DCSE Volume 10, Issue 2 2019

DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0012

Editorial

The articles in this volume of the Journal focus on the development of sustainable entrepreneurship competencies beginning in primary school and the initial teacher training setting with the aim of upbringing future entrepreneurs. The guest editors of this volume are Berise Heasly from Australia and Johannes Lindner from Austria. The development of entrepreneurship competencies need to begin at the early stages of oneís life at the primary school level, with the aim of training future entrepreneurs with embedded value orientation for a sustainable society. The papers in this volume focus on challenges of early education in developing the entrepreneur mindset and the strategies for developing sustainable lifeskills. For education to respond to the challenges of our knowledge society, it is not enough to secure knowledge and skills for the acqui- tion of job but to develop individualsí capacity for inclusive learning throughout oneís life time including to adapt to new challenges. Through providing entrepreuneurship education, it is possible to develop childrensí abilities to produce innovative solutions to unsustainable societal problems. Entrepreneurship education promotes pupilsí creativity, and social entrepreneurship skills. Johannes Lindner in his paper develops the idea of an Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool) and suggests that Entrepreneurship Education be implemented as part of all subjects and key modules. His approach shows learning activities in all study areas and school cultures and is always result-oriented. In an Entrepreneurship School, measures are suggested to promote entrepreneurial and sustainable thinking, personality development and the education of responsible citizens are integral parts of teaching and everyday school life. Entrepreneurship is promoted by the design of the school that should involve all persons engaged in everyday school life in order to make sustainable changes possible. The Entrepreneurship School aims to implement interpreunership holistically, in a goal- oriented way and on a long-term basis in everyday school life. The author concludes that Sustainable Entrepreneurship Education is possible only if it is integrated into the school development process and is supported and practiced by all who are involved in the school where learning and teaching must be planned and designed in the spirit of the ìsustainable entrepreneurial spiritî. Kelly G. Shaver, Jan Wegelin, and Immanuel Commarmond in their paper have developed a comprehensive measure of sustainable entrepreneurial mindset. This measure, named the MindCette Entrepreneurial Test (mcet) consists of nine dimensions ñ confidence, diligence, entrepreneurial desire, innovation, leadership, motives, permanence, resilience, and self-control. A total of 116 initial items was reduced to 72 in a pilot test (n = 400). The 72 items were then administered to a total of 3,661 individuals in the Republic of South Africa. Data was collected primarily through in-person interviews with nationally- representative samples (n = 3,195) as well as through online testing of entrepreneurs and graduates of an entrepreneurial training program (n = 466). Data was subjected to a series of factor analyses conducted separately for females and males. Results showed that there were important psychological differences between entrepreneurs and those who were not involved in entrepreneurial business. Use of this measure can decrease investment losses, thus contributing to more sustainable entrepreneurial business growth. The paper by Shuti Steph Khumalo investigates the role of school leadership (principals) in promoting sustained teacher commitment. Teacher commitment is very critical in the development of a nation. School leadership is very important in ensuring that teachers are consistently committed to chosen goals in their teaching. This will contribute towards sustained development in schools. This investigation explored a number of areas and was divided in various sections. In this article, the description of teacher commitment was explored, then followed by the relationship between sustainable development and transformational leadership. The quantitative research methodology was deployed as a research method and questionnaires were administered to teachers to provide their views on the role of principals in ensuring that there is commitment is maintained. In conclusion, the findings indicated that principals exhibit transformational attributes of ensuring that teachers remain committed. Based on this finding, it can be argued that transformational leadership encourages sustained teacher commitment. The paper by Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Masca- renhas discusses the link between sustainable development and social Entrepreneurship. The European guidelines and the guidelines of the various international public bodies, notably the United Nations Organization and the Council of the European Union, all call for more intervention in teacher education to change attitudes and foster innovative practices in education. The UKIDS European project emerges from this strong desire to intervene in the classroom, enabling students and teachers to build active social entrepreneurship from a broad perspective of citizenship education. This article aims to present and reflect on the new educational practices proposed by the UKIDS project with concrete challenges of intervention in society, in order to build a better world (fairer, more supportive, more fraternal, more ecological). The paper by Gerlinde Prˆbstl and Kerstin Schmidt-Hˆnig discusses the challenges of the 21st century, such as the assessment of individual self-efficacy that constitutes an important factor in the educational context; both on the personal as well as the social and organisational level. This fact justifies the consideration of self-efficacy as a basic competence, whose development must be started on the primary level. Pupils and teachers realise the resources that contribute to the development of a successful self-concept: increased motivation, a courageous selection of tasks to be fulfilled, and the possible influence on future social and economic development. During their formation, pedagogues are learners and teachers at the same time. In their lectures, they deal with Social Entrepreneurship Education and competencies connected with it. The current re-formulation of the curriculum of primary and secondary level (I) in Austria demonstrates a development towards conceptual learning in larger contexts, following the principles of self-guidance and activity-orientation. These aims contribute to the realisation of sustainability goals. The paper by Guntram Geser, Eva-Maria Hollauf, Veronika Hornung-Pr‰hauser, Sandra Schˆn, and Frank Vloet presents results of the European research and innovation project DOIT. The project develops a learning program that allows children and young people (6ñ16 years old) to acquire skills and an entrepreneurial mind-set for turning creative ideas into potential social innovations. The learning environment for this program is makerspaces, of which an increasing number are being set up across Europe. What distinguishes the DOIT program from the use of makerspaces for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) learning as well as typical Entrepreneurship Education is that it actively engages the participants in tackling societal issues. It is currently being trialled and evaluated in makerspaces in ten European countries. The paper describes processes and outcomes of the program with two examples that are different regarding the makerspaces, topics and other aspects. The paper by Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen aims to discover the perceptions and experiences of primary school teachers in Finland regarding childrenís consumer education at schools. For this purpose, their study was conducted using phenomenographic approach to analyze data from teacher interviews. The analysis revealed a set of categories that describe the various ways participants perceive and experience the childrenís consumer education at schools. These categories include themes, actors, teaching methods, challenges and expectations that teachers relate to childrenís consumer education. Taking advantage of the opportunity to provide consumer education in schools requires teachers to be familiar with consumer issues. The findings of this study are worth exploring further when planning how to support teachersí consumer educational competences fora sustainable future. The paper by Anita Summer reflects on teachers as role models and as active co- designers of the future. She emphasizes that entrepreneurship skills can already be fostered in primary school children but that this requires well-trained primary school teachers. Her article deals with the contents of ìEntrepreneurship Education and Mathematicsî for the primary school children as well as for students of primary school education. In a case study the author describes the implementation of a course at the University College of Teacher Education Vienna/Krems as taught since 2015. The article by Britt Due Tiemensma and Connie Stendal Rasmussen emphasizes the need for practical applications of competencies. This article aims to collect findings on entrepreneurship education linked to democratic formation in primary education as experienced by teacher students. Based on a model from the Danish Foundation for Entrepreneurship and theories on democratic formation and active citizenship, the authors analyze what entrepreneurship and democratic formation have in common. Entrepreneurship education will also be linked to education for sustainable development. By following a group of teacher students in two different cases, the authors discuss how a potential synergy is visible, when the teacher students learn by reading, discussing and solving concrete tasks connected to social entrepreneurship education. The teacher studentsí personal attitudes and understandings of authentic practical experiences turns out to be important to their learning from entrepreneurial education tasks. The structural organization of teacher education is a challenge to the organization of teaching entrepreneurship education. The paper by Begum Canaslan Akyar and ÷zkan Sapsaglam, investigates how preschoolersí daily media-usage habits affects their drawings. The study was conducted with 15 preschoolers and their parents. The result shows that there are differences between boys and girls media-usage habits. The authors conclude that media tools might be harmful when they are used in a developmentally inappropriate way and that excessive media tool usage has negative impacts on children.The study reveals that most of them stated that children reflect the effect of media tools in their behavior. Based on the result of the current study, children, especially boys, are not exposed to appropriate content. They are prone to play war, zombie games, containing bad word videos. This study therefore can suggest that parents can curb childrenís desire to play with media tools. Additionally, the increasing time spent with digital media tools could lead to increased childrenís consuming behavior. The paper by Maria Hercz, FerencPozsonyi, Nikolett Takács from Hungary focuses on the pedagogical aspects of parentsí thinking in order to get acquainted with the ideal mindset for supporting the development of entrepreneurial competence, one of the key competencies of the 21th century. It deals with the folowing questions: How long does this process take? What is the ideal age of starting the development of entrepreneurship competence? How early should we start it at all? The authors of the present paper try to reply to these questions and they invite the reader to join them. They assume that a paradigm-shift in pedagogy is essential to be able to help the upcoming generations of students to effectively acquire the so-called 21th century skills, and parents need to be involved in this process. The theoretical section highlights the necessity of the entrepreneurial skills; moreover it introduces the international UKids entrepreneurial education programme for lower primary students based on the theories of self-efficacy and positive psychology. As a part of the latter, the issues of positive parenting and transgenerational inheritance come into focus, and the authors discover that parental thinking is a neglected area of scientific researches. The quantitative research introduced in the paper tries to investigate parental views in general, related to entrepreneurship education, with the assumption that modern parental beliefs may be influenced by deterministic thinking. To reach their goal, the authors use a questionnaire (Cronbach-a=0.856, N=1,146) completed by Hungarian parents in counties having different levels of economic development. Results suggest that parental views are largely modern, and respondents feel the urge for entrepreneurial education, however, the issue of lifelong-learning, conscious citizenship and the factors of personal health are marginal. The article by Eva Jambor, Andrea Bisanz, Susanne Hueber, and Johannes Lindner introduces the Social Entrepreneurship Education Program ìEmpowering Every Childî for primary school. The programme was developed in a three-year field trial and its impact scientifically monitored. The research confirms that children develop skills such as initiative, innovation, creativity, mindfulness, empathy, self-motivation and participation in society. Self-confidence and independence in children are strengthened by dealing with small challenges. The programme is based on the strengthening of equal opportunities and the SDGís of the United Nations. It is particularly important to the authors that children can make a contribution to a sustainable society with their own ideas. For the implementation of the Social Entrepreneurship Programme, support through in- service teacher training and the introduction in the UKIDS initial teacher training for future teachers in primary schools is important. It is important to state that when reviewing the information given in these papers, we recognise the value of the various research projects and assess how they relate to the underlying aims of developing a higher level of action for sustainability goals in the various teachers, actors, parents and children. This research, which has already given valuable information of plus and minus situations in their findings, can be further developed in qualitative methodologies designed to implement the values that underpin the knowledge and actions for sustainability. Auto-ethnographical methodologies can further enhance this quality, by inclusion of findings that reflect the learnings of the researcher from the various projects as they are completed. In this way, researchersí knowledge of their own competencies are included and this is a very valuable adjunct to the furthering of sustainability goals. Berise Heasly, Johannes Lindner Dzintra Iliko, Ilga SalÓte DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0013

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 5ñ12, 2019

Entrepreneurial Spirit for the Whole School ñ Ways to Become an e.e.si-Entrepreneurship School

Johannes Lindner University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems, Austria

Abstract All entrepreneurs of the future are at school today, the nature of their value-oriented education and their willingness to actively participate in business and society in the future is shaped by todayís learning. This article focuses on the development, the reasoning, the legal bases, the implementation and the future perspectives of the Austrian approach to Entrepreneurship Education with a specific focus on an Entrepreneurship School Certification. Entrepreneurship Education in schools involves a variety of factors: the learning program, the learning environment, the teachers with their passion, encouragement and appreciation of learners and the value-orientation of the organization, which ranges from corporate culture to networking with external school partners. Key words: entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial challenge-based learning, e.e.si, entre school, the Trio model for entrepreneurship education, sustainable entrepreneurial design.

Introduction Entrepreneurially and socially proactive people are of central importance for the development of the society and the economy. Proactive citizens do not ëfall from the skyí. Without the dreams of visionaries and people who put ideas actively into practice we would live in a different world nowadays. We need entrepreneurial thinking every- where. Entrepreneurship is a mental mindset, where people actively participate in society in such a way that they firstly identify what must be done to be able to work out a solution afterwards. An entrepreneurial mindset has to be learned ñ in fact from generation to generation anew. Each generation is once again challenged to develop these entrepreneurial competences, ideas and values which are important for peopleís lives and the society. The development of the entrepreneurial mindset needs entrepreneurial learning and an environment that strengthens and encourages entrepreneurship (TWG, 2014). This article is a plea for strengthening entrepreneurship education for young people. In the course of time, an overall concept for an ëEntrepreneurship Schoolí should develop from various individual activities at a school. This is based on the conviction that Entre- preneurship Education and school development must go hand in hand and involve all those engaged in everyday school life in order to facilitate long-term changes. The article . 6 Johannes Lindner is based on several years of experience in the development and implementation of an outcome-oriented Entrepreneurship School approach by the e.e.si Centre for Entrepre- neurship Education in Austria. This article answers the follows questions: 1. What is Entrepreneurship Education? 2. How can an ëEntrepreneurship School (EntreSchool)í be organised?

Clarifying the Terms Even though the terms ëentrepreneurí and ëentrepreneurshipí are not yet commonly used in German-speaking countries ñ unlike other English business terms such as ëmanage- mentí or ëmarketingí ñ they have become more widely known in recent years. The terms have derived from the French word ëentreprendreí (ëto undertakeí/ëto launchí). In their current meaning they were introduced by Joseph Schumpeter (1911). Entrepreneurs are independent protagonists. According to Schumpeter (1911) they are the key drivers of economic and social dynamics. Schumpeter emphasized their skills and abilities for the independent development and implementation of ideas and stressed their innovative power, which encompasses the creation of new products, production processes, organizational structures or alternative distribution channels. Entrepreneurs play a relevant role in all parts of our society: from business, religion, sciences and politics to education and sports. Generally speaking, anybody can become active as an entrepreneur (Faltin, 2013). The terms ëintrapreneursí and ëco-entrepreneursí (Pinchot, 1984; Wunderer, 1999) describe entrepreneurs who are not self-employed, but decide to become entrepreneurially active within a company. ëSocial entrepreneursí or ëchange-makersí (Drayton, 2003) are individuals who combine entrepreneurial and social initiatives to bring about a positive change in society. They implement ideas in areas such as education, environmental protection or the creation of jobs for persons with disabilities.

Figure 1. TRIO Model of entrepreneurship education (authorís graphic)

The term ëEntrepreneurship Educationí refers to the development of independent ideas and the acquisition of the respective skills and abilities that are necessary to implement these ideas. Emancipatory approaches to entrepreneurship education emphasize its social and pedagogical relevance for society (Lindner, 2009; Lindner, 2018). The TRIO Model of Entrepreneurship Education offers a good overview of the most important Entrepreneurial Spirit for the Whole School.. 7 interlinked segments of Entrepreneurship Education (see Figure 1): Segment I, Core Entrepreneurship Education, teaches core competences that foster entrepreneurial and professional independence and support independent decisions for oneís private life. Segment II, entrepreneurial culture, focuses on the promotion of a culture of independence, passion, inspiration, open-mindedness, empathy and sustainability that encourages relationships and communication. Segment III, Entrepreneurial Civic Education, aims at promoting a culture of autonomy and responsibility to face social challenges. This is achieved through the development and support of ideas for social initiatives and a personal commitment to their implementation (Aff and Lindner, 2005). To refer to the Austrian approach to Entrepreneurship Education in general and to the Entrepreneur- ship School Certification in particular the author would like to introduce the term ëEntreSchoolí. This abbreviation summarizes all the ideas, criteria and necessary measures described in this article.

Entrepreneurial Spirit Should Cover the Whole School The starting point for the development of an Entrepreneurship Education school concept was at an Austrian school and dates back to 1999. The ëEntrepreneurship Education and Talent Promotioní school experiment was tested at a Viennese Business College with modules across all subjects and scientifically accompanied over seven years (Lindner, 2005). After a pilot phase, parts of the concept were included in the regular Business College curriculum and the ëSchumpeter Business College Modelí has since been an integral part of the Viennese educational offer. The further development of Entrepreneurship Education took place as a mixture of a bottom-up approach (by pioneer teachers) and the support of the school authorities. The ëe.e.si ñ Media Package Entrepreneurshipí (Aff et al., 2004) was developed to support the implementation of Entrepreneurship Education in various subjects (transversal skills) and the curricular edition ëEntrepreneurí (Lindner et al., 2005) was launched by the Initiative for Teaching Entrepreneurship Association. The Ministry of Education, Science and Research supported the activities by establishing the e.e.si-Impulse Centre for Entrepreneurship Education in 2006. Federal and state coordinators for Entrepreneurship Education were appointed. The basic principles of the Viennese pilot project were critically evaluated, further developed and adapted to the conditions at other school locations. In the course of time, various individual activities within the framework of Entre- preneurship Education have developed into an overall concept for the certification of entire schools. This procedure is based on the conviction that Entrepreneurship Education and school development go hand in hand and must involve all persons engaged in everyday school life in order to make sustainable changes possible. The e.e.si ëEntrepreneurship School (EntreSchool)í approach comprises Business Schools and Colleges as well as Colleges of Social and Services Industries and has been opened to further types of schools.

But What are the Special Features of an Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool)? In an Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool), measures to foster entrepreneurial thinking, personality development and the education to be a responsible citizen are integrative parts of teaching and of everyday school life. ëEntrepreneurial Spirití is promoted . 8 Johannes Lindner by the organization of the school. Promoting the studentsí personal competences and achievement potentials regarding entrepreneurial, independent and autonomous acting, intensifying communicative competences as well as creating suitable communication structures between school administration, teachers, students and parents must not be neglected when planning a coherent Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool) program. Based on the priorities of the European Union, the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research and the Austrian Federal Boards of Education ñ all these institutions consider Entrepreneurship Education as a particularly important part of a good education and training at school ñ the certification ëEntrepreneurship School (EntreSchool)í aims at approving the individual school officially to have successfully implemented entrepreneurship activities in a holistic and target-oriented way as well as on a long-term basis. Sustainable Entrepreneurship Education is only possible when it is an integral part of the school development process and when it is born and lived by all the people involved in school life. Learning and teaching must be ëentrepreneuriallyí planned and organized. Main emphases of the certification are put on the activities at school, the basics for teachers as well as the organizational structures. For this purpose, a catalogue of criteria (e.e.si, 2019 and Figure 2) was developed by the members of the e.e.si-Impulse Centre for Entrepreneurship Education of the Ministry of Education, Science and Research together with a team of committed teachers from all federal states. This has resulted in the Austrian Standards Instituteís ON Guideline No. 420011, which sets standards beyond the school sector. Based on the ëTrio Model of Entrepreneurship Education,í activities in an Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool) ñ from the development of own business ideas, the promotion of entrepreneurial thinking and personality development to the education to become mature citizens ñ are integral parts of teaching and everyday school life in all subjects taught. After the decision to strive for certification has been made at a school location, the individual support of the school is provided by the e.e.si team in order to implement the criteria from the handbook provided (e.e.si, 2019). It is possible to aim for the ëBasicí or ëAdvancedí level and, as a school, to select the criteria from a catalogue that includes compulsory and optional criteria that best correspond to the school profile. The areas of the criteria catalogue are: ó activities at school, ó basics for teachers, and ó the organisational framework. The e.e.si-Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool) approach is outcome-oriented, i.e. the process and the results are reviewed during the certification process. The evidence required for certification is provided by submitting documentation on the schoolís activities over a period of approximately one and a half years. The first certification was awarded to the Schumpeter Business College in November 2012. In the period 2013ñ2015, further 28 school locations followed ñ one of them is the Meran Business College, which has established itself as a pioneering school in South Tyrol. Expressed in numbers, the Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool) program reached about 10,000 students every year in the period 2013ñ2015. In the period 2016ñ2018, the number of certified schools reached 60 and involving about 20,000 students every year. Entrepreneurial Spirit for the Whole School.. 9

Figure 2. Criteria for Entrepreneurship Schools (EntreSchools) (e.e.si, 2019)

The certificates (see Figure 3) are valid for two years. Schools that have already achieved ëBasicí certification have the opportunity to aim for the ëAdvancedí level in the next two years. Locations that are already certified on the ëadvancedí level can register for further certification.

Figure 3. Certificate for Entrepreneurship Schools (EntreSchools) (e.e.si, 2019)

With the ëEntrepreneurship School (EntreSchool)í certification process as the recognized ON guideline no. 42001 of the Austrian Standards Institute, Austria is a pioneer in the consolidation of innovative Entrepreneurship Education in the course of school development. . 10 Johannes Lindner

Some Positive Aspects of this Certification Process are as following: ó From pioneer teachers to a team of teachers: Entrepreneurship Education at a school location usually goes back to a few pioneer teachers, with the certification process a large number of the teachers are involved. ó From a lone fighter to a team player: The discussion of the entrepreneurship certification criteria make it clear what is already happening at a school location, how many different activities already exist; the goal ñ the achievement of the certification ñ is only possible through the interaction and participation of everybody involved in school life. ó Bottom-up approach: A very positive aspect is that the Entrepreneurial Spirit is carried from one school to the next. ó Structure supported by the certification process: The structure of the certification process makes Entrepreneurship Education tangible for many teachers. ó Autonomy of the school: The certification process supports the autonomy of the school, as different school-specific ways of Entrepreneurship Education can be developed. ó Involvement of general education and vocational training: With the TRIO model of Entrepreneurship Education, teachers of general subjects succeed in becoming involved, especially at levels 2 and 3. ó Longer-term anchoring: It is ensured that students are taught to think and act entrepreneurially, regardless of which class or year they are in. ó Outcome-oriented Entrepreneurship School approach: Results are achieved in many classes, thus enabling many students to be systematically involved. Entrepreneurship Education thus becomes a regular part of the compulsory education offered by the school. ó Celebration culture: Entrepreneurship Schools organize cross-class events within schools (Idea-Festivals) and take part in cross-school competitions (Idea Competition etc.). The studentsí successes are celebrated in a similar way as in sports. ó Strengthening school culture: The highlight of the certification process for an entire school is the ceremonial presentation of the certificates at the Entrepreneurship Summit in Vienna. What has been achieved makes the team proud and strengthens the motivation to continue.

Much has already happened on the way to implement Entrepreneurship Education and much still lies ahead. The positioning of the teaching principle and the entrepreneurship competences in the syllabus of the Business Colleges 2014 and other school types have contributed a great deal to strengthen the idea. In the next generation of syllabuses 2020/2021 the position of Entrepreneurship Education will be further reinforced. The National Action Plan for Entrepreneurship Education (Kiss & Lindner, 2019) will additionally support the systematic implementation on all competence levels (from elementary to secondary level). Austria contributes its positive experience in the field of Entrepreneurship Education by having had the methodological lead in the Policy Experimentation Project ìYouth Start Entrepreneurial Challengesî ñ funded by the EU within the framework of Key Action 3 (Lindner, 2015)2. The further development of the e.e.si-Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool) Approach 2019/2020 will bring a stronger link with ìYouth Startî entrepreneurial challenge-based learning (Jambor & Lindner, 2019) and an expansion to other school types (Kiss & Lindner, 2019). Entrepreneurial Spirit for the Whole School.. 11

Conclusion The idea of an Entrepreneurship School (EntreSchool) is to consider Entrepreneur- ship Education as part of all subjects, not as a separated concept. It comprises learning activities in all study areas and school cultures and is always result-oriented. In an Entre- preneurship School, measures to promote entrepreneurial and sustainable thinking, personality development and the education of responsible citizens are integral parts of teaching and everyday school life. Entrepreneurship is promoted by the design of the school. Entrepreneurship Education and school development should go hand in hand and involve all persons engaged in everyday school life in order to make sustainable changes possible. The promotion of personal competences and performance potentials of the pupils with regard to entrepreneurial, sustainable, self-responsible and self-determined action, the deepening of communicative competences as well as the creation of suitable communication structures between school management, teachers, pupils and parents must not be ignored when planning a coherent Entrepreneurship School programme. The Entrepreneurship School certification aims to at confirming to a school location that entrepreneurship activities have been implemented holistically, in a goal-oriented way and on a long-term basis in everyday school life. Students achieve remarkable learning outcomes. Sustainable Entrepreneurship Education is only possible if it is integrated into the school development process and is supported and lived by all those involved in the school. Learning and teaching must be planned and designed in the spirit of the ìsustainable entrepreneurial spiritî. The objective of all efforts is to give young people a good start in life. The principles of Entrepreneurship Education have been proven to help, ëEncourage students to take their lives into their own hands as far as possibleí. Students should become co-creators of their own lives and of society ñ in a changing world (Aff & Lindner, 2005).

