a, E78; b, 2130; c, 641; d, 751; e, E105; /, 447. Area II: g, E554; h, F37; i, G385; j, F360; k, G189; I, G539; m, F567. of these points; their measurements are summarized in Miscellaneous Chert Objects Table 46. The frequency with which they occur in the different units is tabulated in Table 47. A number of Five chert specimens that do not fit into any of the these points are similar to those in the Belen type (Judge, 1973). Again, however, unfluted points fre foregoing categories remain to be described; they are quently have been reduced by tip resharpening and, shown in Figure 112. Four appear to have shapes some perhaps, by base renewal. Consequently, most do not fit what similar to those normally attributed to drills, but into any standard type. In view of the twin facts that none of these specimens shows any signs of rotational the majority of these points are represented by fragments wear. The last specimen (Figure 112^) is generally tri- only and that the complete points have been modified by resharpening, I shall not attempt to construct new type anguloid in outline with deep notches in each side and definitions for them. at the apex. The specimen has been bifacially flaked. 114 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 FIGURE 105.—Detailed drawings of points from Area I: a, El05; b, 2130; c, 447; d, 641: e, 1601;/, 1842; g, 860; h, 187; i, 183; ;, E78. Cores and Raw Material based entirely upon relative translucence of specimens. There is, however, a further implication of this division. Table 48 tabulates the measurements and brief de Visually, the bulk of the material labeled chalcedony scriptions of all 17 specimens of cores and raw material is indistinguishable from that presently found in four pieces in the collection. Several of these are illustrated bedrock outcrops that are located about 7.8 km (5 mi) in Figure 113. Specimen 939 (Figure 113a) is a piece west of Lindenmeier. Grainy chert is probably cortex of chalcedony containing a row of "frozen" hertzian material of this chalcedony. Jasper, in contrast, does cones; these cones were presumably developed during not occur in quantity in surface geological formations an attempt to split the nodule. closer than 150 km (96 mi) from the site. There is a very small jasper outcrop adjacent to a nearby chal cedony source, but, because of its color, it cannot Sources of Cherts and Quartzites account for more than a small proportion of the jasper inventory. The distribution of raw material types is given in Tables 49 and 50. As was stated in the attribute defini The chert assemblage may be thought of as being tions, the division of chert materials is arbitrary and is composed of two sets of contrasting pairs: (1) local DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 115 FIGURE 106.—Detailed drawings of points from Area II: a, G647; b, F12; c, G329; d, G539; e, G385; /, F187; g, F283; h, G189; i, G458; ;, G747. TABLE 48.—Provenience, material, and dimensions (mm) of cores and raw material Specimen Square Material L W T 92 08A Jasper 54.8 47.5 17.8 206 08A Chalcedony 51.5 59.2 29.1 1429 07E Quartzite 81.9 56.0 34.8 1544 01D Chalcedony 57.8 39.1 17.8 1715 2F Chalcedony 68.2 45.3 27.1 1824 5K Quartzite 43.5 37.8 22.7 1963 5N Jasper 28.8 20.0 10.8 2313 1U Chalcedony 60.0 42.3 22.0 E 72 03R Chalcedony 105.1 82.0 17.9 F 23 31 Jasper 80.0 48.6 30.2 F271 5G Chalcedony 90.3 61.8 45.2 443648 13A Jasper 54.9 40.8 27.6 443649 14A Jasper 61.2 49.4 32.5 443789 03U Chalcedony 49.9 37.5 27.4 443813 A4 Quartzite 125.4 55.1 30.7 443813 A4 Chalcedony 58.3 42.1 20.5 443835 unknown Quartzite- 90.3 82.8 53.0 Jasper 116 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 50 40 30 .20 10 w w. w. wP FIGURE 107.—Proportional frequency polygons for point variables (dotted line = Area I, solid line = Area II.) TABLE 49.—Number and proportion of material types by categories Category Chalc edony (Corte x Jasper Quartzite Oolite Indeterminate Category n P n P n P n P n P n n Unmodified flake . , . 243 0.32 35 0.56 197 0.15 552 0.70 10 0.33 11 1048 189 0.25 9 0.14 331 0.26 104 0.13 8 0.26 12 653 Distal edge tool .. . 83 0.11 6 0.10 219 0.17 2 0 18 328 Single edge tool . . . 108 0.14 6 0.10 284 0.22 79 0.10 7 0.23 27 511 Double edge tool . . . 71 0.09 5 0.08 157 0.12 37 0.05 3 0.10 12 285 Tip 55 0.07 0 56 0.04 10 0.01 2 0.07 5 128 Notch 1 <0.005 0 23 0.02 1 <0.005 0 1 26 7 5 7 9 0 0 28 Subtotal 757 66 1274 794 30 86 3007 563 44 302 9 4 40 962 139 9 82 42 2 29 303 1459 119 1658 845 36 155 4272 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 117 FIGURE 108.—Unaltered tip fragments: a, 2245/1918; b, E553; c, 2165; d, 382; *,G994; /, 2324; g, E50; h, G365; i, E238; ;, G878; k, 2282. (Actual size.) »« m FIGURE 109.—Unaltered base fragments: a, 14; b, G962; c, 697; g} 2269; A, 560; i, E501; ;, G112; k, G531; f, G305; m, F48; n, G386; o, 796; />, G687; g, F25; r, F79. (Actual size.) 118 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 50.—Number and proportion of material types in areas Material Area I Area II Tota n P n P Chalcedony 461 0.26 225 0.26 686 Cortex^ of Chalcedony 50 0.03 12 0.01 62 Jasper 501 0.28 557 0.64 1058 Quartzite 721 0.41 50 0.05 771 Oolite 7 <0.005 21 0.02 28 Total 1740 865 2605 b c FIGURE 110.—Pseudofluted points: a, G889; b, 1965; c, F122; d, 218. (Actual size.) FIGURE 111.—Unfluted points: a, 1637; b, G84; c, F266; d, G436; FIGURE 112.—Miscellaneous chert specimens: a, E120; b, E157: e, 1200; f, 247; g, G293. (Actual size.) c, 2290; d, 1523; e, 1816. (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 119 FIGURE 113.—Cores and raw material pieces: a, 939; b, 1824; c, 92; d, F271; e, USNM 443835;/, 1963; g, USNM 443813. (Actual size.) 120 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 51.—Attribute characteristics of material types (N = total excluding indeterminate specimens) Chalcedony Cortex Jasper Quartzite Oolite Characteristic n P n P n P n P n P Platform preparation Flat 207 0.57 21 0.68 273 0.52 231 0.64 3 0.23 134 0.37 7 0.22 228 0.43 112 0.31 10 0.76 15 0.04 3 0.10 21 0.04 12 0.03 0 4 0.01 0 8 0.02 2 0.01 0 70 4 114 46 1 N 360 31 530 358 13 Platform erosion 245 0.36 21 0.42 367 0.34 231 0.34 n 0.48 Thinned 169 0.25 14 0.28 271 0.25 161 0.24 3 0.13 262 0.39 15 0.30 429 0.40 282 0.42 9 0.39 17 1 25 9 0 N 676 50 1067 674 23 Platform Treatment 109 0.29 10 0.31 113 0.20 108 0.29 0 224 0.59 18 0.56 379 0.67 235 0.63 14 0.93 45 0.12 4 0.12 75 0.13 26 0.07 1 0.06 47 5 82 34 0 N 378 32 568 370 15 Termination 14 0.02 0 7 0.01 K0.005 0 337 0.64 23 0.53 570 0.63 295 0.61 5 0.42 Straight 116 0.22 13 0.30 238 0.26 120 0.25 6 0.50 55 0.11 7 0.16 87 0.10 64 0.13 1 0.08 Step K0.005 0 3 K0.005 0 126 9 199 165 5 N 523 43 906 481 12 Fragment Whole 316 0.42 25 0.39 512 0.41 268 0.35 5 0.17 183 0.24 16 0.25 274 0.22 218 0.28 9 0.31 65 0.09 7 0.11 118 0.09 113 0.15 7 0.24 Distal 133 0.18 11 0.17 225 0.18 89 0.11 2 0.07 52 0.07 5 0.08 124 0.10 85 0.11 6 0.20 11 3 31 21 1 N 749 64 1253 773 29 and nonlocal in origin, (2) translucent and opaque in because of its crystalline structure, it is readily distin light transmission. In a very loose sense, these pairs guishable from chert. Almost all of the quartzite in may be considered to intersect to form a pair of equiva ventory appears to have been obtained from nearby lents: (1) local: translucent (chalcedony), (2) non outcrops, but there do appear to be some specimens local: opaque (jasper). This division is crude and from more distant sources. arbitrary. It is also, strictly speaking, inaccurate; there There are several important points to notice in Tables are surely some nonlocal materials among the chal 49 and 50: (1) jasper, although exotic and represented cedonies, and there may be some local opaque rock in by only small amounts of chipping debris, is propor the jasper category. This classification, however, is ade tionately the most abundant material among tools; (2) quate for assessing proportional representations of the chalcedony, jasper, and quartzite appear not to be rock types between areas. No quantification beyond this equally represented in the two areas; (3) jasper ac rather simple level is justified at the moment. Quartzite counts for more than half of all tools but for smaller presents no serious identification problem; in most cases, proportions of points, channel flakes, and bifaces; (4) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 121 TABLE 52.—Provenience, material, and dimensions (mm) of heavy tools Specimen Square Material L W T 86 702 Quartz 98.8 72.3 36.8 207 08A Quartzite 121.0 101.8 46.2 342 08A Jasper 96.2 55.0 25.3 801 OZ Quartz 94.9 81.0 40.5 802 OZ Quartzite 98.8 78.3 58.7 844 3A Quartz 124.9 93.0 42.5 845 2A Quartzite 99.4 105.0 26.9 846 3A Quartzite 133.0 81.8 86.3 887 4A Quartzite 99.9 79.2 43.0 889 4A Quartzite 94.5 56.0 22.3 939 5B Chalcedony 61.1 47.4 38.1 1223 07C Quartzite 101.4 66.9 23.9 1549 07D Quartzite 146.9 98.4 58.0 1550 3B Jasper 98.9 84.0 20.2 1573 05B Quartzite 135.0 115.8 31.0 1647 01F Quartz 122.0 94.2 68.0 1666 01G Quartz 113.4 84.1 68.2 2031 OS Quartzite 115.2 98.9 50.3 2061 3R Quartzite 152.5 115.7 86.0 E 86 03P Basalt 98.0 88.0 35.1 G188 7H Quartzite 82.3 46.1 18.3 G838 13A Quartz 69.3 52.8 21.5 443687 10D Granite 160.0 106.8 51.6 443687 10D Indeterminate 114.8 93.3 42.5 443703 12E Quartz 11.9 77.1 56.0 443756 11H Jasper 126.8 115.4 44.5 443813 704 Jasper 94.0 62.9 63.2 443838 Unknown Quartzite 93.0 68.9 25.1 443838 Unknown Quartzite 100.8 56.1 32.1 443838 Unknown Indeterminate 137.4 118.9 32.8 ^43838 Unknown Indeterminate 83.5 67.3 26.2 chalcedony accounts for about half of all points, channel SANDSTONE flakes, and bifaces but for only a fourth of other tools; and (5) chalcedony and quartzite have proportionately Twenty-seven specimens of used sandstone remain in large amounts of chipping debris (included with un the collection. Table 53 presents the dimensions and de modified flakes). scriptions of these, several of which are illustrated in Table 51 presents data on the frequency of attribute Figures 115-117. Sandstone specimens fall into four characteristics of chalcedony, jasper, and quartzite. categories, three defined by Woodbury (1954) and one here: (1) flat abrading stones (Figure 115ti), (2) Other Stone Specimens pigment grinding stones (Figure 115a-c), (3) simple grooved abrading stones (Figure 116), (4) stones with All stone objects in the assemblage that have not yet convex rubbing surfaces (Figure 117). been described will be considered under this heading. Flat abrading stones have no signs of adhering pig No analyses of these specimens will be attempted be ment and presumably were used to smooth materials cause they represent only a fraction of those of their such as wood or bone. Some of these specimens (e.g., kinds recovered; neither the proportions of the recovered Figure 115d) have quite flat surfaces; others are slightly but discarded specimens in the total excavated assem rounded. In contrast, all of the grinding surfaces of blage nor the criteria employed in the field for selecting pigment grinding stones are at least slightly concave; specimens for retention are known. all have moderate to heavy coatings of adhering hema tite pigment. The locations of pigment grinders are CHOPPERS AND POUNDERS plotted in Figures 118 and 119. Grooved stones either have relatively large, regular grooves or short, narrow, There are 31 pounders and choppers in the collection haphazardly placed grooves (Figure 116c). The former (Table 52, Figure 114). All of them show edge flak fit descriptions of shaft smoothers, tool pointers, and so ing or battering. forth (Woodbury 1954:101). The final category (Fig- 122 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 • ** X *# FIGURE 114.—Choppers and pounders: a, 2061; b, 887; c. USNM 443813; d, 2031. (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 123 FIGURE 115.—Sandstone abrading and grinding stones: a, 914; b, 1454; c, F165; d, USNM 443681. (Actual size.) 124 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 V«" FIGURE 116.—Grooved sandstone tools: a, 1600; b, E16/E25B; c, 1414; d, 1397- e F66 (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 125 a FIGURE 117.—Sandstone rubbing tools: a, 210; b, E17. (Actual size.) ure 117) could only have been applied in a rocking appear to have been used; they are tabulated in Table motion, but for what purpose is a matter of pure specu 54 and three are illustrated in Figure 120. The material lation at this time. is very soft. Two of the specimens display obvious LIMESTONE shallow, parallel scratches; the others possibly have the The collection includes eight pieces of limestone that same kinds of marks. TABLE 53.—Dimensions (mm) and descriptions of sandstone specimens Specimen Square L W T Remarks 71 701 28.6 24.1 19.0 Groove on one surface; abrasion (?) on edges 90 703 45.8 26.2 16.5 Scratches on one surface; abrasion on other surfaces 210 08A 32.8 28.7 17.1 Abrasion with hematite (?) on one surface; abrasion (?) on one edge 210 08A 27.1 25.0 11.8 Abrasion on both surfaces; shallow groove (?) on one edge 210 08A 59.4 48.9 22.3 Abrasion on one surface and on one edge 210 08A 58.8 52.8 35.1 Handstone (?); abrasion on convex surface 664 723 23.8 20.3 12.5 Abrasion with hematite on one surface 803 OZ 64.4 58.8 27.3 Abrasion on both surfaces and ends; one surface concave with hematite 914 2B 121.6 69.3 34.8 Abrasion with hematite on concave surface; deep scratches on both surfaces 1397 3D 72.3 59.1 18.2 Grove on one surface 1414 3D 142.1 118.3 44.9 Deep scratches on one surface 1454 IE 67.4 60.1 24.3 Abrasion and scratches on one surface; abrasion (?) on other surface 1600 OF 68.8 59.9 29.7 Abrasion with hematite on one surface; groove on other surface E 16) 030) 140.0 62.3 30.9 Abrasion scratches, groove, hematite on one surface; scratches and E258J 04N) groove on other surface; both surfaces and one groove of E16 reused E 17 030 49.6 51.7 33.5 Handstone (?) with abrasion E242 08L 130.8 106.3 22.6 Abrasion (?) on one surface E304 08M 47.7 44.9 26.2 Abrasion on one surface and one edge; abrasion (?) on other surface F 16 2F 92.5 61.6 31.6 Abrasion on both surfaces and one edge; 2 grooves (?) on one surface F 66 0E 37.8 39.8 27.0 Abrasion with hematite on both surfaces; deep groove with hematite on one edge; hematite on other edge F165 0D 52.2 46.5 10.5 Abrasion with hematite on both surfaces F455 6E 64.9 53.6 19.9 Abrasion on one surface G150 10E 92.8 70.0 25.0 Abrasion with hematite on concave surface; abrasion on other surface 443653 10B 125.8 109.5 34.2 Abrasion on both surfaces 443675 12C 67.0 62.0 23.4 Abrasion on slightly concave surface; abrasion (?) on other surface 443681 4D 81.8 90.2 26.7 Abrasion on one surface; abrasion (?) on one edge 443698 10E 109.5 74.4 49.7 Abrasion (?) and scratches on one surface; abrasion (?) on one edge 04N 64.9 43.6 19.5 Abrasion with hematite on one surface 126 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 Minerals Other Than Stone All the 61 pieces of hematite recovered from the site have been reduced by grinding (Figure 121). One, specimen 276, has been drilled from both sides, but the conical depressions created do not meet (Figure 121c?). Seven pieces of ochre are in the collection; all are in a crumbly state. Limonite is formed where water issues from the Brule contact and this material may be derived from this source. Several pieces of amorphous mag nesium oxide are also present; concretions of this mate rial are abundant on exposed surfaces of the Brule and, as the samples in the collection bear no indications of use, this material is probably fortuitously included • Hematite among the cultural materials. The distribution of the O Ochr* hematite and ochre pieces in the site units is given in A Grinding »ton» Figures 118-119. Two samples of magnetite, one from the Coffin collection and one from the Bison Pit, are also present in the collection. Their elemental composi tions are given as follows: Component USNM 440947 Coffin sample Ilmenite 0.334 0.959, 0.389 ) 0.942, Fe*03 0.625 TiO2=0.176 0.553 J TiO2=0.205 MnO 0.02-0.03 0.02-0.03 Cr trace trace SiOa present present The high proportion of 20Ti (titanium) in these samples places them rather certainly in the Laramie Mountains iron series (Palache, Berman, and Frondell, 1944); hence, we may infer that they were imported to the site on oio 09 06 from a source in these mountains. One, USNM 440947, has a flat abraded surface; many fine, parallel scratches are visible on some crystal faces. Bone Artifacts The presence of a large number of bone artifacts is an outstanding feature of the Lindenmeier collection; no other early American site has yielded a comparable number of bone specimens. Their dimensions and char acteristics are presented in Tables 55 and 56. In gen eral, those that have survived are in excellent condition in contrast to unworked bone debris. Even small needles have hard, smooth surfaces. This condition may be due to compaction of the surfaces that took place under the pressure of shaping and scraping the bone. Roberts men tions some of these specimens in passing (especially some of the decorated pieces; the needles have been A-2 allotted one short notice), but their presence in the 702 FIGURE 118.—Distribution of assemblage has often been overlooked. Most specimens pigment grinders and mineral pigments in Area I. (Large have never before been reported. squares 10' x 10'; small squares Several bone specimens retain manufacturing scars 5' x 5'.) but do not show use marks of any kind; Figure 122 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 127 L K J 1 • H • • • G • • • • F • • E A • .• •. D A C B • • • A • OA=Z • 0B= Y OC =X OD OE • OF Hematite OG °Chr* OH A Grinding stone 01 6 7 8 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 FIGURE 119.—Distribution of pigment grinders and mineral pigments in Area II. (Squares 5' x 5'.) a b c FIGURE 120.—Limestone specimens: a, USNM 440496; b, E256; c, E270. (Actual size.) 128 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 54.—Dimensions (mm) and descriptions of limestone specimens Specimen Square L W T Remarks E256 04N 47.1 38.4 6.7 Scratches both surfaces, perpendicular to one edge E270 04N 69.3 48.1 12.2 Scratches and abrasion (?) on one surface; abrasion (?) on one edge 440359 712 19.0 11.6 3.0 440449 715 23.7 13.1 2.9 Grinding (?) on surfaces 440496 718 27.9 37.5 5.2 Scratches and abrasion (?) on one edge 441192 IE 46.0 25.1 6.9 Abrasion (?) on edges 441326 2D 29.7 19.7 13.8 Abrasion (?) on surfaces; abrasion on one edge; fire cracked (?) 441340 3D 38.2 18.2 3.4 443815 717 26.8 16.5 4.0 Abrasion (?) on surfaces Unknown Unknown 14.8 11.2 3.2 Scratches (?); grinding (?) on one surface TABLE 55.—Provenience and dimensions (mm) of bone needles Specimen Square Unit L Diameter G278 11D Y 26.3 1.3 G278 11D Y 27.3 1.3 G579 13D Y 17.9 0.8 G621 10H H 17.2 2.2 G621 10H H 11.9 1.8 G671 11C Y 12.8 2.1 G671 lie Y 13.9 2.3 G735 11H H 11.7 2.0 G735 11H H 11.8 1.9 G1081 90C G 36.6 2.0 G1086 80C G 73.7 1.8 443669 9C Y 30.0 2.5 443670 10C Y 19.2 1.5 443696 9E H 31.8 1.4 443707 12E Y 22.0 2.0 443707 12E Y 19.5 2.0 443719 11F Y 35.3 2.0 443719 11F Y 35.4 1.7 443722 12F Y 30.0 1.9 443740 9G H 20.3 1.9 443781 90 B G 22.1 2.1 443783 0B G 22.3 1.9 443839 11F H 21.6 1.7 443839 11F H 12.8 1.2 442961 9B G 27.1 1.7 A FIGURE 121.—Hematite specimens: a, 2260; b, 12E; c, USNM 443846; d, 276. (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 129 TABLE 56.—Provenience and dimensions (mm) of Figure 123 contains six specimens that are similar to engraved bone those just described except that each is rounded or pointed at one end. These specimens are also made Specimen Square Unit L from rib sections and, in common with their previously described counterparts, are taken from animals at least 440360 712 A 33.9 441179 0E B 24.2 as large as deer. The edges of the shaped ends are cham 441915 OS A 21.0 fered and smooth; the tips are bluntly rounded as if 441925 2S A 19.0 worn to their present shapes. There is no sign of polish 441947 01T A 19.0 441948 01T A 27.5 on any of these specimens. The objects shown in Figure 442018 OU A 23.7 124 are probably derived from sections of large, flat a 442122 03N A 15.2 bone. One face of each has been abraded to a smooth, 442165° 03Q A 49.0 442228 02T A 21.0 plane surface; these surfaces are as flat as an uncluttered 442801 21 F 34.6 desktop. The opposite surfaces have also been smoothed 443840 unknown A 33.0 443840 unknown A 31.0 and flattened, but they are not as free of irregularities. 