Notes: (1) 2019/2020 the outcome-oriented certification process will be elaborated, and a new Austrian Standards Institute number will be assigned. (2) Within the framework of the field test, entrepreneurship competences are promoted across disciplines and learning and teaching arrangements are tested. Learners should develop and implement ideas for ëchallenges from the reality of lifeí. The field trial was conducted between 2015ñ2018 in a Cooperation of Ministries of Education in Austria, Luxembourg, Portugal, Slovenia and bilaterally in Bulgaria and covered all competence levels (i.e. elementary, lower secondary and upper secondary). Details: www.youthstart.eu.

References Aff, J. et al. (2004). e.e.si-Unterrichtskoffer Entrepreneurship [e.e.si media package Entrepreneurship]. Vienna: Manz. Aff, J., & Lindner, J. (2005). Entrepreneurship Education zwischen ësmall and big ideasí ñ Markierungen einer Entrepreneurship Education an wirtschaftsberuflichen Vollzeits- chulen [Entrepreneurship Education between ësmall and big ideasí ñ marks of Entre- preneurship Education at full-time business schools]. In Aff, J., & Hahn, A. (Eds.). . 12 Johannes Lindner

Entrepreneurship-Erziehung und Begabungsfˆrderung an wirtschaftsberuflichen Vollzeitschulen. [Entrepreneurship Education and talent promotion at full-time business schools]. (pp. 83ñ138). Innsbruck: StudienVerlag. Drayton, B. (2003). Ashokaís theory of change. Arlongton: Ashoka Foundation. e.e.si (2019). Entrepreneurship school ñ certification catalogue, entrepreneurship education as school innovation (e.e.si). Impulse Centre of the Austrian Ministry of Education, Science and Research. Vienna: e.e.si. Faltin, G. (2013). Brains versus capital. Entrepreneurship for everyone lean, smart, simple. Berlin: Entrepreneurship Foundation. Jambor, E., & Lindner, J. (2019). Youth start entrepreneurial challenges, materials for teachers and students. Retrieved from www.youthstart.eu Kiss, K., & Lindner, J. (2019). Nationaler Aktionsplan f¸r Entrepreneurship Education ñ von der Elementarstufe bis zur Sekundarstufe [National Action Plan for Entrepre- neurship Education ñ from elementary to secondary level]. Working Paper. Vienna: Austrian Ministry of Education, Science and Research. Lindner, J. et al. (2005). Entrpreneur: Menschen, die Ideen umsetzen [People who implement ideas]. Vienna: IFTE. Lindner, J. (2009). Entrepreneurship Education zwischen ˆkonomischer Ausbildungs- philosophie und Schl¸sselkompetenz f¸r das lebenslange Lernen [Entrepreneurship Education between economic education philosophy and key competence for lifelong learning]. In Stock, M. (Ed.). Entrepreneurship ñ Europa als Bildungsraum ñ Euro- p‰ischer Qualifikationsrahmen [Entrepreneurship ñ Europe as an educational area ñ European Qualifications Framework]. Vienna: Manz. Lindner, J. (2015). Entrepreneurship Education f¸r Jugendliche [Youth entrepreneurship education]. GW-Unterricht [Journal for Geography and Economic Instruction], 140(4), 39ñ49. Lindner, J. (2018). Entrepreneurship education for a sustainable future. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 9(1), 115ñ127. Pinchot, G. (1984). Who is the Entrepreneur? Intrapreneuring: Why you donít have to leave the corporation to become an entrepreneur. New York. Schumpeter, J. A. [1911]. (2008). The theory of economic development: An inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle. USA and London New Brunswic: Transaction Publishers. TWG (2014). Thematic working group on Entrepreneurship Education of the European Commission: Final report. Brussels: European Commission. Wunderer, R. (1999). Mitarbeiter als Mitunternehmer ñ ein Transformationskonzept [Employees as co-entrepreneurs ñ a transformation concept]. In Wunderer, R. (Ed.). Mitarbeiter als Mitunternehmer [Employees as co-entrepreneurs]. (pp. 22ñ58). Neuwied: Hermann Luchterhand.

Correspondence relating to this paper should be addressed to Johannes Lindner, University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems, founder of the Initiative for Teaching Entrepreneurship (IFTE) and the e.e.si-Centre for Entrepreneurship Education for school innovation of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research, Schumpeter College, Ashoka Fellow. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0014

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 13ñ21, 2019

Assessing Entrepreneurial Mindset: Results for a New Measure1

Kelly G. Shaver College of Charleston, South Carolina, USA Jan Wegelin Jan Wegelin Consultancy, Johannesburg, South Africa Immanuel Commarmond Mindstate Set for Growth, Kapstadt, South Africa

Abstract This research describes the results of a national survey of entrepreneurial mindset conducted with 3,194 randomly selected individuals in a representative national sample. Several other measures of entrepreneurial personal characteristics appear in the literature. These include the Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation measure (cf. EAO, Robinson, Stimpson, Huefner, & Hunt, 1991), the General Enterprising Tendency (cf. GET2, Caird, 1990), the test of Entrepreneurial Self-efficacy (cf. Chen, Greene, & Crick, 1998), and the Entrepreneurial Mindset Profile (cf. EMP, Davis, Hall, & Mayer, 2016). Valuable as these measures are, each has important limitations. This comprehensive study successfully addressed nearly all of those limitations. Key words: entrepreneurial mindset, sustainability of investment, entrepreneurship, personality traits, scale development, psychology.

Introduction Early-stage investors develop portfolios of new companies, in no small part to guard against the inevitable failures of some of those companies. This strategy may work at the level of the individual investor, but at the societal level lost investment capital is just that ñ lost! And yet, for every failed startup, there are probably several others that might have made better use of the funds tied up in a failure. Anything that could reduce the number of failed early stage investments would necessarily increase the sustainability of venture funding. Specifically, because most methods of valuing new companies place the largest weight on an estimate of the strength of the management team, it stands to reason that more effective assessment of such management teams could improve results, at both the individual and the societal levels. In short, a better way to evaluate a management team would increase the sustainability of the critical funding of new ideas. For this reason, the literature has for years examined the psycholo- 14 Kelly G. Shaver, Jan Wegelin, and Immanuel Commarmond gical characteristics of entrepreneurs. Unfortunately, most of the past research has dealt with single psychological properties ñ locus of control, risk propensity, and achievement motivation are just a few. What is needed, however, is a psychological measure of entrepreneurial mindset that incorporates a much more inclusive set of characteristics. This article describes just such a measure. The MindCette Entrepreneurial Test (mcetTM) was developed by beginning with a comprehensive literature review (Commarmond, 2017) supported by the Allan Gray Orbis Foundation (AGOF) of the Republic of South Africa. That literature review identified 76 separate concepts that have over the years been associated with entrepreneurial behavior. Because many of these 76 originated from disciplines other than psychology or entrepreneurship, there was understandably some overlap. For example, ìneed for achievementî is really the same thing as ìachievement orientationî; ìrisk orientationî overlaps with ìcalculated risk-takingî. Elimination of overlap resulted in a total of 37 constructs, some of which are enduring personality traits, some of which are behaviors, and still others are personal preferences. A total of 116 items was assembled to assess these 37 constructs, which were then tested on a pilot sample of 213 females and 187 males in the Republic of South Africa. The results of the pilot survey were factor analyzed (separately by sex of respondent), reducing the total of items to 72. A full description of the scale development was presented at the 2017 Research in ENTrepreneurship (RENT) conference held in Lund, Sweden (Shaver & Commarmond, 2017).

The National Study Following the pilot study, the 72-item version of the mindset test was administered to a grand total of 3,661 individuals in the Republic of South Africa, using the same careful procedures used in the pilot study. Of these individuals, 2,404 respondents were randomly selected to be a nationally representative group (the ìomnibusî sample), an additional 791 respondents were randomly selected from locations designed to maximize the presence of business ownership (the ìboosterî sample), 193 respondents were a convenience sample of female business owners, and the last 273 individuals were AGOF program participants. Among the members of the national sample, one person failed to self-identify as female or male. Within the female-owned group one individual self- identified as male, and 7 others failed to self-identify as female. An additional 5 of the female-owned group failed to identify with any racial group. These 14 respondents were dropped from the analyses, leaving a total of 3,647. The omnibus and booster samples had been selected from a panel based on nationally representative ìenumeration areasî. There were controls for province, race, sex, and age. Interviews were done in person by field workers who chose dwelling units on the basis of Kish grids, then obtained a list of all household residents and again used a version of the Kish grid to select the person to be the respondent. Though interviews were done in English, all field workers spoke the local dialect for their coverage area (there are 11 official languages in the Republic of South Africa). Questions were presented in a different random order for each respondent, answers were transcribed by the inter- viewers, all resulting data were then immediately stored in the cloud. There are two tests normally used to determine whether a dataset is suitable for factor analysis. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test for sampling adequacy tests for Assessing Entrepreneurial Mindset: Results for a New Measure 15 the proportion of variance among items that might be common variance (more is better for factor analysis) and its values range between 0 and 1, with higher numbers indicating better results. The Bartlettís Test of Sphericity tests the null hypothesis that there are 2 2 2 no differences among the variances of the individual items, s1 = s2 = ... = sk . If there were no differences in variance across items, each of the p items would be correlated only with itself, producing the identity matrix. The result of the Bartlettís test is given as a Chi-square value with degrees of freedom (df) computed for the dataset in as (p*(p-1))/2. Regardless of the extraction method selected, the KMO value is the same for respondents of the same sex in the same sample. Thus, for females in the omnibus sample, the KMO value was .97; for males in the omnibus sample, the KMO value was .97. For females in the booster sample, the KMO value was .94; for males in the booster sample the KMO value was .90. Again, regardless of the extraction method, the Bartlett value is the same for respondents of the same sex in the same sample. For females in the omnibus sample the Bartlett Chi-square value was 49159.41. Because the degrees of freedom depend on the number of items, they are always 2556 (p items*(p ñ 1 items)/2. For males in the omnibus sample the Bartlett Chi-square value was 32992.59. For females in the booster sample the Bartlett Chi-square value was 16585.92. For males in the booster sample the Bartlett Chi-square value was 10089.58. So, by both the KMO and Bartlett criteria, factor analyses of the data were appropriate. Once it is demonstrated that the data are suitable for factor analysis, the next choice is among the algorithms used to perform the analysis. SPSS offers six: principal components analysis (PC), unweighted least squares (ULS), general least squares (GLS), maximum likelihood (ML), principal axis factoring (PAF), alpha factoring (AF), and image factoring (IF). According to Youngblut (1993), PC assumes that all error is random, so it extracts ìrealî factors inherent in the data (a geometrically correct result), whether or not that result is related to the original constructs. This is one reason that PC is said to produce ìcomponentsî rather than ìfactorsî (Nunnally, 1978). The other methods do not assume that all error is random, but leave open the possibility that some error might be systematic. Because of differences in the assumptions about error, the conservative course of action is to compare the results of PC to the results of some other extraction technique, because ULS ìdoes not require any distributional assumptions. It can be used with small samples even when the number of variables is largeÖî (Jˆreskog, 2003, p. 1), it was our choice for an alternative to PC. In the simplest possible terms, the amount of variance explained by a factor is its eigenvalue. In any initial solution each variable is standardized to have a mean of 0.0 and a standard deviation of ± 1.0, producing a variance of 1.0. So, any factor with an eigenvalue < 1.0 explains less variability than does a single item. This is why most statistical programs cause a factor analysis to terminate with a minimum eigenvalue of 1.0. When we ran the chosen factor analyses with a minimum eigenvalue of 1, there were too many items on all of the first factors, and so many factors were identified that the solutions became uninterpretable. Consequently, what we report here are factor analyses in which the minimum eigenvalue is set to 1.1. We did, however, use the normal criteria for item loadings and cross-loadings. That is, items were considered part of a dimension if their primary loading on that dimension exceeded ± .40 and they did not have cross- loadings on other dimensions that exceeded ± .40. 16 Kelly G. Shaver, Jan Wegelin, and Immanuel Commarmond

Across the several analyses, for both sexes, there were 6 items that consistently failed the loading criteria, so the rest of the results reported here are on 66 items only. Moreover, across the several initial analyses, the PCA solutions for both men and women in both the omnibus sample and the booster sample (a) accounted for the largest percentage of the variance, (b) had the fewest number of items in the first extracted factor, and (c) had the fewest number of items with new cross-loadings. For these reasons, the PCA was the clear choice for analyzing the 66 items. The KMO and Bartlettís tests were repeated with the 66 items (which reduced the df to 2145). For female respondents, KMO was .97 (omnibus) and .94 (booster); for male respondents it was .97 (omnibus) and .90 (booster). The respective Bartlettís values were 45124.95 (female omnibus), 15041.73 (female booster), 30226.35 (male omnibus), and 9125.35 (male booster). Overall results of the PCA analyses for the 72 items and next for the 66 items are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Overall Analysis Results for 72 Items and 66 Items (PCA-Varimax Rotation) Item set analyzed Original: 72 items Reduced: 66 items Respondent Subsample Omnibus Booster Omnibus Booster Female Respondents # factors extracted 9 12 8 12 % variance accounted for 51.76 55.95 51.63 57.46 Items in Factor I 16 9 16 8 Items with cross-loadings 5 1 6 4 Items that failed to load 10 9 8 12 Male Respondents # factors extracted 9 15 9 14 % variance accounted for 51.77 58.16 53.15 58.45 Items in Factor I 20 11 23 10 Items with cross-loadings 6 5 5 4 Items that failed to load 2 9 2 8

Even with the 66 items, however, for both the female respondents and the male respondents in the omnibus sample, the first extracted factor contained what would normally be considered too many items (16 for females, 23 for males). This is especially true when recognizing that these items did not all originate from a single source. One of the solutions to this problem is to factor analyze only the items extracted in each first factor, but instead of specifying an eigenvalue criterion, specify a number of factors to be obtained. This was done with both female and male respondents, specifying that the PCA should extract 3 separate factors. Of course, the question is whether the 3-component structure is ìbetterî than the original. 1-component structure: This question can be answered by performing confir- matory factor analysis (CFA) that takes the ìtheoryî (three separate components) and uses that theory to specify a statistical model. The CFA was performed using LISREL 9.30 (Jˆreskog & Sˆrbom, 2017). In fact, two CFAs were done, one separating the 16 items into their three components, and one allowing them to remain as elements of one single component. Then each CFA was examined for its goodness of fit. According to Assessing Entrepreneurial Mindset: Results for a New Measure 17

Kenny (2015) the Root Mean Square for Error of Approximation (RMSEA) is ìcurrently the most popular measure of goodness of fitî and is now ìreported in virtually all papers that use CFAÖî Because RMSEA is a measure of departure of the model from a good fit to the data, its desirable value is small. Although the values were close in an absolute sense, the three-factor solution was just a bit better in fitting the data. Additio- nally, Kenny (2015) has noted that the 90% confidence interval for RMSEA represents the precision with which the RMSEA has been estimated. For the three-factor solution this confidence interval was from 0.0625ñ0.0709, whereas for the one-factor solution the confidence interval was from 0.0736ñ0.0823. In short, there was no overlap between these two confidence intervals. Thus, for statistical reasons as well as conceptual reasons, the three-factor version of the first component obtained for females in the omnibus sample was preferable to the single-factor version. Among the male respondents in the omnibus sample, the three-factor confidence interval was 0.0627ñ0.0702, whereas the single component solution produced a RMSEA confidence interval of 0.0712ñ0.785. As in the case of the female respondents, there was no overlap between these two confidence intervals. It is fair to conclude that, again, the 3-factor solution was preferable. For both female and male respondents, not only did the first extracted factor contain too many items, the same was true of the second extracted factor for each sex. For the females, the second factor had 14 items, 12 of which had loadings that exceeded ± .40. For the males, the second factor had 15 items, all of which had sufficiently high loadings. Inspection of the ìsecond factorî for each sex suggested that the content was not entirely uniform. Consequently, each set of ìsecond factorî items was first subjected to an EFA with designed to produce two factors (instead of a mineigen criterion). Next, the results of each of these EFAs were used in two different CFAs: one dividing the items into the two components produced in the EFA, one allowing all the items to remain as if they predicted a single conceptual variable. For each sex of respondents, the two-factor CFA produced ìbetterî results than did the single-factor CFA. On the basis of a number of additional comparisons, it was determined that the first two groups of respondents (for whom the data collection procedures were identical) could be combined into a total of 1,918 female and 1,276 male respondents (total of 3,194) whose answers could then be Random Iterative Method (RIM) weighted so that their results for the 66 items could be considered nationally representative. As had been the case with the pilot sample, we factor analyzed the 66 items in the combined omnibus/booster sample separately for females and males, again splitting the first and second factors as noted above. Not surprisingly, the resulting factor structures for women and men were again clearly different (Principal Components, varimax rotation). Analyses of the answers by the 3,194 respondents produced 10 dimensions for males and 11 dimensions for females. Of these, nine dimensions were present in both men and women. We have adopted these 9 shared dimensions as the MindCette Entrepre- neurial Test (mcetTM). The nine dimensions are Confidence, Diligence, Entrepreneurial Desire, Innovation, Leadership, Motives, Permanence, Resilience, and Self-control. Sample items from each dimension are shown in Table 2 along with the number of items representing the dimension and the Cronbach Alpha value for each dimension. 18 Kelly G. Shaver, Jan Wegelin, and Immanuel Commarmond

Table 2 Summary of Dimensions in MindCette Entrepreneurial Test (mcetTM) Females Males Dimension Sample Item Items C.A. Items C.A. Confidence I feel confident about my abilities 3 .803 5 .825 Diligence I finish whatever I begin 4 .779 7 .825 Entr. Desire I have seriously thought about starting my 4 .875 4 .863 own business Innovation I would rather innovate than continue to do 6 .793 6 .736 the same old thing Leadership Most people think I am a strong leader 4 .698 4 .591 Motives I want to build great wealth or a very high 3 .828 4 .827 income Permanence People have a certain amount of intelligence 6 .779 6 .765 and they canít really do much to change it Resilience Lifeís challenges are opportunities for 6 .792 7 .821 personal growth Self-control I want to control my own destiny 2 .708 5 .828

Some of the 66 items (primarily on the two dimensions of Entrepreneurial Desire and Motives) had originated from the US Panel Studies of Entrepreneurial Dynamics (PSED). The PSED I and PSED II data are publicly available at http://www.psed.isr.umich. edu/psed/home. The two datasets are described, respectively, by Gartner, Shaver, Carter, and Reynolds (2004) and Reynolds and Curtin (2009). The critical point for present purposes is that for any items originally derived from the PSED, there is a second nationally representative sample consisting of a total of 2,475 individuals, for a grand total of 5,669 across two countries and multiple years.

Entrepreneur Comparisons The reason that people care about the possibility of measuring entrepreneurial mindset is the hope that the resulting measure will somehow distinguish between those who would be good candidates for starting a new sustainable venture and those who would likely not be so successful. To accomplish this long-term objective the assessment instrument must (a) contain subscales that represent concepts shown to matter in entrepreneurial performance, (b) reliably distinguish current entrepreneurs from people who are not currently running independent businesses. It would also be helpful if at least some of the dimensions were positively correlated with the success of an entrepreneurial venture being operated by a founder who has taken the assessment. The first of the immediate goals was achieved when the factor analyses of items produced dimensions that were recognizable, internally consistent, and common across the two sexes. The 9 core dimensions together reflect attitudes, behaviors, and traits that are valuable in the creation of a new business. For example, innovation supports the creation of new opportunities, diligence is necessary to get the job done, and resilience is critical ñ no new venture goes exactly as planned. Without information on the revenue and employment produced by an entrepreneur in the sample, the third goal cannot be achieved by the current work. The second goal ñ differentiation of entrepreneurs from those who are not running businesses ñ can be examined using the data this project has collected. Assessing Entrepreneurial Mindset: Results for a New Measure 19

As noted earlier, among the 3,661 individuals in the South African dataset, there are 3,647 who had complete data. Of these, 561 people (392 female, 169 male) answered affirmatively that they were self-employed. These individuals can be compared to the remaining 3,086 on each of the nine dimensions identified in the factor analyses. It is important, however, to note one aspect of such comparisons. Recall that the people in the omnibus and booster samples were obtained through random sampling. Because of that sampling, RIM weights representing (a) province, (b) race, (c) age, and (d) gender were iteratively applied to allow generalization to the nation as a whole. But for the targeted groups (female business owners, participants in the AGOF entrepreneurship development programs), no corresponding weights can be computed. As a result, to assess differences between entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs, the RIM weights must be omitted in the comparisons. In short, there can be generalizations to the nation from the weighted data, but comparisons between groups must use unweighted data. Mean scores on the mcetTM are shown in Table 3 for females and males who either self- identified as entrepreneurs or did not do so.

Table 3 Mean mcetTM Scores for Entrepreneurs and Non-Entrepreneurs in South Africa Females Males p value Dimension Entr. Non-E Entr. Non-E Employ Sex Confidence 5.21 5.06 5.24 5.06 <.000 n.s. Diligence 5.17 4.92 5.16 4.95 <.000 n.s. Entrepreneurial Desire 4.89 4.22 5.04 4.43 <.000 <.004 Innovation 4.98 4.82 5.02 4.84 <.000 n.s. Leadership 4.89 4.77 4.88 4.71 <.001 n.s. Motives 5.18 4.92 5.15 4.88 <.000 n.s. Permanence 4.16 4.25 4.05 4.29 <.001 n.s. Resilience 5.14 4.99 5.07 4.95 <.000 n.s. Self-control 5.36 5.22 5.21 5.08 <.001 <.000

We performed a series of nine analyses of variance (ANOVA), one per core dimension. Each of these anovas was a 2 x 2 design (Sex X Self-employment). The results of these analyses are shown in the rightmost two columns of Table 3. Respectively, these show the p-values for the self-employment status and respondent sex. The first conclusion is that entrepreneurs are different from non-entrepreneurs on every single one of the nine dimensions (given the items that are part of the Permanence dimension, that dimension should produce lower scores for the entrepreneurs). Thus, the second short-term goal has been achieved. It is certainly true that the absolute differences do not seem very large. However, with a total of 3,467 data points, those differences do not need to be large in order to be statistically significant. We are currently working on additional research that will assess the ability of the mcetTM to reflect differences in the revenue and employment performance of companies created by entrepreneurs. In closing, it should be noted that in the analyses presented in Table 3, there are only two significant mean differences in the scores of women as compared to the scores of men. Recall that the data shown in Table 2, most of the dimensions contain different numbers of items for men and women. Entrepreneurial Desire and Permanence contain the identical items for women and men; Innovation contains the same number of items 20 Kelly G. Shaver, Jan Wegelin, and Immanuel Commarmond for both sexes, but the items are not identical. Despite the differences in factor structure, it is in some ways encouraging that most of dimensions do not show sex differences at the conceptual level. This suggests that despite variations in item sets within a dimension, the conceptual dimension scores appear to operate in a roughly comparable fashion for both women and men. The implication from a policy perspective is that programs designed to increase entrepreneurial behavior can afford to treat women and men similarly, but in a nuanced way. Specifically, entrepreneurship development programs could profit from (a) assessing the two sexes using measures specific to each, (b) enhancing the entrepreneurial desire of women, and (c) suggesting to men that they should think twice before acting.

Conclusions There is increasing interest in entrepreneurial education, especially as a means by which to achieve the United Nationsí Sustainable Development Goals (Strachan, 2018; SalÓte, 2015). As Strachan points out, entrepreneurship education can be seen as ìone of the policy initiatives that should be introduced to contribute to solving youth unem- ploymentî (p. 38). Entrepreneurship education itself incorporates three separate aspects (e.g., Lindner, 2018). The first is education for entrepreneurship, the development of personal skills needed to create a new venture. A second is education about entrepreneurship, to increase understanding of the process of creating a company and an appreciation of companies in general. A third is education through entrepreneurship that is primarily designed to enhance an entrepreneurial mindset. This work is most associated with this last objective of entrepreneurship education. Lindner (2018, p. 119) argues that ìOnly for a small segment of the target group the actual intention to launch a business will be a realistic immediate goalî (p. 119). Our work suggests that to achieve a societal goal of sustainable development, only a particular segment of the population should be encouraged to start new ventures. There are two aspects to this argument. First, most angel investors and professional venture capitalists freely admit that a third to a half of their money is lost when portfolio companies fail (e.g., Wilson, 2008). Second, most formal methods for placing a valuation on a new company give a predominant role to ìthe strength of the management teamî (see the Berkus method, the Scoring method, or the Risk Mitigation method). Our position is that the financial losses are directly traceable to failures in the evaluation of the capabilities of the management team. Specifically, we argue that our data-based scientific method for assessing entrepreneurial capability is superior to any investorís ìgut feeling.î Venture candidates whose entrepreneurial mindset matches those of successful entrepreneurs should be better investment risks than those whose profiles are problematic. If we are correct, society benefits ñ and sustainability increases ñ when limited investment funds are devoted more exclusively to companies whose management teams have a better chance of success. What we provide is a scientifically reliable and valid measure of that entrepreneurial mindset.

Note: (1) This paper is an extension of work initially presented at the 2018 Babson College Entrepre- neurship Research Conference in Waterford, Ireland. Assessing Entrepreneurial Mindset: Results for a New Measure 21

References Caird, S. (1990). What does it mean to be enterprising? British Journal of Management, 1(3), 137ñ145. Chen, C. C., Greene, P. G., & Crick, A. (1998). Does entrepreneurial self-efficacy distinguish entrepreneurs from managers? Journal of Business Venturing, 13, 295ñ316. Commarmond, I. (2017). In pursuit of a better understanding of and measure for entrepreneurial mindset. Retrieved from Cape Town, South Africa: Retrieved from http://www.allang rayorbis.org/ Davis, M. H., Hall, J. A., & Mayer, P. S. (2016). Developing a new measure of entrepreneurial mindset: Reliability, validity, and implications for practitioners. Consul- ting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 68(1), 21ñ48. Gartner, W. B., Shaver, K. G., Carter, N. M., & Reynolds, P. D. (2004). Handbook of entrepreneurial dynamics: The process of business creation. Thousand Oaks, CA US: Sage Publications. Jˆreskog, K. G. (2003). Factor analysis by MINRES. Retrieved from http://www. ssicentral.com/lisrel/techdocs/minres.pdf Jˆreskog, K. G., & Sˆrbom, D. (2017). LISREL (Version 9.3): Scientific Software International. Retrieved from https://www.ssicentral.biz/ Kenny, D. A. (2015). Measuring model fit. Retrieved from http://davidakenny.net/cm/ fit.htm Lindner, J. (2018). Entrepreneurship education for a sustainable future. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 9(1), 115ñ127. doi:10.2478/dcse-2018- 0009 Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York, NY US: McGraw- Hill. Reynolds, P. D., & Curtin, R. T. (Eds.). (2009). New firm creation in the United States: Initial explorations with the PSED II data set. New York, NY US: Springer. Robinson, P. B., Stimpson, D. V., Huefner, J. C., & Hunt, H. K. (1991). An attitude approach to the prediction of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 15(4), 13ñ31. SalÓte, I. (2015). Searching for sustainability in teacher education and educational research: experiences from the Baltic and Black Sea Circle Consortium for educational research. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 6(1), 21ñ29. Shaver, K. G., & Commarmond, I. (2017). Toward a comprehensive measure of entrepreneurial mindset. Paper presented at the Research in Entrepreneurship (RENT), Sweden: Lund. Strachan, G. (2018). Can education for sustainable development change entrepreneurship education to deliver a sustainable future? Discourse and Communication for Sustain- able Education, 9(1), 36ñ49. doi:10.2478/dcse-2018-0003 Youngblut, J. M. (1993). Comparison of factor analysis options using the Home/ Employment Orientation Scale. Nursing Research, 42(2), 122ñ124. Wilson, F. (2008). Venture fund economics: Allocating follow-on capital. Retrieved from https://avc.com/2008/08/venture-fund-3/

Correspondence relating this paper should be addressed to Kelly G. Shaver, College of Charleston, South Carolina, USA. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0015

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 22ñ32, 2019

The Role of Transformational School Leadership in Promoting Teacher Commitment: An Antecedent for Sustainable Development in South Africa

Shuti Steph Khumalo University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Abstract Promoting sustainable development is top on the agenda of many national governments. The provision of quality primary education is key in pursuing this agenda and relies heavily of committed teachers. This article explores the potential contribution of transformational leadership practices of primary school principals in promoting teacher commitment. It is argued that primary school principals who exhibit the transformational leadership feature of commitment motivate teachers towards commitment and thus contribute towards sustainable development. This study was quantitative in nature and out of the hundred and fifty teachers sampled, only ninety-five responded to the questionnaires. Drawing from the theory of transformational leadership and the findings from the Limpopo Province education district case study, it can be concluded that primary school principals promote the culture of commitment and therefore a foundation for sustainable development is laid. Key words: Sustainable development, quality education, primary schoolsí principals, teacher commitment, transformational leadership.

Introduction Teachers are nation builders and without educating the nation, no country can develop socially, environmentally and economically. For this reason, Oloruntegbe et al. (2010) are of the strong belief that ìit can therefore be said that whatever levels of development a particular nation passes through will partly be a true reflection of the caliber of the teachersî (p. 706). Sustainable development of education is currently considered a key factor in the development of the education system (Zygmunt, 2017; Simane, 2019) and it is addressed in the literature with its different aspects in diverse areas (Eskici, 2019). In this study, it is used in reference to the role of transformational leadership in contributing towards sustainable teacher commitment. School organizations play a critical role in the promotion of sustainable development and without their commitment, it is impossible to achieve the objective of achieving this goal. Through committed teachers, the future of young children will be guaranteed because when they have a strong foundation, which is education, their quality of life The Role of Transformational School Leadership in Promoting Teacher Commitment.. 23 will be improved (UNESCO, 2012). It is the duty of national governments to ensure that they maintain growth economically, socially and environmentally. This growth can only be experienced through the provision of quality primary education (Education for Sustainable Development, 2012, 2018) which is dependent on committed teachers (Bangay, 2016). Quality primary education is essential in creating sustainable communities. A growing body of research in the education environment suggests that the commitment of teachers in South Africa is lamentable (Kallay, 2007, Department of Basic Education, 2015) and this have a negative impact on the sustainable development agenda. The current investigation was conducted against the backdrop of a recent report drafted by the Department of Basic Education (2015) regarding the effectiveness of the South African education system. Kallay (2007) describes the majority of schools as sites of moral panic and academic failure. In agreeing with the assertions above, Spaull (2013) contends that ìit is becoming increasingly clear that the weight of evidence supports the conclusion that there is an ongoing crisis in South African education, and that the current system is failing the majority of this countryís youthî(p. 3). Primary education constitutes the foundational building block of education, and is the most important stage in the formal education of a child (Hamid et al., 2013). Razak, Darmawan and Keeves (2010) are of the view that there is inadequate research in the field of education into teacher commitment, and that its dimensions have not been clearly identified. Since the dawn of democracy, the South African education system have been experiencing challenges of different behavioural, transformational and technical kinds, which ultimately affected the culture of teaching and learning (Khumalo, 2009). Lack of teacher commitment aggravates the matter. The rationale behind this can be attributed to a number of reasons and one of these includes the change in educational policies and continued curriculum changes. The introduction of new policies was not accompanied by adequate training of teachers who were expected to implement these policies (Kallay, 2007). The change in educational policy has set new and more challenging demands on educators (Vandeyar, 2005). There is a relationship between school leadership practices and school performance. There is a high demand placed by national governments on school principals to ensure that schools deliver on their mandates particularly on quality curriculum delivery (Monte- cinos, Bush, & Aravena, 2018). Research indicates that there is a positive relationship between organizational productivity and transformational leadership. Sahin (2004) and Eisenberg et al. (2018) describes transformational leadership as increasing the interest of the staff (motivation) to achieve higher performance (commitment) and as developing and revealing the commitment and beliefs in the organization. Transformational leadership promotes the culture of commitment and this will help boost a strong primary education system that will provide quality primary education and enhance sustainable development. Principals, through the push and pull of leadership can influence teachers and other school members to create learning conditions that activate the natural curiosity, interest, and motivation in students (Adams et al., 2017). The degree of teacher commitment is an important aspect in evaluating the performance and quality of staff. Even if a school can develop an impressive vision statement, if it has the state-of-the-art buildings, adequate funding to run the school, and employs a cohort of highly qualified and competent staff, but is without teacher commitment, the mission and vision of the school will not be achieved. The Department of Education (2007), in its manifesto on values, education and democracy, argues that the competence of educators is meaningless if there is no concomitant teacher commitment. In the next section, teacher commitment will be explored. 24 Shuti Steph Khumalo

Describing Teacher Commitment The behaviour of organisational citizens predicts organisational performance. In schools, teacher commitment is critical and has significant implications in scholastic achievement. Teacher commitment has for instance, been found to have a positive effect on student outcomes (Lee, Zhang, & Yin, 2011; Collie, Shapka, & Perry, 2011). Various scholars define teacher commitment differently. Collie, Shapka, and Perry (2011) describe it using two critical concepts, namely professional commitment and organisational commitment. These researchers describe professional commitment as the degree of psychological attachment that a teacher has towards the teaching profession in general and organizational commitment as the level of identification and involvement that an individual has with an organization. Chang and Choi (2007) describe commitment as a psychological attachment to, and identification with an organisation that makes separation from that organisation difficult for the employee. The OECS Education Reform Unit (2000) supported by Jaussi (2007) argue that commitment to teaching has a psychological component (reflected in the personal interpretation of teaching experiences) and a behavioural component (reflected in behaviours such as attendance, retention and non-classroom- activity participation. Joffres and Haughey (2001) contend that low levels of commitment result in decreased learner achievement, higher educator absenteeism and increased staff turnover. Yucel and Bektas (2012) suggest that organizational commitment is a significant determinant of employee behaviors, because empirical evidence has established a relationship between organizational commitment and the attitudes and behaviors, which manifest in the workplace. Teacher commitment is critical within the school context because to a significant extent, learnersí success can only be accomplished through teachersí active commitment to the children in their classrooms (Lee, Yin, Zhang, & Jin, 2011). Aliakbari and Amoli (2016) contend that committed teachers have to strongly believe in the goals or purposes associated with teaching, they must be willing to exert considerable effort in their pursuit of excellence and must possess a desire to remain involved with their learners. Organizational commitment represents a personal identification with, and self-investment in an organization (Lou, Yu, Hsu, & Dai, 2007). The attributes of committed teachers include doing extra work, sharing the values and goals of the school, sacrificing their time for the sake of their learners, being proud of their school and exhibiting professional behaviour, even outside working hours. The current cohort of teachers holds different values and has different motives for choosing the teaching profession than the past generation of teachers. According to the OECS Education Reform Unit (2000) and Trimble (2006), todayís generation lacks loyalty and commitment towards the organisations they work for, and this has caused principals to be concerned about these new generation of teachers. The challenges that face the South African education system require teachers who show total and untiring commitment. Bennell (2004) postulates that the education system was strong during the past years, but has now been seriously weakened. Bennell (2004) further believes that one of the reasons is that teaching has become the last resort career option for university graduates and secondary school leavers. Joffres and Haughey (2001) put the blame on low feelings of efficacy (educators realise they are unable to influence their learners); a failure to build warm and nurturing relationships with colleagues; inadequate training or experience; political interference from parents or the local community (e.g. opposing the implementation of a particular programme); limited support from school The Role of Transformational School Leadership in Promoting Teacher Commitment.. 25 staff particularly from the principal; existing disciplinary policies; and inadequate support from district offices in relation to the implementation of the curriculum. When the teachers are committed, the school will be able to provide quality education to learners and meet the objectives of the school. This commitment has the potential to contribute towards sustainable development because students are provided with quality education opportunities, which will benefit themselves, the societies they come from and the economy of their countries. The commitment of teachers determines whether learning outcomes will be met in the classroom. No amount of control and cohesive measures can succeed if teachers choose to remain non-committed. Committed teachers wilfully do their work with passion. They need not be reminded of their responsibilities and they subscribe to the values and objectives of their profession. Such teachers are characterised by a willingness to sacrifice a great deal for their profession.

Transformational Leadership and Sustainable Development Arokiasamy (2017) maintains that principals who demonstrate transformational leadership practices expect behaviors that demonstrate excellence, quality and high performance on the part of the staff. Homrig (2001) argue that Burns (1978) is credited with developing the theory of transformational leadership and used this theory to describe the ideal situation between leaders and followers. He asked the question: how does the leader get everyone performing to his or her potential? To be able to influence followers, Burns contests that as a leader, one need to talk to their emotions and values. In supporting Homrig (2001), Fairholm (2001) confirms that Burns is credited with developing this theory of transformational leadership, used to describe an ideal situation between leaders and followers. Arokiasamy (2017) describes transformational leadership as leadership in which the school principal will guide and encourage fellow staff to work, communicate the schoolsí goal and empower them to achieve the schoolsí vision. To Hallinger (2003), transformational leadership is distributed in that it focuses on a shared vision and a shared commitment to effect change in a school. Sahin (2004), Leithwood & Jantzi, (2006), Gray and Ross (2006) all contend that transformational leadership increases the interest staff have in achieving improved performance, as well as developing and revealing their commitment to their work. Berkovich and Eyal (2017) postulate that because of its relevance to the contemporary challenges that principals face, transformational leadership theory was quickly embraced as an ideal model for school management. The role of principals as transformational leaders is key in ensuring that teachers are committed. Avolio at al., (1991) contend that a more comprehensive framework of leadership has recently been discussed under the label of transformational leadership theory by a number of management writers. Since this theory was developed, more leadership scholars such as Leithwood and Jantzi (2006), Gray and Ross (2006) and Hallinger (2003, 2004) elaborated on the transformational leadership theory. Leithwood and Jantzi (1999) describe transformational school leadership as the approach that focuses on the school vision and goals, motivation, offering individual support, symbolizing professional practices and values, demonstrating high performance expectations (commitment) and developing structures to further participation in school decisions. Bass (1985) in Sahin (2004) describes transformational leadership as increasing 26 Shuti Steph Khumalo the interest of the staff (motivation) to achieve higher performance (commitment) and developing and revealing the commitment and beliefs in the organization. For Singh and Lokotsch (2005), transformational leadership is a collective action generated by transforming leadership, which empowers those who participate in the process. Singh and Lokotsch (2005) describes transformational leadership in essence as the leadership style that facilitates the redefinition of a peopleís mission and the restructuring of their commitment and that of their systems for goal accomplishment. The following elements are critical in transformational school leadership: building school vision through developing specific goals and priorities; holding high performance expectations; and creating the structures to foster participation in school decisions (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006). Gray and Ross (2006) believe that the essence of transformational school leadership is dedication to fostering the growth of organizational members and enhancing their commitment by elevating their goals.

Research Methodology The quantitative study research approach was followed because it intended to assist the researcher in understanding teachersí perspectives on whether primary school principals demonstrate transformational leadership practices in Waterberg District Education Department in Limpopo, which is constituted by four circuits namely Warmbad, Nylstroom, Vaalwater, and Thabazimbi. One hundred questionnaires were distributed to teachers. The sample method used was simple randomly sampling (Welman & Kruger, 2001; Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2005). Questionnaires were used to obtain information on participantsí perceptions on the leadership practices that are exhibited by their principals. One hundred and fifty teachers were sampled to participate in the study and ninety-five responded. Before the questionnaires were distributed, the researcher pilot tested them first to avoid errors. Cohen et al. (2005), indicate that the pilot test has several functions, principally ìto increase the reliability, validity and practicability of the questionnaireî (p. 260). The analysis of data involved breaking up the data into manageable themes, patterns, trends and relationships (Mouton, 2001; Gray, 2004; White, 2005). Quantitatively, data analysis relied mostly on the descriptive statistical method. The researcher communicated all ethical procedures to participants and requested permission from relevant structures and authorities. Polit, Beck, and Hungler (2001) describe research ethics as a system of moral values that is concerned with the degree to which research procedures adhere to professional, legal and social obligations to study participants.

Results and Discussion McMillan and Schumacher (2001) posit that a research hypothesis is a tentative statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether primary school principals in Waterberg District Education exhibit transformational leadership attributes. This study was intended to test the following hypothesis: There is a significant relationship (in terms of descriptive statistics) between identified leadership emphasis in Waterberg District Education primary schools and the key feature (commitment) of transformational leadership. The Role of Transformational School Leadership in Promoting Teacher Commitment.. 27

Table 1 Transformational Leadership Element-Commitment Response categories (n=96) Items 1 2 3 4 5

No % No % No % No % No % Total The principal effectively motivates 4 4 2 2 13 14 24 26 52 54 95 educators to be on time. The principal effectively discourages 8 8 3 3 11 12 22 23 51 54 95 absenteeism. The principal motivates educators to 3 3 8 9 10 11 22 23 51 54 94 teach according to the new curriculum. The principal motivates all educators 4 4 5 5 27 28 20 21 39 41 95 to be involved in school sports. The principal rewards committed 17 18 14 15 23 24 20 21 21 22 96 educators for their efforts. The principal encourages educators 5 5 9 9 15 16 28 29 38 41 95 to give learners feedback on time. The principal encourages educators 4 4 9 10 13 14 32 34 36 38 94 to be creative. The principal encourages educators to remain after school to assist in 10 11 7 7 23 24 27 28 28 30 95 extra-curricular activities. The principal encourages educators 8 8 3 3 10 11 27 28 47 50 95 to work harder. Key: 1 ñ never, 2 ñ rarely, 3 ñ sometimes, 4 ñ frequently, and 5 ñ almost always.

Transformational leaders ensure that their subordinates are committed to their work. The table indicates the number of statements which participants were requested to give their opinions on the items related to the leadership practices of their principals. Participants were expected to choose between a range of opinions as indicated below and their responses were explored. In determining the role of primary school principals in ensuring that educators respect time, data from the table indicate that 80% of the respondents were of the view that their principals effectively motivates educators to be on time. This is evident from the combination of the views of respondents who selected both keys almost always (54%) and frequently (26%). Absenteeism was also identified as another challenge facing primary schools in Limpopo. Data in table A show that 54% of the respondents indicated that principals are always effective in discouraging absenteeism whilst 23% indicated that principals are frequently effective in doing the same function. On the basis of these joint responses, 77% of the respondents appear to suggest that principals are effective in discouraging absenteeism. One of the factors teachers blame is the introduction of the new curriculum and lack of being professionally developed. In trying to determine whether principals motivate educators to teach according to the new curriculum, 77% (54% who indicated that this happens almost always and 23% who indicate that this takes place frequently) indicated that the majority of primary school principals seem to motivate the educators effectively in teaching the new curriculum. Nuku (2007) indicates that principals are best positioned to motivate their staff in order to achieve the desired results and grow professionally. 28 Shuti Steph Khumalo

Participation in extracurricular activities and school sports by educators is important. Regarding this issue, 41% indicated that the principal almost always motivates educators to be in sports and 21% stated that this is done frequently. Jointly, 62% of the respondents seem to indicate that the majority of primary school principals do motivate educators to participate in sports. Twenty-two percent of participants indicated that principals usually reward committed educators for their efforts; 21% indicated that this function is frequently done. Combined, 43% of the respondents seem to give an impression that committed educators are not sufficiently rewarded. Thirty-nine percent (24% for sometimes and 15% for rarely) of the respondents from the sample seem to portray a scenario that indicates that rewarding of committed educators does not receive proper attention. Comparing 43% and 39%, a relatively larger percentage of respondents are seemingly not inclined to reward their committed educators sufficiently. Kadalie (2006) argues that leadership should always show appreciation in little things and also recognize educators who are committed at work. With regard to motivating educators to give learners feedback, 41% of the respondents indicated that principals always discharge this responsibility and 29% stated that this is done frequently. Considering the combined views of these respondents (70%), it appears that the majority of primary school principals are inclined to encourage educators to give learners feedback. The Department of Education (2006) argue that the educator should always motivate and inspire learners and should also be committed to the teaching profession. The Department of Education (2004) mentions that committed educators are identified by their creative and innovative approaches to teaching. The Department of Education (2004) also uses creativity and innovation by educators as criteria to reward excellence. It is the responsibility of the principal to ensure that educators sacrifice and become creative in order to compensate for the resources that are not available. On the issue of encouraging creativity, data indicate that 34% of the respondents indicated that principals frequently influence educators to become creative. Thirty-eight percent (38%) indicated that this function is done almost always. Taking the views of these respondents (72%), it appears that the majority of primary school principals encourage educators to be creative. With regard to the item: The principal encourages educators to remain after school to assist in extracurricular activities, 28% of the respondents felt that principals frequently encourage educators to remain after school to assist in extracurricular activities. Thirty percent (30%) of the respondents indicated that principals almost always encourage educators to participate in extracurricular activities. Added together, 57% of the respondents seem to indicate that the majority of primary school principals do encourage educators to remain after school to assist in extracurricular activities. However, this encouragement is not always effective. The researcher as an educator has observed that a minority of educators demonstrates commitment in extracurricular activities. Many educators leave school immediately after the last period. In responding to the item: The principal encourages educators to work harder; table A shows that 28% of the respondents indicated that principals frequently encourage educators to work harder. Fifty percent (50%) stated that principals almost always encourage educators to work harder. When the percentages for keys 4 and 5 are combined, 78% of the respondents seem to suggest that the majority of primary school principals encourage educators to work harder. Data in table A indicates that responses are clustered The Role of Transformational School Leadership in Promoting Teacher Commitment.. 29 in keys A. The opinions of the majority respondents in the sample on commitment give the overall impression that the majority of primary school principals ensure that educators are and remain committed to their profession. Based on this finding, the majority of primary school principals demonstrate a transformational leadership trait. Singh and Lokotsch (2005, p. 280) and Nguni et al. (2006, p. 146), indicate that transformational leadership is in essence the leadership style that encourages commitment from subordinates. In trying to determine the extent of the involvement of principals in ensuring that educators are committed to their duties, the following research question was asked: to what extent are primary school principals as leaders involved in making sure that educators remain committed to their profession? With regard to commitment, the views of the respondents (teachers) seem to indicate that to a larger extent, principals attempt to ensure that teachers are committed. The findings from survey data indicated that the majority of primary school principals do ensure that educators are and remain committed. In accordance with the finding above, Hallinger (2003) observed that transformational school leadership creates the conditions in which subordinates are committed. Despite this finding, data from both survey research and qualitative data suggested that some educators do demonstrate lack of commitment. On the other hand, the views of respondents also suggest that, firstly, rewarding committed educators does not receive enough attention and secondly, commitment of educators in extracurricular activities seems problematic. Even though few respondents indicated that there are challenges with regard to commitment, data received seems to suggest that the majority of primary school principals ensure that educators are committed.