443840 unknown A 25.4 These specimens show no obvious sign of wear, and 443840 unknown A 18.7 although one could think of many uses to which they 443840 unknown A 20.7 443850 unknown A 21.4 might be put, their function(s) remains unknown. Figure 125 displays five bluntly pointed, round speci Carapace mens. The specimen shown in Figure 125^6 is char b Plastron acterized by many subparallel, deep striations lying displays several examples. Figure 122a—d shows rib sec diagonally to its longitudinal axis; the tip is also deeply tions from animals that are deer size or larger. All four scarred. Both of these damage patterns are characteristic specimens have many small, parallel striations running of the wear damage that develops on pressure flakers lengthwise, and all have been sawn laterally at one or that I use in knapping; the diagonal striations are de both ends. Sawing was never carried all the way through veloped during the "scrubbing" of delicate edges. The a piece, rather the objects were snapped after about specimens in Figure 125 c-/ are all smooth and show no three-quarters of their thicknesses had been sawn scarring under a microscope. Their different sizes sug through. The specimen in Figure 122c? retains a rem gest that they were used for different purposes. nant of a longitudinal slot cut along an edge; the greater portion of the thin sliver that was isolated has been All of the needles and needle-like fragments that were snapped off. recovered in the excavations are shown in Figure 126. FIGURE 122.—Cut bone specimens: a, G427B; b, G427A; c, 1585; d, USNM 443714/18; e, USNM 443840. (Actual size.) 130 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 StEAaUi) f % ^^oniMj LLtthh 4 fe^^P* \ ^mmM&w FIGURE 123.—Bluntly pointed rib-section tools: a, USNM 443705; b, G229; c, G229; d,e, G301A/B; f,g, USNM 443684; h, G547. (Actual size.) DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 131 - I * ' ~-1"J5.:*' '>*-' Jr •jr- - f - ^i3R«L^~- J b FIGURE 124.—Flat, abraded bone sections: a, USNM 443840; b, USNM 443765. (Actual size.) J FIGURE 125.—Pointed bone tools: a,b, USNM 443430; c, USNM 443747; d, USNM 2809: e, G671; f, USNM 443562. (Actual size.) m n op FIGURE 126.—Bone needles: a, G579; b, G1081; «,-, G120; cf, G278; «, USNM 443670; /, USNM 443839; g, USNM 443719; A, USNM 443783; i, USNM 443511; j, USNM 443786; *, USNM'443722; l,m, USNM 443707; n, USNM 443809; c, USNM 443839; />, USNM 443494; q,r, USNM 443719. (Actual size.) 132 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 FIGURE 127.—Sharply pointed bone tool, 1226. (Actual size.) i \ ff*_ ~r* X / •-'••• . hi : i \1 J I m FIGURE 128.—Decorated bone pieces: u, 2165; b, 640; Roberts (1941:79) mentions them but provides no illustrations. The specimens have never before been enumerated or completely described. Figure 126a-d shows the butt ends of four needles; one of these G579, retains an intact eye while the eyes of the other three have been broken. Four pointed tip ends are shown in Figure \26e-h; tips are either round and pointed (e,h) or flat on two sides (f,g). Specimens in Figure 126i-r are all round and straight and otherwise have the appearance of needle shaft midsections and are pre sumed to belong to this category. All of the needles are delicately made and have very smooth, finely finished surfaces. Number G579 is equivalent in size to a modern steel bookbinder's needle although the size of its eye al Dacoratad bona more closely conforms to that of a much smaller sewing V Workad bona needle. O Bona naadla Specimen 1226 (Figure 127) has a very sharp tip and edge. It may have been used as a piercing tool. The remaining bone objects all have components that we now tend to view as having at least partial decora tive value. The basic work upon which to make decisions about the functions of esthetic elements in the Paleo lithic has not yet been done. Marshack's (1972) thesis is too impressionistic and his analysis appears to me too 05 04 03 02 01 0 I 2 3 4 5 contrived to be generally useful. However, although I will refer to the following specimens as decorated pieces and simply describe them, I do not intend thereby to assert that they played no functional role beyond that of ornament. Intuitively, I feel that these objects did have broader functions; furthermore, I believe that we will soon be able to place them in some more systemic frame of reference. At present, however, I, at least, cannot do so. Figure 128a-/ presents five discoidal specimens all of which have short incised cuts around their peripheries. Small specks of red stain, assumed to be hematite, remain in a few of the cuts on specimen 2165; these are visible under low power magnification. None of the other Speci FIGURE 130.—Plot of bone artifact distribution in Area (Large squares 10' x 10'; FIGURE 129.—Bone bead, USNM 442735. (Enlarged X 4.) small squares 5' x 5'.) 134 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 L K A J 1 A* H A So o G o V oo F A oo o E o r%& \v/ D sv/ C A B o A A OA = Z OB = Y V o O OC=X o o - OD OE OF Decorated bone OG Worked bone 0H O Bone needle Ol 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 FIGURE 131.—Plot of bone artifact distribution in Area II. (Squares 5' x 5'.) mens display this phenomenon. Specimen 2165 (Figure their length. Three of the specimens (;'-/) were split 128a) is made from a piece of turtle (cf. Terrapena lengthwise before being incised. The last object to be ornata) plastron; the other four (Figure 128c-/) are described is a tubular bone bead (Figure 129). It was apparently of bone. Specimen 2122 (Figure 128g) is a made from a small long bone shaft and has been fragment of turtle carapace with deeply incised diagonal thoroughly smoothed and polished; its ends are smoothly lines. Figure 12Sh,i shows two pieces of small bone-shaft and evenly rounded. sections on which a series of parallel, longitudinal lines The distributions of all bone objects that were found have been engraved. Figure 128;-m displays four small in Areas I and II are given in Figures 130 and 131. bone fragments (from an animal of jackrabbit size) ; all Notice that tools and decorated pieces are heavily con but one (Figure 128/), which probably is a rib fragment, centrated in Unit A (57% and 60% of all specimens are appear to be shaft sections. These objects all have short, in this unit) and that needles occur most frequently deep, regularly spaced cuts arranged perpendicularly to (50%) in Unit H. Analysis The rationale for the analytical plan has been offered graphic technique based upon the frequency of occur earlier. Its results are presented below. The /-tests for rence of specimens in small vertical increments is em unequal variances and their corresponding multiple-f ployed to demonstrate the existence of these units in confidence intervals were run on a program written the area of overlap. But this method cannot designate by James E. Knox of the University of Michigan. All which particular objects should be associated with a other statistics were run on programs (MIDAS and certain level, and, thus, large sets of materials (Units CHITAB) developed by the Statistical Research Labora I, J, and Y) with uncertain unit association are cataloged tory of the University of Michigan. For documentation but not analyzed with unit inventories. It should be and references see Fox and Guire (1972). noted, however, that data from these indeterminate units often enter into analyses when spatial association is immaterial. Initial Data Segregation The analysis proceeds in a series of steps designed to Tests for Normality test the hypotheses already developed (p. 26). These hypotheses are restated below in condensed form, but The normality of all variables used was examined by first the procedure by which the data were initially plotting the observations in either histograms or frequency partitioned will be recapitulated. A body of data can be polygons. In most cases, sample sizes are large enough described and thus be made available for comparison to determine normality. However, for units by category with other data obtained from different sources. Such a and for points and preforms by area, sample sizes for step is valuable in itself, but the situation changes the many variables are too small to determine distributions. moment we attempt to go further and analyze the In these cases, the unit sample mean for a variable was material. We are then confronted with a pair of the subtracted from each observation of that variable in most vexing problems in archeological research: (1) that unit, and all residuals obtained for each variable that of determining context of association, (2) that of were combined in a single histogram. This was done to determining the significance of an obtained difference obtain a sufficient sample size to judge normality while between observations. eliminating any multimodality that might result from a The Lindenmeier assemblage presented many instances difference in unit means. This technique proved satis of both of these problems; in general, I chose the simplest factory as in most cases the general trend of the individual among the alternative decision making procedures when small samples was confirmed. All outliers have been ever a choice was possible. Visual methods that are well checked for recording error and if legitimate have been established in archeology and geology were used to make retained in the analysis. the initial division of the collection according to hori All variables except distal edge angle and left lateral zontal and vertical contexts. These methods were sup edge angle are normally distributed. Distal edge angle plemented by statistical descriptions of distributions when distribution is bimodal for single and double edge tools; necessary; that is, when clusters of materials were not left lateral edge angle shows a slight bimodal tendency delimited by some readily observable break. Thus, Units for the same categories. As sample sizes for these vari A, B, G, and most of Unit F are recognizable as more ables, when partitioned both by category and unit, are or less discretely segregated clusterings of materials. The not large enough to relax the normality assumption, the peripheries of all these units overlap in places with those results of the tests in which they appear are not secure. of others, but proportionately small amounts of unit Because unit sample sizes for points and preforms are inventories are affected. No technique known to me can too small to adequately judge normality, the area mean untangle the intermixed specimens; consequently, the was subtracted from each observation from that area material in the overlapping areas is excluded from parts and all observations were plotted on a single histogram. of the analysis. Units G and H—and to a lesser extent, Unlike most unifacial, channel flake, and biface vari Unit F as well—are more thoroughly intermingled. A ables, 53% of those for points and 29% of those for 135 136 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 preforms are either bimodal or severely skewed. Sample Field sampling bias, on the other hand, has a serious sizes for points and preforms are not large enough to effect on unit variation. Important sources of sampling relax the normality assumption nor can transformations inequality are suggested in the discussion of Roberts' greatly improve the distributions. Departures from nor excavation strategies (pp. 19-21). Recall that all arti mality are noted with the results of all statistical facts uncovered during the 1934-36 field seasons were analyses of point variables. retained in storage; that retention practices varied during the 1937 season; and that specimens were selectively retained from 1938 through 1940. Unit B was excavated Criteria for Accepting Differences entirely within the 1934-36 period; its inventory thus contains the entire range of stone artifacts that were Criteria for assessing the significance of differences originally deposited in that area. Unit A excavations span between observations are usually set arbitrarily in arche the period 1935 to 1938; consequently, the inventory for ology. Indeed, there are few guidelines to follow in this unit will be underrepresented in those classes of establishing such criteria. In an analytical program of material that were discarded. Units F, G, and H—exca the sort followed in this study, some standard of accept ance or rejection of a result is essential. The significance vated entirely within the period (1938-1940) of maxi of a difference between the means of sets of observations mum sampling distortion—are now represented by highly must be assessed in terms of the probable error inherent biased assemblages. in the observing process; differences that are even highly The labels "flake" and "chips and flakes" are unfail significant statistically may have no practical meaning. ingly applied in Roberts' field notes to those specimens This requirement can be accommodated by application that were discarded, and the implication is clear that of the estimates of measurement accuracy already estab the eliminated specimens were considered to be unused lished. Thus, the calculated error components—3A (for waste material. The majority of these specimens thus linear measurements), 3.25.4 (for angular measure belongs to the unmodified flake category. Undoubtedly, ments)—will serve as rejection criteria. Differences found some utilized pieces and, possibly, a few retouched tools to be statistically significant will be accepted as having were inadvertantly included among the discarded arti empirical validity only if they exceed these limits of facts, but their numbers are probably proportionately probable measurement error. quite low. Compensation for these sampling discrepan The application of such rigorous criteria has the effect cies must be made in some of the unit analyses that of reducing the differences between data subsets and thus follow. of increasing the likelihood that null hypotheses will be accepted. Since in many cases, I will wish to reject a null hypothesis (primarily in the analysis of category differ Initial Test for Unit Differences ences ), the use of these criteria will make attainment of the research goal more difficult. In all cases, confidence Spatial distinction of units is made on grounds of in the results should be increased since inherent bias in stratigraphy and horizontal separation. The first step in observations will have been reduced as a factor influ the analysis is to test if the artifact inventories of units encing decisions. are similarly distinct. The null hypothesis (HO) is that The comparability of measurements between the dif there should be no difference among the unit assemblages. ferent observations has been considered extensively (pp. If the hypothesis were supported, we would be justified 65-67). Again, variations among the observers' measure in interpreting the results as indicating several occupa ments are within the range of measurement accuracy, and tions during which similar functions were carried out by there is no basis for attributing calculated unit and cate a single group. If the hypothesis is rejected, the unit gory differences to inconsistencies in measuring. Com inventories must be examined for internal variation in pensation for the slight tendency of one observer to read artifact content. After the significance of category varia larger measurement values and of another to read smaller tion has been established, categories can serve as the values is incorporated in the error components that have subjects of this examination. been established. Consequently, after these criteria have been applied, remaining differences cannot be attributed The results of the initial tests for unit differences are to data collection errors. When categories are compared, given in Table 57. The differences among units are moreover, idiosyncratic bias should be eliminated because highly significant; unit variances are also unequal. Thus, all measurements of each variable by all observers are the hypothesis of no difference between unit inventories pooled; hence, differential measuring tendencies cancel must be rejected. To investigate the reasons for unit out. inequalities, category data will be considered. ANALYSIS 137 TABLE 57.—Analysis of variance among undifferentiated unit As a safeguard against the possibility that breakage or assemblages some other extraneous factor is equalizing the unmodi fied flake data, the same tests are repeated using data Variable N F sig from whole (unbroken) specimens only. Table 60 shows X s2 X .s2 these results, which confirm fully those just reported. L 2373 16.14 14.38 0.00 0.00 Note the significantly smaller variance associated with W 2373 33.70 14.31 0.00 0.00 length which is to be expected when broken specimens T 2371 21.05 11.40 0.00 0.00 are eliminated. Tables 61-65 display results of tests of Pt 928 6.20 15.47 0.00 0.00 B 879 3.28 2.40 0.01 0.05 Pt and ft among the other categories. Again, ft does not «D 751 26.12 0.53 0.00 0.71 «L 1459 19.76 3.23 0.00 0.01 vary significantly. Platform thickness is different in 16% &R 1443 23.12 4.03 0.00 0.00 of all cases. Unit A has the larger value in seven of these eight cases of difference and some of the difference can be accounted for by the fact that measurements for this unit tend to be slightly larger than for other units. But only a fraction of the difference can be so dismissed; Category Variation Unit A appears to contain specimens with very slightly (but significantly) larger platforms. With this exception, The results of the tests of significance between category however, hypothesis 2 is supported by all tests. All units variables are given in Table 58. As can be seen, the cate are accordingly technologically indistinguishable from gories do not differ at all in flake angle. In 2 of 10 cases, each other. they differ by small, but significant, amounts in platform The results of tests for functional equivalence of cate thickness value. The categories differ statistically in all gories among the units are also tabulated in Tables dimensions of size, but when error component criteria 61-65. In this series, unmodified flakes are also treated are invoked, only unmodified flakes continue to differ by unit (Table 61); they are completely alike except from other categories. Functionally, the categories are that Unit A has larger right lateral edges than does almost completely dissimilar. The exceptions fall exclu Unit F. Unit B also has a tendency toward larger 8R sively among the different tool varieties. Even when the values as compared with those of Unit F, but this tend very stringent error component calculated for 3L is ency is not great enough to be significant. Multiple-? applied, most differences continue to be acceptable. statistics were calculated for 8R data because variances Specifically, unmodified flakes have more acute angles for this variable are unequal. than do other categories; however, the error components for both lateral edges force us to disregard the differences Utilized flakes are also similar among the units (Table 62). In this category, platform thickness is significantly in these variables between unmodified and utilized flakes. different between Unit G and Units A and B, but no Distal edge tools have steeper angles than all categories other variables differ among the units. Multiple-? scores other than double edge tools, with which they share are calculated for thickness and left lateral angle in order similar lateral edge sizes. Clearly, hypothesis 1 is sup to take unequal variances into account. ported, and the categories do possess distinctly different functional but identical technological characteristics. Distal edge tools (Table 63) are somewhat more The units may now be examined for differences among varied; because of unequal variances, multiple-? statistics their category contents; test results are tabulated in are calculated for all variables except ft. There is little Tables 59-66. Unit unmodified flake components are difference in the sizes of these tools. The edge angles examined first in order to test for differences in tech present a suggestion of differentiating tendencies, but only nology. Because sampling procedures selected heavily those differences between Units A and H attain levels against unmodified flakes excavated in Units F, G, and that exceed measurement error estimates, and thus only H, the data are stratified by area rather than by unit; those are acceptable in this analysis. thus, specimens from Units A, B, and C are considered Single edge tools (Table 64) differ in width between together (Area I) as are those from Units F, G, and Units B compared with F and G, but are otherwise H (Area II). In order to increase the sample size for alike. Double edge tools (Table 65) are also completely Area II, all appropriate specimens from indeterminate alike except that Unit A right lateral edges are larger Units J and Y are also included. The results are tabulated than those Units G and H. Hypothesis 3, that there in Table 59. The unmodified flakes in both areas are are no functional differences among the units, is sup clearly drawn from the same population. Variances are ported for the unit pairs A-B, A-F, A-G, B-F, B-G, equal for all variable pairs. The fact that Area II flakes B-H, F-G, F-H, and G-H but not for A-H, which are larger than those in Area I is probably an indication must be considered to be functionally different. Table 66 that sample selection in the field favored larger specimens. indicates that Units F, G, and H are slightly over- TABLE 58.