Conclusions This research article has provided an important opportunity to advance our understanding of the absence of teacher commitment in certain primary schools in the Water- berg District, Department of Basic Education. The purpose of this investigation was to establish whether primary school principals in Waterberg District Education exhibit transformational leadership practices. It can be argued there is a positive correlation between the leadership practices of primary school principals in the case studied and the attributes of transformational leadership surveyed in the literature study. Based on this finding, it can be convincingly concluded that primary school principals promote teacher commitment in the schools they manage and lead and this promote sustainable development.

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Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Shuti Steph Khumalo, University of South Africa, South Africa. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0016

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 33ñ48, 2019

Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids: Portuguese UKIDS-Case Study

Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Mascarenhas Politécnico do Porto, Porto, Portugal

Abstract Todayís society has valued entrepreneurship in various sectors of personal and professional life, but the school seems to forget this reality. Aware of this fact, the Portuguese Ministry of Education has created a program, from early childhood education to basic and secondary education, to develop the concept of social entrepreneurship in schools. The Porto Polytechnic Higher School of Education, as an educator of teachers and teachers of the First and Second cycle of Basic Education, joined the European UKIDS project to integrate this theme in the initial and continuous teacher training. In this article we will analyze the data obtained from a UKIDS Portuguese Partner School in the context of continuing teacher education and present some conclusions. The qualitative methodology used allowed us to conclude that the UKIDS project enhanced the valori- zation of individual capacities, such as creativity, self-confidence, the power of argumentation, as well as the construction of social competences, in interpersonal and group relationships, which are crucial in the formation of a childís personality in the basic school learning process. Key words: entrepreneur, sustainable entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial challenge-based learning, social entrepreneurship.

Introduction The Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids was developed in six countries (Austria, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Hungary and Portugal) and is cooperatively funded by the Erasmus+ program, measure KA2 (Cooperation for Innova- tion and the Exchange of Good Practices). The UKIDS framework aims to promote social entrepreneurship in education as a permanent element in the teaching-learning process, both in initial and continuing education of teachers. Regarding the objectives, the project aims to encourage the assumption of social responsibility, enhance the sense of social and civic belonging, among others. Strategies include the development of a social entrepreneurship program that promotes entrepreneurial skills and competences, from three specific groups: primary school children; future teachers (training programs and initial pedagogical practice); and teachers (through continuing education programs). 34 Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Mascarenhas

The objective of this article is to analyse the results of UKIDS at Portuguese primary schools. In Portugal, the research on entrepreneurship was developed in a partner school of the UKIDS European project and in the initial teacher training of the School of Edu- cation of Polytechnic Porto, namely in the Supervised Teaching Practice of the Masterís Teaching Course of 1st Cycle of Basic Education (CEB) and in the Mathematics and Natural Sciences in the 2nd CEB. In this article we will present some results obtained in the partner school, with students from the 3rd and 4th grade.

Entrepreneurship Education Entrepreneurship is the ìability of the individual to turn ideas into actionsî not only for socioeconomic development but also for broadening their civic participation (EACEA, 2016, p. 5). The European Commission understands that entrepreneurship education is an essential aspect for the sustainable development of todayís societies and, as such, a general and cross-cutting theme for citizens to develop (CCE, 2006; Council of the European Union, 2018; EACEA, 2016; Moreira, Alves, & Silva, 2016). Following this European standard also, the Portuguese Government adopts this premise and proposes Entrepreneurship as one of the key competences for Portugal until 2020 (Alves, 2016; Moreira et al., 2016; Official Journal of the European Union, 2006). Along these lines, Entrepreneurship Education in the school context develops in an environment that encourages active forms of learning and promotes lifelong citizen development. Thus, it aims to support the individual in the construction of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values (Wu & Chen, 2019), based on observation, reflection and questioning about the realities, needs and interests of societies. To build the entrepreneurial profile, students need to know the different contexts and opportunities to transform ideas into action, for personal, social and professional activities and to understand how they arise. In this thinking, individuals should know and understand project planning and management approaches that include both processes and resources. They must understand the economy and the social and economic opportunities and challenges that an employer, organization or society faces. Along with this, they must also be aware of the ethical principles and challenges of sustainable development and be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses. In other words, they should have an entrepreneurial attitude, incorporate entrepreneurship, develop a social entrepreneurship concept (like this, they should be social entrepreneurs) and look for sustainable goals. An Entrepreneurial Attitude is then characterized by a sense of initiative and management, proactivity, courage and perseverance to achieve goals, being focused on the future. It understands the desire to motivate others and to value their ideas, to build empathy, to care for people and the world, and to accept the responsibility of following ethical beliefs throughout the process. It should be noted that entrepreneurship education has different social effects, both in the short and long term. In the short term, the intended results focus substantially on raising awareness of the topic, gaining theoretical and practical knowledge about entrepreneurship and the business world, developing entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial skills and attitudes, developing competences for self-confidence, empathy, the acquisition of entrepreneurial values and beliefs, and the motivation or inspiration for business creation. According to the guidelines of the European Commission, it is therefore up to the educational institutions to Incorporate Entrepreneurship, either transversely (across Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids: Portuguese UKIDS-Case Study 35 a curriculum and developed by various subjects), or from specific subjects (CCE, 2006, p. 9). Mendes (2019) also adds the need to articulate a model of entrepreneurship skills in the context of school and vocational guidance, with a structured curriculum of management training. The first dimension should enhance professional, personal and interpersonal skills and provide information according to the areas of interest of each person, and the second should enable the acquisition of specific skills, which are fundamental for analysing market functioning, individual and associative initiatives of business creation (Mendes, 2019). Another noteworthy concept is that of Social Entrepreneurship, because, contrary to the notion of entrepreneurship, it evokes ideas and actions that aim to solve social problems and, thus, is not directed to markets, but to communities in situations of vulnerability or social risk. In this sense, social entrepreneurship is a non-profit initiative seeking alternative financing strategies or management systems to create social value (Austin, Stevenson, & Wei-Skillern, 2006); a social obligation on the part of companies engaged in intersectoral partnerships (Sagawa & Segal, 2000); or a means to alleviate social problems and catalyse social transformations (Seelos & Mair, 2005). The Social Entrepreneur is, in this order of ideas, a social agent who, through innovation and existing resources, seeks solutions to social problems, aiming at social, economic and community development (Vieira & Gauthier, 2000). In addition, promoting entrepreneurship education requires global thinking and local action, and all efforts must therefore be combined to meet the Sustainable Develop- ment Goals (United Nations General Assembly, 2015). This agreement provides for the achievement of 17 goals ñ but 169 goals by 2030. The goals and targets will stimulate action for the next 15 years in areas of crucial importance to humanity such as the PEOPLE (namely, ending poverty and hunger in all areas, forms and dimensions, for ensuring that all human beings can realize their potential in dignity and equality in a healthy environment, PLANET (respectively, protecting the planet from degradation, especially through sustainable consumption and production, sustainable management of its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change to meet the needs of present and future generations, PROSPERITY (above all, ensuring that all human beings can enjoy a prosperous and fulfilling life of economic, social and technological progress in harmony with nature), PEACE (especially promoting peaceful fair and inclusive cultures that are free from fear and violence) and PARTNERSHIP (mainly with a spirit of global solidarity focused on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable of people, and with the participation of all countries, all stakeholders and of all people). In short, the sustainable development of a country is the result of the sustainable development of all parts (regions, states, municipalities and neighbourhoods) that compose it. Thus, the concept of local development is introduced, in which entrepreneurship makes use of local characteristics, vocations and appeals, in the most diverse categories, which have, to some extent, a certain degree of autonomy from one another (economic, social, cultural, environmental, physical-territorial, political-institutional and scientific-technological) (Tenório, 2004). From another perspective, Suleimenova and Ivanova (2018) refer to the concept of Sustainable Development as referring to the relationship between nature and society. For these authors this concept is subdivided into: ñ Sustainable Social Development or related to equality of the Person or social justice, 36 Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Mascarenhas

ñ Sustainable Economic Development or the maintenance of material, human or cultural capital or ñ Sustainable Ecological Development or related to the well-being of people provided by the maintenance of raw materials and the environment (Fedosejeva et al., 2018; SalÓte, 2015). This last point is further supported by Kerscher (2019) when referring to the concepts of Circular Economy and Sustainability Education. From another perspective, Manigova and Bogueva (2019), Machingura et al. (2018) and Newman (2018) refer to the need to create systems that collaborate for education in the objectives of sustainable development. For these authors, the most urgent objectives are climate change, the eradication of poverty and making the entire world population inclusive in achieving these goals. Based on these assumptions, the Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids was developed, and TRASH VALUE activity was chosen as a way to prepare children, their families and school stakeholders for the new global challenges.

Methodology The methodology used was of a qualitative nature, trying to understand the degree of evolution of the acquisition and mobilization of various competences, namely: a) the concept that each child has, about a person being entrepreneurial, b) the impact of the conception of entrepreneurship in each child namely: creativity, awareness of respect for the environment, knowledge sharing, the ability to communicate their ideas and be convincing, and more, c) the opportunities and difficulties of the UKIDS project felt by each child, and d) the skills reordered late to the development of reasoning and the capacity to learn more mathematics. It was necessary to construct a questionnaire which was organized according to those ideas; these served as a pre-test and a post-test to study the evolution of each child and each class about the social skills associated with this theme. To validate this data collection instrument, the questionnaire was also piloted. This was semi-structured, with open, closed and semi-closed questions and in these last questions with four levels of classification, with questions of a logical trivalent nature (Yes, No and Maybe) and with the request for justification of the answer, when it was necessary. The pre-test and post-test were applied in two contexts, because they were very similar as we can see in the characterization of context, respectively, in the second week of January and the last week of June. On the other hand, in order to perform data triangulation and its application, in a convergent and credible look of the investigation, other data collection instruments were also used, specifically: participant observation, logbooks, informal conversations with children and field notes written by the class teachers and the researcher. Based on the challenges proposed in the UKIDS, 3rd and 4th grade teachers outlined a planning, a programming of the intervention of the challenges throughout the school year and the integration in different areas of the existing curriculum in Portugal, such as show in the following Figure 1 and Figure 2. Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids: Portuguese UKIDS-Case Study 37

Figure 1. UKIDS program for the 3rd and 4th grade with materials for students and teachers at the primary schools

Figure 2. 9UKIDS program at the Partner Primary School: 3rd and 4th grade

It should also be noted that from the first moment there was a lot of dialogue, sharing and cooperation between the teachers. Thus, as the educational contexts were very similar, the same questionnaire was applied to both classes, as well as some of the challenges, with some differences according to the objectives set for the 3rd and 4th years of schooling of the Basic Education scheme for Portugal.

The Context of the Study The children of the 3rd grade was born in 2010 and are between 8 and 9 years old. In this sample, there are 12 boys and 12 girls, of a total of 24 pupils. Parentsí ages were divided in 6 classes of interval, starting in 31ñ35 and finishing in 61ñ65 being observed that the oldest parents vary between 36ñ40 years old and correspond to 11 students. On the other hand, the ages of the mothers are in three classes, between the ages of 31ñ 38 Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Mascarenhas

35, 36ñ40 and 41ñ45 years, being equally distributed, respectively, with 9, 6 and 9 mothers with these ages. The 3rd year parentís (fathers and/or mothers) have very diverse professions, but most have a high academic level (mostly, undergraduate degree). The most frequently observed (8% each) belong to the group of professions: lawyers, traders, researchers and teachers. In the Schoolís 4th year Class, the children were born in 2009 and are between 9 and 10 years old. The distribution of the number of boys and girls is fair, in a total of 24 pupils. Parentís ages were divided in 8 classes of interval, starting in 25ñ30 and finishing in 51ñ60, being observed that the oldest parents vary between 36ñ40 years old and correspond to 9 students. On the other hand, the mothersí ages are divided in seven classes between 25ñ30 and 46ñ50. The age class with the greatest number of mothers is the 36ñ40 (with 9 mothers), followed by the class of 31ñ36 with 6 mothers. Also, the parents of the 4th year class have very diverse professions from veterinary, teacher, architect, psychologist, manager, specialized technicians, hairdresser, model, factory employee, among others and almost all possess undergraduate level of studies. In addition to this personal and family characterization, it should also be noted that in both classes the children show very similar attitudes, with high motivation for learning, with initiative, very curious and questioning, being very enthusiastic when they develop new activities in the School.

Analysis and Discussion of Results Based on the data collection, the instruments indicated, and considering how the questions in the questionnaire were developed, the following analysis and discussion of results emerged. It should be noted that there was a previous concern with the motivation to promote the participation of the target public in the answers to the research methods. On the questionnaire was written a motivational introductory text mentioning that: ìUKIDS is a project on entrepreneurship in education. You will actively participate in this project by planning, solving challenges and evaluating. YOU will record your opinion at various times: before starting the project, during and after solving the challengesî. In the first open question: ìWhat is an entrepreneurial person to you?î the answers of children were quite free and different, and their analysis was carried out in three fundamental categories: Know How to Learn, Know How to Do and Know how to be and ìotherî, which included imperceptible answers or non-answers (Table 1).

Table 1 What is an Entrepreneurial Person to You? Variable Categories Frequency Percentage Know how to learn 26 54% Know how to do 6 12% Know how to be 9 19% Others 7 15% Total 48 100%

As it can be observed, the biggest number of answers preferred the idea that the children thought to learn more with the project (26 in 48 answers or 54% of the answers). Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids: Portuguese UKIDS-Case Study 39

However, in the post-test and after the development of the tasks scheduled for the period January to June, two new categories were included, as the following chart shows, namely ìone person having many ideasî, in their various aspects, whether they were implemented or not and ìnever give up on goalsî or ìto achieve the aimsî shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Childrenís ideas about entrepreneurship concept

In the first question, it was noted that children allied entrepreneurship with a person who enjoyed learning by writing: ìHe is a person who likes to learnî; ìan enterprising person wants to learn moreî and ìKnowing moreî; or ìItís a person who understood the things they did well.î In the post-test the children wrote that an entrepreneurial person is: ìa person with many ideasî; or ìis a person who has many ideas and then realizes the ideasî (2 students who wrote this) or ìis a person who has ideas and finds new things through themî or in the same line of thinking and more in the 4th year: ìa practical and thinking personî or ìa person who has ideas and makes themî (2)î; ìmeans that you are a person who has ideas and makes use of those ideasî; ìYou are a person who builds things with your ideas,î as the following figure shows (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Example of answer given by child in post-test 40 Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Mascarenhas

In the category of Know How To Be children answer ìis a person who understands others,î ìis an entrepreneurial personî. In this line of thought it is curious to note that one child connects entrepreneurial being with work and in the second semi-open question of the competence development writes ìworkerî competence, valorising the Know How to Do. In Know How To Be, there were students who refer to an entrepreneurial person who shows other values, such as: ìI think an entrepreneur means being a fair person,î ìFor me an enterprising person is a good person,î ìGives employment to others,î ìLikes others.î It is interesting to note how the Know How To Do component increases in the post-test, but the Know How to Be component was decreased in the post-test, probably because in solving the challenges, children were encouraged to come up with ideas, reveal goals and risk achieving them individually or in a group. Also, in the following scheme, one child includes the three categories, related to work to be entrepreneurial, to an understanding of learning and that at work is concerned with others and the results, as shown in the following figure (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Competences to be an entrepreneurial person

We can conclude that for children, an entrepreneurial person is someone who is capable of learning, understanding (the process and the people), having ideas and realizing them. Everything indicates that the trilogy of Know How to Learn, Know How to Do and Know How to Be is present in the idea about entrepreneurship. Regarding question 2, related to ìthe skills (abilities to do things) that the child hopes to develop in the UKIDS project on entrepreneurshipÖî, the survey listed the following: awareness of social, environmental and political reality; creativity, self-confidence, autonomy, persistence, argumentation, curiosity; cooperation, respect, responsibility; and any other element to be indicated by the children. They have selected each element at one of the four levels, from 1 to 4, namely, I will not develop; I will develop little; I will develop and I will develop a lot. The following chart (Figure 6) show the options marked by the children on the pre- test and on the four levels. It should also be noted that the post-test results were also very positive, and the hope is with UKIDS children will develop a lot of creativity, curiosity, cooperation, respect and responsibility. From the results obtained, it can be concluded that there is consistency with the first question of the questionnaire, because in this the children selected the skills they hope to develop in the UKIDS, such as creativity, that is, having ideas, curiosity, related to knowledge with more cooperation in sharing and communicating among your co- workers, respect for others and the choices made. Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids: Portuguese UKIDS-Case Study 41

Figure 6. Competences that children hope to develop in UKIDS

In the analysis of some of the competences we will focus on some of them, such as self-confidence, argumentation, respect and responsibility, revealing the evolution obtained in the post-test. Thus, it is noteworthy that if in the pre-test 19 students wrote to develop a lot of self-confidence, in the post-test 30 students opted for this competence, an evolution of 23%, as shown in the following graphs (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Social competence ñ self-confidence

This competence is very important for a child, as having self-confidence means reinforcing an intrinsic motivation for learning (Freire, 1996). In this way the child can build his/her identity by structuring ideas and putting them into practice. Another competence that changed in the post-test, in a positive way was the power of argumentation. The following chart (Figure 8) shows that the children expected to develop more the power of argumentation with the project (from 10 to 20 or double) and from 7 to 10 42 Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Mascarenhas expect to develop much with the resolution of the challenges. This skill is considered very difficult to achieve as it is usually related to reasoning and the ability to communicate with others using their own vocabulary and explaining their ideas clearly and consistently.

Figure 8. Social competence ñ argumentation

The following graph (Figure 9) compiles the competences of respect and responsibility and the results obtained in the pre-test and post-test. We can conclude then that both competences had a positive evolution of the competences and the children hoped to develop them very much in this project. It is interesting to associate these two competences with Know How to Be and Know How to Do (including of course Know How to Learn), with the acceptance of the added responsibilities when designing a project, respecting it in its conception and application, being always responsible in the different phases of development.

Figure. 9. Social competences of respect and responsibility Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids: Portuguese UKIDS-Case Study 43

In the third question of the questionnaire, we tried to perform a brief ìSWOT analysis,î considering only two parameters: the opportunities to be developed by the UKIDS project and the threats that may arise. Regarding the opportunities, the following chart highlights those indicated by the children (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Opportunities of project UKIDS

As in other responses, children wrote about learning more (49% ñ nearly half of children wrote it!), As well as the ability to Know How To Do, identified with the opportunity to solve challenges, to accomplish in group the tasks, concretize the proposals, trying new approaches (new methodologies), be able to ask the colleagues, be helped by them and collaborate in the accomplishment of the activities related to Know How To Be. On the other hand, in the last open question: If you wish, you can still write more ideas about the Project or ask your questions, although nine of the children did not answer, almost half of those (42%) showed a lot of curiosity about the project, as shown in the following graph (Figure 11). In addition, they expect to learn a lot from the UKIDS Project.

Figure 11. Open answers about UKIDS

We can conclude, observing the figure 11, that the children also revealed responsibility for belonging to the project, expressing fears and doubts about what they would accomplish at UKIDS. They believed that it would give them taste and fun, but at the same time they considered it very serious, something of great responsibility. In the question about the difficulties they may feel in the project, only 36 answered and some students (16) had ìdifficulties without identifying them.î Nevertheless, two difficulties 44 Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Mascarenhas were identified: autonomy and self-confidence in the post-test, and skills related to the capacity to understand and solve problems. To complete this analysis, the following chart shows some of the difficulties listed by the children in the pre-test and post-test. In fact, Freire (1996) defends also that autonomy and self-confidence are important to achieve the ability of initiative and cooperate with others, developing the social competences. On the other hand, they wrote the following difficulties, as show Figure 12.

Figure 12. Difficulties that children can have in the UKIDS

Most of the children answered this question, to be aware of the projectís identity, some of the difficulties, like the ability to understand and solve problems, or showing coherence when they admit that the project will help them to know more Mathematics (see in the analysis of the next question), and this discipline is closely linked to reasoning and problem solving. They also lacked confidence in their abilities and their autonomy in solving the challenges ahead. As Mathematics is a discipline in which children show some difficulties, we link the project to this scientific area. In the following graph (Figure 13) the children believed that being in the project would develop their reasoning further.

Figure 13. Developing reasoning

Note that no child answered ìNoî, that is, of the 46 children who answered this item and believed that the project could enhance the development of reasoning. More than 50% of children say ìYes.î Identical values were recorded in the post-test. On the other hand, they were confident that UKIDS would help them learn more Math (67% ñ Yes and 27% Maybe), as show Figure 14. Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids: Portuguese UKIDS-Case Study 45

Figure 14. Learning more mathematics

Interestingly, the answers to these two items revealed that children related the UKIDS project to the development of reasoning and the ability to learn, and learn more different subjects, specially Maths.

Some Reflections and Conclusions Entrepreneurship is not only ìto shape the mindsets of young people, but also to equip them with the skills, knowledge and attitudes that are indispensable for the development of the entrepreneurial cultureî (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2016, p. 9). In fact, the UKIDS project is an excellent opportunity for the integral development of the person, from a European and participatory perspective, where each country has its idiosyncrasies ñ but allowing, as can be seen in scheme 1, the integration of multicul- turality of essentialities: capacities, and knowledge; Skills; attitudes and values (Figure 15), in a social culture, respectively, marked by Know How to Learn, Know How to Do and Know How To Be.

Figure 15. Social culture seen in an interdisciplinary way

The development of these competences was always present not only in the diagnostic phase and in the initial presentation of the project, but also in its development and in the resolution of the challenges. In fact, children related entrepreneurship to knowing more, but also related it to knowledge understood as ìa person who has a lot of ideas and understands things well.î 46 Maria Inês Pinho, Dárida Fernandes, Carla Serrão, and Daniela Mascarenhas

Recording the initial concept of entrepreneurship of 3rd and 4th grade children before applying the challenges of the UKIDS project was crucial to getting to know the initial and subjective idea and to understand the evolution in each child and in each class. In the concept of a person being entrepreneurial, it was noted that inclusion after the post- test application of the two new categories: showing evolution in the idea of entrepreneurship, becoming even more complete, children integrated the need for a person to have ideas and to realize them. It is also important to record in the resolution of the challenges of UKIDS, the children related to Mathematics, hoping through the project to have more opportunities to develop reasoning, to learn more Mathematics and to solve better the problems associated with this subject. From the data collated, it can be concluded that the children mobilized, in a deeper way, personal and social competences very relevant to the development of their personality, such as: respect for their colleagues, the tasks to be performed, the responsibility of knowing how to think and to do, and the motivation to learn more. Children also recognize that for a person to be entrepreneurial, they will need to have ideas, be creative and not give up on the goals set. In carrying out the tasks, they highly valued cooperation and their thinking, and associated UKIDS with mathematics, problem solving and the development of reasoning.

Conclusions From the paper the authors have developed emerged different dimensions: the individual and/or team class knowledge and attitude; the social impact of environment in family, stakeholders; the new education of teacherís training in the initial and continuum process. Conclusively, the students are motivated to learn and to work in these public causes and they are receptive to think about new concepts, like ìwhen is a person being entrepreneurial?î and they believe that creativity, the respect for environment, the method of cooperation, and the communication about their ideas, all are important to construct new sustainable development. In fact, the project UKIDS is an opportunity to learn more about the world and to discover a new sustainable development. They feel that only together can they learn more and change the world in a preferred way. They also believe that when they solve the challenges, they deepen their reasoning and new mathematics skills ñ and this subject is also important in the physics, chemistry and other Scientifics areas. On the other hand, with the use of UKIDS, we reflect in a European perspective and in a collaborative way so that we can discuss the objectives of sustainable development for education. In these collaborative works, it is urgent to define objectives about climate change, the eradication of poverty and making the entire world population inclusive in achieving these goals. Based on these assumptions, the Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids (Ukids) has provided a social context to prepare children, their families and school stakeholders for the new global challenges. In this process, we conclude that it is necessary to dialogue and at the same time to discuss the agenda for the sustainable goals of the planet. Youth Start Social Entrepreneurship Program for Kids: Portuguese UKIDS-Case Study 47

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United Nations General Assembly. (2015). Transforming our world; the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development, A/RES/70/1. Vieira, R., & Gauthier, F. (2000). Introdução ao Empreendedorismo Social [Introduction to Social Entrepreneurship]. Anais. II Encontro Nacional do Empreendedor. Wu, H. T., & Chen, M. Y. (2019). Course design for college entrepreneurship education ñ from personal trait analysis to operation in practice. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1016ñ1028.

Correspondence relating this paper should be addressed to Maria Inês Pinho, Escola Superior de Educação, Porto. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0017

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 49ñ59, 2019

Self-Efficacy in Social Science

Gerlinde Prˆbstl and Kerstin Schmidt-Hˆnig University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems, Austria

Abstract In order to manage the challenges of the 21st century, the assessment of individual self- efficacy constitutes an important factor in the educational context; both on the personal as well as on the social and organisational level. This fact justifies the consideration of self-efficacy as a basic competence, whose development must be started on the primary level. Pupils and teachers realise the resources that contribute to the development of a successful self-concept: increased motivation, a courageous selection of tasks to be fulfilled, and the possible influence on future social and economic developments. During their formation pedagogues are learners and teachers at the same time. In their lectures they deal with Social Entrepreneurship Education and competences connected with it. They reflect their own potential to exert influence and develop strategies to support pupils/students in the development of their own self-concept. In accordance with current findings the re-formulation of the curriculum of primary and secondary level demonstrates a development towards conceptual learning in larger contexts, following the principles of self-guidance and activity-orientation. Key words: self-efficacy, self-concept, social entrepreneurship education (SEE), action competence.

Introduction In order to participate successfully in the sustainable development of our society and economy it is necessary to develop fundamental sustainability competences. The educational sector makes it possible for pedagogues to promote the strengths of their pupils in a supportive and guiding manner and to sensitise them with regard to self- efficacy. In this article we will deal with the following questions: 1. What is the importance of self-efficacy in the context of Social Entrepreneurship Education (SEE)? 2. How can self-efficacy in social sciences be made visible taking SEE as an example? 3. What contribution can the formation of primary level pedagogues make? 50 Gerlinde Prˆbstl and Kerstin Schmidt-Hˆnig

The Concept of Self-Efficacy as Basis of the Development of Social Entrepreneurship Competences The term self-efficacy, found in English research literature, has been translated in various ways in relevant German literature. In particular, practitioners in the field of psychology and school have made use of it with different focuses. What seems most relevant in the context of Social Entrepreneurship Education (SEE) are the research findings concerning the Social Cognitive Theory of Albert Bandura from 1977 (Bandura, 1995) and later investigations, e.g. those by Carina Fuchs (2005). Entrepreneurship Education in its wider sense comprises all the educational measures which are required to accumulate specialized knowledge, to develop certain values and attitudes for an independent, responsible lifestyle as well as capabilities and skills which are necessary for a successful participation in the economic processes (BMBWF, 2019). The educational focus lies with individuals who, by their way of thinking, their activities and social decisions, become efficient themselves in the social and economic context. This justifies a brief outline of the theory of self-efficacy. In his Social Cognitive Theory, Albert Bandura focuses on the inner process of personal assessment of oneís own capabilities concerning the completion of the tasks in hand. The resulting methods applied in practice yielded success in the treatment of fears, depressions and addictions. With the help of insights in self-efficacy, successes on the individual and group level could be verified in professional and sporting activities. ìPer- ceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in oneís capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situationsî (Bandura, 1995, p. 2). On account of investigations at different levels (individual, social, organizational levels), Albert Banduraís concept seems to be especially apt for the educational sector, since it comprises these three levels. In the school context this means that pupils and teachers become efficient as individuals but also collectively as part of the school community. It has to be noted, however, that comprehensive empirical investigations concerning the formation and influence of collective self-efficacy of teachers remains to be carried out. Equally, there is only a small sample of statements concerning the self-efficacy of head teachers / directors. According to Banduraís research (1995 and 1977), there are five relevant sources to assess individual self-efficacy: ó mastery experience, ó vicarious experience, ó social persuasion, ó physiological and emotional states, ó integration of efficacy information. Subsequently, the information obtained in this way undergoes an individual, cognitive procedure of assessment and processing. What follows is the assessment of oneís own capabilities and resources to tackle a certain challenge and, following your own decision, instigate a certain effect. We distinguish between persons with high and low self-efficacy. Self-Efficacy in Social Science 51

Figure 1. Manifestation of self-efficacy (according to Hobmair, 2012, p. 180)

The individual degree of self-efficacy has an effect on the exploitation of the indivi- dualís resources, the motivation and the willingness to act. With high self-efficacy it is positive, with a low one negative. Positive or negative assessments of oneís self-efficacy have an effect on future tasks as well. Thus, individuals with high self-efficacy demonstrate a higher willingness to accept challenging situations and to handle them with higher commitment and great responsibility (Fuchs, 2005, p. 45); with reference to Locke & Latham, 1990). Self-efficient actors continually adapt their aims in accordance with their positive comparison between performance and task and enhance their personal satisfaction, which again results in an improved assessment of self-efficacy. According to a study by Schwarzer & Jerusalem (2002), highly self-efficient individuals came out as highly stress- resistant in onerous tasks. ìThey maintained a mental state of challenge and interpreted their failures as caused by external factorsî (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 2002, p. 38). Albert Bandura describes self-efficacy by means of three dimensions: magnitude, strength and generality (Bandura, 1977). In this way the varying degrees of self-efficacy in managing given tasks can be recorded as exactly as possible and can be compared to earlier data of the same individual or other test subjects. Fuchs (2005) deals with the concept of self-efficacy in its everyday usage and describes it as the capability of a person to ìbe active out of oneís own drive and thus effect somethingî. This underlines the individualís capability and willingness to act in a specific situation. In times of social change, economic challenges and important ecologic alterations, the individualís ability to act seems to be especially meaningful. As investigated by Bandura (1977) there is a close relation between the difficulty of a challenge and the strength of self-efficacy. ìThe magnitude of self-efficacy influences the state of mind, the motivation and performance of an individual and determines to a high degree, which behavior is chosen by individuals and how they react to their environmentî (Breker, 2015). Investigations into the connection between magnitude of self-efficacy and state of mind, especially fear and stress, have made clear that growing general self-efficacy can reduce situational fear and stress. Consequently, individuals who dispose of high awareness of their self-efficacy act more courageously and try to modify the situation towards the positive. Their high self-efficacy supports these individuals in their solution process, which results in better cognitive performance and higher personal satisfaction. Schools are excellent places where pupils and teachers are continuously confronted with situations of different content and levels of difficulty. This makes it possible for learners again and again to re-evaluate and further develop their self-concept and trust into their own efficacy. 52 Gerlinde Prˆbstl and Kerstin Schmidt-Hˆnig

Figure 2. Distinction between efficacy expectation and outcome expectation (according to Bandura, 1977, p. 193)

The traditional concept of a learning process is based on a simple input-output control model with external checks. The current model, however, characterizes it by systemic-constructivist self-organization and accompanying situational intervention. This explains the intensified focus on the inner process of personal assessment of oneís abilities concerning a given task and its possible fulfillment. Studies by Kˆller (2004) with reference to Schwarzer (1992), Ajzen and Madden (1986) distinguish clearly between self- efficient behavior and outcome expectations. Thus, self-efficacy is solely connected with the assessment of how probable the successful completion of a certain task is. Kˆller (2004) interprets Banduraís efficacy expectations as a ìcombination of causality and efficacy convictionsî. The confidence that children display is closely connected with their self-concept that was developed in various places during their childhood. It is obvious that ñ apart from school ñ the parental home and / or the family are among the most important places where oneís self-concept is developed. During its development the childís self-concepts starts out with a general notion and is differentiated later in thematic sub-areas, e.g. a performance-oriented, a social, and a physical self-concept (Drechsel & Prenzel, 2009). At the age of six to ten years, this differentiation reaches a stage where children can realize strengths and weaknesses; however, the assessment depends notably on the situational context. After the eleventh year, the assessment of oneís own self-efficacy gains importance; the reason for that lies in personal experiences and purposeful motivation. In the course of this and the following development stages, continuous negative experiences can reduce the awareness of oneís individual self-efficacy (Prenzel, 2000). Positive confirmation, on the other hand, increases the motivation and the readiness to accept challenges. The ability to create ideas, to plan their implementation, the willingness to realise these plans alone or in company is among the key competences that were elaborated by the European Commission in 2005. This so-called entrepreneurship-competence shows the aim to raise consensus among all stakeholders and to establish a bridge between the worlds of education and work. (Bacigalupo et al., 2016) This key competence also comprises the awareness of ethical values and the promotion of responsible corporate governance.

The Importance of Self-Efficacy in the Area of Social Sciences at Primary Level The 21st century confronts humankind with numerous challenges: social ones (climate change, financial security), economic ones (innovation, globalization), technical ones (technologization, digitalization) and personal ones (workplace, happiness, and satisfac- Self-Efficacy in Social Science 53 tion). Therefore, education for the 21st century comprises four important dimensions: knowledge, skills, character, and metacognition. These must be taken into account in the formation of future generations; whatís more, not separately but closely interlinked. ìThe Center for Curriculum Redesign addresses the fundamental question of ëWhat should students learn for the 21st century?í and openly propagates its recommendations and frameworks on a worldwide basisî (Fadel, 2015). With its frameworks (Fig. 3) the Center for Curriculum Design aims at preparing a basis for future curricula. This endeavor is in agreement with current curriculum development for the teaching of Social Science (ìSachunterrichtî) in Austria and Switzerland. In Germany the framework for Social Science, elaborated by the Society for Didactics of Social Science (GDSU, 2013) forms the basis for the current curriculum development of the several regions in Germany. What takes place in Austria these days is a redesign of curricula of all subjects on the levels primary and secondary I, aiming at an uninter- rupted competence orientation and connectivity.

Figure 3. The CCR ñ Framework for 21st Century Education (Center for Curriculum Redesign, 2017)

The Austrian curriculum for Social Science contains social, historical, political, geographical, and ecological fields of study, which are being treated under many perspectives taking into account possible links to other subjects. The current redesign of the Social Science curriculum considers four fields of competences, which are in accordance with the dimensions of education for the 21st century. Not only is the acquisition of knowledge in the center, but also the development of the childís personality. ó Subject competence (Fachkompetenz) comprises basic notions, contexts, insights of subject-related areas of application and topics, guided by central professional concepts, aiming at assessing acquired knowledge for transfer to new issues and problem areas. 54 Gerlinde Prˆbstl and Kerstin Schmidt-Hˆnig

ó Personal competence (Personale Kompetenz) comprises on the one hand the self-competence to realize oneís strengths and weaknesses, to learn to assess oneís performance, to experience interest, to build self-confidence, to accept responsibility for oneself and the environment. On the other hand, it comprises social competences which concern the co-existence and co-working in the learnersí group and social environment; e.g. cooperation, communication, entrepreneurship. ó Deductive competence (Erschlieﬂungskompetenz) comprises subject-specific methods and ways of working as well as self-reflective analysis of forms and processes of learning. ó Action competence (Handlungskompetenz) links all areas of competences. Pupils accept responsibilities actively and realize that every action is preceded by some sort of assessment or judgment. By making and justifying judgements, varying perspectives are taken into account; different arguments are being tested, accepted, or discarded. As a consequence, pupils continue developing their system of values and their capability to take over perspectives and empathy (Nowy-Rummel, Radler, & Schmidt-Hˆnig, 2019). According to Conrad and Kalcsics (2018, p. 37), the pupils are to take decisions themselves, act independently in the social context, and reflect their acting. They are to actively participate in the design of their living environment and be able to accept responsibilities for themselves and their community. Giesinger (2017) claims the existence of an up-to-date autonomy, which is necessary to make children into social actors. Peda- gogues can foster pupilsí experiences of autonomy by ó ìintensively dedicating themselves to the (individual) learners and encouraging them, ó providing differentiated learning opportunities and offering space for self- regulated problem-solving, ó structuring contents and communication processes and stimulate the perse- cution of oneís own ideas, ó offering support and demonstrate empathy and takeover of perspectives, ó encouraging the acceptance of oneís own responsibility for progress in learning ï granting opportunities and sufficient time for independent considerations and work, ó behaving in a less monitoring way, refrain from offering solutions and appre- ciate performance appropriatelyî (Kˆhnlein, 2012, p. 271). At primary level, Social Science is considered a carrier subject in the education for sustainable development (Stoltenberg, 2013). With its singular structure and didactics it offers a broad basis for action-oriented, character-forming learning by means of projects. This includes learning spaces, activities, and events off the premises. Thus self-efficacy is fostered by a high degree of student activity, competence-orientated learning environments, and individualization; but in the first place by an atmosphere of learning free of stress and fear, that is characterized by appreciation, a positive relationship between pupil and teacher and a constructive culture of feedback (Breker, 2015). According to Kˆhnlein it is ìthe experience of inclusion and encouraging feedbackî that is of vital importance for the development of oneís self-concept. He links these with successful learning in accordance with Bandura and demands as prerequisite learning, environments that are ìconstructive-geneticî (Kˆhnlein, 2012, p. 89). Self-Efficacy in Social Science 55

Self-Efficacy in the Formation of Primary Level Pedagogues The Austrian Strategy concerning Sustainable Development Education (BMUKK 2008) aims at a change of awareness towards sustainability on the part of learners and teaching personnel. These are the elements the Strategy wants to make use of: ó anchoring in the educational system, ó partnerships and networks, ó development of teachersí competences, ó research and innovation, ó development of scenarios, ó monitoring and evaluation. The reason, why the development of teachersí competences is especially important, is that already at primary level pedagogues exert considerable influence on the pupilsí development of their personality and the experience of self-efficacy. It is imperative to transmit a basic understanding for global connections, to make pupils aware of future challenges and to educate them to be global world citizens (Schmidt-Hˆnig, 2019, p. 141). What is especially meaningful in the context of Social Science is the linkage of knowledge concerning subject, subject-specific didactics, and pedagogical psychology (Zadeh & Peschel, 2018, p. 184). Pedagogues should be aware of the individual pupilís probable abilities and characteristics and take these into consideration while planning and designing the learning process (Kahlert, 2009, p. 76). This includes not only the pupilsí previous knowledge, but also their personalities and at first their self-concepts. A teacherís positive self-concept is considered an indicator of his or her professional action competence, which in turn influences the self-concept of the individual pupil. ìIn general we define self-concept both as perception as well as mental representation of oneís own individual abilities and talentsî (Mˆller & Trautwein, 2015). In this way the awareness of oneís individually shaped self-efficacy is one of the essential entrepreneurship competences. Among these competences Mertens (1974) distinguishes between ìbasic qualifi- cationsî and ìhorizontal qualifications.î Self-efficacy manifests itself as basic competence by critical, structuring, dispositive thinking as well as co-operative and creative approaches in the problem-solving process (Lindner, 2015). Therefore one of the aims in the training of primary and secondary pedagogues should be the development of an awareness of the meaningfulness of self-efficacy in society and economy. The recognition of entrepreneurship as key competence results in a clear emphasis on the interdisciplinary and holistic dimension during teacher-formation in order to respond to this demand. Gibb and Nelson (1996) distinguish three intentions of entrepreneurship education: education ìfor, through and about entrepreneurship.î Entrepreneurial Challenge based Learning offers a possible approach. Actors enjoy a large degree of creative autonomy, responsibility for the implementation and reflection on the results. At the University Teacher College Vienna/Krems it is possible for future pedagogues to get to know this practice-oriented concept headed by Gerlinde Prˆbstl. During their lectures students acquire cognitive knowledge; at the same time they broaden their experience in their Practical Pedagogical Studies ñ for example: following the TRIO- Modell (Lindner, 2018) pupils develop their own projects directed and accompanied by soon-to-be teachers. Uniting these two interacting strands the concept is further advanced 56 Gerlinde Prˆbstl and Kerstin Schmidt-Hˆnig and accompanied by intensive phases of reflection during the Practical Pedagogical Studies. What is important here is the cooperation between students and teachers in the department ìSachunterrichtî and ìsocio-cultural focusî, as well as students and mentors at the practical training schools. Students receive practical input during their lectures, practical hints for their classes by attended lesson-planning and the presentation of up- to-date materials and methods; for example: in the course of the seminar ìGlobal relations between man and environment and challenges concerning the usage of resourcesî (KPH Wien/Krems). The objective is to prompt students to reflect and consciously design the manifold roles in living environments shaped by economy, society and politics (Pichler, Fridrich, Vielhaber, & Bergmeister, 2017).

Figure 4. Developing self-efficacy (Prˆbstl, 2018)

The concept is based on competence areas, with specific target groups (pupils, students, and teachers), the basic elements, however, remain the same. This specification concerns the complexity of factual knowledge, the choice of materials and methods or the social format. In the center of this concept are the competences in the area of SEE that teachers or soon-to-be teachers already master or want to develop (factual and methodological knowledge, for instance domain-specific knowledge concerning SEE). In the conflicting areas of society on the whole and institution (school / university / training institutes), we create a teaching environment that makes it possible to develop on different levels the aspects (a) ìplanning and developing visionsî, (b) ìcommunicating, reflecting, and organizingî, and (c) ìactingî (i.e. becoming effective oneself, realize projects). Self-effective actors generate ideas and above all use these implementations of new ideas in developing society and economy. In the future we plan to carry out investigations into the teaching practice of primary level pedagogues who, in the course of their formation, have been made familiar with the aspects of self-efficacy in the area of SEE. The central question is: To what extent or in what areas could the confrontation with the aims of SEE create a lasting influence on the lessons of the pedagogues? Further sub-questions deal with the competence that are contained in the given model, e.g. is the current scientific status incorporated in the factual area of the topic? Does the trainee also value these aspects of personal development or the evolution of values and not only separate complex knowledge? Self-Efficacy in Social Science 57

Conclusion The ability to create ideas, to plan their implementation, the willingness to realise these plans alone or in company is among the key competences which are based on high self-efficacy. Students in their pedagogical formation are to a high extent teaching and learning subjects at the same time. That means that they themselves ñ in the course of their practical teaching ñ acquire competences and transmit knowledge to their pupils. That fact is highly appropriate for the perception of complex connections like those who characterize many social and economic processes. Future investigations will show how far our school system in its present organizational status is apt to develop individual self-efficacy, or if it will be organized in a different way along the new curriculum. What we need in order to respond to the challenges of the 21st century are competent individuals, capable of assessing their own efficacy and to develop their own ability to act. Motivated pedagogues, equipped with a positive self-concept, need to accompany this development.

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Correspondence relating this paper should be addressed to Gerlinde Prˆbstl, University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems, and University of Vienna, Department of Geography and Regional Research. Email: [email protected] or to Kerstin Schmidt-Hˆnig, University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0018

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 60ñ71, 2019

Makerspaces as Social Innovation and Entrepreneurship Learning Environments: The DOIT Learning Program

Guntram Geser, Eva-Maria Hollauf, Veronika Hornung-Pr‰hauser, and Sandra Schˆn Salzburg Research, Salzburg, Austria Frank Vloet Waag, Technology & Society, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Abstract Developing social innovation and entrepreneurship competences and skills of children and young people is on the agenda of European educational policy-makers. The European research and innovation project ìDOIT ñ Entrepreneurial skills for young social innovators in an open digital worldî suggests using makerspaces and tools, within schools and externally, to promote practice-based social innovation and entrepreneurial learning of children and young people. This article first gives an overview of different types of makerspaces, addresses the concept of maker education, and highlights common development goals of such education with entrepreneurship education regarding particular attitudes and competences. The main part then describes the DOIT learning program that allows children and young people (6ñ16 years) to acquire skills and an entrepreneurial mindset for turning creative ideas into potential social innovations. This program is currently trialed in DOIT pilots in different types of makerspaces in ten European countries. The article describes learning processes and outcomes that are promoted by the program with two examples that are different regarding the makerspaces, topics and other aspects. Some first experiences and lessons learned from these and other pilots are summarized. Key words: entrepreneurial education, maker education, makerspaces, social innovation, sustainability.

Introduction The European research and innovation project ìDOIT ñ Entrepreneurial skills for young social innovators in an open digital worldî is a 3-year Horizon 2020 Innovation Action (October 2017 ñ September 2020) that designs, trials and evaluates a new approach allowing young people to develop an entrepreneurial mindset and skills for turning creative ideas into social innovations. DOIT suggests applying practice-based learning in makerspaces to foster digital, social and entrepreneurial competences of young people Makerspaces as Social Innovation and Entrepreneurship Learning Environments.. 61

(6ñ16 years old). Specifically, the project proposes co-creative maker activities addressing societal issues. Issues of sustainability and sustainable solutions are considered in DOIT pilot actions on themes such as Environment and Nature (e.g. sustainable use of resources, waste management), Living Together (e.g. environmental and social issues in local community), Wellbeing, Health and Sport (e.g. healthy food and activities). The DOIT pilot actions invite children and young people to use maker methods and tools to develop creative, awareness-raising, and potentially sustainable solutions. This article first gives an overview of different types of makerspaces (FabLabs, hackerspaces and others). As far as makerspaces already have made it into educational institutions and other learning contexts (e.g. libraries, museums), the predominant approach today is learning of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). This approach tends to narrowly focus on promoting basic technical knowledge and skills through using digital fabrication tools (e.g. 3D design and printing) or prog- rammable tools (e.g. Arduino, Makey Makey, Raspberry Pi) for sensors-based, robotics and other applications. The DOIT learning program represents a different paradigm of maker education that focuses on practice-oriented social innovation and entrepreneurial learning of young people (aged 6ñ16 years) based on activities in makerspaces. This distinguishes the DOIT program from makerspace-based STEM learning, but also from typical Entrepreneurship Education. However, the program shares common development goals with entrepreneurship education regarding particular attitudes and competences. The following sections then describe the DOIT learning program that is currently trialed in DOIT pilots in different types of makerspaces in ten European countries. Learning processes and outcomes that are promoted by the program are described with two examples that are different regarding the makerspaces used, the topics of the social innovation projects designed and other aspects. Some first experiences and lessons learned from these pilots are summarized. The DOIT pilot teams experienced makerspaces, in their different variants, as useful environments for promoting social innovation and entrepreneurial learning. However, challenges posed regarding the different special target groups need to be addressed.

Makerspaces and Maker Education For about fifteen years the number of makerspaces has been growing steadily. The core drivers have been more easily available digital design and fabrication tools (e.g. 3D printing), mostly based on open-source software and hardware, and the ìmaker movementî which promotes (digital) Do-It-Yourself (DIY) making and sharing of tools and knowledge. Maker media, online sharing platforms and a wave of large maker fairs and weeks (e.g. European Maker Week) and local maker days have spread the spirit and practice of ìmakingî worldwide. Makerspaces can take different forms in terms of organization, where they are established, available tools, and what is being produced (Schˆn, Ebner, & Kumar, 2014). However, according to the literature they share some aspects, which include that a makerspace typically is: ó run by or on behalf of a local community or public institution, ó publicly-accessible, freely or based on a moderate membership fee, ó equipped with a variety of tools for creative work by like-minded people, Guntram Geser, Eva-Maria Hollauf, Veronika Hornung-Pr‰hauser, 62 Sandra Schˆn, and Frank Vloet

ó promotes collaboration on projects and knowledge sharing, and ó includes educational activities with a focus on hands-on ìlearning by doingî. ìMakerspacesî is the general term for all creative environments that are based on maker principles. These include Fab Labs, Hackerspaces and various other makerspaces. Their focus and geographical diffusion is summarized below1. Fab Labs: are laboratories with a focus on digital design and fabrication using computer-controlled 3D printing, laser cutting and other tools. Such labs are often established by or are closely related to universities as spaces for education, research and innovation. Most Fab Labs are members of a network coordinated by the Fab Founda- tion. These agree to provide a minimum core set of tools, be accessible and share knowledge. Looking into the member registry we found over 1300 Fab Labs existing worldwide, up from 128 established and 28 planned labs on the first online list of the MIT Center for Bits and Atoms in 2012. In the European Union member states (EU28), and including Serbia as a partner country in DOIT, we identified 690.