—Analysis of variance among category variables (see text for explanation of variables; sig. X and s" = attained significance level in test for differences of means and variance, respectively; pairwise = significant difference attained between indicated pairs of categories at 0.90 confidence level; unequal s~ = same as pairwise with unequal variances taken into account; error = calculated error component (Table 10); accept = differences between pairs considered to be valid) Significance COD fi dene e = 0. 90 Calculated 2 Diff „ 2 s X erence Error Accept Variable t-statistic 1 2 l x2 X s2 pairwise unec ua 1 s2 between (cate g°ry)( cate gory) means L 0.00 0.00 1 X 2* 1 X 2* 0.0000 102.5 206.0 26.1 32.8 6.67 2.22 yes 3 3 0.0000 74.9 31.0 4.91 4 4 0.0000 253.2 34.9 8.74 5 5 0.0000 341.1 40.3 14.20 2 X 5 2 X 5 0.0000 206.0 32.8 7.54 3 X 4 3 X 4 0.0000 74.9 253.2 31.0 34.8 3.83 5 5 0.0000 341.1 40.3 9.29 4 X 5 4 X 5 0.0000 253.2 34.9 5.47 W 0.00 0.00 1 X 2 1 X 2 0.0000 86.5 102.2 24.3 26.8 2.48 1.38 yes 3 3 0.0000 29.5 27.0 2.69 4 4 0.0000 125.0 29.2 4.88 5 5 0.0000 114.1 30.1 5.76 2 X 4 2 X 4 0.0002 102.2 125.0 26.8 29.2 2.40 5 5 0.0000 114.1 30.1 3.28 3 X 4 3 X 4 0.0002 29.5 125.0 27.0 29.2 2.19 5 5 0.0000 114.1 30.1 3.07 T 0.00 0.00 1 X 2 1 X 2 0.0000 7.0 14.9 4.8 5.9 1.09 1.62 no 3 3 0.0000 4.7 6.9 2.11 yes 4 4 0.0000 12.2 6.3 1.54 no 5 5 0.0000 10.5 7.0 2.25 yes 2 X 3 2 X 3 0.0000 14.9 4.7 5.9 6.9 1.02 no 5 5 0.0000 10.5 7.0 1.16 3 X 4 3 X 4 0.0038 4.7 12.2 6.9 6.3 0.57 4 X 5 4 X 5 0.0044 12.2 10.5 6.3 7.0 0.71 6.4 2.6 3.5 0.88 0.60 yes Pr 0.00 0.00 1 X 4 1 X 4 0.0000 3.7 t 2 X 4 2 X 4 0.0044 3.9 2.8 0.62 6 0.44 0.07 — — — — — 36.6 10.66 9.15 yes fiD 0. 0.00 1 X 2 1 X 2 0.0000 169.1 386.9 25.9 3 3 0.0000 102.9 64.0 38.17 4 4 0.0000 325.8 46.0 20.12 5 5 0.0000 343.7 53.0 27.10 2 X 3 2 X 3 0.0000 386.9 102.9 36.6 64.0 27.51 4 4 0.0000 325.8 46.0 9.46 5 5 0.0000 343.7 53.0 16.44 3 X 4 3 X 4 0.0000 102.9 325.8 64.0 46.0 18.05 5 5 0.0000 343.7 53.0 11.07 4 X 5 4 X 5 0.0011 325.8 46.0 6.98 no 1 X 2 1 X 2 0.0000 181.2 233.2 30.5 35.8 5.38 14.71 no 6L 0. 0.00 3 3 0.0000 214.7 55.8 25.32 yes 4 4 0.0000 248.9 45.8 15.34 5 5 0.0000 165.6 52.3 23.81 2 X 3 2 X 3 0.0000 233.2 214.7 35.8 55.8 19.94 4 4 0.0000 248.9 45.8 9.96 no 5 5 0.0000 165.6 52.3 18.43 yes 3 X 4 3 X 4 0.0000 214.7 248.9 55.8 45.8 9.98 no 4 X 5 4 X 5 0.0000 248.9 165.6 45.8 52.3 8.47 6R 0. 0.00 1 X 2 1 X 2 0.0000 190.2 242.7 31.0 35.6 4.60 8.44 no 3 3 0.0000 238.9 54.4 23.35 yes 4 4 0.0000 247.9 48.0 16.98 5 5 0.0000 190.5 53.7 22.64 2 X 3 2 X 3 0.0000 242.7 238.9 35.6 54.4 18.75 4 4 0.0000 247.9 48.0 12.38 5 5 0.0000 190.5 53.7 18.04 3 X 4 3 X 4 0.0000 238.9 247.5 54.4 48.0 6.30 no 4 X 5 4 X 5 0.0000 247.9 190.5 48.0 53.7 5.66 *Code: 1 - unmodified flakes, 2 = utilized flakes, 3 = distal edge tools, 4 single edge tools, 5 = double edge tools ANALYSIS 139 TABLE 59.—F scores for differences among unmodified flake TABLE 60.—F scores for differences among unmodified flakes variables by area (whole specimens only) by area Variable N F si ?• Variable N F sig- 2 2 2 X , X s X s2 X s L 954 10.68 2.45 0.00 0.12 L 325 5.27 8.02 0.02 0.00 W 954 0.001 1.85 0.98 0.17 W 325 1.22 0.16 0.27 0.69 T 953 1.11 3.65 0.29 0.06 T 324 0.43 4.91 0.51 0.03 P t 466 5.77 0.26 0.02 0.61 Pt 232 0.20 2.30 0.65 0.13 B 430 3.24 0.74 0.07 0.39 B 218 0.00 0.08 0.99 0.77 <5D 313 0.08 0.05 0.78 0.83 211 0.14 0.61 0.71 0.44 «5 743 0.04 0.08 0.84 0.77 sD L 6L 261 0.12 0.66 0.73 0.42 6R 709 0.60 4.72 0.44 0.03 *R 257 0.24 3.26 0.63 0.07 TABLE 61.—Analysis of variance for differences in unmodified flakes among units (see text for explanation of variables; sig. X and s2 = attained significance level in test for differences of means and variance, respectively; pairwise = significant difference attained between indicated pairs of units A, B, F, G, H at 0.90 confidence level; unequal s2 = same as pairwise with unequal variance taken into account; error = calculated error component (Table 10); accept = differences between pairs considered to be valid) Signi ficance Conf ideri ce = 0.90 Difference Variable 2 p Calculated 2 2 between X pairwise s X X Error Accept s unequal FT t-statistic l s2 l 2 means (unit) (unit) L 0.12 0.00 i 1 i 1 i 1 W 0.11 0.00 T 0.13 0.00 P 0.16 t 0.18 B 0.18 0.11 <5D 0.47 0.16 0.16 0.11 6R 0.03 0.00 AxF 0.0002 173.9 41.4 33.6 23.2 10.43 8.44 yes BxF 0.0037 180.8 30.3 7.14 no TABLE 62.—Analysis of variance for differences in utilized flakes among units (see text for explanation of variables; sig. X and s2 =. attained significance level in test for differences of means and variance, respectively; pairwise = significant difference attained between indicated pairs of units A, B, F, G, H at 0.90 confidence level; unequal s2 = same as pairwise with unequal variances taken into account; error = calculated error component (Table 10); accept =: differences between pairs considered to be valid) Signif icance Confidence = 0.90 Dif 2 2 Calculated S X ference Error Variable n 2 l S2 Xl 2 Accept X s2 pairwise t-statistic between unequal s (unit) means (unit) L 0.17 0.00 W 0.56 0.00 T 0.36 0.00 AxF 0.0046 9.5 6.1 6.3 5.0 1.31 1.62 no Pt 0.02 0.00 AxH 0.0006 3.1 0.4 2.9 1.9 1.01 0.60 yes BxH BxH 0.0001 6.6 0.4 3.3 1.9 1.42 B 0.01 0.93 0.33 0.01 6° 0.00 0.02 AxF AxF 0.0000 185.8 112.6 41.3 31.2 10.11 14.71 no 6 0.02 0.15 R "" 140 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 63.—Analysis of variance for differences in distal edge tools among units (see text for explanation of variables; sig. X and s2 = attained significance level in test for differences of means and variance, respectively; pairwise = significant differences attained between indicated pairs of units A, B, F, G, H at 0.90 confidence level; unequal s2 = same as pairwise with un equal variance taken into account; error = calculated error component (Table 10); accept = differences between pairs considered to be valid) Significance Conficence =0.90 Dif Variable Calculated ference pairwise unequal s* t-statistic x2 between Error Accept means (unit) (unit) 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.00 AxG 0.0047 29.9 11.4 28.3 25.5 2.78 1.38 yes 0.00 0.18 AxF 0.0000 3.7 2.4 7.6 5.7 1.89 1.62 FxG 0.0005 2.4 3.5 5.7 7.4 1.62 no 0.00 0.04 AxB 0.0000 2.4 0.4 4.4 2.0 2.36 0.60 yes F 0.0000 1.2 2.4 2.04 G 0.0001 1.3 2.4 1.98 H 0.0004 2.4 2.6 1.77 0.08 0.72 0.00 0.06 AxF 0.0012 102.7 49.3 68.7 62.0 6.70 9.15 G 0.0028 63.6 62.5 6.22 H 0.0000 123.2 58.4 10.28 yes BxH 0.0031 90.3 65.5 7.06 no 0.00 0.29 AxF 0.0002 147.5 272.5 61.0 47.1 13.9 14.71 H 0.0025 250.6 49.5 11.6 FxG 0.0024 272.5 301.6 47.1 58.7 0.02 0.04 AxH 0.0023 105.7 275.4 61.1 49.5 11.2 8.44 yes TABLE 64.—Analysis of variance for differences in single edge tools among units (see text for explanation of variables; sig. X and s2 = attained significance level in test for differences of means and variance, respectively; pairwise = significant difference attained between indicated pairs of units A, B, F, G, H at 0.90 confidence level; unequal s2 = same as pairwise with unequal variances taken into account; error = calculated error component (Table 10); accept = differences between pairs considered to be valid) Signi ficance Confiden ce 0.90 Calculated 2 Difference Error Accept Variable 'l' s, Xl x2 X s2 pairwise unequal s^ t-statistic between means (unit) (unit) L 0.04 0.08 W 0.00 0.27 BxF 0.0008 148.1 90.4 33.3 26.6 6.66 1.38 yes G 0.0002 102.7 26.0 7.31 T 0.03 0.00 AxF 0.0038 10.2 7.1 7.0 5.5 1.51 1.62 no G 0.0048 5.8 5-6 1.36 0.19 0.10 Pt B 0.10 0.28 6D 0.12 0.02 0.0033 235.7 225.6 48.9 39.5 9.44 14.71 no 6L 0.03 0.51 AxF % 0.01 0.29 —~ ______ represented in tools. Rather than a functional phenome- early ones, in that the artifacts found there are made non, this is probably an artifact of the unequal field from many different varieties of chert. Major Coffin sampling practices already mentioned. (1951) noted many of the source locations from which these chert materials may have been obtained, but only Variation in Stone Materials "^ have methof bef Sloped for separating the different materials with certainty. It will soon be Lindenmeier is somewhat unusual among sites, at least possible to state quantitatively and with confidence the ANALYSIS 141 TABLE 65.—Analysis of variance for differences in double edge tools among units (see tex* for explanation of variables; sig. X and s2 = attained significance level in test for differences of means and variance, respectively; pairwise = significant difference attained between indicated pairs of units A, B, F, G, H at 0.90 confidence level; unequal s2 = same as pairwise with unequal variance taken into account; error = calculated error component Table 10); accept = differences between pairs considered to be valid) Signif icance Confidence =0.90 Calculated Difference Variable 2 2 X s pairwise unequal s^ t-statistic 2 s X x Accept \ s2 l 9 between Error (unit) (unit) means L 0.45 0.39 — — W 0.94 0.17 T 0.05 0.11 0.01 0.00 AxB 0.0013 3.8 0.7 3.6 2.2 1.41 0.60 yes F 0.0000 0.08 1.5 2.08 B 0.18 0.63 <*D 0.09 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.0014 126.5 228.1 10.22 14.71 no 6L AxH 57.3 47.1 5R 0.00 0.33 AxB 0.0042 154.6 176.5 59.6 51.8 7.76 8.44 no G 0.0001 285.1 47.0 8.92 H 0.0001 205.0 46.3 9.44 TABLE 66.—Chi-square test for equality of numbers of specimens TABLE 67.—Chi-square test for equality of material content among per category among units units Utilized Distal Single Double Unit flakes edge edge edge Total Material Area I Area II Total tool tool tool FREQUENCY TABLE All categories FREQUENCY TABLE A 106 51 103 79 339 Chalcedony. 511 237 748 B 149 31 88 58 326 Jasper 501 557 1058 56 38 45 22 161 F Quartzite , 721 50 771 G 41 36 47 27 151 H 61 34 44 27 166 Total 1790 877 2667 Total 413 190 327 213 1143 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Chalcedony. 502.0 246.0 Jasper 347.9 A 122 56.4 97.0 63.2 710.1 B 117.8 54.2 93.3 60.8 Quartzite.. 517.5 253.5 F 58.2 26.8 46.1 30.0 G 54.6 25.1 43.2 28.1 CHI-SQUARE =458.813 D.F. SIG LEVEL = 0. H 60.0 27.6 47.5 30.9 CHI-SQUARE 43.384 D.F. 12 SIG LEVEL - 0.0000 Unmodified flakes excluded FREQUENCY TABLE proportional representation of each source within the Chalcedony , 218 225 443 assemblage. An analysis of this sort must await the Jasper 501 557 1058 completion of research now in progress and, therefore, Quartzite , 169 50 219 832 must form the substance of another monograph. For the Total 1720 present, discussion will be limited to examining the pro EXPECTED FREQUENCIES portional representation in the site area and categories Chalcedony , 228.7 214.3 of the crudely defined material classes listed in an earlier Jasper 546.2 511.8 chapter. An investigation of the differences in techno Quartzite 113.1 105.9 logical manipulation applied to each of these will also be made. CHI-SQUARE 65.983 D.F. SIG LEVEL 0.0000 The distribution of materials is subjected to chi-square 142 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 68.—Chi-square test for equality of material content among TABLE 70.—Chi-square test for equality of platform treatment categories among materials Utilized Distal Single Double Material Abrasion Crushing Total flakes edge edge edge tool tool tool FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Chalcedony 109 224 45 378 Chalcedony, 189 83 108 71 451 Jasper. 331 219 284 157 991 Jasper... . 113 379 75 567 Quartzite., 104 2 79 37 222 Quartzite. 108 235 26 369 Total 624 304 471 265 1664 Total 330 838 146 1314 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Chalcedony. 169.1 82.4 127.7 71.8 Chalcedony. 94.9 241.1 42.0 Jasper 371.6 181.0 280.5 157.8 Jasper 142.4 361.6 63.0 Quartzite.. 83.3 35.4 40.6 62.8 Quartzite.. 92.7 235.3 41.0 CHI-SQUARE = 63.883 D.F. SIG LEVEL 0.0000 CHI-SQUARE 20.72 3 D.F. SIG LEVEL = 0.0004 TABLE 69.—Chi-square test for equality of platform preparation TABLE 71.—Chi-square test for equality of platform erosion among among materials materials Material Transverse Lateral Total Material Thinned Removed FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Chalcedony. 207 134 15 356 Chalcedony, 245 169 262 676 Jasper 273 228 21 522 Jasper 367 271 429 1067 Quartzite.. 2 31 112 12 355 Quartzite., 231 161 282 674 Total 711 474 48 1233 Total 843 601 973 2417 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Chalcedony 235.8 Chalcedony. 205.3 136.9 13.9 168.1 272.1 Jasper. 372.1 265.3 Jasper 301.0 200.7 20.3 429.5 Quartzite. 235.1 167.6 Quartzite.. 204.7 136.5 13.8 271.3 CHI-SQUARE 1.687 D.F. SIG LEVEL 0.7931 CHI-SQUARE 14.523 D.F. SIG LEVEL 0.0058 tests (Tables 67, 68). It is apparent that the two areas differ in material content both when chipping debris— TABLE 72.—Chi-square test for equality of termination among strongly underrepresented in Area II—is considered and materials when it is excluded (Table 67). Area II has a much higher than expected proportion of jasper and a much Hinge, Outcurve, incurve Straight step lower proportion of quartzite; the converse is true for Total Area I. The categories, too, are unequally apportioned among the material classes (Table 68). Although chal FREQUENCY TABLE cedony and quartzite are overrepresented among all Chalcedony, 337 116 55 508 categories, jasper is the material of many more than Jasper 570 238 87 895 Quartzite.. 295 120 64 479 expected distal edge tools while quartzite is barely in Total 1202 474 206 1882 cluded in this category. Single edge tools are less often made of chalcedony and more often of quartzite than EXPECTED FREQUENCIES expected. Among implements, the disproportionately Chalcedony, 324.5 127.9 55.6 large amounts of chalcedony and quartzite are to be Jasper 571.6 225.4 98.0 found among utilized flakes. Unmodified flakes are not Quartzite.. 305.9 120.6 52.4 included in Table 68 because most of those recovered from Area II are missing from the collection. CHI-SQUARE 6.489 D.F. SIG LEVEL 0.1655 ANALYSIS 143 TABLE 73.—Chi-square test for equality of fragmentation among materials Material Whole Proximal Medial Distal Lateral Total FREQUENCY TABLE 316 183 65 133 52 749 512 274 118 225 124 1253 268 218 113 89 85 773 1096 675 296 447 261 2775 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES 295 8 182 2 79.9 120.6 70 4 494 9 304 8 133.7 201.8 117 8 305 3 188 0 82.5 124.5 72 7 CHI-SQUARE 51.627 D.F. 8 SIG LEVEL 0.0000 Tables 69-72 display the results of chi-square tests for jasper break less frequently and quartzite more fre differences in platform and flake termination character quently than chance alone would predict (Table 73). istics among the material classes. Platforms are pre Units are examined for platform variation. Prepara tion is the same for all units (Table 74), but treatment pared differently; jasper and quartzite particularly form (Table 75) and erosion (Table 76) differ. The varia contrasting pairs (Table 69). Abrasion occurs with tion in treatment parallels that of material variation greater than expected frequency on jasper while chal when it is remembered that Area I is deficient in fre cedony is abraded less often than expected; chalcedony quently abraded jasper and Area II in infrequently and quartzite are disproportionately untreated but jasper abraded chalcedony and quartzite. Termination among is more frequently treated than expected (Table 70). unit specimens follows the expected pattern (Table 77). The materials do not differ in platform erosion (Table Finally, units are examined for uniformity of speci 71) or in termination (Table 72). Chalcedony and men shapes (Tables 78, 79). TABLE 74—Chi-square test for equality of platform TABLE 75.—Chi-square test for equality of platform treatment preparation among units among units Unit Flat Transverse Lateral Total Unit None Abrasion Crushing Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE A 173 109 4 286 A 89 188 7 284 B 274 155 20 449 B 151 273 52 476 F 50 38 0 88 F 20 51 23 94 67 G 37 27 3 G 15 56 5 76 2 82 H 48 32 H 14 55 19 88 582 361 29 972 Total Total 289 623 106 1018 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES A 171.2 106.2 8.5 A 80.6 173.8 29.6 B 268.8 166.8 13.4 B 135.1 291.3 49.6 F 52.7 32.7 2.6 G 40.1 24.9 2.0 F 26.7 57.5 9.8 H 49.1 30.5 2.4 G 21.6 46.5 7.9 H 25.0 53.9 9.2 CHI-SQUARE = 11.418 D.F. 8 SIG LEVEL 0.1791 CHI-SQUARE = 63.067 D.F. = 8 SIG LEVEL = 0.0000 144 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 76. -Chi-square test for equality of platform erosion among TABLE 78.—Chi-square test for equality of specimen maximum units width location among units Unit None Thinned Removed Total Proximal Proximal Mid- Distal Distal Unit end third third third end Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE A 216 128 2 30 574 A 14 157 90 238 18 517 B 233 261 421 915 B 68 207 323 325 122 1045 F 77 19 99 195 F 10 24 44 102 16 196 G 12 29 36 66 33 176 G 29 64 116 23 H 10 41 57 82 20 210 H 79 24 107 210 Total 114 458 550 813 209 2144 Total 634 496 880 2010 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES A 27.5 110.4 132.6 196.0 50.4 B 55.6 223.2 268.1 396.3 101.9 A 181. 1 141.6 251.3 F 10.4 41.9 50.3 74.3 19.1 B 288. 6 225.8 400.6 G 9.4 37.6 45.1 66.7 17.2 F 61 5 48.1 85.4 H 11.2 44.9 53.9 79.6 20.5 G 36. 6 28.6 50.8 H 66. 2 51.8 91.9 CHI-SQUARE - 140.925 D. F. 16 SIG LEVEL 0. CHI-SQUARE = 131.165 D.F. SIG LEVEL 0. TABLE 79.—Chi-square test for equality of specimen maximum TABLE 77.—Chi-square test for equality of termination among units thickness location among units Hinge, Outcurve, Proximal Proxima 1 Mid- Distal Distal Unit incurve Straight step Total Unit end third third third end Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE A 15 303 53 145 8 524 242 87 46 370 B 65 425 300 192 57 1039 464 151 69 694 F 13 79 54 41 7 194 39 70 14 176 F 78 G 8 45 20 11 104 H 16 77 55 53 5 206 G 113 40 17 170 Total 117 929 501 501 91 2139 H 73 27 9 109 Total 970 325 152 1447 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES A 28 7 227 6 122.7 122.7 22 3 B 56 8 451 3 243.4 243.4 44 2 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES F 10 6 84 3 45.4 45.4 8 3 G 9 6 76 4 41.2 41.2 7 5 A 248.0 83.1 38.9 H 11 3 89 5 48.2 48.2 8 8 B 465.2 155.9 72.9 F 69.7 23.4 10.9 CHI-SQUARE = 163.692 D.F. = 16 SIG LEVEL - 0. G 114.0 38.2 17.9 H 73.1 24.5 11.4 CHI-SQUARE 12 869 D. F. = 8 SIG LEVEL = 0.1537 parts in Area II are straight. Average preform outlines and sizes are drawn to scale in Figure 132. Variation among Preforms As can be seen in Table 80, preforms are alike be Variation among Channel Flakes tween areas in 10 of the 14 dimensions that were meas ured. Area I preforms are longer, wider overall and at Channel flake dimensions do not vary between areas the base juncture, and have wider channel scars on the (Table 89). Variances for length are unequal but can side that was second to be fluted. Tests for differences be accounted for by the fact that these flakes are sub (chi-square) between area platform outlines are sum ject to a high degree of breaking at every point in their marized in Tables 81-88. There are no differences histories; it did not seem worthwhile to correct for the between tip and proximal outlines but Area I body and inequality in this case. These flakes are remarkably base sections are strongly convex while their counter- uniform in width and thickness; the standard deviation ANALYSIS 145 point attributes of shape. Only data from whole, un broken points are used in compiling these tables. Areas are treated as pooled units in order to increase sample size. Tip (Tables 92, 93), base (Tables 96, 97), and proximal (Tables 98, 99) conformations do not vary between areas, but body outlines are different (Tables 94, 95). Figure 132 graphically summarizes this and other shape data. Edge characteristics are scaled according to the num ber of retouch scars per centimeter and by the extent to which edges are abraded. Tables 100 and 101 reveal that abrasion and scar density, respectively, do not vary significantly between units. Tables 102-104 tabulate the results of tests on attri butes to which I can assign neither technological nor functional significance. They are, therefore, considered to have stylistic value. The areas differ at highly signifi cant levels in all these characteristics. Area I points have predominately expanding flakes while those of Area II are parallel (Table 102). Scars overlap on Area I points but are ranked on those of Area II (Table 103). Retouch is oriented perpendicularly to point edges in Area I but obliquely in Area II (Table 104). Mean retouch direction of Area I points is 0 degrees, of Area II points, 22 degrees. Finally, the degree of fluting is highly divergent be tween the areas (Table 105). Area I points, in contra distinction to those of Area II, are less often fluted. On the other hand, they are much more often characterized by basal thinning rather than fluting. Pseudofluting occurs with about equal frequency in both areas. In order to examine interrelationships between point variables, correlation coefficients between all variables are calculated by area and for pooled data. Again only FIGURE 132.—Average outlines and sizes of artifacts: a, preform, whole points are considered; matrices are constructed Area I; b, preform, Area II; c, point, Area I; d, point, Area II; for each data division (Table 107). Significant correla e, channel flake, Area I; /, channel flake, Area II. (Full scale.) tion is considered arbitrarily to be reached at or above r = 0.81, that is when approximately 66% of the vari for width is 3.0 mm and for thickness is slightly more ance is explained by a pair of variables. Only correlations than 0.5 mm. Their mean widths are within the range that reach or exceed that level in all three matrices are of preform scar widths but are slightly smaller than accepted as significant. Base juncture width is strongly the latter. Dorsal scar patterns on channel flakes vary correlated with maximum width; scar lengths are corre significantly between areas (Table 90). Longitudinal lated with each other and with overall length, as are scars are much less common than expected in Area I scar and ridge thicknesses. The meaning of these asso and are overrepresented in Area II; lateral scars, con ciations will be considered (pp. 176-177). versely, are proportionally overabundant in Area I. Figure 132 depicts these differences (see also Figure 95). Variation among Bifaces Variation among Points Bifaces do not vary between areas (Table 106). The only discernible difference lies in the fact that thickness Table 91 documents the fact that points in both areas variances are unequal; otherwise, all variables of size are identical in every dimension. Tables 92-99 present and all edge angles have equivalent means and equal the results of chi-square tests of significance between variances between the areas. Notice especially that all 146 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 edge angles (SD, SL, 8R) are essentially the same in size and range of variation. Spatial Variation The analysis of spatial variation is hampered by a number of factors. First, all units are incompletely exca vated or recorded; second, the evidence suggests that some units were occupied on more than one occasion; third, there is a great deal of areal overlap among the majority of the units. For these reasons, tests of associa tion are unwarranted and discussions of the meanings of possible nonrandom associations—except for rather large scale clustering tendencies—are purely matters of speculation. If, however, occupations took place in more or less comparable spatial increments and if they were fairly FIGURE 133.—Unit population as a function of estimated area; evenly spaced or repeatedly superimposed, then gross allometric regression line plots number of individuals against area tendencies in the distribution of different sorts of objects in square meters. (chipping debris, implements, bone scraps) should be discernible in the record. A series of analyses that deal with areas rather than estimates given must be taken as "educated guesses." counts are performed. The artifact composition of the My principle purpose in offering them at all is to stress units has already been extensively analyzed. Unit area the overall similarity between units. At least one alternate computations have been given in Table 7. Group sizes interpretation is possible: the units might be the remains for each unit may be estimated by applying the principle of small, family camps in which living space locations of allometric growth to the calculated areas. This prin were moved periodically. ciple states that the rate of relative change in one variable A method for investigating spatial variation in camp (in this case, number of people) is a constant fraction layouts is also available. An outline drawing of each of the rate of change in another (number of square camp is made to the same scale. On it, the limits of bone yards). Wiessner (1974) has developed a regression curve scatter and artifact distribution are shown along with from which values for either location areas or population hearth and hut locations if these latter are known. The sizes of hunting camps may be obtained if the other is maps are then oriented along the same axis and super known. I have applied the computed areas for Units A, imposed upon one another. If the camps have the same B, F, G, and H to this curve (Figure 133) and have basic plan, the parts of each will coincide spatially with derived population estimates for the site. Unit popula their counterparts. Only Units A, B, and F are sufficiently tions are all similar. To use this curve, one must accept complete to permit the use of this technique. Figure 134 the assumption that material distributions are the result shows the schematic plots of these units separately and of single occupation episodes. Throughout this mono superimposed upon each other. These units, and by ex graph, I have stressed the tenuous nature of such accept tension the others, are clearly replicas of a single settle ance in the cases at hand; consequently the population ment plan. X / A ( i • > i / v» FIGURE 134.—Unit outline maps rotated and superimposed: a, Unit A; b, Unit B; c, Unit F; d, superimposition of units A, B, and F. ANALYSIS 147 TABLE 80.—Mests for differences between whole preform variables by area Variable Area I Area II Test statistic D.F Sig. L X 52.45 42.48 t 2.2410 47 0.0298 s2 162.48 224.20 F_ 1.3798 33, 14 0.2649 N 15 34 LT X 12.34 13.06 t =-0.4024 40 0.6895 S2 31.90 27.68 F = 1.1526 12, 28 0.3612 N 13 29 LB 8.98 8.42 t = 0.3140 38 0.7552 lr 21.25 34.12 F = 1.6052 24, 14 0.1799 N 15 25 P X 2.23 2.06 t = 0.4399 37 0.6625 s2 1.48 1.40 F_ = 1.0540 13, 24 0.4382 N 14 25 WTJ X 22.06 19.75 t = 1.4106 40 0.1661 s2 15.87 27.47 F_ 1.7310 28, 12 0.1587 N 13 29 38 0.0141 WWT X 24.52 20.47 t = 2.5730 BJ s2 12.43 27.71 F = 2.2297 25, 13 0.0665 N 14 26 Wp X 19.32 17.50 t = 1.1236 35 0.2688 s2 25.75 18.07 J_ = 1.4250 10, 25 0.2264 N 11 26 w X 27.24 23.66 t = 2.2816 47 0.0271 ,2 14.30 30.46 J_ = 2.1301 33, 14 0.0664 N 15 34 t =-0.02668 31 0.9789 TR X 4.34 4.35 s2 0.83 0.96 F 1.1510 17, 14 0.3998 N 15 18 TS X 3.42 3.61 t =-0.5714 29 0.5721 S2 0.53 1.11 F 2.0947 16, 13 0.0923 N 14 17 SLv X 27.44 29.98 t =-0.5924 28 0.5583 s2 100.08 121.67 F = 1.2157 20, 8 0.4076 N 9 21 SLD X 29.33 26.67 t = 0.5865 22 0.5635 ,2 177.06 56.72 J_ = 3.1215 12, 10 0.0404 N 13 11 swv X 13.55 15.49 t =-0.8152 30 0.4214 S2 20.66 42.21 F_ = 2.0430 22, 8 0.1494 N 9 23 sw„ 16.26 11.03 t = 3.0365 29 0.0050 18.33 27.27 F = 1.4876 15, 14 0.2319 15 16 The distortion in Unit A bone distribution is best direction), the basic organization of each unit has been interpreted as the result of more than one occupation preserved. The relations between bone concentrations partially superimposed on the same living surface. and artifact scatter are consistent throughout. The ab Despite differences in orientation imposed by local sence of hearth locations in the field notes prevents me topography (Units A and B are on opposite sides of the from making estimates about individual living unit low Brule ridge and could not have faced the same locations. 148 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 81.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of left tip edge TABLE 82.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of right tip edge between area preforms between area preforms Shape Area I Area II Total Shape Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Convex... 10 21 31 Convex... 11 21 32 Straight. 2 10 12 Straight. 2 10 12 31 44 Total.. 12 31 43 Total.. 13 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Convex... 9.5 22.5 Convex... 8.7 22.3 Straight. 3.5 8.5 Straight. 3.3 8.7 CHI-SQUARE 0.602 D.F. SIG LEVEL = 0.4380 CHI-SQUARE =0.414 D.F. = 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.5200 FISHER'S EXACT = 0.2229 FISHER'S EXACT = 0.2663 Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Shape Total Missing Area I Area II 12 13 33 Total 12 13 33 Total % 28.3 71.7 Total % 28.3 71.7 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 Deeply convex Deeply convex Total 16 2 9 7 Total 18 3 9 9 Total % 34.8 19.6 15.2 Total % 39.1 19.6 19.6 ROW % 56.3 43.8 Row % 50.0 50.0 69.2 21.2 69.2 27.3 Slightly convex Slightly convex Total 16 7 2 14 Total 13 5 1 12 34.8 4.3 30.4 Total % 28.3 2.2 26.1 12.5 87.5 Row % 7.7 92.3 15.4 42.4 7.7 36.4 Straight 12 2 Straight 3 10 Total % 26.1 4.3 21.7 Total 12 4 2 10 Row % 16.7 83.3 Total % 26.1 4.3 21.7 Column % 15.4 30.3 16.7 83.3 Slightly concave 15.4 30.3 Total 2 0 0 2 Slightly concave Total % 4.3 4.3 1 1 2 0 Row % 100 0 Total % 4.3 2.2 2.2 6 1 ROW % 50.0 50.0 7.7 3.0 Deeply concave Total 1 0 0 1 Total % 2.2 2.2 100.0 3.0 ANALYSIS 149 TABLE 83.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of left body edge TABLE 84.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of right body between area preforms edge between area preforms Shape Area I Area II Total Shape Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Convex... 10 10 20 Convex... 12 9 21 Straight. 4 23 27 Straight. 3 24 27 Total.. 14 33 47 Total.. 15 33 48 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES 6.0 14.0 Convex... Convex... 6.6 14.4 Straight. 8.0 19.0 Straight. 8.4 18.6 CHI-SQUARE = 5.223 D.F. 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.0223 CHI-SQUARE =9.606 D.F. = 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.0019 FISHER'S EXACT 0.0111 FISHER'S EXACT =0.0008 Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Total 13 15 33 Total % 31.2 68.7 Total 13 15 33 Missing 0 0 1 Total % 31.2 68.7 Slightly convex 1 0 0 1 Total 20 7 10 10 Slightly convex Total % 41.7 20.8 20.8 Total 21 7 12 9 Row % 50.0 50.0 Total % 43.7 25.0 18.7 Column % 66.7 30.3 Row % 57.1 42.9 Straight 80.0 27.3 Total 27 4 23 Straight Total % 56.2 8.3 47.9 Total 27 6 3 24 Row % 14.8 85.2 Total % 56.2 6.2 50.0 Column % 26.7 69.7 Row % 11.1 88.9 Slightly concave 20.0 72.7 Total 1 1 0 Total % 2.1 2.1 Row % 100.0 Column % 6.7 150 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 85.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of left base TABLE 86.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of right base edge between area preforms edge between area preforms Shape Area I Area II Total Shape Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Convex 10 9 19 Convex... 10 18 Straight 4 22 26 Straight. 3 21 24 Concave 0 2 2 Concave.. 2 2 4 Total 14 33 47 Total.. 15 31 46 EXPECTED FREQFREQUENCIEI S EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Convex 5.7 13.3 Straight 7.7 18.3 Convex... 5.9 12.1 Concave 0.6 1.4 Straight. 7.8 16.2 Concave.. 1.3 2.7 CHI-SQUARE = 8.168 D.F. = 2 SIG LEVEL =• 0.0168 CHI-SQUARE =9.280 D.F. = 2 SIG LEVEL = 0.0097 Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Total 13 14 33 Total % 29.8 70.2 Total 13 15 32 Missing 0 1 1 Total % 31.9 68.1 Deeply convex Missing 0 0 2 Total , 3 2 1 Deeply convex Total % 6.4 4.3 2.1 Total 2 2 Row % , 66.7 33.3 Total % 4.3 4.3 Column % 14.3 3.0 1.5 Slightly convex Row % 50.0 50.0 Total 16 Column % 13.3 6.3 Total % 34.0 17.0 17.0 Slightly convex Row % , 50.0 50.0 Total 14 8 6 Column % 57.1 24.2 Total % 29.8 17.0 12.8 Straight Row % 57.1 42.9 Total , 26 4 22 Column % 53.3 18.8 Total % 55.3 8.5 46.8 Straight Row % 15.4 84.6 Total 24 3 21 Column % 28.6 66.7 Total % 51.1 6.4 kh.7 Slightly concave Row % 12.5 87.5 Total 2 0 2 Column % 20.0 65.6 Total % 4.3 4.3 Slightly concave 100.0 Row % Total 2 2 Column % 6.1 Total % 4.3 4.3 Row % 50.0 50.0 Column % 13.3 6.3 Deeply concave Total 1 0 1 Total % 2.1 2.1 Row % 100.0 Column % 3.1 ANALYSIS 151 TABLE 87.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of proximal TABLE 88.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of ears edge between area preforms between area preforms Shape Area I Area II Total Shape Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Convex 0 Point 6 7 13 Straight 0 Flat 2 2 4 Concave 6 13 19 6 12 18 Concave with nipple. 7 15 Total 14 21 35 Total 13 33 46 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Convex 1.1 2.9 5.2 7.8 Straight 2.3 5.7 Flat 1.6 2.4 Concave 5.4 13.6 7.2 10.8 Concave with nipple. 4.2 10.8 CHI-SQUARE 0.705 D.F. SIG LEVEL = 0.7029 CHI-SQUARE = 7.337 D.F. SIG LEVEL 0.0619 Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Shape tal Missing Area I Area II Total 12 13 33 Total 11 14 21 Total % 28.3 71.7 Total % 40.0 60.0 Missing 3 1 2 1 Deeply convex Missing.... 14 2 1 13 Point Total 1 0 0 1 Total % 2.2 2.2 Total..., 13 2 6 7 Row % 100.0 Total %., 37.1 17.1 20.0 Column % 3.0 Row %. .. , 46.2 53.8 Slightly convex Column %, 42.9 33.3 Total 3 2 3 Flat Total % 6.5 6.5 Total.... 4 1 2 2 Row % 100.0 Total %.. 11.4 5.7 5.7 Column % 9.1 Row %.... 50.0 50.0 Straight Column %. 14.3 9.5 Total Round Total % 17.4 17.4 Total 18 6 6 12 Row % 100.0 Total %.. 51.4 17.1 34.3 Column % 24.2 Row %:... 33.3 66.7 Slightly concave Column %. 42.9 57.1 Total 12 4 3 9 Total % 26.1 6.5 19.6 Row % 25.0 75.0 Column % 23.1 27.3 Deeply concave Total 6 1 3 3 Total % 13.0 6.5 6.5 Row % 50.0 50.0 TABLE 90.—Chi-square test for equality of dorsal scar patterns on Column % 23.1 9.1 channel flakes between areas Flat concave Total 1 2 0 1 Total % 2.2 2.2 Row % 100.0 Dorsal scar Column % 3.0 pattern Area I Area II Total Concave with nipple Total 15 1 7 Total % 32.6 15.2 17.4 FREQUENCY TABLE Row % 46.7 53.3 Column % 53.8 24.2 Longitudinal 4 97 101 TABLE 89.—F scores for differences in channel flake dimensions Lateral 156 416 572 between areas (summary statistics are given in Table 38) Total 160 513 673 Variable N F sLg - EXPECTED FREQUENCIES 2 X s2 X o Longitudinal. 24.0 77.0 Lateral 136.0 436.0 L 811 16.08 10.23 0.00 0.00 W 811 33.05 0.96 0.00 0.33 CHI-SQUARE = 24.473 D.F. = 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.0000 T 811 5.40 2.26 0.02 0.13 FISHER'S EXACT = 0.0000 152 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 91.—i-tests for differences between whole point variables by area (minus 1 in test statistic column indicates zero implied immediately right of the decimal) Variable Area I Area II test statistic D. F. Sig. E X 22.41 21.86 t 0.1944 30 0.8471 s2 64.88 59.98 F -1.0817 16, 14 0.4453 N 17 15 L X 32.65 31.78 t 0.2826 43 0.7788 s2 124.20 75.81 F 1.6381 25, 18 0.1418 N 26 19 L'-p X 10.79 12.92 t -1.9688 40 0.0559 s2 7.40 18.14 F = 2.4495 18, 22 0.0238 N 23 19 LB X 5.46 5.03 t = 0.3816 41 0.7047 S2 13.14 13.34 F_ = 1.0155 17, 24 0.4762 N 25 18 P 2.23 2.77 t = -0.9796 37 0.3335 1.91 4.42 F = 2.3054 16, 22 0.0350 N 23 17 WTJ X 16.08 16.38 t = -0.2398 41 0.8117 s2 18.03 16.32 F = 1.1050 23, 18 0.4196 N 24 19 W X 17.09 17.03 t = 0.6345 -1 36 0.9498 BJ 2 S 9.77 9.08 F = 1.0759 21, 15 0.4507 N 22 16 WP X 15.73 16.77 t = -1.0347 35 0.3079 2 s 8.62 9.97 F = 1.1555 15, 20 0.3748 N 21 16 W X 18.29 17.91 t = 0.3548 43 0.7244 s2 12.78 11.77 F = 1.0863 25, 18 0.4354 N 26 19 TR 3.67 3.67 t = -0.2059 -1 42 0.9837 h 0.61 0.46 F = 1.3417 25, 17 0.2684 N 26 18 _ T xo 3.30 3.21 t 0.4237 30 0.6748 S 2 s 0.41 0.36 F_ = 1.1368 15, 15 0.4036 N 16 16 SLy 28.61 25.99 t = 0.6997 25 0.4905 s 143.45 49.64 F = 2.8895 12, 13 0.0346 N 13 14 SLD X 23.96 26.18 t = -0.6024 28 0.5517 2 s 148.83 47.26 F = 3.1492 15, 13 0.0221 N 16 14 swv X 13.13 12.25 t 0.7400 27 0.4656 2 s 12.71 8.11 F = 1.5663 12, 15 0.2038 N 13 16 sw X 11.69 11.56 t 0.1038 31 0.9180 2 D s 14.98 8.86 F_ = 1.6907 16, 15 0.1580 N 17 16 ANALYSIS 153 TABLE 92.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of left tip TABLE 93.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of right tip edge between area points edge between area points Shape Area I Area II Total Shape Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Convex 16 Convex.., 24 14 38 23 39 Straight 1 1 2 Straight. 0 2 2 Concave 0 2 2 Concave., 0 2 2 Total 24 19 43 Total., 24 18 42 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Convex 21.8 17.2 Convex.., 21.7 16.3 Straight 1.1 0.9 Straight, 1.1 0.9 Concave 1.1 0.9 Concave., 1.1 0.9 CHI-SQUARE 2.712 D.F. • 2 SIG LEVEL = 0.2577 CHI-SQUARE = 5.895 D.F. 2 SIG LEVEL = 0.0525 Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Total 13 24 19 Total % 55.8 44.2 Missing 2 1 2 0 Total , 4 24 18 Deeply convex Total % , 57.1 42.9 Total 10 2 6 4 Missing , 0 2 1 Total % 23.3 14.0 9.3 Deeply convex Row % 60.0 40.0 Total 4 5 3 Column % 25.0 21.1 Total % 19.0 11.9 7.1 Slightly convex Row % , 62.5 37.5 Total 29 7 17 12 Column % , 20.8 16.7 Total % , 67.4 39.5 27.9 'Slightly convex Row % 58.6 41.4 Total 30 8 19 11 Column % 70.8 63.2 Total % 71.4 45.2 26.2 Straight Total , 2 Row % 63.3 36.7 3 1 1 Total % 4.7 2.3 2.3 Column % 79.2 61.1 Row % 50.0 50.0 Straight Column % 4.2 5.3 Total 2 2 0 2 Slightly concave Total % 4.8 4.8 Total 2 0 0 2 Row % 100.0 Total % 4.7 4.7 Column % 11.1 Row % 100.0 Slightly concave Column % 10.5 Total 2 0 0 2 Total % 4.8 4.8 Row % 100.0 Column % 11.1 154 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 94.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of left body TABLE 95.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of right body edge between area points edge between area points Shape Area I Area II Total Shape Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Convex... 17 2 19 Convex... 6 2 18 Straight. 9 17 26 Straight. 9 16 25 Total.. 26 19 45 Total.. 5 18 43 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Convex... 11.0 8.0 Convex.., 10.5 7.5 Straight. 15.0 11.0 Straight. 14.5 10.5 CHI-SQUARE 11.387 D.F. 1 SIG LEVEL 0.0007 CHI-SQUARE =9.953 D.F. = 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.0016 FISHER'S EXACT =0.0002 FISHER'S EXACT =0.0005 Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Total 14 26 19 Total 14 26 19 Total % 57.8 42.2 Slightly convex Total % 57.8 42.2 Slightly convex Total , 19 4 17 2 Total 18 4 16 2 Total % 42.2 37.8 4.4 Total % 40.0 Row % , 89.5 10.5 35.6 4.4 Row % Column % , 65.4 10.5 88.9 11.1 Straight Column % 61.5 10.5 Total 26 10 9 17 Straight Total % 57.8 20.0 37.8 Total 25 10 9 16 Row % 34.6 65.4 Total % 55.6 20.0 35.6 Column % 34.6 89.5 Row % 36.0 64.0 Column % 34.6 84.2 Slightly concave Total 2 0 1 1 Total % 4.4 2.2 2.2 Row % 50.0 50.0 Column % 3.8 5.3 ANALYSIS 155 TABLE 96.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of left base TABLE 97.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of right base edge between area points edge between area points Shape Area I Area II Total Shape Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Convex.., 4 1 5 Convex... 5 9 5 Straight. 19 16 35 Straight. 18 18 36 Total. 23 17 40 Total.. 23 18 41 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Convex.. , 2.9 2.1 Convex... 2.8 2.2 Straight, 20.1 14.9 Straight. 20.2 15.8 CHI-SQUARE = 0.365 D.F. = 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.5455 CHI-SQUARE =2.658 D.F. = 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.1031 FISHER'S EXACT =0.2799 FISHER'S EXACT = .0449 Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Total 14 24 17 Total 14 24 19 Total % , 58.5 41.5 Total % 55.8 44.2 Missing 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 Slightly convex Deeply convex Total 5 2 4 1 Total 1 0 0 1 Total % 12.2 9.8 2.4 Total % 2.3 2.3 Row % , 80.0 20.0 100.0 Column % , 16.7 5.9 5.3 Straight Slightly convex Total , 35 19 16 5 1 5 0 Total % , 85.4 46.3 .39.0 Total % 11.6 11.6 Row % , 54.3 45.7 100.0 Column % , 54.3 9k.l 20.8 Slightly concave Straight Total 1 1 0 36 10 18 18 83.7 41.9 41.9 Total % , 2.4 2.4 Total % Row % 50.0 50.0 Row % 100.0 75.0 94.7 Column % 4.2 Slightly concave Total 1 3 1 0 Total % 2.3 2.3 100.0 4.2 156 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 98.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of proximal TABLE 99.—Chi-square test for difference of shape of ears edge between area points between area points Shape Area I Area II Total Shape Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Convex.. , 0 3 3 Point... 6 14 Straight 3 0 3 Flat 2 3 Concave., 23 14 37 14 22 Total., 26 17 43 Round... Total. 22 17 39 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Convex.. 1.8 1.2 Straight, 1.8 1.2 Point... 7.9 6.1 Concave. 22.4 14.6 Flat 1.7 1.3 Round... 