Table 1 Types of Makerspaces, their Different Focus and Setting, and Numbers in July 2019 Makerspace World EU28+ Focus Main settings types wide Serbia Fab Labs Digital fabrication, 3D design Members of the Fab 1321 690 & printing, laser cutter and Foundation network other tools Hackerspaces Programming, open hardware / Computer and 1412 533 software, electronics, sensors, programming centres, robotics clubs Other Creative cultural and social Community centres, unknown 400 Makerspaces engagement, using various libraries, museums, (estimate) digital and other tools arts & crafts groups

Hackerspaces: are mainly community-based and have a focus on programming and sharing of open-source software, but for some years have been expanding their activities to include open hardware, circuits, electronic components, and sensors. The hackerspaces wiki provides a community-maintained list of such spaces worldwide; on this list 1412 hackerspaces are marked as active and 357 as planned. In the EU28 and Serbia we identified 533 active ones. Makerspaces: are various creative environments set up by local communities, schools or after-school clubs, libraries, museums and other public or civil society organizations. These provide mixed sets of tools (including some mentioned above), but all promote creative forms of cultural and social engagement. Their number worldwide is unknown, but based on different sources we estimate that in Europe there could be around 400 with a relative intensive use of digital tools.

Emerging Makerspaces in Schools In schools around Europe the development of makerspaces is at an early stage. There are pioneering schools in some countries, especially in the Nordic countries, and first pilot projects funded by ministries, municipalities, foundations and others to explore and evaluate educational benefits. The European Schoolnetís Open Book of Educational Makerspaces as Social Innovation and Entrepreneurship Learning Environments.. 63

Innovation (2017), a mapping of innovation initiatives in Europe, includes makerspaces under the category ìInnovating pedagogical options and holistic changesî. The authors see a ìsignificant uptakeî of the maker approach in schools and give as an example the large pilot Maker@Scuola (2014ñ2018) in Italy, which involved almost 100 nursery and primary schools. The pilot had a focus on using 3D design & printing and other tools for creative projects (Guasti & Rosa, 2017). In Sweden the Makerskola pilot (2015ñ2018) explored how to turn traditional craft workshops into makerspaces. About 40 nursery, primary, secondary and special education schools have been involved (Eriksson et al., 2018; http://makerskola.se). In Denmark the [email protected] project (2014ñ2017), funded by the Danish Industry Foundation, introduced over 30 schools to digital design and fabrication for education (fab-learning) at the upper primary and lower secondary levels. Supported by their municipalities ten established a fab-learn laboratory. In the project also a Masters level course for teachers at Aarhus University with a focus on design processes and digital fabrication was developed (Bødker et al., 2017; Hjorth et al., 2016; Iversen, 2017).

Maker Education ìMaker Educationî has a different meaning for different communities related to makerspaces. For FabLabs and Hackerspaces it means the learning that takes place when young people learn from experienced members as well as in joint projects with others. This aspect also informs learning opportunities these makerspaces offer as educational programs for children or groups of pupils from local schools. For many teachers maker education means that activities with technical tools promote Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) learning that is one of the priorities on the agenda of the educational systems worldwide. The same notion informs activities of other institutions with an educational component, for example, traditional museums of science, technology and industry, or the new variant of science centers that have included a makerspace in their educational programs. Thus in these variants of ìmaker educationî activities of ìmakingî, STEM learning and the potential for future technical invention are closely connected (Honey & Kanter, 2013; Martinez & Stager, 2013). Making this connection has been an effective way to promote makerspaces and maker tools, including the setting up of makerspaces with 3D printers, toolkits for children (e.g. Makey Makey or Calliope) and other digital and physical tools in schools as well as museums and public libraries. Because of the narrow focus on STEM learning this large wave of ìmaker educationî does not link up with entrepreneurship education and the theme of social innovation. DOIT suggests avoiding such a focus and instead engage young people through addressing social and environmental issues. When they work on such issues, STEM learning may follow, because young people, especially girls, will naturally take an interest in technologies relevant for their projects. For example, what do the social statistics say about the problem or how does an environmental sensor really work? The DOIT learning program (see below) represents a different paradigm of maker education that focuses on practice-oriented social innovation and entrepreneurial learning of young people (aged 6ñ16 years) based on activities in makerspaces. This distinguishes the DOIT program from makerspace-based STEM learning, but also from typical Entre- preneurship Education. Guntram Geser, Eva-Maria Hollauf, Veronika Hornung-Pr‰hauser, 64 Sandra Schˆn, and Frank Vloet

Maker Education and Entrepreneurship Education: Different and Common Aspects Typical entrepreneurship education programs for children and young people mostly focus on learning about and for future entrepreneurship (e.g. what makes an entrepreneur, business idea creation, business plan writing), while some also include tentative entrepreneurial activity (e.g. the ìmini-companyî concept). These programs lack the engaging practical focus of developing a product or service that might help solving a social or environmental problem. Among the programs of the major international providers of entrepreneurship education for children and young people, Aflatoun, BizWorld.org and JA ñ Junior Achievement, only BizWorldPRO includes making products from simple craft materials. However, this is only one of the many items of the program, not a core activity. The DOIT approach is practice-based (ìmakingî) from the onset and provides a learning journey from identifying a local issue to presenting a prototypic or minimal viable solution in public, to potential users and sponsors. Entrepreneurial questions such as who will adopt the solution (market) and resources required to provide it (costs, financial support) are infused during the making and learning process. This can serve as a pre-stage to learning more about business aspects of entrepreneurial activity. Early entrepreneurship education and maker education (as promoted by DOIT) share a focus on such essential attitudes and competences such as self-confidence, creativity, teamwork, among others (see Figure 1). Where early entrepreneurial education is combined with maker activities this also allows fostering design and technical skills, including in the productive use of digital tools.

Figure 1. Competence development through early entrepreneurship education and/or maker education. The figure refers to competencies highlighted in European Commission et al. (2016) (Figure 3.7); Lindner (2018); Lackéus (2015); Schˆn & Ebner (2017)

What must be considered is that for pupils in early entrepreneurship learning programs and/or maker education it will take many years until they enter professional life and may at some point consider starting a social enterprise or engaging with their skills in civil society initiatives for sustainable development (Ohlmeier, 2013). Therefore attempts to promote innovative and entrepreneurial activity must focus on essential competences, which pupils can carry forward into next stages of education, training and practical experiences. Particularly important at an early stage is an encouraging approach that values the innovative ideas of pupils and students, and reduces fear of failure. With regard to valuing Makerspaces as Social Innovation and Entrepreneurship Learning Environments.. 65 innovative ideas, results of the international Reflex and Hegesco surveys on graduates who work in different industries make clear that the perceived top 5 skills of innovative people are (in this order): come up with new ideas and solutions, willingness to question ideas, present ideas to an audience, alertness to opportunities, and analytical thinking (Avvisati et al., 2013). Concerning fear of failure and, hence, avoidance of risk-taking, The Missing Entrepreneurs report 2017 of the OECD and European Commission alerts us that in the period 2012ñ2016 on average nearly half (46%) of surveyed young people (18ñ30 years) in the EU viewed fear of failure as a barrier to entrepreneurship (across all OECD countries slightly below 40%). Therefore, it is important to encourage young people to actively explore their innovative ideas in creative environments, which allow them to ìfail forwardî by learning what might work better, and that such learning is very positive.

The DOIT Learning Journey for Young Social Innovators and Entrepreneurs The DOIT project develops, trials and evaluates a new approach that allows children and young people (6ñ16 years) to acquire skills and an entrepreneurial mind-set for turning creative ideas into potential social innovations. Researchers, practitioners and policy makers have suggested various definitions of social innovation (see the overviews in R¸ede & Lurtz 2012; TEPSIE, 2012). In wider use is the Definition in the Open Book of Social Innovation: ìOur interest is in innovations that are social both in their ends and in their means. Specifically, we define social innovations as new ideas (products, services and models) that simultaneously meet social needs and create new social relationships or collaborations. In other words, they are innovations that are both good for society and enhance societyís capacity to actî (Murray et al., 2010, p. 3). This definition is referenced for example by the European Commission in the Guide to Social Innovation (European Commission, 2013, p. 6), and the Bureau of European Policy Advisors in Empowering People ñ Driving Change. Social Innovation in the European Union (BEPA, 2010, p. 9). It is also the reference definition in the DOIT project. The DOIT learning program focuses on developing (digital) making, social innovation and entrepreneurial competences and skills of children and young people. Particularly the program aims to allow them the experience of being social innovators. The core model of the learning program is summarized in Table 2, including examples of supporting DOIT materials available online. The model is action-focused and in its practical application includes activities, materials and tools that support social innovation and entrepreneurial thinking and skills development, e.g. DOIT open educational toolboxes for makers, encounters with social entrepreneurs, giving feedback on innovative ideas, business modelling using the business canvas method, and others. Indeed, DOIT expects that projects in the action program, or at least some of teams of young people, create advanced prototypes of applicable and possibly marketable solutions. The model is also aligned with the widely recognized innovation spiral model of The Open Book of Social Innovation (Murray et al., 2010), and the scheme of action- based entrepreneurial education suggested by Lackéus (2013, 2015). The latter takes account of the increasing complexity of required entrepreneurial competence development, if projects are expected to proceed from artefacts considered valuable by stake- Guntram Geser, Eva-Maria Hollauf, Veronika Hornung-Pr‰hauser, 66 Sandra Schˆn, and Frank Vloet holders and intended users, towards an experimental venture or, even, a sustainable business venture (Hornung-Pr‰hauser et al., 2018).

Table 2 Overview of the DOIT Learning Program (Hornung-Pr‰hauser et al., 2018; www.doit- europe.net/toolbox) DOIT learning Social innovation and DOIT materials available online program entrepreneurial aspects (examples) 1. Do it because Awareness of a social problem ñ Motivating material (e.g. Crazy you can (sensitise) Motivation to do something about Wishes); inspiring success stories, it ñ Feeling to be able to work on it www.doit-europe.net/success-stories 2. Do what What is the challenge? Where is Materials on how to identify social matters (explore) a need? What can I / we do to issues and needs (e.g. Social Investi- make a change? ñ Collect ideas for gation Board) potential social innovations 3. Do it together Build a team ñ Elaborate and select Materials on how to work together (work together) ideas the team wants to work on and co-create (e.g. Project Canvas) 4. Do it now First prototyping of ideas ñ Present, Materials on how to prototype (e.g. (create) iterate and improve the innovative Hidden Assumptions); present the prototype prototype online 5. Do it better Reflect ñ Fail forward ñ Get feed- Materials on how to get valuable (reflect) back on the product idea feedback (e.g. Reflect on the Process) 6. Do more of it Plan the realisation of the product Materials on how to develop a first (scale up) idea ñ Develop business plan and business plan and find support (e.g. marketing material ñ Find support Marketing Poster) 7. Do inspire Public presentation ñ Share the Materials on how to share (e.g. others (share) story and results of the social inno- Project Presentation); present the vation project project story online

First Experiences from DOIT Pilots in Austria and the Netherlands The DOIT project runs two waves of pilots in ten European countries trialing the learning program (Austria, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Finland, Croatia, Nether- lands, Slovenia and Serbia). The pilots are being organized by makerspaces of all three categories: FabLabs, hackerspaces and other makerspaces, in schools and public libraries. In addition, temporary makerspace environments are set up in primary and lower secondary schools that do not have one yet. The minimum joint maker activities of the children or young people are 15 hours (in practice often more) which in pilots already conducted took place within two and half days up to four months. The pilots have different societal topics such as living together (e.g. social inclusion, intercultural living), participation and rights (e.g. political involvement, privacy), environment and nature (e.g. resource efficiency, up-cycling). An important part of the pilots is also to involve groups of participants such as children and young people in rural regions or with disabilities, specifically girls, as they are typically underrepresented in makerspaces. Some pilots use low-tech makerspaces with a focus on crafts while others are more high-tech, e.g. using sensor technology, combined with coding and electronics, to build advanced prototypes. Makerspaces as Social Innovation and Entrepreneurship Learning Environments.. 67

The pilots are being systematically documented regarding plans and outcomes, and evaluated with several methods, including standardized pre- and post-tests regarding creativity as well self-efficacy of the children and young people, interviews with the facilitators, feedback from the participants. Conclusions and recommendations derived from the empirical results will be published after the completion of both waves of pilots. At this stage we present prototypes of solutions developed by children, and first experiences and lessons learned in pilots. As examples, here we present outcomes of childrenís making in two different pilot settings and focused on different topics. The first pilot action took place in a makerspace in the Public Library of Amsterdam operated by DOIT project partner Waag Society. It was an afterschool activity for children from 8 to 11 years old with 13 participants. First children analysed the system of the production and use of a pair of jeans by mapping out the product chain. By mapping out the process with laser cut icons, they developed a holistic view of the system and identified intervention points. After detecting these intervention points, they framed identified issues such as waste in problem definitions to develop solutions. They were asked to come up with a waste robot that could help solve the problem. The children prototyped potential solutions in two phases: In the first phase they crafted a physical prototype of the waste robot by combining and manipulating recycled materials like cardboard and plastics. In the second phase they made a more advanced prototype by using digital fabrication and electronic components. They used a laser cutter, a 3D printer, batteries, motors, buttons, LED and wheels for the prototype.

Figure 2. Photo impressions of the ìFrom Waste to Inventionî pilot process and results (Source: photographs and description by Waag, Amsterdam)

The second example comes from a pilot action with children from five to ten years in a temporary makerspace in an afternoon care setting of a primary school in Salzburg (use of three rooms in the school). The tools and materials for this ìpop-upî makerspace were provided by Salzburg Research whose DOIT team managed the pilot. The pilot theme was ìhealthy foodî. In the pilot the children wanted to develop their own schoolís granola bar. As shown in Figure 3, it included all steps of product development from idea generation of children-friendly ingredients to prototyping and marketing. The workshops for the healthy food pilot started with a presentation of a 3D printer, a technology, which the children had not seen before. The children asked how Guntram Geser, Eva-Maria Hollauf, Veronika Hornung-Pr‰hauser, 68 Sandra Schˆn, and Frank Vloet it works and what can be done with it. They were thrilled that a 3D printer can be used to make individual biscuit casters for the schoolís own granola bars. The children were split up into four groups, each working on suggestions for the ingredients, name and logo for the granola bars. After a brief presentation of the proposals to the plenary, the participants had to vote on their favorite recipe, name and logo. After the vote, all gathered again and discussed the results. Since the favorite name for the bar did not match its ingredients, there was an intense discussion, including the fairness of this vote. During the group discussion it was finally decided to use the name that also reflects the recipe, the name ìchocolate powerî for a granola bar with some cacao.

Figure 3. Photo impressions of the ìGranola Barî pilot process and results (Source: photographs and description by Salzburg Research, Salzburg)

In two afternoon sessions the children then developed a complete product concept, including marketing and sales. Each child could design its own form for the granola bar online with an easy-to-use 3D modeling tool for cookie casters (see cookiecaster.com). With limited access to computers and the Internet, only four children could work on their cookie caster models that were printed out later. Interestingly, this was not an issue at all, as many children did not want to ìinterruptî their work in groups that worked on other parts of the product concept. These comprised a marketing video, an advertising poster, the product packaging and a sales booth that were designed and built. Regarding the packaging of the bars it was important for the children that it is sustainable, so they used cardboard and decorated it as ìlittle monstersî. The production of the marketing video involved the creation of figures, a stop motion animation and recorded sound. Time became a problem in this case, so that a facilitator had to take over the compilation of the video. At the final presentation for the parents, the children presented very proudly the schoolís granola bar. The children were particularly motivated because they developed something for their school. Regarding the sale of the bars, they decided to offer them for a voluntary donation and to use the collected money for new maker equipment. Production for further school events is planned and the recipe has been published under an open license to make it freely available and promote that it is also used by others. Makerspaces as Social Innovation and Entrepreneurship Learning Environments.. 69

Summary of Experiences and Lessons Learned The DOIT pilot teams experienced makerspaces, in their different variants, as useful environments for promoting social innovation and entrepreneurial learning. Advanced technologies are clearly not the core element for such learning, but children are able to adopt them if they support the realization of their aspirations and ideas. The core element is the learning process guided by a social innovation model that also leads to questions such as who will adopt the innovative solution (market) and resources required to provide it (costs, financial support). Issues of sustainability are being addressed in DOIT pilots on themes such as Environ- ment and Nature (e.g. sustainable use of resources, waste management), Living Together (e.g. environmental and social issues in local community), Wellbeing, Health and Sport (e.g. healthy food and activities). The DOIT pilots invite children and young people to use maker methods and tools to develop creative, awareness-raising, and potentially sustainable solutions. Reflecting on what does or does not work we find that the use of makerspaces and tools can help drive the learning process. However, it also poses challenges regarding the different special target groups considered in the DOIT project which must be addressed with targeted measures. For example, in rural areas there is a lack of established makerspaces but ìpop-upî makerspaces can be used. This limits the availability of some more advanced tools (e.g. 3D printers, laser cutters and others) and, more importantly, the makerspace is also not available as a permanent social space to get together and jointly work on projects. Children with disabilities deserve particular attention as they have various special needs, which pose a challenge but also an opportunity for makerspaces regarding inclu- siveness as well as to develop innovative solutions for special needs. The opportunity for the children to use makerspaces to develop such solutions themselves should be highlighted. In all maker activities where technologies are being used, girls are typically underrepresented. In order to reach a higher participation this must be addressed with targeted gender-sensitive measures in the communication, organization and conduct of maker education (Schˆn et al., 2018). Such measures for instance include placing social questions before technical ones, and support female maker role models.

Acknowledgement The DOIT project has received funding from the European Unionís Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No 770063. The content of this publication does not reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Responsibility for the information and views expressed in the publication lies entirely with the authors. URL: www.doit-europe.net

Note: (1) Sources for the numbers of Fab Labs and Hackerspaces are based on https://www.fablabs.io/ labs and https://wiki.hackerspaces.org (those marked as active), own extraction and calculation, some double entries removed. Other Makerspaces: Estimate based on various sources; only makerspaces with relative intensive use of digital tools, not including traditional workshops (e.g. wood or metal working, repair workshops, etc.). Guntram Geser, Eva-Maria Hollauf, Veronika Hornung-Pr‰hauser, 70 Sandra Schˆn, and Frank Vloet

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Correspondence relating this paper should be addressed to Sandra Schˆn, Salzburg Research Forschungsgesellschaft, coordinator of Coordinator of ìDOIT ñ Entrepre- neurial skills for young social innovators in an open digital worldî (H2020-770063, 10/2017-09/2020, http://doit-europe.net). Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0019

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 72ñ88, 2019

Teachersí Perceptions of Consumer Education in Primary Schools in Finland

Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Abstract Operating in todayís markets is challenging due to information overload and an expanding choice of products. Children also encounter these complex markets at an early age. Providing consumer education in schools is an excellent opportunity to enhance their ability to think critically and increase their awareness. However, it would be a mistake to ignore the interconnections between consumer education and entrepreneurship education, since active and innovative people are also a prerequisite for future development. Taking advantage of the opportunity to provide consumer education in schools requires teachers to be familiar with consumer issues. This article aims to discuss the perceptions and experiences that primary school teachers in Finland have regarding childrenís consumer education in schools. This study was conducted using the phenomenographic qualitative method to analyse data from teacher interviews. The analysis revealed a set of categories that describes the various ways the participants perceive and experience childrenís consumer education in schools. These categories include themes, actors, teaching methods and the challenges and expectations teachers relate to childrenís consumer education. The findings of this study are worth exploring when planning how to support teachersí consumer educational competences for a sustainable future. The authors consider that this article is especially valuable for curriculum planners, educators, consumer organisations and parentsí associations, because it shed light on teachersí perspectives about consumer education. Key words: education for sustainable development, consumer education, entrepreneurship education, financial literacy.

Introduction It is Monday morning, and the school week has just begun. Some of the pupils are eager to talk about how they went shopping over the weekend with their families. Soon, the discussion turns to the subject of the lesson: sustainable consumption. The impact of oneís consumption decisions on the environment is also discussed. Suddenly, the children might feel confused. Sustainable development and critical consumerism seem to be important, but why did it feel so nice to buy something shiny and new over the weekend? Teachersí Perceptions of Consumer Education in Primary Schools in Finland 73

As shown in the example above, childrenís consumer education is a challenge for teachers. Consumerism is a very complex and ambivalent phenomenon, which does not make this challenge easier (Wilska, 2008, p. 43). However, in Europe, consumers have a legal right to receive consumer education, and the aim of the European Community and the Member States is to work together to meet that objective (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2010). This represents an important opportunity to provide children with consumer education in schools (OECD, 2009). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2009, p. 3) has defined consumer education as ìa process of developing and enhancing skills and knowledge to make informed and well-reasoned choices that take societal values and objectives into accountî. Operating in todayís complex markets is challenged by information overload and an expanding choice of products (OECD, 2009). Children also encounter these complex markets at an early age. Research shows that children have a significant influence on familiesí purchasing decisions (Nordic Council of Minis- ters, 2010). According to McNeal (2007), in 2005 American children, ranging in age from 4 to 12, spent $42 billion of their own money on products and services, and children, ranging in age from 2 to 14, have a direct and indirect impact on their parentsí spending, which amounts to more than $700 billion. Thus, OECD (2009) has suggested that consumer education should cover all life stages, including childhood. Consequently, it is surprising that educational institutions are not specifically mentioned, for example, in the European Union (EU) strategies to raise awareness of the problems of plastic products and plastic waste (Kerscher, 2019). Kerscher (2019) noted that primary and secondary educational institutions must be involved in the effort to support sustainable changes regarding peopleís consumption patterns. Roland-Lévy (2010) has found that the importance of budgeting, the benefits of saving and understanding the value of money become more concrete for children when they have direct experiences with money. She has suggested that both parents and teachers should try to take a more systematic approach to ensure that children have a better understanding of money. However, not all children have the same perceptions and attitudes towards money at one specific time across the globe (Roland-Lévy, 2010). The opportunity to spend money also varies. Therefore, it is crucial that a teacher knows his/ her pupils and what is relevant in their daily lives. Understanding the conceptual contradictions and recognising their interconnections in childrenís lives requires teachers to have a good knowledge of the subject and to understand the experiences of their pupils (Rajala et al., 2015). Financial literacy has a significant impact on both an individualís personal life and on society. As financial literacy develops, it strengthens the ability to make informed decisions, enhances household planning and management skills and enables one to demand higher quality services, thereby encouraging competition and innovation (Goldsmith & Piscopo, 2014). Consumer education enhances critical thinking and increases awareness, thereby enabling consumers to become more pro-active (OECD, 2009). It is important to address the interconnections between consumer education and entrepreneurship education. While entrepreneurship education is a relatively new research field (Low, 2001; Fayolle, 2008), the same old questions emerge; for example, many practitioners and educators still believe that entrepreneurship education should only be concerned when learning how to run a business (Fayolle, 2008). The European Commis- sion (2013) has recognised entrepreneurship education as a tool to develop competences that are applicable in all life stages, with or without a commercial objective. It includes 74 Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen learning, education and training that promote an entrepreneurial spirit. The aim is to support the efforts of entrepreneurs so they can achieve societal sustainable values, as all entrepreneurs of the future are in school today (Lindner, 2018). Lindner (2018) pointed out that the world would be very different if there had not been active and innovative pioneers who had boldly introduced new ideas. Many of these pioneers have also encountered opposition to their new ways of thinking. Others have hoped too that they would imitate traditional patterns of thinking. However, active and innovative people are a prerequisite for future development. Europe needs innovative entrepreneurs and a flexible work force with key life competences (European Commis- sion, 2013). Unfortunately, childrenís economic education is still characterised by guiding pupils to imitate current patterns of economic activities, and to adopt them as such (Ruckenstein, 2013, p. 164). Moreover, the Nordic Council of Ministers (2010) emphasised that as a teacher should use himself/herself as a role model when teaching children under the age of 10. Ruckenstein (2013) noted that, if consumer education encouraged dialogue between children and adults, children and adolescents might have the ability to question the prevailing economic thinking and exchange relationships. This could enable children to actually present new perspectives on the economy to adults. The Nordic Council of Ministers (2010, p. 9) suggested that ìconsumer education today should provide citizens with the tools and skills to have an influence. It should be re-evaluated in the light of contemporary challengesî. The topical concern, such as plastics and plastic waste, provide broad didactical and methodological potential for the education for sustainable development (Kerscher, 2019). The OECD (2009) emphasised that policy makers need stakeholdersí assistance, including help from teachers, to identify consumer education needs. Teachers play a central role, since they interact with learners every day. However, there is a large research gap in terms of studies investigating teachersí perceptions of childrenís consumer education, especially at the primary school level. Taking advantage of the opportunity to provide consumer education at schools requires teachers to be familiar with consumer issues (OECD, 2009). As educators at a faculty of education in Ontario, Canada, Asworth and Steele (2016) noticed that teacher candidates (TCs) usually purchase new materials whenever they have an assignment requiring students to create objects. Even though the TCs were encouraged to keep the things they had made for use as classroom samples, many decided to throw them away soon after the project had ended. Asworth and Steele (2016) were concerned about this unsustainable consumer behaviour, so they wanted to challenge TCs to use recycled and/or natural materials in their construction projects. By fulfilling this requirement, the TCs saved money, practiced sustainability and learned to think more creatively (Asworth & Steele, 2016). To support teachersí consumer educational skills, it is important to study their perceptions of these themes. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the perceptions and experiences of primary school teachers in Finland regarding childrenís consumer education in schools. This article is structured as follows. First, an overview of consumer education in the school context is provided, followed by a description of the research design. Then, Teachersí Perceptions of Consumer Education in Primary Schools in Finland 75 the research findings are presented, and, based on these findings, implications for practice and further research are presented.