12.4 9.6 CHI-SQUARE =6.594 D.F. = 2 SIG LEVEL = 0.0370 CHI-SQUARE =1.641 D.F. = 2 SIG LEVEL = 0.4401 Shape Total Missing Area I Area II Shape Total Missing Area I Area II 14 26 17 Total % 60.5 39.5 12 22 18 2 0 0 2 55.0 45.0 Deeply convex 2 4 1 Total 3 0 0 3 5 Total % 7.0 7.0 Point 100.0 14 2 6 8 17.6 15.0 20.0 35.0 Slightly convex 42.9 57.1 Total 3 2 3 0 27.3 44.4 Total % 7.0 7.0 Flat 100.0 3 3 2 1 11.5 Total % 7.5 5.0 2.5 Straight 66.7 33.3 21 5 11 10 9.1 5.6 Total % 48.8 25.6 23.3 52.4 47.6 Round 22 7 14 8 42.3 58.8 20.0 Slightly concave Total % 55.0 35.0 63.6 36.4 Total 6 1 4 2 14.0 9.3 4.7 63.6 44.4 66.7 33.3 15.4 11.8 Deeply concave 4 1 4 0 Total % 9.3 9.3 Row % 100.0 15.4 Concave with nipple 6 2 5 2 Total % 14.0 9.3 4.7 66.7 33.3 15.4 11.8 ANALYSIS 157 TABLE 100.—Chi-square test for difference in edge abrasion TABLE 101.—Chi-square test for difference in number of retouch between area points scars per centimeter between area points Edge abrasion Area I Area II Total Scar frequency Area I Area II Total (per cm) FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE 17 9 26 1-5 10 3 13 8 10 18 6-10 14 13 27 25 19 44 11-15... 2 2 4 26 18 44 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES 14.8 11 2 10.2 7 8 1-5 7.7 5.3 6-10 16.0 11.0 CHI-SQUARE =1.143 D.F. 1 SIG LEVEL 0.2850 11-15... 2.4 1.6 FISHER'S EXACT = 0.1426 CHI-SQUARE =2.432 D.F. SIG LEVEL 0.2964 Edge abrasion Total Missing Area I Area II Scar frequency Total Missing Area I Area II Total 25 19 Total 14 26 18 Total % 56.8 43.2 Total % 59.1 40.9 Missing.... 1 0 1 0 Missing 0 0 1 None <1 per cm Total.... 26 6 17 9 Total 1 0 1 0 Total %.. 59.1 38.6 20.5 Total % 2.3 2.3 Row %.... 65.4 34.6 Row % 100.0 Column %. 68.0 47.4 Column %... 3.8 Abraded 1-5 per cm Total.... 18 8 10 Total 12 9 3 Total %.. 40.9 18.2 22.7 Total % 27.3 20.5 6.8 Row %.... 44.4 55.6 Row % 75.0 25.0 Column %, 32.0 52.6 Column %... 34.6 16.7 6-10 per cm Total 12 5 7 Total %.... 27.3 11.4 15.9 Row % 41.7 58.3 Column %... 19.2 38.9 11-15 per cm Total 15 9 6 Total % 34.1 20.5 13.6 Row % 60.0 40.0 Column %... 34.6 33.3 >15 per cm Total 4 2 2 Total % 9.1 4.5 4.5 Row % 50.0 50.0 Column %... 7.7 11.1 158 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 102.—Chi-square test for difference in type of retouch TABLE 103.—Chi-square test for difference in pattern of retouch scars between area points scars between area points Retouch type Area I Area II Total Retouch type Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE FREQUENCY TABLE Expanding scars, 14 2 16 Ranked scars 12 16 Parallel scars.. 6 14 20 Lapped scars 1 9 Total 20 16 36 Alternating scars. 5 3 8 Total 17 16 33 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Expanding scars 8.9 7.1 Parallel scars 11.1 8.9 Ranked scars 8.2 7.8 Lapped scars 4.6 4.4 CHI-SQUARE 9.688 D.F. 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.0019 Alternating scars. 4.1 3.9 FISHER'S EXACT 0.0007 CHI-SQUARE 9.923 D.F. = 2 SIG LEVEL 0.0070 Retouch type Total Missing Area I Area II Retouch type Total Missing Area I Area II Total 13 22 16 Total 13 17 16 Total % 57.9 42.1 Total % 51.5 48.5 Missing 1 4 3 Expanding scars Missing 12 1 9 3 Ranked scars Total 16 14 2 Total 16 4 12 Total % 42.1 36.8 5.3 Total % 48.5 12.1 36.4 Row % 87.5 12.5 Row % 25.0 75.0 Column % 63.6 12.5 Column % 23.5 75.0 Parallel scars Lapped scars Total 20 6 14 Total 9 8 1 Total % 52.6 15.8 36.8 Total % 27.3 24.2 3.0 Row % 30.0 70.0 Row % 88.9 11.1 Column % 27.3 87.5 Column % 47.1 6.3 Contracting scars Alternating scars Total 2 2 0 Total 5 3 Total % 5.3 5.3 Total % 24.2 15.2 9.1 Row % 100.0 Row % 62.5 37.5 Column % 9.1 Column % 29.4 18.8 ANALYSIS 159 TABLE 104.—Chi-square test for difference in direction of retouch scars between area points Retouch direction Area I Area II Total FREQUENCY TABLE Perpendicular 23 9 32 Oblique 0 27 27 Total 23 36 59 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES Perpendicular 12.5 19.5 Oblique 10.5 16.5 CHI-SQUARE =28.855 D.F. = 1 SIG LEVEL = 0.0000 FISHER'S EXACT = 0.0000 TABLE 105.—Chi-square test for difference in frequency of fluting between area points Fluting Area I Area II Total type FREQUENCY TABLE True fluting 19 29 48 Pseudofluting. . . . 9 8 17 Basal thinning... 18 3 21 Total 46 40 86 EXPECTED FREQUENCIES 25.7 22.3 Pseudofluting.... 9.1 7.9 Basal thinning... 11.2 9.8 CHI-SQUARE 12.499 D.F. = 2 SIG LEVEL = 0.0019 TABLE 106.—F scores for differences among biface variables by area N F Sig. Variable X s2 X s2 L 241 3.91 0.95 0.05 0.33 W 241 3.76 1.68 0.05 0.20 T 241 0.030 31.26 0.86 0.00 «5D 103 0.40 0.013 0.53 0.91 *L 164 0.036 0.60 0.85 0.44 «R 167 0.046 0.25 0.83 0.62 160 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 TABLE 107.—Correlation matrices for point variables C0REE1ATI0N COEFFICIENTS FOR AREAS COMBINED N = 18 D.F. = 16 E 1.0000 L .7880 L.0000 .387'! .3906 1.0000 LT .0035 .11*51 • 2391* 1.0000 LB 1 .3000 .320)4 .3165 .3376 1.0000 .1*058 .3582 .3672 -.0l*5l* .3923 1.0000 WTJ .582I1 .6019 .51*27 .01*71 .3391 • 7'*53 1.0000 HBJ .5717 .5108 .61*36 -.1029 .3229 .'101*5 .705U 1.0000 ••••T H .5791 .6223 .3879 -.0067 .1*205 .9175 |. 891*6 | .5698 ] .0000 .1*887 .7022 .5222 -.1652 -1751* .1*067 .'*832 .551*3 .5213 1.0000 TF Ts .1577 • 37>*5 .1*059 -.1351* -.0525 .1230 .1661 .31*26 .171*0 1 .8306|l .0000 s \ .7708 .9329 .1*255 .2776 .3307 .3869 .5012 .3961* .5777 .6U9I1 .3050 1.0000 sh .7678 .9038 .3537 .2600 .M18U .3966 .1*1*51* .3578 '.5693 .5823 .2501 | -955l|l .0000 swv .607!* .6161 .21*37 .2150 .3073 .6633 .7703 .3919 .7710 .3208 - .01*73 .650I4 .61*1*7 1 .0000 swD .11*80 ..3>*10 -.100U .0950 .3000 .5751* .5388 .0738 .6236 .1868 - .051*0 .3301 .31*88 .7603 1.0000 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR AREA I N = 7 D.F. = 5 E 1.0000 L .9533 1.0000 .1619 1.0000 LT .3502 h .1580 .0760 .0188 1.0000 p .7800 .8219 .11*58 .3738 .0000 .01*73 .1608 .5663 .0U67 .2328 1 .0000 WT.T .5191 .6210 .7883 .5281 .5588 .1*81*1* ] .0000 «M .5331* .6825 .761*5 .31"*8 .1*1*51 .181*1* .5850 ] .0000 WF W .5360 .6631 .7380 .2023 .3505 .7997 .81*1*5 1 .5865 L.0000 .6ol*5 .71*37 .51*02 .3721 .2961* .6068 .1*51*8 .7227 .7907 1.0000 TR .181*1* .3380 .51*83 .6393 .1518 .5896 .1631* .591*1* .5108 .8176 1 .0000 TS .9283 .969I* .3022 .1062 .7305 .3300 .6009 .5597 .731*7 .7926 .3891 L.0000 S1V S S .9109 .91*15 .1797 .0817 .7127 .3026 .5022 .1*669 .6759 .7701* .3536 .9895 1.0000 swv .6257 .61*79 .1689 .6132 .6087 .1*617 .6526 .0576 .6888 .U122 .0157 .7625 .7698 1 oooo .2178 .3139 .0256 .5179 .1*361* .3*478 .3800 . .1997 .3953 .1720 - .0225 .1*1*01* .1*737 8321 1.0000 SWD CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR AREA II 1 = 11 D.F. • 9 E 1.0000 L .7178 1.0000 .6530 1.0000 LT .8317 h .0158 .1*271* .266** L.0000 p .2033 .2190 .1*500 .3772 L.0000 .51*13 .1*000 .6257 .0793 .5850 1 .0000 HTJ .571*7 .5787 .6309 -.0155 .2977 .8626 L.0000 WP.T .61*67 .5576 .5801* -.0666 .3"*01 .7271 .8822 .0000 WP w .5858 .5165 .6307 .1128 .1*993 • 9512 .9537 | .8506 1.0000 .3816 .11*61 .1796 .1*618 .5009 .2953 1.0000 TR .671*9 .6571 -.0383 .5306 .01*08 -.0361* - .1806 .201*8 .0055 .8702 1 .0000 TS .ll*7li .3U35 .161*5 •v .6729 .8535 .8069 .5779 .2718 .3379 .3658 .351*5 .3902 .1*513 .2533 1.0000 .7792 .5631 -5023 .1*067 .3618 .1*1*38 .3121 .1675 1.0000 SLD .6877 .8113 .341*1 .8789 swv .5989 .1.687 .511*1 .131*14 .2691 .8821* .80U5 .91*33 .H*76 - .1200 .3915 .3579 1 .0000 swD -.11*1*9 -.021*0 .0688 .1021 .3581 .611*1* .6Wrl .5600 .6639 .0281 - .1288 -.1676 -.1712 .6288 1.0000 Analytical Conclusions Those conclusions derived directly from the analysis modification, single edge tools (retouched on one—or are presented here; less securely founded interpretations only part of one—edge), are next in number. Together are reserved for the next section ("Extensions and Specu these two categories comprise 65% of the implement lations"). This division is made to spare readers the inventory. The remaining tool categories (distal edge and need to disentangle my more loosely structured sugges double edge) contain specialized items highly modified tions from the concretely derived conclusions which, from raw flakes which were in turn selected from pro together with the descriptive and analytic sections, form duction components different from those reserved for the core of this study. the simpler categories. Each of these concluding sections serves a different Production characteristics are those of size, shape, and function. When dealing with a set of materials as large platform morphology. Unmodified flakes are generally and varied as that from Lindemeier, a seemingly endless smaller than other specimens; tools are larger. This maze of paths for investigation beckons to the researcher. simple statement, however, does not adequately entail I have followed only some of these and thus have devel the significance of category size differences. With the oped data primarily for a limited set of basic questions exception of distal edge tools, category sizes vary in about chipped stone artifacts and for a single site. This versely with the amount of modification to which member section contains the conclusions for which documented specimens were subjected. Implements are derived from evidence is offered; it is thus an integral part of the unmodified flakes; consequently, primary flakes of appro analytical sequence as a whole. But there are many other priate size must have been produced. Since the size problems the solutions for which the Lindenmeier collec component encompassed by the majority of used speci tion can supply pertinent data. The final section contains mens—whether utilized flakes or tools—is now quantita some suggestions for such future research. tively surpressed in the unmodified category, it is clear that almost all of the larger flakes that were produced have been converted to implements. The Meaning of Category Variation Utilized flakes probably remain approximately as large as they were when first put to use. Only slight edge The meaning of category variation is best assessed in attrition and breakage will have altered their sizes. Tools, terms of the sequential processes through which artifacts however, have, by definition, been reduced by retouch are manufactured, applied to tasks, and ultimately dis from flake blank dimensions. The generally large size of carded: the processes of production, selection, modifica all tools already referred to is, thus, the more significant. tion, and use. These processes are integrally related; in Single edge tools are a third and double edge tools a each, a set of systematically formed items is obtained half larger, on the average, than unmodified flakes. Single that becomes the foundation for subsequent steps. Each edge tools and utilized flakes are about the same size, a process is dependent upon its predecessors; conversely, reflection of their partial functional equivalence. Mean each is predicated upon subsequent requirements. All thickness/length ratio for all four of these categories items in every category go through the production stage, falls between 0.17 and 0.18. but unmodified flakes enter only negatively into the selec tion process and not at all into those that follow. Utilized Overlap of category sizes exists, but an economy of flakes are put directly to use; modification processes are production output is clearly apparent. A similar conclu bypassed. Tools are passed through all stages. sion applies to shape characteristics. Implements tend Generally, the analysis has shown that the entire to be centrally or distally widest and thickest. Again, un sequence was carried out economically at Lindenmeier. modified flakes with these characteristics are under- Flake production was controlled so that a large proportion represented; those missing are now to be found among of the output possesses ideal functional characteristics the functionally applied categories. and was immediately ready for use without further altera The categories have not been directly tested for plat tion. Utilized flakes are the most numerous implements form characteristics, but the dual facts that platform in the collection; tools with the least amount of shaping preparation and treatment follow raw material divisions 161 162 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 is evidence that these characteristics are independent of normally distributed with respect to a certain variable. category membership. On the other hand, platform ero First 11% then 22% of the items in this artificial sion is independent of material. Furthermore, this attri category are presumed to break in prescribed ways with bute varies among units in relation to unit category con the result that category variance rises by 72% and 172%, tent; those units with higher proportions of unmodified respectively. In the first case, the variance becomes equal flakes contain specimens with more platform damage. to a constructed base category variance, in the second, Platform erosion is likely a product of percussion impact it becomes 66% larger. This example has been purpose shatter. Flakes with this attribute may have associated fully designed to be less than extreme. It is easy to see characteristics (for example, small size and irregular that the majority of all cases of a similar sort will result shape), which make them less desirable for functional in reduced means and increased variances. Consequently, purposes. If these considerations hold, unmodified flakes initial selection for large size coupled with specimen will be found to have higher proportions of platform breakage (even at very low rates) can account for the thinning and removal than do other categories. analytical results obtained for utilized flakes and lateral Platform thickness and flake angle are essentially in edge tools. Resharpening will also contribute to increased variant among the categories. Platform thickness is variance although not so dramatically. thought to be among the controlling factors in flake pro Distal edge tools, on the contrary, have very low dimen duction. Its regularity reinforces the conclusion that sional variances; width and thickness, particularly, are production was directed toward creating a specific set dimensionally uniform. These are robust tools (thickness/ of flake dimensions. The flake angle probably plays no length ratio = 0.25) that do not break easily. Resharp role in flake production, but it may be an indicator of ening accounts for some of the variation in length but the controlling variables, core angle and impact direction. probably for little of width and none of thickness. The Its regularity also lends support to the conclusion that fact that distal edge tools display such narrow dimen the category assemblages are drawn from a uniformly sional tolerances is most likely due to functional causes. produced set of flakes. The requirements of hafting or socketing are possible Several other factors of the selection process by which controlling factors to which the cross-sectional dimensions flakes are chosen for use or modification into tools are of these tools must conform. important. Differential selection for materials is apparent. Selection for edge size among utilized flakes is ex Jasper predominates in all implement categories; among pressed primarily as a bias against the most acute angles distal end tools, it accounts for 72% of all specimens. available in the unmodified category. This selective bias Quartzite and chalcedony are about equally favored for is more strongly apparent among single edge tools; in utilized flakes; conversely, quartzite single edge tools are 22% more common but chalcedony tools in this category are 20% less common than expected. According to Crabtree and Davis (1968), quartzite is superior among stone types for cutting hard, dense material such as bone and wood. Finer grained chalcedony flakes terminate in U 1 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 thin razor-sharp edges, which are excellent for cutting T 1 1 2 3 2 1 soft material such as meat and skins. T 2 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 An inspection of the variances associated with category T 3 3 1 1 3 2 1 size is instructive. Variances of utilized flakes as well as ua 1 5 5 6 5 2 3 1 1 of single edge and double edge tools are always larger Ul Tl T2 T3 U2 than is that of unmodified flakes, usually 30% to 50% X 5 7 5.7 5.7 4 larger but up to three times as large in the case of the J , 4.1 2.5 4.3 variable, length. 6.8 4.1 N = 25 9 11 11 29 Intuitively, one would expect the opposite: relatively low variances in sets of specimens (such as lateral edge FIGURE 135.—Effects of artifact breakage upon variance. Scale in tools), which have been selected for certain size and arbitrary size units of equal intervals; entries indicate specimen shape characteristics and which have been made even frequencies per interval. (Ul = normally distributed set of un modified flakes drawn from entire size range; Tl = normally more regular by retouch, accompanied by correspond distributed set of tools drawn from larger half of size range; T2 = ingly high variance in unselected unmodified flake debris. distribution of Tl tool sizes after two specimens break into halves This expectation can be shown to be untenable. (one each from intervals 6 and 8) ; T3 = distribution of Tl tool Consider the hypothetical cases detailed in Figure 135, sizes after only one specimen (from interval 6) breaks into thirds; U2 = distribution of Ul flake sizes after same breakage series which are analogous to the present problem. A fictitious occurs—one specimen each from intervals 6 and 8 breaks into category of specimens is created; the contained items are halves and one specimen from interval 6 breaks in thirds.) ANALYTICAL CONCLUSIONS 163 FIGURE 136.—Wear patterns on utilized flakes: a, dorsal view of 224 showing edge nibbling, attributed to cutting; b, edge of 224, X 2; c, edge of 429, X 10. 164 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 FIGURE 137.—Wear patterns on utilized flakes: a, dorsal view of 332, X 2; b, ventral view of 1646, X 2; c, d, dorsal and ventral views of 2184 showing nibbling on both faces (actual size). ANALYTICAL CONCLUSIONS 165 ' FIGURE 138.—Wear patterns on single edge tools: a, lateral view of 451 showing damage on unmodified edge similar to that in Figure 136, X 2; b, edge of 451, X 10; c, damage on steep unmodified edge of 1045 attributed to shaving hard materials; d, cutting wear on unmodified edge of G1091/G1092; e, F205 with ventral damage on both modified (left side) and unmodified edges. (c-e, Actual size.) 166 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 FIGURE 139.—Wear patterns on single edge tools: a, b, wear damage superimposed on retouch, specimen 1085, X 1.5; c, lateral view of 1762 showing heavily abraded and pitted edge. (b, c, Actual size.) ANALYTICAL CONCLUSIONS 167 FIGURE 140.—Wear patterns on distal edge tools: a, abraded and striated edge of end scraper El26, X 10; b, deep step fracture scars on dorsal surface of end scraper edge G619, X 4; c, detail of E542 edge, X 40; d, detail of G619, X 30. 168 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 FIGURE 141.—Wear patterns on distal edge tools: a, abraded and striated edge of G859, with some step fracture also present, X 2; b, abrasion and striation perpendicular to edge of G859, X 20; c, crushed and rounded edge of end scraper F322, X 30; d, crushed and rounded edge of end scraper F322, X 20. ANALYTICAL CONCLUSIONS 169 FIGURE 142.—Wear patterns on double edge tools: a, heavy crushing and step fracturing of lateral edge of F681, X 2; b, detail of edge of F681, X 30; c, multiple use patterns of specimen E144, heavy abrasion and rounding of lateral edge (left), step fracture and crushing in notch (center and right) ; the lower fragment of this tool (not shown) was used for cutting hard materials. (Actual size.) 170 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 108.—Summary of category characteristics Thick Plat Left Right Length Width ness form Flake Dis tal Lateral Lateral Category X s X s X s X s X s X s X s X s Unmodified flakes.. 26.1 10.1 24.4 9.3 4.8 2.7 2 6 1.9 63.3 13.2 25.9 13 30.5 13 5 31.0 13.8 Utilized flakes 32.8 14.4 26.8 10.1 5.9 3.9 2.9 1.9 64.2 13.7 36.6 19 7 35.8 15 3 35.6 15.6 Distal edge tools.. 31.0 8.7- 27.0 5.4 6.9 2.2 3.0 1.6 65.2 11.9 64.1 10 1 55.8 14 7 54.4 15.5 Single edge tools.. 34.9 15.9 29.2 11.2 6.4 3.5 3.5 2.5 64.6 14.4 46.0 18 1 45.8 15 8 48.0 15.7 Double edge tools.. 40.3 18.5 30.1 10.7 7.1 3.3 2.9 1.6 62.7 11.7 53.0 18 5 54.3 12 9 53.7 13.8 this category, lateral angle values between 25° and 35° (Figures 140, 141). This discussion of category variation represent unmodified edges that were used for cutting. is summarized in Table 108. The larger angles were primarily formed by retouch Double edge tools are the largest of all tool forms; applied in order to create blunted backs on these imple they also have uniformly steep edges. These tools are ments. Modification, as initial retouch and resharpening, able to absorb heavy stresses and are probably designed along with use damage accounts for all of the edge to serve as handheld scrapers for use on hard materials. steepening found on double edge and distal edge tools. Wear damage is heavy and consists mainly of edge Functional studies are at present insufficiently ad shatter, erosion in the form of many eccentrically super vanced to allow statements about tool use to be ade imposed pits, and short step fractures (Figure 142). quately documented. Therefore, suppositions about the relations between applied force, specimen mass, and The Meaning of Point Variation edge size (inter alia) will simply be applied to each implement category. Utilized flakes with relatively small Modification has altered the original forms of the flakes masses and acute edges should be ideal meat and soft from which points were made to such an extent that skin-cutting implements; wear damage visible on the essentially all traces of flake technological variation have edges of these implements is thought to be characteristic been erased. Each step in the manufacturing process of such tasks (Figures 136, 137). Single edge tools should obscures the characteristics of its predecessor. The few also be suitable for cutting, but, since they have somewhat technological traces that remain are mainly associated greater mass and steeper edges, they will be well suited with fluting; these latter have been extensively studied for cutting bone and wood and for dismembering car by Crabtree (1966) who concludes that most, if not all, casses. Accordingly, edge damage should be heavier and Folsom points were fluted by the same method. more extensively developed (Figures 138-139). The fact The sizes of points are assumed to be constrained by that disproportionate numbers of single edge tools are the requirements of hafting, the ability to withstand made of quartzite is supporting evidence for this func bending stresses upon impact, and the factors influenc tional interpretation. Another subcategory of single edge ing piercing effectiveness. Point dimensions are therefore tool is made exclusively of jasper. Specimens of this kind considered to be functional variables. Breakage and re are large and have a straight, planar, unmodified edge, which is very steep (70°-80°) (Figure 75). This edge juvenation are major contributors to dimensions of is heavily damaged in a manner characteristically asso.- length (Figure 143). Table 91 documents the fact that ciated with use on hard materials (Figures 138-139). points in both areas are identical in every dimension. Functionally, therefore, the points all appear to be Distal edge tools concentrate even more mass near equivalent. Substantiation of this statement would re their functional edges than do double edge tools; they quire studies of the ballistic and penetrating properties are thus able to withstand much greater imposed loads of points. than can other implements. Distal edge tools are thus Fluted points appear to be subject to a high rate of ideally suited for rough shaping of hard materials. If they failure in use. Only 32% (59) of the finished speci were hafted as suggested above, forces applied to their mens (that is, those completed beyond the preform working edges could be increased. The fact that three- stage and presumably ready for use) in the collection fourths of all these tools are made of jasper may indicate are now complete; of these, fully half have been re that this material is tougher than locally available chalce juvenated at least once. The fragments included in donies. Distal edge damage is similar to that found on Figures 108 and 109 were selected to illustrate the double edge tools but frequently is more pronounced range of functional breakage that may take place. All ANALYTICAL CONCLUSIONS 171 FIGURE 143.—Fragments of points broken in use: a, G194; b, 1636; c, G745; d, 73; e, 321 f, G782; g, 2284; h, G565; i, 62. (Actual size.) of the specimens shown have been broken at or near Further indications of use applications as well as of their tips, but in a third of them basal failure is also functional fracture are provided in Figure 145. A bison involved (Figure 109c?, e, g, j, o, q). Figure 144 illus cervical vertebra with a projectile point embedded in trates a case of compound functional fracture. The the soil matrix which filled the neural canal is displayed specimen is broken into at least six pieces. Notice that in Figure 145a. This specimen was found in the Bison the two parts into which the base is divided bears some Pit articulated with the anterior portion of the vertebral resemblance to the splitting that sometimes occurs dur column of which it was a part. Figure 1456 is an X-ray ing the manufacturing process. The hinge fracture at positive of the same specimen. In it, the point is clearly the midsection developed from stresses originating at shown to have nicked the interior surface of the bone the distal end, however, and thus is a consequence of but not to have penetrated it deeply. It seems most an impact force applied to the tip of the specimen. This likely that the point was thrust rather than thrown into force may have been developed during use, or it may this position. The point is also broken in two places. One have been the result of an accident (for instance, the break severed the base from the main body of the point; point may have been dropped). this break is visible in Figure 145a. The other is visible as a crack line near the tip of the point (Figure 1456). These breaks agree well with those shown in Figures 108 and 109 and may illustrate the general manner in which such breakage occurred; it is not likely that many points entered into the neural canals of bison vertebrae, but many must have impacted against hard bone and become broken in a similar fashion. A final note on this point is that careful inspection of both faces reveals that it is not fluted although both faces are very flat. Broken points were often rejuvenated, presumably to FIGURE 144.—Compound functional failure of a point, G545/G242. (Actual size.) prolong their usefulness as spear tips. Either end of the 172 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 FIGURE 145.—Bison vertebra with point embedded in its neural canal: a, external view (from Roberts, 1936a, fig. 2); b, X-ray planogram. Mario Pichardo, then of the Smithsonian Division of Vertebrate Paleontology, made this report: Bison cf. antiquus Leidy, 1852 A cervical vertebra (sixth or seventh) with a broken projectile point beneath the left posterosuperior zygapophysis, lying close to the dorsolateral part of the posterior opening of the neural canal. If the point was emplaced while the animal was alive, and on its feet, it must have entered from below, on the left side, dorso- cranially directed. 1. A young animal with the posterior epiphysis of the centrum lost (not yet ankylosed). 2. The right transverse process and the neural spine have been broken off. mm Centrum anteroposterior length 87.0 Posterior centrum width at level of accessory processes 66.0 Anterior centrum width at level of accessory processes 43.0 Centrum height from ventral crest to lower anterior border of neural canal 59.3 Centrum height from ventral crest to lower posterior border of neural canal 68.7 Anterosuperior zygapophyses breadth 130.0 Posterosuperior zygapophyses breadth 120.0 Width at Construction between accessory and antero-superior zygapophyses 100.0 Left Transverse process length 70.0 Neural canal maximum width 30.0 Neural canal maximum height 32.0 Broken point fragments were also converted to other uses. The most frequent secondary forms are tips and scraping edges (Figure 150). Figure 148a shows the way in which a base, broken by hinge fracture, was retouched along the hinge margin to become a scraping tool. Figure 1486 displays an instance in which a functionally intact point was used in a secondary manner; in this case, the base was used as a spokeshave and a deep notch was developed by wear attrition. Splits (Figure 149), too, were salvaged for use as engraving tips or shaving edges similar to. those of burins (see Bordes, 1965, for a description of burin edge use). point, proximal or distal, was renewed as necessary. In sum, variation in point morphology as it now Figure lA6a-h shows several points with resharpened exists in the collection, appears to be due largely to tips, and Figure 146i-o shows reformed bases. Specimens external stresses imposed upon specimens during use or i, I, m, and o in this figure have been both distally and through accident. Those variables that can be assumed proximately renewed. Two modified distal fragments to have changed little if at all (maximum width, thick are displayed in Figure 147. The specimen in Figure ness, scar width) are probably controlled by functional 147a was made into a functioning point from a tip requirements and are remarkably uniform throughout section broken off either during manufacture or through the assemblage. The same is true of channel flakes. The use; its tip was, in turn, broken at a time subsequent to fact that those variates most susceptible to damage its conversion. The piece in Figure 1476 was broken by (especially length and tip shape) also differ insignifi hinge fracture during the manufacturing process; sub cantly among units suggests that individual specimen sequently, unsuccessful attempts to salvage it were made. histories have been similar. Technological, functional, ANALYTICAL CONCLUSIONS 173 and random processes operated in essentially like man ner in both areas of the site. Differences do exist, however. Four attributes (body shape, retouch direction, type, and pattern) display pronounced variation between areas. Speculations about the meanings of these differences are offered. \ \ \ FIGURE 147.—Reconstructed points: a, G819 (arrows point to flat remnants of earlier broken surface); b, F607 (arrows point to curved remnants of hinge fracture surface). (Actual size.) 7 FIGURE 148.—Reclamation and secondary use of points: a, 1970, broken by hinge fracture during manufacture and converted to a scraping tool; b, 507, apparently undamaged point used as a spokeshave. (Actual size.) m FIGURE 146.—Finished points with resharpened tips: a, 825; b, 1842; c, G313; d, G1031/G998; e, 2027; /, G629; g, G937; h, F283; i, 880; ;, F182; k, 2037; /, G717; m, 1829; n, G642; o, G747. (a-h, resharpened tips; ;, k, n, resharpened bases; i, I, m, o, FIGURE 149.—Point splits used as engraving and shaving tools: both tips and bases resharpened.) (Actual size.) a, 1722; b, E35; c, 449. (Actualsize.) 174 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 FIGURE 150.—Points converted to other uses: a, G1069; b, G1019; c, G873; d, 1718. (Actual size.) The Meaning of Unit Variation Unit H, skin working appears to have been an impor tant activity. Almost all of the needles recovered in the When the unit inventories are examined for category excavations are from this unit. There are no grounds variation rather than as undifferentiated artifact clusters, for attributing this concentration of needles to sampling most of the differences detected in the initial analysis inequalities; all fill was screened uniformly, and there for unit variation disappear. Apparent differences stem are no apparent differences in the quantity and condi largely from sampling error, stratigraphic intermixing tions of bone recovered from the units. The tendency of unit contents, and multiple occupation of some liv toward smaller distal tool edges found in Unit H should ing floors. There are two clear distinctions among the also be associated with skin working requirements. units, however. One of these is a matter of alternative Unit difference in locally available quartzite and functional emphasis. The other holds deeper implica chalcedony probably also has an underlying functional tions for social spacing in the site. basis. Unit A contains a greater proportion of quartzite No attempts are made to delineate discrete activity cutting implements than do other units. Chalcedony areas within the units. The principal reasons for not cutting implements predominate in Unit H. This dif doing so are: (1) the analytical goals do not require ference in material proportion is consistent with pro the identification of functionally specific unit subloca- posed functional emphasis within each unit. This is not tions; (2) activity identification requires the assignment to say that bone must be cut with quartzite tools or of more specific and exclusive functions to implement skin with chalcedony. But if both materials are equally varieties than is justified on present knowledge; (3) available, the more suitable for each task would be none of the units—by virtue of (a) stratigraphic admix expected to be chosen. The evidence indicates that this ture, (b) incomplete excavation, (c) evidence of multi choice was made at Lindenmeier. ple occupation, or (d) combinations of these—is amen That the units were similar in group composition able to subareal dissection. follows from the regularities in spatial organization that have been documented. Because unit areas are approxi Functionally, all of the units differ in degree rather mately equal, the number of occupants in each has than in kind. When allowance is made for sampling been estimated to be similar. To the extent that analysis differences, all units are virtual duplicates of each other. is possible, the units have been shown to have identical Artifact contents are very much alike and distributions spatial structures. The social units associated with these are identical. Alternative functional emphases are appar equivalent camp areas should be equally alike. The ent between Units A and H, but all units contain the rules by which such spatial social regularity was accom same sets of implements. In each unit, all categories plished remain unknown; in the analysis, I did not are present in proportions adequate to carry out the search for indicators of the criteria according to which full range of tasks necesessary to support the resident individuals were admitted to group membership and groups. residence. The units, however, are clearly virtual replicas Bone objects were probably manufactured more often of a single plan. The most economical conclusion is that in Unit A than in the other units. The majority of this plan was activated at each unit location by a similar worked bone specimens are found in this unit; heavy number of individuals who were organizationally related tools and steep working edges also predominate. In to each other in similar ways. Extensions and Speculations Lindenmeier, with radiocarbon ages of 11,200 ± 400 pation levels probably must be measured in centuries. and 10,780 ± 350 years, is one of the oldest well- Thus, Lindenmeier was occupied on a number of occa documented sites in the Western Hemisphere. The older sions spanning several generations; the earlier of these of these ages (GX-1282) is essentially identical to all appear to have been contemporary with some Clovis those obtained thus far from sites with Clovis points occupations, the later ones may well postdate any Clovis (Haynes, 1964, fig. 2; Hester, 1972:174). GX-1282 material. might be rejected on the ground that it is out of line Another currently accepted sequence of typological with other radiocarbon ages obtained from the Folsom succession is undermined by the Lindenmeier data. site components, but such an action would be difficult Unfluted points are generally considered to post-date to defend. GX-1282 is among the more technically Folsom points. At Lindenmeier, however, unfluted sound dates obtained from a Folsom site and it is cer points are found with all but one of the site occupation tainly more securely associated with Folsom material at units, even those at the lowest stratigraphic levels. Lindenmeier than is 1-141. Thus, subject to the uncer Indeed, an unfluted point was found near, and at the tainties surrounding radiometric dating, 11,200 ± 400 same level of, the hearth from which the charcoal sample must be accepted as the legitimate radiocarbon age of GX-1282 was obtained. Clearly, unfluted points have one of the Folsom components at Lindenmeier. an antiquity comparable to that of fluted points; they GX-1282 may be compared more closely with re cannot be explained on temporal grounds. ported Clovis ages. The standard deviations of all Clovis But there is a more interesting aspect to this evidence, radiocarbon ages are several times greater than are the if it is considered in a broader geographical context. It differences between each of them and the older Linden has long been known that the distribution of Folsom meier age. When the test for contemporaneity is applied points is restricted in space (Wormington, 1949:23). (p. 41), all of these ages are found to be statistically These points are confined almost exclusively to the High indistinguishable (F = 2.8 in the extreme case match Plains and the adjacent intermontane region; Clovis ing Blackwater Draw samples A-481, A-490, A-491 points are seldom reported from this area. Similarly with GX—1282). The earlier Lindenmeier components circumscribed ranges are known to exist for other named are, therefore, contemporary with at least part of the fluted point forms; the most thoroughly documented of Clovis sequence. Consequently, the commonly held view these is that of the Cumberland point, which is centered that Clovis points are uniformly older than Folsom in the drainage of the Ohio River and its tributaries. points is not supported by the Lindenmeier evidence. I would suggest that Folsom and Cumberland distribu On this evidence, it is difficult to continue to accept the tions can be pinpointed with relative precision because view that there was an essentially uniform sequential these point forms have easily recognizable shapes. The displacement of Clovis by Folsom types. It would seem Clovis type is, in contrast, a catch-all to which less dis to be equally difficult to defend the proposition that tinguishable specimens are consigned, and, thus, it Clovis preceded Folsom as an ancestral form, as was appears to be more widely distributed than are the more suggested by Hurt (1949), adopted by others (Worm- distinctive types. ington, 1949; Sellards, 1952; Haynes, 1964), and modi A reexamination of the fluted point category is long fied by Muller-Beck (1966). overdue; the detailed data upon which to restructure It is true, of course, that Clovis points have been the category is not now available. I would predict, how found stratigraphically below Folsom points at Black- ever, that fluted point variants comparable to those now water Draw (Hester, 1972), but this is the only pres known as Folsom and Cumberland exist and that they ently known location at which such superposition occurs. have homologous geographic ranges. In other words, There need be no contradiction in this situation; both I suggest that a number of regional variants of the Clovis and Folsom points were manufactured over some basic fluted point pattern can be identified. The task period of time. At Lindenmeier, the age difference be of identification would require detailed examination of tween the stratigraphically lowest and the highest occu point variables and attributes, along with statistical 175 176 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 analysis of the resulting data. If regional variants do A more systematic approach to fluted point variation exist, they will be associated with spatial divisions within is required. It seems best to begin with the reasons which social contact was more common than between underlying fluting as a point characteristic and then to divisions. Point variants probably arose as a byproduct consider reasons why a basic form might have morpho of attempts to reduce the rate of manufacturing loss logical variants. I will, at the outset, reassert my view and functional failure associated with fluted points. that the principal constraints upon point form are Innovations would tend to be clustered within the social- mechanical, the physical laws governing ballistics and spatial division in which they arose. Some variant forms penetration of solids. A point must be integrated into a are undoubtedly later than others, and some enjoyed a whole projectile delivery system including shaft, possi longer history. (Wormington, 1957:31, makes a similar bly foreshaft(s), bindings, and a means of propulsion. observation.) Such facts are parts of the record to be The ballistics of a fluted point system are not directly explained; they are not explanations of the record, as deducable from the evidence at hand. It does seem attempts to construct typological and chronological highly probable that the point found in a bison neck sequences have tried to make them. vertebra (which entered from below and behind; see Other proposed explanations for fluting or for changes Figure 145) was thrust rather than thrown