Overview of Consumer Education The paradigm shift away from the conventional approach of consumer education can be seen in the work of researchers who have drawn on the principles of citizenship and sustainability (McGregor, 2008). Conceptually, the focus of the conversation about worldwide consumer education has moved away from the narrow issues of household consumption and market functioning towards a broader global view (Goldsmith & Goldsmith, 2011; Goldsmith & Piscopo, 2014). Sustainability not only refers to the environmental impact of consumption, it also encompasses economic and social sustainability (McGregor, 2008; Goldsmith & Piscopo, 2014). McGregor (2008) pointed out that consumer educators need to be aware of the ideologies and paradigms that shape their work. The Nordic Council of Ministers (2010) has suggested that the following skills are required: ó Creativity and innovation, ó Problem-solving skills and critical thinking, ó Communication and media skills, ó Information management skills, ó Civic skills, to which the concepts of consumer behaviour and consumer citizenship are closely linked, ó Social skills and attitudes, ó International skills (i.e. language skills and awareness of other cultures). With these skills in mind, the Nordic Council of Ministers (2010) has suggested that the objective of consumer education be based on two integrative themes: sustainable consumption and media and technology literacy. Furthermore, these key themes are included in four fields of consumer education: management and participation at home, consumer rights and responsibilities, personal finances and marketing and commercial media. The set learning objectives can be achieved when the entire arena in which consumer habits are formed (Figure 1) is considered (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2010.) Phelan, Davidson, and Cao (1991) presented a model of the interrelationships between the worlds of the studentsí family, their peers and their school, and how the meanings and understandings of these worlds affect the studentsí commitment to school and learning. Many studies have shown the effectiveness of using social influence to promote sustainable behaviour: the individual receives knowledge and is motivated to form new attitudes and behaviours (Goldsmith & Goldsmith, 2011). Moreover, the multiple worlds model focuses on the studentsí perceptions of the boundaries between the worlds and the adaptation strategies they use to move from one context to another (Phelan et al., 1991). This multiple worlds model provides teachers with a way to have a more holistic view of their students (Phelan et al., 1991). The children move, daily, from one context to another. To make consumer education in school relevant for learners, children should feel safe to deal with the contradictions of these contexts. It is crucial that children not feel the need to hide the important features of their lives (Phelan et al., 1991). 76 Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen

Teachers need to be equipped with the relevant competences because they play a central role in childrenís consumer education. However, there has been a significant change in emphasis from the more prescriptive approaches to supporting, informing and mobilising teachers (Brennan, Vlaev, Blakemore, & Smith, 2017). An entrepreneurial and innovative spirit is needed; thus, teachers do not provide students with the answers, rather, they help them research and identify the right questions and find the best answers (European Commission, 2013).

Figure 1. The multiple worlds model (Phelan et al., 1991; modified by the Nordic Council of Ministers, 2010)

Teachersí perception of childrenís consumer education, especially at the primary school level, is a relatively under-researched topic. That is why the present study used a phenomenographical research approach. Phenomenography aims to describe, analyse and understand the various ways in which a group of people experience and perceive the same phenomenon, and how that understanding forms a basis for their actions (Barnard, McCosker, & Gerber, 1999; Marton, 1981, 1986). A distinction should be made between two perspectives. Phenomenography aims to describe peopleís experience of various aspects of the world (second-order perspective), and the first-order perspective aims to describe the world as it is (Marton, 1981; Barnard et al., 1999). The second-order perspective emphasises that reality is constructed socially and constructively (Huusko & Paloniemi, 2006). Peopleís perceptions and thoughts are a valuable subject for research. Teachersí Perceptions of Consumer Education in Primary Schools in Finland 77

The goal is to identify and systemise these different perceptions. Even one single conception is meaningful because the aim is to obtain a set of categories that describes the different ways the participants have understood and experienced the studied phenomenon (Dasborough, Lamp, & Suseno, 2015). This organised set of categories of descriptions is called the ìoutcome spaceî of the phenomenon being studied. However, phenomenography also focuses on looking at the underlying meanings of these conceptions and outcome spaces, the relationships between them and their implications in a specific context (Walsh, Howard, & Bowe, 2007.)

Data Collection Conducting interviews is a flexible way to collect data because it enables multi- sensory interactions between the interviewer and the interviewee (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011). Huusko and Paloniemi (2006) stated that, in phenomenography, open- ended questions are central to the collection of data in order to allow different perceptions to emerge. Using interviews as a data collection method enables personalisation and the ability to include additional questions to gain a greater depth of information (Cohen et al., 2011). Concepts related to consumer education are not yet well-established in the Finnish language. Therefore, semi-structured interviews were used in this study. Semi-structured interviews reflect research questions, but they still enable the collection of in-depth data since the interviewer can ask questions that were not foreseen when the research questions were determined (Newby, 2010, pp. 340ñ342). The themes of the questions were prepared, but the interviewer was not restricted to strictly following the planned structure. The interviews were dialogue-based, so there was a chance to digress from the planned questions. This allowed the participants to express the various ways they perceive the phenomenon. The empirical data of this research consists of six individual interviews (T1ñT6) conducted in Finland. The respondents were one male teacher and five female teachers; their students ranged in age from 7 to 13. The interviews lasted 45 minutes, on average, and they were transcribed verbatim from the recordings. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality was assured. The interviews were conducted in Finnish, and the quotes presented in the studyís results discussed in this paper have been translated into English.

Method of Analysis Phenomenographic analysis is undertaken through an exploration of data obtained from a group of participants (Barnard et al., 1999). The approach is data-driven, so previous studies and theories do not predetermine categorisation of the data. The collected data are the basis for the categorisation (Marton, 1986). However, this does not mean that it would be unnecessary for a researcher to explore previous studies related to the phenomenon. Theoretical knowledge helps the researcher think critically. It would certainly be valuable to be aware of previous scientific discussion. The aim is to qualitatively identify the various ways that participants describe and express their perceptions of the phenomenon studied (Barnard et al., 1999). Transcripts of the teachersí interviews were read and reread carefully, looking for significant state- 78 Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen ments. After these significant statements were found, the researcher simplified them. This was done because the research focuses on the meanings of the teachersí perceptions, not on the content of the participantsí exact quotes. The next step of the data analysis was to look for the similarities and differences among the responses, and group them accordingly. Dasborough et al., (2015) stated that phenomenographic analysis is an ongoing interpretative and iterative process. During this process, the formed categories change and develop as a result of the researcherís interpretation of the data. According to Marton (1986), this testing, adjusting, retesting and again adjusting phase is characteristic of the phenomenographic analysis. Marton (1986) pointed out that each category is a potential part of a larger structure in which the category is related to other formed categories of descriptions. The researcher explores the potential interconnections between the categories. The aim is to find the structural framework in which various categories of understanding exist (Marton, 1986). Ultimately, the outcome space of this study was developed and tested against all the interview transcripts.

Research Findings The analysis of the interview transcripts revealed a set of categories that describes the interview participantsí perceptions of childrenís consumer education in a primary school context. These categories are: ó Themes, ó Actors, their roles and the context in consumer education, ó Teaching methods, ó Challenges, ó Expectations of consumer education resources. Themes. This research reveals the themes that teachers relate to the content of consumer education. These are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The themes teachers relate to consumer education

In every interview, the teachers talked about sustainable development. Since the subject of social studies starts in the 4th grade in Finland, the 1st and 2nd grade teachers, especially, felt that consumer education focuses mainly on sustainable development. Teachersí Perceptions of Consumer Education in Primary Schools in Finland 79

Specifically, environmental sustainability was discussed. Less attention was given to social and economic sustainability, but those were still mentioned. Cultural sustainability was not mentioned in the participantsí answers. As T4 noted, ìWe have discussed with the kids where are the goods imported from... Is it possible that child labour has been used? How the goods were produced?î Understandably, the Nordic Council of Ministers (2010) suggested that, in the future, educational programmes should pay more attention to the way that sustainable development and consumption cover all four aspects of sustainability, not just the ecological area. The teachers also related the theme of media and technology literacy to consumer education. The skills needed to recognise and interpret marketing and commercial media were repeated in their answers: T6 noted: ìFirst the kids didnít even consider them as commercialsî. Behaviour in social media and criticism in the use of digital media were mentioned as well. However, one of the interviewees talked about a project with the university related to social entrepreneurship. During that project, the pupils practiced their communicating with one another to determine what kind of impression they wanted to give and how to market themselves. Personal finances were also one of the fields the teachers related to consumer education. The aim is to help children develop their understanding of concepts, such as the value of money and the relationship between the price of goods, and the money available to them. Teachers of 4thñ6th grade students noted that the subject of social studies has brought new perspectives to classroom discussions. For example, students discuss how to recognise the factors that influence financial decision-making. One of the participants said that the concepts related to currencies and exchange rates had become more concrete for children because they take a field trip abroad. The teachers also brought up the topic of management and participation at home. The aim is to, for example, enhance childrenís ability to take care of their belongings and draw attention to the use of common resources as a member of the family and the school community. The teachers also mentioned that daily skills are included in the Finnish curricula as a cross-curricular theme. Teachers of 4thñ6th grade students said that they had discussed these concepts in the classroom, for example, how the household works, household-related factors and domestic activities. The interviews revealed that the teachers also relate the consumer educational contents to a context that is larger than just the personal and household level. Responsible social participation emerged from the data. The aim is to enhance pupilsí awareness about how they can influence their own community and, more broadly, how society works and how they can contribute to its development. Teachers have discussed with the children what issues they are personally interested in promoting. For example, the youth climate strike on 15 March 2019 had increased debate about this issue in the classrooms. However, it was pointed out that society, as a concept, is very complex and challenging to explain to a child so he/she can truly understand it. The teachers also related working life skills and entrepreneurship to consumer education. One of the participants said that she has regular cooperation with the pupilsí parents and their employers. That teacher arranged visits outside the school to familiarise students with different professions. Other participants also mentioned visits outside the school, but, in these cases, cooperation was less common. It was pointed out that some of the pupils have no idea how much money a working adult earns. One teacher said that once the pupil had brought that up, she could not ask 80 Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen her parents about their salary. It is not appropriate in all families to talk about salary issues, so this teacher considered it important to discuss the salaries of different professions in the classroom. One of the participants related social entrepreneurship to consumer education. This teacher said that she had participated with her pupils in a collaboration project with the university. They had implemented a learning package that included 12 lessons related to social entrepreneurship. The teacher noted that the pupils had applied concepts from the business world, such as slogans and logos, to themselves. This gave them a more specific understanding of these concepts.

Actors, their roles and the context in consumer education. In all the interviews, consumer education was viewed as a task for both the school and the family. However, the teachersí perceptions of how responsibilities should be shared between the actors varied. Some felt that families have the main responsibility for their childrenís consumer education, because families have different kind of values that influence their purchasing decisions. The participants noted that parentsí consumption habits have an impact on their childrenís consumer skills. A weekly allowance was considered to be a good way for students to practise handling money, but, still, it was a family decision. One of the teachers said that she talks more about financial issues at home with her own children than she does at school with her pupils. The teachers also noted that a child can experience entrepreneurship differently if there are entrepreneurs in his/her family. One of the interviewees felt that discussions about money are familiesí private matters, so she was careful when discussing consumption and money in the classroom. This teacher stated that she could discuss monetary issues superficially, but she did not feel it was natural to have deeper discussions related to money. However, she mentioned that she remembered a conversation between pupils that had a very comparative tone in regard to purchases that had been made, and that, as a teacher, she felt the need to intervene, noting that each family has its own habits. The teachersí discussions with families related to consumption and money were infrequently raised in the interviews. Only a few comments emerged: ìThese kinds of discussions with the parents have focused on practical matters, such as raising money for a field trip. I donít remember that we have had any other discussions related to this.î (T5) ìIíve felt a strong change in my own thinking. I havenít really been a green person before. The media has affected and the ecological attitudes of my pupilsí families. For example, one dad sent me a message and suggested a greener option for a plastic bag that I had asked children to bring with themî. (T2) In many of the interviews, the participants pointed out how important it is that consumer education be targeted to a specific age group, based on the childrenís experiences. It is important to discuss the conflicts children experience in their daily life in the classroom. For example, the children had noticed some differences in the recycling systems between their homes and school. One of the interviewees mentioned that her pupils had been very eager to mention their own criteria for purchasing a new phone. The teacher felt that the students had a good conversation when they compared their purchase criteria. It was also noticed that the childrenís discussions reveal how their friends are influencing their purchasing decisions. A child may try to obtain a certain status based Teachersí Perceptions of Consumer Education in Primary Schools in Finland 81 on his/her belongings. The pupilsí conversations must be listened to carefully so that friends are not judged by the clothes they wear, for example. Some of the participants suggested that, specifically, the school should be responsible for the childrenís consumer education. It was argued that not all of the familyís money and consumer issues are discussed, so it is important that a child be given the opportunity to enhance his/her consumer skills at school. The teachersí comments referred to the curriculum objectives, so it is crucial how these themes are included in the curriculum. Textbook authors were also seen as stakeholders. Moreover, the teachers mentioned collaboration with organisations, local companies and municipal stakeholders, universities and international projects. However, more than the role of the school, teachers talked about the role of the teacher in consumer education. In many of the interviews, it was noted that the implementation of consumer education in schools varies widely, depending on, for example, the teachersí personal interest in consumer education themes and their conception of their skills in consumer education. It was also mentioned that media influences the perceptions of pupils and teachers. One of the participants mentioned that, since the primary school system in Finland is free, it affects to the way financial issues and entrepreneurship are being discussed.

Teaching methods. The findings provide information about the methods elementary school teachers use in consumer education. Classroom discussions and different ready- made materials were mentioned most frequently. The teachers who taught social studies said that they had used textbooks and online materials. In contrast, the 1st and 2nd grade teachers felt that there is a lack of ready-made materials dealing with money and consumption that are suitable for younger children. However, these teachers said that themes related to sustainable development and healthy choices were, to some extent, addressed in textbooks. Two of the participants mentioned that, for example, different organi- sationsí websites and videos had been used as a basis for classroom discussions. Illustrating classroom samples came up in the interviews, especially regarding the rational use of materials, recycling and advertising. The guidance for sustainable material consumption was not limited to younger children; 4thñ6th grade teachers felt that there is always potential to reduce material waste. Recycled materials were often used in the arts. According to T3: ìUsually we send a message to childrenís parents beforehand and ask if they have certain material available, for example, empty milk cartons. Nowa- days we avoid buying everything as new from stores but prefer recycled materialsî. Different kinds of events had also been organised. Flea markets were mentioned in many of the interviews. The children had, for example, made the ads and price lists and run a cafe or their own stand at these events. Some of the consumer education themes can also be seen in the schoolsí daily life; for example, activities of the student body were mentioned. Related to a Finnish school feeding programme, one of the participants (T4) pointed out: ì...all bio-waste is weighed at our school and the children get information about these amounts. The goal is to encourage children to minimise the food wasteî. Recycling was also taken care of in various ways, for example textbooks were recycled at many of the schools. However, two of the participants felt that, even though recycling is part of the schoolís daily life, sustainable consumption is not otherwise discussed at the school level. T5 said: ìThere is very little discussion about consumption at 82 Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen the school level. Recycling is somehow visible, but we should have decent recycling boxes in the classrooms. Now there is a ragged box for paper recycling, that doesnít give the impression that recycling is somehow valuable actionî. At some schools, pupils participate in making annual material orders with their teachers. One of the interviewees said that he had instructed his pupils to order textbooks for themselves for the following year. The teacher felt that this would give the children a clear idea of the value of the books they have. Another participant said that she and her pupils had collaborated to consider what equipment they would need for the next year, e.g. for the outdoor games. In these two interviews, both of the teachers also pointed out that all the school purchases are made for actual needs; nothing is bought for storage, unused, or only for the joy of purchasing it. T1 said: ìWe made annual orders together with the children. I told the kids our budget, and we discussed what we really need. We calculated that, for example, two footballs cost 70 euros, and we considered what else we would get with the same sum. The kids didnít start to wonder why we didnít order 10 footballs, because they realised the school had given us a certain budgetî. One of the interviewees had implemented a play shop in his classroom. Three other participants said that they had not yet implemented a play shop in their classroom, but they had plans to try it. Two of the teachers hoped that they would get more ideas, especially for games and activities. The teachers had made visits outside the school, for example to enterprises, landfills and recycling centres, with the children. Visitors had also been invited to the school. However, different kinds of visits were rarely implemented. Most of the visits had been agreed upon, one-by-one, and there was no regular cooperation between the visitors. As previously mentioned, only one of the teachers had regularly collaborated with the parents and their workplaces concerning visits outside the school. Another participant had noticed that, at their school, the 7thñ9th grade teachers regularly collaborated with nearby entrepreneurs, but this was not the case for 1stñ6th grade teachers. The interviews revealed that the teachers are interested in welcoming visitors to their classes to discuss topics related to the consumer education themes. However, according to these interviews, it is more common that the pupils visit places outside the school. Ruskovaara and Pihkala (2013) also reported this in their study about entrepreneurship educational practices. They considered that this could possibly be due to the fact that teachers want to expand the learning environment outside the school. Functional teaching methods had been used, to some extent, in the classrooms. T2 said: ìAt the time of the parliamentary elections, we had our own elections in our classroom and voted for the top team of the class. We built a voting booth and used ballotsî. T4 said: ìWe made a Christmas calendar of recycled goods. Each of the kids brought one unnecessary item from homeî. Some of the interviewees also said that they had participated in the Yrityskyl‰ simulation with their pupils. The Yrityskyl‰ learning environment for 6th graders is a childrenís miniature city where pupils work in a profession, earn money and act as consumers and citizens. The Yrityskyl‰ for 6th graders consists of teacher training, 10 lessons and a visit to the learning environment. It reaches 75% of the 6th graders in Finland (TAT Yrityskyl‰, 2019). A common response from the teachers was that the Yrityskyl‰ visit had made a strong impression on the children, who found it very meaningful. The teachers also felt that the visit had been easy to implement. Teachersí Perceptions of Consumer Education in Primary Schools in Finland 83

The teachers mentioned different kinds of project works and participation in campaigns. The children had, for example, donated their unnecessary toys. One of the interviewees felt that she had to clarify, for herself, the themes and contents of consumer education so that she could try to apply the phenomenon-based learning method with her pupils. Although many teaching methods were described in the interviews, classroom discussions and ready-made materials were still mentioned most frequently. Many participants pointed out that the consumer educational contents are addressed in a very superficial way. Moreover, the responses repeated the conditional form. T1 said: ìI could call and ask for an expert to visit our school, but I have no idea where to callî. The interviews revealed the teachersí perceptions of the challenges of consumer education, as well as their expectations of resources and support. These findings are presented in the next section.

Challenges. The data analysis also revealed some of the challenges that the teachers noted concerning consumer education in primary schools. Curriculum overload was mentioned. There is already a large range of learning objectives, so it is challenging to find enough time to include everything. Moreover, the weak availability of ready-made materials for younger children was mentioned. The 1st and 2nd grade teachers noted that it is not easy to find ready-made materials about consumer education for their students. The topics focus mostly on recycling. Some of the interviewees pointed out that while it is possible to find appropriate material on the Internet, doing so takes time and effort. In Finland, the subject of social studies starts in the 4th grade, so 4thñ6th grade teachers said that the availability of ready-made materials was good, especially online materials. However, some of the teachers felt that consumer education topics were more superficially addressed in the materials. Delving deeper into the topic takes more time and effort. T2 said: ìI havenít seen any ready-made guide that would be directed to primary schoolsî. In several of the interviews, the teachers thought that consumer education practices vary widely, depending on the teacherís personal interests in consumer education themes and his/her willingness to make an effort. T6 said: ìI believe that, for many teachers, this is quite an unfamiliar topic. If the teacher in his/her daily life favours responsible consumption, it also reflects in the teaching. But if the teacher hasnít thought about these things, the teaching can remain superficialî. It is also challenging to set common goals in the school community and to engage people, so that the teacher does not feel alone. Two of the interviewees said that they do not feel encouraged to teach consumer education. There were difficulties in networking with other stakeholders, as well. The interviewees also pointed out the lack of teacher training. Some of the participants felt insecure about the objectives concerning consumer and entrepreneurship education. For example, one of the teachers said that she did not know the aims of entrepreneurship education, and that she would not recommend running a business to her own children because she feels that it is an uncertain source of income. There were also difficulties in recognising all the content related to these themes. More training was desired, so that consumer education would be more child-oriented. The wealth inequalities of the families were also considered to be a challenge. One of the interviewees felt that discussions about money are familiesí private matters, so she was careful when discussing consumption and money in the classroom. 84 Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen

Due to budget constraints, the school may not have access to chargeable materials. The budget also limits the number of the staff. One of the teachers pointed out that her collaboration with the university has enabled pupils to participate in several projects. For example, the presence of TCs is a significant help with project implementation.

Expectations of consumer education resources. The analysis of the interview transcripts revealed that teachers have requirements and expectations concerning consumer education resources and materials. The materials were expected to be free, easy-to-use, up-to-date and available in various formats. Teachers mentioned the need for versatile online materials, a clear textbook focusing on consumer education themes and printable materials. T4 said: ìSearching for material is always a problem. It doesnít have to be a book publisherís material, as long as itís easily availableî. The participants expected that the childrenís age and daily life experiences would be addressed in the ready-made materials. Adaptable and editable materials were needed, not strict guidelines. Practical ideas and tips were needed to support teaching. Tips for games and activities were also welcomed. The 1st and 2nd grade teachers felt that that there is no consumer education material targeted at teachers. They requested some kind of information package for teachers, for example, to support the classroom discussion. There was also a need for an interactive platform where teachers could share their experiences and ideas.