into place, in flute characteristics are also untenable. Hurt (1949) but this says nothing about other points. Likely, differ was apparently the first to suggest a species specific ent methods were employed selectively in appropriate faunal association for fluted point types: Clovis/mam- situations. moth, Folsom/bison. Sellards (1952) institutionalized The penetrating qualities of points require, to be this association in his definitions of contrasting Llano known, experiments in which point edge sharpness, and Folsom complexes. The distinction has been widely resistance of material to be pierced, and impact forces held (Wormington, 1957:253; Mason, 1962:230). are controlled. Such experiments are easy to design and Accumulated evidence does not support such a distinc carry out, but they will only reveal the possible limits tion. Bison (B. antiquus) has been found in association of point effectiveness. Experiments can, perhaps, elimi with Clovis points at Blackwater Draw (Hester, 1972: nate certain delivery systems from consideration, but 46), Murray Springs (Hemmings, 1969), and Lehner they will not necessarily pinpoint which system was (Lance, 1959:36). A varied faunal assemblage in asso actually used. ciation with Folsom points has been reported in this Fluting may be more directly investigated. It has monograph. long been thought to be associated with hafting, or, It has also been proposed that fluting was applied to put another way, with mating the point to a shaft. If early American points to make them thinner and, thus, we accept this notion—but not the subsidiary conjec to facilitate hafting (see Fitting, 1963, and Judge, 1970, ture that thinness is the critical characteristic—we may for the most thorough treatments of this notion). approach the problem in mechanical terms. In order to Arguments for thinning are often confined to Folsom deliver a penetrating force with greatest efficiency, a points, especially in attempts to account for unfluted point-shaft combination must act as a single unit. A Midland points, but a general explanation of fluting minimum of sideplay at the joint is required to reduce must cover all types of fluted points and, by extension, tendencies to deflect from the axis of force. There are account for the fact that fluted points are not ubiqui only a few ways in which such joining may be effected: tous in space and time. The Folsom/Midland problem is by the use of fasteners, of adhesives, or of friction. simply a special case of this larger problem. Published Fasteners may be eliminated; there is no evidence for evidence does not support the contention that thinness rivets, screws, or other such devises of the required is associated with fluting. antiquity. Adhesives, as noted below, were probably not Judge (1973:165, 213) reports thickness values for available in certain areas. Friction appears to be the Folsom points (X = 3.83 ± 0.48 mm, N = 33) and most likely agent binding fluted points to hafts. The for Belen points (X = 5.19 ± 0.83 mm, N = 31). very small standard deviations characteristic of point MacDonald (1968:72) reports such data for Debert thickness and of channel flakes indicates that a high fluted points (X = 8.1 ± 1.9 mm, N not given). Fitting degree of manufacturing precision was achieved, in- (1965:485) lists thickness values for Virginia fluted ferentially to meet close hafting tolerances. points (X = 6.0 ± 1.3 mm, N = 245), and I have calculated these statistics for the 13 Clovis points found In the absence of adhesives and fasteners, friction must be the at Lehner (X = 7.4 ± 1.0 mm, data from Haury, sole binding agent; it is advantageous, for any constant binding Sayles, and Wasley, 1959). If fluting were intended to pressure, to increase the area of surface contact between parts. This may be done in two ways: First, by increasing the size of thin points, we would expect all of these dimensions to the surfaces in contact and second, by increasing the smoothness be closer in size to each other. of contacting surfaces. If friction is the principal binding agent, EXTENSIONS AND SPECULATIONS 177 we should expect to find points with large, flat surfaces on both of population doubling was approached, independent faces. groups could maintain separate territorial integrity and Fluted points have just such surfaces. We may deduce that two units would be formed, one remaining in its original fluting was developed in accordance with the mechanical re quirements—in the absence of adhesives—for effecting the firm territory, the other in new space. Thus, no migration, attachment of a point to the end of a spear or javelin. This in any usual sense of the term, was necessary to disperse explanation also offers a plausible reason for the fact that fluted human populations fairly quickly throughout suitable points are limited to North America and the northern parts of portions of the North American continent. Laughlin Latin America. When the Americas were colonized from Asia, a (1967:410) suggested that Bering Bridge populations vast area of treeless tundra was passed through and, therefore, pinepitch and other vegetable mastics would be unknown to during late Wisconsin time were stable in space. generations of hunters. Friction was thus the most readily avail It is unlikely that social units, once territorially estab able holding agent. It also can account for the scarcity of bifacial lished, relocated themselves outside their territories. projectile points in the Eurasian Paleolithic and Mesolithic since Locational requirements for maintaining ties with estab coniferous adhesives were always available with which simple shapes could be attached to hafts. Further, a reason for the short lished social and procurement systems would tend to lived history of fluted points is suggested; these are highly ineffi preclude such moves. I expect that smaller family or cient tools. They break easily when being made and during use; band size units (that is, about 5 to 30 individuals) consequently, they would be replaced by stronger points shortly rather than larger, multiband organizations were the after coniferous resins were again available and their adhesive pioneering units. Because each family within a band properties rediscovered (Wilmsen, 1974:52). and each band within its larger organization maintained The fact that many points at Lindenmeier were un links with more than one other similar unit, and because fluted could reflect a tendency toward more economical these links were opportunistically related to fluctuations hafting techniques. in such variables as mate availability and resource con We must also turn our attention to other, non- ditions in different unit areas, organizational boundaries mechanical, aspects of fluted point—or, indeed, any could be restructured to accommodate new units and point—morphology. Points, along with all other arti new territory without disrupting the network of rela facts, are produced and used by members of some tions of any group. certain social group. If we confine our discussion to In this manner, within the limits of spatial require those groups subsumed under the rubric "band," we ments for maintaining viable levels of interpersonal may examine the conditions of band existence and some contact, population densities may have remained low. aspects of the ways in which points are incorporated Densities would be displaced upwards as an increasingly into the cultural inventories of band societies. Arguments greater proportion of available land area became occu connecting material and social variables have been de pied. Jewell (1966:106) has observed that, for a num veloped (pp. 26-27). ber of mammalian species, neighboring groups with few A key factor in the organization of band societies is neighbors tend to have larger home ranges. Conversely, the maintenance of a set of stable but flexible social we would expect a trend toward reduction in territory size to accompany an increased density of social groups. units. Small groups disperse widely and maintain them Such an increase in social unit density should have selves independently on resources requiring minimum occurred in North America as unoccupied land ceased cooperative strategies. Affiliating mechanisms combine to be available. a number of the minimum groups into an effective unit for capturing and processing the larger grazers such as There is ample evidence that the greater part of bison. This latter unit has been referred to as a band unglaciated space in North America was populated and, at Lindenmeier, as in its ethnographic counter 10,000 years ago. The radiocarbon ages of such sites parts, it probably contained an average of 25 to 30 in as Debert in Nova Scotia—10,600 ± 47 (Stuckenrath, dividuals. Each band is localized in space but has access 1966)—and Lehner in southern Arizona—11,260 ± to the territory of other bands to which it is linked by 360 (Haynes, 1964)—as well as the fact that fluted social and economic ties. If, during the Paleolithic, the points are found in almost all states and in southern geographic area over which a set of linked bands was Canada provide this evidence. distributed was relatively large, the spatial extent of By 10,000 years ago, population increase in North each single band's direct or indirect influence would be America could no longer be diverted outward and in much more extensive than the amount of space which creased numbers lead automatically to increased density. it actually occupied. Expansion onto unoccupied ground, New band units, instead of being dispersed to virgin lands, as suggested by Birdsell (1957), would take place as had to be accommodated within fixed spatial limits. population density reached the point where viable social Social boundaries were accordingly restructured and units could exploit adjacent land without impairing the social units were partitioned in order to maintain band procurement capabilities of the parent area. As the point efficiency under the new conditions. Wobst (1974) has 178 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 simulated ways in which territorial restructuring may take greater diversity of point forms empirically observed place. Notice that incremental changes in the distribution among Plano-Yuma and Early Archaic assemblages as of groups need only have been small in order to have compared with fluted point assemblages conforms to this affected extensive spatial reorganization. A 30% reduc expectation. This discussion suggests that a careful analy tion in the radius of a territory results in a 50% reduction sis of fine details on points—fluted and unfluted—may of its area. For example, if average territorial radius is reveal that stylistic diversity is even greater than is now initially 30 km, a reduction of only 9 km would double appreciated. On the other hand, functional variables— the number of territorial units within a given geographi those controlling hafting efficiency and penetrating effec cal space. A population increase of 100% over that exist tiveness—appear to vary little within point sets. ing in the initial condition would be accommodated Other factors that must be considered stem from with no change in the number of people per territory. transformations in procurement systems that seem to It should be pointed out that population pressure is have occurred simultaneously with the density transfor not a causative variable in the process just described. mations already discussed. By the end of the Pleistocene, Rather, population increase is, in part, a response to the the American faunal assemblage had attained its modern use of larger amounts of space. That modern hunter- form. Herd animals were essentially confined to non- gatherers exist at widely differing densities in differing forested areas; large portions of the continent supported environments is well documented. Unfortunately, there only relatively solitary species. Procurement strategies is no comparable information regarding range of hunter for nonherd animals require fewer cooperating individuals population densities in uniform environments. Nonethe for success, hence periodic aggregations of individuals less, it seems reasonable to assume that there will be a into large hunting/processing parties are no longer re range of densities associated with particular kinds of quired and the degree of direct interaction over distance environments and that certain density levels will be is thereby reduced. Sahlins (1965:143) has noted that, in reached in relation to varying combinations of ecological, contrast to resources harvested by one or a few individ demographic, and social factors. The degree of avail uals, the products of collective effort are pooled, especially ability of land should be one of these factors. when cooperation entails division of group labor. Redis The presence of uninhabited frontier presumably tribution systems must be effected by variations in the would encourage expansive use of land. According to this intensity of cooperative activity. Stylistic variation, ac schema, population increase in any given area would take cordingly, should tend to be more pronounced among place only in generations subsequent to that of the social units within regions where procurement systems colonizers and after a new tier of colonization had been do not depend upon intensive collective effort. Trans initiated. The nth descendent generation of the original formations in procurement systems thus reinforce the colonizers would no longer live on an empty frontier and amplifying processes set in motion by density dependent would, accordingly, be subject to a different set of con factors. straining processes among which would be some for We may summarize the discussion of stylistic variation controlling population growth. Population restraining in terminal Pleistocene North America as follows: (1) processes are known to have operated on all historic initial condition of empty space; (2) partial filling of hunting societies; there is no reason to assume that they space at low densities; (3) condition 2 complete but were not equally effective in the past. Boundary re population growth continues; (4a) higher densities en structuring would simply reflect these changing condi tions. Frontier units should be characterized by relatively courage restructuring of social boundaries, and social low densities and correspondingly larger territories; in density increases in some regions; (4b) transformation terior units should fluctuate more closely about larger- of procurement systems in relation to changes in faunal and floral communities; (5) need for extensive commu mean sizes. nications systems variably altered; and (6) proliferation One consequence of this process is that social distance of stylistic variants in proportion to conditions 4 and 5 between two units located at fixed geographical points with strength of variation a partial function of distance increases at a rate higher than that of density increase. between units. For example, if bands A and B are adjacent to each other they interact across a single boundary (AB) but An expression of stylistic variation is seen more clearly if unit density doubles they can only interact through on a smaller scale within the Lindenmeier collection. The an intervening band C and two boundaries must be principal differences, detected among the artifacts are all crossed. Under these conditions, morphogenetic processes within four attributes of projectile points (Tables 94, 95, can easily amplify minor initial variations in local stylistic 102-104). These attributes are all the products of the traditions and we should expect to find greater diversity final, finishing touches in point manufacture; none of of form in such style rich items as projectile points. The them can be connected to technological or functional EXTENSIONS AND SPECULATIONS 179 necessities. They are consequently candidates for status positions in status simplifies the relationship. Linden as indicators of social processes. meier band groups probably had parallel social status; It is important to note that it is the spatial segregation parallel spatial status would be an expected concomitant. of contrasting pairs of attribute characteristics that is key Good social as well as ecological reasons for simul to the recognition of stylistic variation among the points. taneous occupation by two or more, if there are other unit Were the same specimens distributed randomly or uni areas, band units exist. Cooperation in bison hunts is one formly throughout the site units, there would be no such reason. Single groups as small as those we have archeological basis for assigning stylistic importance to been considering probably could not count upon the same them (unless, of course, it were postulated that these degree of success in hunting bison as could cooperating specimens were introduced to the site from other loca groups. Furthermore, the continuing existence of each tions where their stylistic value could be demonstrated). band unit probably depended upon a series of transactions This is not the case. Distinctive sets of point character with others. In modern band societies, marriage partners istics are localized in each of the two areas of the site and are normally sought among specifically affiliated groups; all occupation units throughout the stratigraphic se adolescents are often initiated into adulthood with the aid quence in each area are fully compatible morphologically. of relatives who live in different places. The sick and It would be difficult to account for this distribution recently dead require proper ceremonial attention; the on other than stylistic/social grounds. There is no ap natural world sometimes is thought to need ritual care. parent geological condition which would suggest that one In small societies, persons with adequate ritual knowledge area was suitable for occupation only at a time when the are often available to some groups only when they meet other was not suitable, or that the occupation sequence other groups. Many resources were available at Linden in an area was completed before its counterpart began. meier, and if, as suggested, several band territories con Thus, at least one unit, and probably only one unit verged here, the full range of activities needed to main (given the degree of overlap among units), in each site tain a paleolithic way of life could take place in this area is considered to have been simultaneously occupied. valley. Were individual occupations all separated in time, there Groups need not have remained together for extended would be no reason for the localizations of distinguishing periods. A few weeks would be enough to allow for all characteristics that have been demonstrated. The fact cooperative tasks and transactions. After leaving Linden that all occupations in the same area share characteristics meier, groups would move in their separate directions even though previous occupations in that area were to exploit other parts of their own territories from other hidden by accummulated stratigraphic deposits, suggests locations. Lindenmeier should have been the single largest that locales were recognized over some periods of time camp unit in a settlement system; there should be a and that the reasons for returning to a particular location larger number of smaller campsites at which fewer people were strong. Stanner (1965) has described estates, iden were in temporary residence and at which a lesser variety tified with proprietary groups, that function as spacing of tasks were carried on. Periodically, probably seasonally, mechanisms among some Aboriginal groups. My work perhaps not every year, groups would return to Linden among the Bushmen and that of Lee (1972) among the meier and complete the cycle. same people suggest that similar estates may have existed Lindenmeier may also be compared with Upper Paleo in the recent past. An analogous situation is postulated lithic sites in western Europe. All of these sites are older, for Lindenmeier. by a few to several thousands of years, than Lindenmeier. The most parsimonious explanation for this Linden Similarities between European and American Paleolithic meier data is that two geographically distinct but inter sites has long been sought but seldom found. Most efforts acting groups, each identified with one of the stylistic sets have been directed toward identifying specimens of the of projectile points, participated in common social and same type on both continents, but the search for typo procurement systems but were sufficiently independent logical identity has been futile. Classical European to maintain some degree of stylistic distinction. "types" occur in American sites in such small numbers Inferentially, the territorial ranges of semi-autonomous that they are best considered accidents; the few Linden groups overlapped at Lindenmeier. Since stylistic elements meier specimens that can be assigned European type are strongly expressed in spatial terms at the site, it seems names have been documented earlier. Attempts to adapt probable that the social identities of the groups were suffi the Bordes typology to Paleo-Indian material (Irwin and ciently pronounced to require physical separation even Wormington, 1970) has met with little better success when members of the two were in contact with each and the attendant nomenclature has been dropped in other. Group identification markers seem to be necessary recent publications (Irwin-Williams and others, 1973). ingredients of dyadic encounters; if groups are periodi The reasons for these failures are not obscure. We cally in contact, automatic recognition of their respective have at best a tiny fraction of the total number of sites 180 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 24 occupied by Paleolithic peoples; unless artifact types were methods should operate within what have been called quite thoroughly uniform, we could not expect to find a "equilibrating systems" (Maruyama, 1963). Such sys great deal of similarity. We know that such uniformity tems are self regulating and change principally to main does not exist even within single sites. The operation of tain system stability in relation to external environmental idiosyncratic and random factors introduces all manner stimuli. of noise into the appearance of final products. More It is important to notice the distinction made here important, systematic factors associated with spatial sep between procurement systems as a whole and the subsets aration and social segregation should be more than strong of technical and functional systems that operate within enough to guarantee that morphological similarity across them. Procurement systems include mechanisms for for such vast distances of space and time would be fortuitous. mulating and carrying out exploitative strategies and for Basic similarities in underlying mechanical properties organizing the appropriate social units to employ these of tools should be recognizable, however, so long as basic strategies. Variables in the technical/functional subsys technological processes and functional requirements can tems are employed only in direct productive and extrac be assumed to have been essentially alike. Accordingly, tive operations. Mechanical criteria for resource selection, a comparison of artifact variables rather than of types manufacturing techniques, and methods of implement use should reveal underlying regularities in tool manufacture are among the variables in this category, but artifacts and use, and thus serve as a more valuable measure of and artifactual attributes are their material manifesta tions. Flannery (1968) has described a case for the cultural similarity. A comparison of variables between deviation amplifying nature of change in procurement some European materials and those from Lindenmeier systems in post-Pleistocene Mesoamerica. It is instructive will be instructive. I have collected a small amount of to note, however, that extractive tool kits underwent very data for this purpose (Wilmsen, 1969); the artifacts little change (Flannery, pers. comm.). At the same time, chosen were those most readily available and the data while procurement systems were changing, technical and obtained are, accordingly, hardly definitive. The results, functional attributes of extractive tool kits were remark however, are suggestive and should provoke an interest ably stable on the High Plains from about 11,000 years in expanding the scope of such comparisons. to 7000 years ago (Wilmsen, 1970). It is not surprising Data are from the Aurignacian V and Solutrean com that such should be the case; many of the tools effective ponents at Laugerie Haute. There were measured 111 in butchering and processing bison carcasses on the Plains unmodified flakes. The obtained results are: L = 30.2 are also effective for similar operations in harvesting other ± 11.7 mm, W = 22.6 ± 8.3 mm, T = 4.9 ± 3.3 mm, animals in other parts of the world. ft = 66 ± 14 degrees; 8 = 21.7 ± 15.6 degrees; D There are two implications of the foregoing discussion S (lateral) = 28.5 ± 10.2 degrees. There are few differ that I wish to stress. One is that Paleo-Indian culture ences in the values of any of the variables between was simply another manifestation of Upper Paleolithic Lindenmeier flakes and those from Laugerie Haute. We culture that became geographically isolated from its may accordingly conclude that these sites are alike in Eurasian homeland. The other is that typological corre the mechanical characteristics of stone artifacts and in lations between European, Asian, and American Paleo terpret this result to mean that all of the sites are products lithic assemblages are unlikely to be found. Instead, tech of the operation of essentially identical methods for pro nological and functional continuity in artifact variables ducing stone tools. Inferentially, functionally equivalent should be present, and it is this form of connection tools were parallel production goals. between the continents that should be sought (see also Technical and functional variables involved in these Wilmsen, 1970; Keeley, 1974). Appendix A REPORT OF FIELD WORK OF THE COLORADO MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY AT THE LINDENMEIER FOLSOM CAMPSITE, 1935 John L. Cotter During the season of 1935, from 14 June to 1 Septem portant tributary of the South Platte. The site has been ber, the Colorado Museum of Natural History carried on dissected by the northwestward erosion of an arroyo excavations at the Lindenmeier Folsom campsite (Figure started by a large spring near the southern edge of the 151), located directly north of Ft. Collins, Colorado, terrace. The dark stratum of camp debris and decayed 1.75 miles (2.8 km) south of the Wyoming border. humus which marks the level of occupation varies in This work proceeded with the consent of Dr. Frank depth from over 15 feet (4.5 m) at the arroyo, to less H. H. Roberts, Jr., in charge of the Smithsonian field than an inch (2.5 cm), where it outcrops, due to erosion party, which also occupied the site. Judge Claude C. near the south rim of the terrace. Coffin and his son, A. L. Coffin, discoverers of the site, Work was begun at the lower end of the site, east of and Major Roy G. Coffin also gave their consent. the spring, by the Museum party, consisting at first of Through arrangements with Dr. Roberts, who had oper Mr. Harley Goettsche and the writer, and, later, Mr. ated at the site the previous year, and Judge Coffin, the Robert L. Landberg. Here, the first of a series of 15 test Colorado Museum of Natural History also assumed a holes was put down, in order to determine the approxi share of the lease on the property, owned by William mate extent and depth of the stratum of occupation. Lindenmeier, Jr. These tests soon revealed that the stratum at the lower The kindness of Dr. Roberts and the Coffins in wel (east) end of the site was irregular in outline and varied coming the Colorado Museum to the Lindenmeier site greatly in thickness and yield material. In this portion, particularly should be acknowledged. It has made pos only two holes, Numbers 6 and 8, produced any evi sible the first public exhibition of representative artifacts dence at all, namely, two broken points, six end scrapers, from this cultural complex, now in the paleontology and a handful of chips. Accordingly, operations were section of the Museum, at City Park, Denver. Likewise transferred to the southwest slope of the terrace, across it is by the courtesy of Dr. Roberts that the following the arroyo from the spring (see Figure 152 for locations summary survey of the results of the Colorado Museum of holes). of Natural History field work is presented. Here, where Dr. Roberts was beginning two trenches cutting north from the top of the ridge, to converge at The Field Work the arroyo, a new series of test holes running east-west was dug. The first two test pits were sunk 50 to 200 feet Since discussion of the geology of the Lindenmeier site (15 and 60 m) to the east of the east trench, respectively. lies outside the province of this report, it may be noted The first of these showed but a faint trace of the stratum only that the area of the ancient campsite occupies por of occupation, the second, nothing at all. Fifty feet (15 tions of a concave shelf-like terrace running east-west, m) westward of the west trench, hole No. 11 failed to which drops off abruptly to the south in eroded Oligocene show the stratum at a depth of 8 feet (2.4 m), and was clays. The drainage from the terrace contributes to Box abandoned. Hole No. 12, 150 feet (45 m) from this Elder Creek, which joins the Cache la Poudre, an im trench, showed the black stratum of occupation at 5.5 181 NUMBER 24 182 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY .WWfJSWijm • -•***»* L WKBM FIGURE 151.—Overall view of 1935 excavations; Colorado Museum of Natural History pits visible in center ground. feet (1.65 m), which, however, proved thin and sterile. out the stratum and shifting the dirt so accumulated Hole No. 13 was then sunk 100 feet (30 m) farther besran. west. This test pit revealed a compact stratum 21 inches (53 cm) thick, beginning at a depth of 5 feet (1.5 m). Occurrence and Types of Finds This stratum was full of charcoal, and yielded many stone chips and scraps of bone. Tests were concluded with holes With the exception of the few observations on occur No. 14 and 15, 100 and 200 feet (30 and 65 m) west rence which follow, the data summarized in tabular form of No. 13, respectively; both of these showed traces of a (Table 109) concerning the types of artifacts and their sparse charcoal-bearing stratum thinning progressively relative frequency will suffice to indicate the nature of westward, and containing no artifact traces. the Folsom complex with which we are dealing. Hole 13 then was selected as the locus of excavation, The lens-shaped stratum of occupation revealed in and three test holes were put down to bound the area, hole 13 and outlying test holes showed unmistakably and to determine the extent of the deposit. These holes, that the peripheral areas were characterized by an in 50 feet (15 m) west, 40 feet (12 m) east, and 30 feet crease in the occurrence of coarse granitic gravel, and (9 m) south of No. 13, respectively, proved the deposit occasional gravel streamlet beds, which dissected the to be lenticular in form, the edges thinning out in all stratum in places. The presence of intermittent strata directions (hole 13 was originally 75 feet (22 m) from of granitic gravel alternated with finer silt or clay in the edge of the arroyo, where the stratum of occupa the burden above the black stratum is indicated in the tion was likewise thin). An area 30 X 30 ft (9 X 9m) accompanying drawing of a test section (Figure 153). was then laid off. with the original No. 13 test hole in For the sake of keeping an accurate record of finds, the southwest corner. The surface was stripped from each artifact was checked as to whether it came from this area with plow and slip, until the stratum was ex the upper contact of the dark stratum of occupation, posed. The 30 X 30 section was next subdivided into the stratum proper, or rested on or slightly above the nine 10-foot (3-m) squares, and the work of scratching bottom contact. These locations were labeled in this APPENDIX 183 FIGURE 152.—Locations of Colorado Museum excavations 1-15 (7 not recorded). order: C, B, A. Thus, each artifact could be identified tip was left blunt and unfinished until after the spall accurately by marking it with three figures, first, the flakes had been removed, as though the blunt tip had hole number, second, the section letter, and, third, the been wedged into a holder of some sort while the pre level letter. carious business of striking off the flake was carried out, Let us summarize the characteristic occurrence of probably by indirect percussion. Only after the removal artifact types and consider a few of the more unusual of the flake was performed successfully was the tip specimens. A total of 55 pieces, or slightly less than re-flaked to form a sharp point. 20% of the artifacts recovered, were points. Of these, It is interesting to note that at least four artifacts only five were complete, the rest ranging from barely recovered from hole 13 fail to coincide with the accepted identifiable sections to large fragments. It is noteworthy classification of the "Folsom type" point, as character that, while only approximately one-fifth of the artifacts ized by longitudinal spalls removed from either face were points, these outnumbered every other type of from the base. One specimen, a complete point of im implement. All stages of manufacture are clearly dis pure white chert, has been finished without any attempt cernible in the points recovered, proving that many of the pieces were abandoned after being ruined in manu facture. Most of the finished specimens, however, are fragmentary tips and bases, indicating that these were recovered from butchered animals or otherwise broken in use. The process of manufacture previously described by Dr. Roberts (1935b: 19-20) is clearly demonstrated in the Colorado Museum specimens. The basal projec tions from which the spalls were started are preserved in several unfinished points. It may be observed further that the unfinished specimens from hole 13, where the top portion of the point is not missing, are character ized by blunt, unfinished tips. It seems logical to con 3 m«teri clude from this evidence that Folsom points were first pressure-flaked all over, leaving a small projection in FIGURE 153.—Ten-foot (3.1 m) sample section taken from south the center of the base for starting the spall flake. The face of Colorado Museum pit 13. 184 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 2 4 TABLE 109.—Colorado Museum of Natural History specimen counts of the Lindenmeier Folsom campsite, 1935, for excavations 6, 8, and 13 Artifact Points (5 complete, 50 incomplete) 55 19.78 Flakes utilized as scrapers 42 15.11 True side scrapers 31 11.15 End scrapers 29 10.43 Folsom point spall flakes 26 9.35 Graving tips on flakes or spall flakes.. 23 8.27 Knives 21 7.55 Hematite (rubbed pieces) 19 6.84 Utilized flakes 9 3.24 Punches 7 2.52 Rubbed sandstones 6 2.16 Unidentifiable tool fragments (lithic).. 5 1.80 Rubbed limonite 1 0.36 Hematite ornament, graved and perforated 1 0.36 Lignite bead, perforated 1 0.36 Bone ornament, circular, graved 1 0.36 Bone awl 1 0.36 278 100.00 to form spalls, the concave base having been neatly lines radiating from a hole bored through the center. finished with retouching. Although no grinding is in The hole has flaring rims, as though the familiar method evidence along the basal edges, the point shows a slight of boring with crude stone or bone implements had been marginal retouch. Toward the tip, on one side, a used. The second ornament is approximately half of a marked dorsal ridge is apparent. This artifact came large bead of lignite, 13 mm in diameter. Through the from level A, on the bottom contact, as did all but one center is a neatly bored hole with sharp rims of almost of the true "Folsoms." Incidentally, only 2% of all exactly the same diameter at either opening. artifact types were found above the bottom contact. The only specimen of bone shaped ostensibly as an The second "unusual" point, also from level A, is a implement is a crude awl, the point of which has un small finished basal fragment, the lower edge of which doubtedly been ground. Other bones, which have sharp is slightly concave. The lateral edges of this fragment points due to fracture, show a smoothing at times clearly are neatly ground. The third artifact, also a basal frag attributable to use as an implement. ment, suggests the design of the first, except for an No true metates or mortars were found. One smoothed almost square base, and slight inset from the lateral stone, however, is evidently a single-faced mano, and edges caused by pronounced grinding. The last point several rubbed white sandstones possess concave sur showing variation from the usual form is a small squared faces. The latter, in contrast to the true white composi base fragment, obviously not intended to be fitted with tion, are uniformly stained with hematite on the ground spalls. surfaces, as though they had been used in the making of A secondary characteristic evidently peculiar to this powdered pigment. Folsom complex is the presence of large numbers of In concluding, it may be mentioned that, of the bone graving tips on flakes, or occasionally on Folsom spall material recovered in this excavation, all but the smaller flakes themselves. These tiny tips were carefully executed bison foot bones were in a fragmentary condition. This and were evidently used for such fine work as we note condition is attributable not alone to the deliberate in the fragmetary disc-like bone ornament (not illus breakage wrought by the occupants of the campsite, trated) recovered from hole 13, the edges of which are but also to the natural decay, which reduced the larger delicately graved. It is not unusual to find several tips pieces to a powdery condition. It is evident, however, on a single flake, the highest record being four. 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American Antiquity, 31:850-860. tiquity, 35 -.480-487. •&U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1978 0—234-637 FIGURE 154.—North-south stratigraphic profile, east face of Trench A. et — ° 5 2 ^ < * @3 3 UJ m • P I- -J VWII > ex Ul u > X X Ul AC K < IBST R )CK S i H L E LLUV , tt Wiffi I M rr.: & m 1 1 6 3.79 TOPSOIL ALLUVIAL SAND, CLAY, GRAVEL LIGHT BLACK/LOWER STAIN BLACK SUBSTRATUM GRAVEL LENS ANIMAL BURROWS UNEXCAVATED 169cm 173 179 186 1 91 195 201 207 214 218 226 ASH LENS 5.40ft 5.68 5.88 6.10 6.25 6.40 6.60 6.78 7.01 7.14 7.39 0 0 0 3048 08 M 711W ••=_ Wm (3) -: — m$to ,.,,.43 t. IP TTT) 5) M-1937,38 IS T 146 148 170 181 182 187 192 202 212 228 234 •B" 4.80 4.85 5.60 5.95 5.99 6.14 6.28 6.64 6.96 7.45 7.66 ® J-1937 TOPSOIL ALLUVIAL SAND, CLAY, GRAVEL LIGHT BLACK/LOWER STAIN BLACK SUBSTRATUM GRAVEL LENS ANIMAL BURROWS UNEXCAVATED o ROCKS ASH LENS 5) 7-1939,40 ©3-1938,39 FIGURE 158.—North-south stratigraphic profiles, Area II. GRAVEL LENS 5c*Wg*?^x*«^3$g8*fe« ANIMAL BURROWS UNEXCAVATED <& ROCKS ASH LENS TOPSOIL ALLUVIAL SAND, CLAY, GRAVEL S) A-1936, WEST PI LIGHT BLACK/LOWER STAIN BLACK SUBSTRATUM 021 0.70f. 9 /D^n n T v-/ 4 ^-^ \\ \ \ (2 145 146 12 8 130 131 136 142 cm 4.77 4.79 4.20f. 4.25 4.29 4.45 4.67 OB IB [ © B-1936, WEST PIT FIGURE 159.—Stratigraphic profiles of West Bison Pit. F UNMODIFIED FLAKE U UTILIZED FLAKE E DISTAL EDGE TOOL S SINGLE EDGE TOOL D DOUBLE EDGE TOOL T TIP N NOTCH • UNSPECIFIED FLAKE OR TOOL • FLUTED POINT • UNFLUTED POINT A INDETERMINATE POINT • PREFORM K CHANNEL FLAKE X BIFACE PLOTTED BONE o RECORDED BONE Kl INDETERMINATE SQUARE FIGURE 162.-—Plot of recorded specimens in Unit F. FIGURE 163.—Constructed oblique profile of line 3 connecting parts of profiles of lines L (left) to D (right) in Area II showing vertical distribution of specimens in adjacent squares. Scale is constant at every point; hence, prespective distortion occurs. i F UNMODIFIED FLAKE U UTILIZED FLAKE E DISTAL EDGE TOOL S SINGLE EDGE TOOL D D DOUBLE EDGE TOOL E K K K KU | At. ^ °° ^ " \ / r TIP KK5 s O O K N NOTCH K ^ ° K OOO • UNSPECIFIED FLAKE OR TOOL • F K F ? , K ^ /r\ • FLUTED POINT A U K o KK o «n K K K°A C F F x • UNFLUTED POINT S F K K K K K C r E ^ K "K KK K S K K KKFK * >«=? ° 0 K • A K FA «S F K u U K K A INDETERMINATE POINT uO p E £)0 o o K O 5 X #o ^5 U K K K F • O 0 OKKK O ° D* K U KK o^ K(? K D K K K A K A ° D ^ ' FIGURE 164.—Plot of recorded specimens in Unit G. F UNMODIFIED FLAKE u UTILIZED FLAKE E DISTAL EDGE TOOL S SINGLE EDGE TOOL D DOUBLE EDGE TOOL T TIP N NOTCH • UNSPECIFIED FLAKE OR TOOL • FLUTED POINT T UNFLUTED POINT A INDETERMINATE POINT • PREFORM ooo K CHANNEL FLAKE X BIFACE M& PLOTTED BONE o RECORDED BONE H INDETERMINATE SQUARE 0 0 3044 1.5240 3.0410 0 1 5 10 ft H :' - • f FIGURE 165.—Plot of recorded specimens in Unit H. •14 D - 9 U-49 E -12 X- 7 F - 9 A- 3 N - 1 • - 2 S -14 • - 1 T - 2 A- 1 ^0 s u o E-:'?s DK u » u a JJ u_ a _J_ FIGURE 166.—Bison pit excavations: a, location of pit areas; b, plot of recorded specimens in the Bison Pit. REQUIREMENTS FOR SMITHSONIAN SERIES PUBLICATION Manuscripts intended for series publication receive substantive review within their originating Smithsonian museums or offices and are submitted to the Smithsonian Institution Press with approval of the appropriate museum authority on Form SI-36. 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