Discussion This paper aimed to discuss the perceptions and experiences of primary school teachers in Finland regarding childrenís consumer education in schools. Figure 3 illustrates these perceptions. The results of this study reveal that teachers relate the following themes to consumer education: sustainable development, media and technology literacy, personal finances, management and participation at home, responsible social participation and working life skills and entrepreneurship. The findings are very similar to the consumer educational themes and fields suggested by the Nordic Council of Ministers (2010). In the present study, consumer rights did not emerge from the data. Furthermore, it was interesting to note that the teachers in this study related social entrepreneurship and working life skills to consumer education. These two issues are not clearly addressed in the Nordic Council of Ministersí strategy. Regarding the environment in which consumer skills are acquired, this studyís findings reveal that, in Finland, teachers feel that they have a significant impact on what kind of consumer education children receive in school. However, the participants noted that implementations vary greatly depending on, for example, the teachersí personal interests in the issues and their willingness to make an effort and trust in their own competence as a consumer educator. Furthermore, while recognising that both families and teachers have an influence on how childrenís consumption patterns are formed and developed, it is surprising that this study found that there is hardly any discussion between teachers and families about consumption and money. Stakeholders, including teachers and parentsí associations, should work together to provide meaningful, relevant and inspiring consumer education for children. Teachersí Perceptions of Consumer Education in Primary Schools in Finland 85

Figure 3. Teachersí perceptions of childrenís consumer education in primary schools in Finland (modified from the multiple worlds model)

Although many teaching methods were mentioned in the interviews, classroom discussions and ready-made materials were most often addressed. It is interesting that these traditional practices were also popular in entrepreneurship education in basic and upper secondary school education (Ruskovaara & Pihkala, 2013). Conditional form was repeated in the teachersí expressions: if there was time, money, support, teacher training, etc. The challenges of consumer education found in this study are very similar to those in the OECD Report, which is based on surveys conducted in 27 countries, including four non-OECD countries. According to the OECD Report, to provide consumer education in schools many challenges must be overcome, including curriculum overload, difficulties in motivating teachers, lack of teacher training, difficulties reaching out effectively to regional and local communities, improving co-operation and co-ordination among stakeholders, budget constraints and the dynamic nature of the markets; thus, teachers need to update their knowledge constantly (Ueno, Olczak, & Takahashi, 2009, p. 184). In the present study, the wealth inequalities of the families were also mentioned as a challenge for teacher. The teachers noted that it was important to deal with these issues in the classroom with sensitivity. The teachers also mentioned their expectations and the requirements of consumer education resources. Nunn and Cochrane (2012) also reported on the characteristics that teachers desire in consumer education resources. Although they focused on teachers of 12ñ18-year-old students, the findings are similar to the results reported in this paper. According to Nunn and Cochrane (2012), the desired features of consumer education 86 Kati Pajari and Sari Harmoinen resources requested by teachers include: linked to their subjects; easy and free to use; reliable and authoritative; accurate and up-to-date; adaptable and editable; available in multiple formats; relevant to day-to-day life; tailored to different age groups, practical and attractive, contain expert input; interactive and multimedia; and facilitate sharing. As Goldsmith and Piscopo (2014) pointed out, there is a need for dynamic resources that inspire teachers so they can motivate their pupils to be more constructivist in their learning. OECD (2009) has noted that including consumer issues in teacher training programmes could ensure that teachers are sufficiently well-versed about consumer issues, thereby providing them with effective teaching techniques. However, it is worth considering the extent to which consumer issues can be included in education programmes.

Conclusion There are many topics that different parties expect to be added to and/or strengthened in teacher education. Instead, there is great potential to improve co-operation and coordination among stakeholders at local, national and international level. For example, different regions have their own characteristics, and utilising these in strategic networking can create synergies for the stakeholders in the area. Furthermore, creative forms of consumption may be developed in more innovative learning environments. Transition towards a circular economy requires pioneers who see value in a new way and are ready to boldly promote sustainable economic thinking. As mentioned before, children and adolescents might have the ability to question the prevailing exchange relationships. When considering the approriate approaches for consumer education, it should be noted that children may present new perspectives on the economy to adults. Further research is needed to identify effective ways to develop active networks among relevant stakeholders. The findings of the present study are worth exploring when considering how to support teachersí consumer educational competences for a sustainable future.

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Correspondence relating to this paper should be addressed to Kati Pajari, MSc. (Econ. & BA), BA, and Sari Harmoinen, PhD, MSc, Education Dean, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Teacher Education, University of Oulu. Emails: [email protected] and [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0020

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 89ñ99, 2019

Entrepreneurship Education in Mathematics Education for Future Primary School Teachers

Anita Summer University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems, Austria

Abstract Teachers act as role models and through their activities are active co-designers of future generations. Independent thinking and taking responsible, sustainable actions form the basis for a vibrant society. Entrepreneurship skills can already be fostered in primary school children. This requires well-trained primary school teachers. The following text deals with the contents of ìEntrepreneurship Education and Mathematicsî, which the curriculum provides for primary school children as well as for students of primary school education. In a case study the author describes the implementation of a course at the University College of Teacher Education Vienna/Krems as taught since 2015. Key words: entrepreneurship education, primary school, teacher training, collaborative learning, sustainability.

Society Needs Entrepreneurs Critical, independently thinking people who act responsibly and sustainably form the corner stone of a lively society. Creative, active people keep society, culture and the economy moving and in constant development. Every person, regardless of age, profession or social status, is challenged to work for positive change, according to the abovementioned statement of peace activist Mahatma Gandhi. People who take on this task can be described as entrepreneurs. The word derived from the French (ìentreî and ìprendreî) actually means ìundertaking,î but according to the definition of Schumpeter (1911) it should not only be translated as ìentrepreneurî, but also as ìkey drivers of economic and social dynamicsî (Lindner, 2018, p. 116). ìSchumpeter emphasized their skill and abilities in the independent development and implementation of ideas and pointed out their innovative power, which encompasses the creation of new products, production processes, organizational structures or alternative distribution channelsî (Lindner, 2018, p. 116). Entrepreneurship Education can be defined as the learning process by which knowledge, skills and abilities are imparted to help learners develop and implement their own ideas. An emancipatory Entrepreneurship Education emphasizes the socio-pedagogical relevance for any society and can therefore be seen as a door opener for disadvantaged social groups. Entrepreneurship education is thus defined as an instrument of equal 90 Anita Summer opportunity, as stakeholders learn how to participate in society (Lindner & Hueber, 2017, p. 238). Economic education can be described as the endowment of individuals with the knowledge, skills, abilities, willingness and attitudes to cope with life situations shaped by economy. (May, 2010) Financial (general) education is an aspect of economic education and is regarded as the basis for an active participation in society. Financial education is therefore closely linked to entrepreneurship education. (Lindner & Hueber, 2017, p. 237) According to Reifner (2017), financial literacy must enable consumers to ìacknowledge their own needs and resources, relate them to the possibilities of satisfying them through market-based financial services, and create understanding in people so that they use their rights, market power and political influence so that financial services are of benefit for themî (Reifner, 2017, p. 129). Hedtke (2018, p. 17) takes a critical view of the term ìeducationî in relation to ìfinancial educationî: ìHe emphasizes that many definitions of financial education represent the concept of education in an extremely narrow way by focusing exclusively on the process of developing financial competence. ìHere we find a remarkably modest concept of education that sees education as a process that has reached its goal by achieving a certain level of competence and then comes to a standstill until a new situation calls for new competences. This approach turns the traditional understanding of education upside down; it downgrades education to a means of competenceî (Hedtke, 2018, p. 17) In this article, the concept of financial education emphasizes ìreflectionî as a central element of personal (financial) education and also considers practice-oriented competences as essential, according to the definition by Reifner.

Teachers as Role Models and Co-Creators of Society Teachers are thus given an important task, because the roots of entrepreneurial thinking are already laid in childhood and decisively influenced by educational and upbringing processes. Teachers act as role models and through their activities become active co-designers of future generations. They have a significant impact on the ethical, environmental, economic and social mindsets of primary school children, so any teaching, especially in the area of financial education, must be perceived with the utmost sensitivity and responsibility. Teachers must therefore first reflect on their own self-image concerning the subject of money. This includes questions that relate to personal circumstances, such as: ìWhat does money do to me? How do I want, how should I and how must I deal with money? [...] How does money affect my own life? [...] What does money mean for my relationships with others? How does money shape our life in society?î (Hedtke, 2018, p. 17). Fridrich (2017, p. 216) interviewed teachers in teacher training courses how they assess the importance of economic education concerning the areas of learning and experiencing economics in primary schools. He comes to the conclusion that school-based economic education is of particular importance ìbecause problematic economic perspectives and patterns of action originating from different family backgrounds as well as commercial interests of entrepreneurs can be reflected and compensatedî. ìThis is where the need for a readjustment in the initial and continuing training of teachers becomes obviousî (Fridrich, 2017, p. 216). Weber also regards financial education at schools as highly relevant, as children move between the roles of being active consumers, influencers when making purchasing decisions and vulnerable consumersî (Weber, 2017, p. 209). Entrepreneurship Education in Mathematics Education for Future Primary School.. 91

The topics of ìEntrepreneurship education and mathematicsî, which the curriculum provides for primary school children as well as for students of primary education, are dealt with below. This includes how students acquire the necessary teaching competences and how they implement them in the school practice accompanying their studies.

Curricular and Content Anchoring Equipping young people with the knowledge and skills necessary for life and their future profession is one of the central tasks of the Austrian school system. The development of judging independently and the ability to participate in the economic and cultural life of Austria, Europe and the world are also essential educational goals. In order to fulfil this mission, schools must enable young people, among other things, to fulfil their roles as economic citizens, as gainfully employed persons and as consumers in a ìcom- petent and morally responsibleî manner (BMBF, 2015, p. 1). The Austrian curriculum takes the demand for early financial education and the acquisition of financial competencies of primary school children into account, especially in the subjects of social studies and mathematics, as well as in the overall teaching principles. The teaching principle of ìeconomic education (including education about savings and consumer education)î is intended to give pupils an understanding of the multifaceted competencies required ñ not linked to a specific subject but in a cross-curricular approach. The teaching principle of economic education represents one of the twelve teaching principles which are to be implemented in everyday school life by means of a reasonable coordination of the subjects taught, making use of cross-connections, as well as the ìuse of suitable additional teaching materials and, if necessary, the occasional use of external expertsî (BMUKK, 2009, p. 24).

ìBasic Decreeî on the Principle of Economic and Consumer Education The principles and guidelines for economic and consumer education are valid for ìall school levels of all school typesî (BMBF, 2015, p. 6). Particular emphasis will be placed on consumer education to safeguard the personal interests of all people participating in economic life. However, economic skills should not only serve the role of consumers, but also contribute to the employability of people (BMBF, 2015, p. 1). Economic action has social and ecological consequences and side effects. At the same time it aims at reducing environmental pollution and promoting sustainable consumption habits. ìEconomic education ultimately affects the whole person, it is work on oneís own identityî (BMBF, 2015, p. 1). The guidelines do not only aim at fostering individually useful competences, but rather aim at educating critically reflective and sustainability- oriented consumers, economic citizens and business citizens. Furthermore, ìThe Basic Decreeî points out that a number of developments make the consistent and widespread implementation of this teaching principle increasingly important: ìthe supply of products and services is greater than ever, the degree to which young people are influenced by peer groups and the media is very high at the same time; markets are increasingly libera- lized and deregulated; almost all areas of human life are now commercialized, empirical studies provide indications of deficits in the basic economic education of the population; orientation in an economy characterized by globalization and enormously accelerated technological change is becoming increasingly difficult; insight into the importance of 92 Anita Summer sustainable economic activities is growing without resulting in sufficient consequences on an individual and political levelî (BMBF, 2015, p. 2). In order to achieve the goal of ìmaking people able to find orientation and action competence to act in everyday life situations in a world characterized by economyî (BMBF, 2015, p. 3), the guidelines list a number of competences that are required. For work in primary school, i.e. for the age group of six- to ten-year-old children, some of these competences appear to be particularly relevant. The pupils ó reflect the influence of media and advertising and put them into perspective [...] ó consider the consequences of their own consumer and economic behavior [...]. ó are able to manage their own finances, to make decisions in accordance with their own economic circumstances [...] equipped with sufficient mathematical basic competences, ó a range of subjects in the primary school curriculum provides opportunities to reach these competencies:

Primary School Curriculum In the curriculum of primary schools, social science in the first and second school years includes ìBusiness Experience and Learningî and requires students to gain a ìfirst understanding of supply and meeting demandsî and to acquire ìbasic knowledge of work and earningsî (BMUKK, 2009, p. 151). In the third grade, the contents of the first two years are broadened and ìeconomic interrelationships are understoodî. In the fourth grade ìknowledge about economic forms, about work, occupation and recreationî are added. Pupils learn to understand ìconnections and their significance for shaping their present and future livesî (BMUKK, 2009, p. 162). In mathematics, ìmoneyî appears in the curriculum area of ìmathematical quantitiesî, but on a rather modest scale. As with all quantities, the formation of terms should first take place in an action-based way. ìDeveloping model concepts of money are to be based on the value of objects from childrenís livesî(BMUKK, 2009, p. 227) Amounts of money can be shown for example as 5 Euro and 20 Cent/5€ 20c as well as 5,20€. This is an exception in primary education, as generally there is no provision for using decimal numbers in primary school. Calcu- lations should be limited to simple and meaningful contexts (BMUKK, 2009, p. 226f).

Necessary Knowledge about the ìConceptî of Money in Primary School Even school beginners have previous knowledge of the concept of money. Money, however, is not a measured variable compared to other variables dealt with in primary school. It is not a physical value. Its value is not stable like, for instance, with linear dimensions. As a counting parameter, it is characterised by a number of special features that have to be taken into account in the classroom: ó Units of our currency are Euro and Cent, other terms as used in measuring length (km-m-dm-cm), are not used. There is no further differentiation of monetary units. One cent is the smallest unit. Coins and notes represent monetary units, possibly also in other currencies. Entrepreneurship Education in Mathematics Education for Future Primary School.. 93

ó For a direct comparison of two amounts of money, a 1:1 comparison counting is necessary. ó Money is not a physical value as it requires a different concept of measuring. Its value is not stable like for instance with linear measures. When working with linear measures you can see at a glance that something is longer or shorter. This is not so easy with a pile of coins. You may have to convert the coins in order to establish the monetary value of a pile of coins. ó Money has no distinct decadic structure (one, tens, hundreds, thousands...). Apart from one euro coins, ten euro notes and one hundred euro notes, there are also five, twenty, fifty euro notes and so on. Money as a ìcalculating toolî should therefore only be used in a meaningful setting (Franke/Ruwisch, 2013, p. 231). Franke and Ruwisch regard money as ìa useful structured and didactic tool for the representation of calculation pathsî. The author, however, warns against the use of money as ìcomputing materialî to represent computing paths, since the unclear decadic structure can be confused by the presence of extra units. ó In math text problems, however, using money makes sense to relate to our way of life and thus represent a means of coping with everyday life. In the first and second school years, fictitious game situations (e.g. a shop working with cent amounts only) are suitable for not immediately confronting the children with mixed amounts of money (euros and cents). ó The concept of ìmonetary valueî is closely linked to the history of money as a medium of exchange and emphasises its economic function. E.g. children attribute more value to an old cuddly toy than to a new more expensive toy. Schoolchildren develop a feeling for what one can buy for a certain amount of money. ó Money has no standardized value; its monetary value is unstable. Prices vary, for example, according to season, demand or package sizes. It is therefore not possible to measure the price of a product objectively. This distinguishes the concept of money from physical quantities. ó The price of a product is experienced differently by different people, a product can seem cheap to one person, and someone else finds it very expensive (Grassmann, 2017, p. 246; Franke & Ruwisch, 2013, p. 231; Summer, 2017, p. 255).

Course on Financial Education: Heterogeneity-Sensitive Mathematics Teaching A course of primary school pedagogy at the University Teacher College Vienna/ Krems takes eight semesters (ìBachelorî) or ten semesters (ìMasterî). In order to make students competent in the field of financial education, they acquire the necessary knowledge in this subject area and can apply and implement it immediately in their weekly school practice accompanying their studies. In the third semester, the course ìHeterogeneity-sensitive Mathematics Teachingî is offered in module prim3-05 (ìTeaching Diversity and Individuality in Mathematics and Scienceî). Among other topics, the focus is put on ìapplied mathematics based on the national educational standardsî. Working with quantities, data and their representation, factual tasks, the modelling cycle and functional thinking are also dealt with 94 Anita Summer

(KPH, 2019, p. 134). In their studies of mathematics this course provides students with an advanced input of financial education together with a situation-specific treatment of the topic. Due to the intensive study of this subject area, an increasing number of students write their bachelor theses in the field of financial education. In dealing with the subject of ìmathematical quantitiesî students discuss the significance of money both with regard to a mathematical-computational approach and with regard to the teaching principle of economic education (including savings education and consumer education).

Implementation of the Course 1. Input by the lecturer, self-reflection. After the content input (see above) on the value of money students are motivated to take on a self-reflective task. Questions like ìWhat does money do to me? How will, should or must I deal with money? What does money mean for my relationships with others? How does money shape social relations?î are first answered individually, and then discussed in groups. The results mostly revolve around the topics ìpostponing needsî, ìWhen is making debts justified?î Donations and charitable activities?î The students soon become aware of their being role models as teachers: ìHow credible am I when I talk about sustainability, but buy a new mobile phone, a car every year?î A presentation of possible subject areas related to financial education with additional research inputs followed the discussion. Students worked in small groups of two to four people. As many different areas as possible were dealt with, but always with reference to mathematics. Having clarified special subject areas, the groups worked independently over a period of about eight weeks outside the course on the deepening of their knowledge, their preparation and implementation in the practical setting of a classroom5. The content chosen by the students was tested immediately with the children and the feedback given by the children as well as an evaluation of the teaching unit(s) were included in the final presentation. In the following weeks, other areas of mathematical quantities suitable for primary school classrooms were discussed in this course. Additionally students had the opportunity to receive coaching or reviewing on their topic after each course.

2. Presentation by the students in a ìMarket of Possibilities 2î. Approximately eight weeks after the first input, the subject areas were presented by the students in a ìMarket of Possibilitiesî. The projects performed by the students were very different, some of them are presented here as examples: ó Class shop Two students used a class shop in their weekly school practice in a first grade. In a familiar ìtoy shopî situation, toys were purchased at unrealistic prices with play money, for example a doll at a price of five euros. These tasks are also often found as ìshop window tasksî in textbooks. However, the situation does not correspond to real life: the value of the goods does not correspond to reality; prices without decimal places are unusual. Goods are paid for with play money. At the class shop (see Summer, 2017, p. 256), the children were able to experience a realistic shopping situation with real money. Small snacks such as banana chips, butter biscuits, peanuts or jelly beans were sold. Accordingly, prices were only in the cent range, for example a biscuit cost three cents, a jelly bean two cents or a peanut one cent. Parents were requested to give their children cent coins of small denomination. It Entrepreneurship Education in Mathematics Education for Future Primary School.. 95 makes sense to agree on a ìmaximum purchase amountî (see Hˆlzel, 2011, p. 7f). In this specific case, the students initiated the class shop and the children were then allowed to shop for a maximum of seven cents a day for one week ñ until the students had their next practice. The children learned how to plan their purchases sensibly, how to make the money last and, if necessary, how to check the change. This real situation offered a range of ideas for topic-related tasks, which the students worked on with the children in the following week. ó Videos for classroom use A group of students made themselves familiar with video material which could be a useful addition to financial education in primary school. The ìSparefroh/Happy Saver TVî series is highly recommended. It was developed in cooperation with the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research, the ìInitiative for Teaching Entre- preneurship (ifte)î and the ìCompetence Centre for Value-Based Business Didacticsî of the KPH. The students used the short video ìThe Value of Things ñ Why Do Some Things Cost More Than Othersî, which lasted less than three minutes (Sparefroh TV, 2015) as an introductory sequence to a teaching unit on the topics of material and immaterial values as well as sustainability. The children gave very positive feedback. According to the students, the contents were very easy for the children to understand and provided the basis for a successful discussion in the third grade. Then the students played the quiz ìKosten & Bekommenî (Costs & Getting) (teaching materials for Sparefroh TV, p. 46f) with the help of a presentation on a projector, after presenting the television program 1, 2 or 3. Questions about the different immaterial and material values of things had to be answered, for example: Whatís most valuable to you?: 1. the first scoop of ice cream you want to buy in spring, 2. the 55th scoop of ice cream that day, 3. the 10th scoop of ice cream youíre eating that day. The game led to an enormous increase in the childrenís learning of immaterial and material values, but also to discussions about different values. ó Role play to illustrate the development of money from trade by barter to paper money In a fourth grade classroom three students acted out the ìHistory of Moneyî using short role plays wearing authentic robes. They first showed the beginnings of bartering (meat was exchanged for rare spices) and the development of banknotes. When they lifted a sack of coins they understood how heavy and unpractical it was to carry coins around and therefore paper money was eventually invented. In the course of the lesson, the children considered which of the items they brought with them could be exchanged ìunder fair conditionsî. A profound discussion developed as the children realized that a bottle of water, for example, did not have much material value but could have a life- saving effect in the desert. At the end of the lesson, the children considered which three items they would take to a desert island. The mobile phone was ranked first with most children.

Ecological Footprint ñ Comparison of Cheap and Organic Products Two students compared the prices of goods in a ìshopping basketî (for example, one kilogram of bread, one kilogram of apples, one liter of milk, one bar of chocolate, Ö) 96 Anita Summer that had been agreed upon with the children beforehand ñ starting from a lesson on the subject of ìPlastic in the Oceansî. During an excursion the cheapest possible foodstuffs were looked for at a supermarket, photographed and the prices noted down. The same categories of food were bought in an organic grocery shop avoiding plastic wrapping. In the subsequent mathematics lesson, the two totals were determined and discussed under various aspects (sustainability, food appearance, health, affordability...).

Sham Packs, Giant-Size Packs Three students dealt with the topic of sham packs and giant-size packs. They brought various boxes of cornflakes to a third grade class and had the children mark the estimated contents of the goods on the box. It turned out that some boxes were only half full. Then different goods (e.g. pasta, shower gel) with the same content but different packaging were examined. The ìresearch resultsî astonished the children very much and they came to the conclusion that it was essential to pay attention to the filling quantity indicated on the product. Finally, the unit price of different giant-size packages (e.g. waffles) was calculated and compared. This was followed by a lively discussion whether buying giant-size packs was necessary or reasonable.

Youth Start ñ Challenge ìDeveloping a Sense of Price and Valueî Two students dealt with the offer of ìYou Start Entrepreneurial Challengesî (Youth- start, 2018) and implemented the challenge ìMy Personal Challenge ñ developing a sense of price and valueî in a fourth grade classroom. The children learned how to assess the prices of products and services and to find out information about these prices. The value of products and services was also reflected and compared by classmates. The children were enthusiastic about the discussion and the increase in learning was great. More detailed information on the Youth Start program can be found in issue (Bisanz et al., 2019).

Sonja wants a new phone. She sees these offers:

Offer 1: Offer 2: MyPhoni for only € 0,- myPhoni only € 608,- Monthly € 49,- monthly 19,- ì24 months commitmentî (you have to pay for at least 24 months)

A phone you get for free? She thinks thatís great. Offer 2 is very expensive for Sonja. What would you advise Sonja to do? Give Reasons.

Figure 1. Text task mobile phone costs (Benischek et al., 2017, p. 24)

ó Tasks related to mobile phones Students took the fact that many children would get their own first mobile phone after primary school as an opportunity to work on tasks related to mobile phone offers. This corresponds to the curricular demand for relevance. ìThe childís environment pro- Entrepreneurship Education in Mathematics Education for Future Primary School.. 97 vides the appropriate settingî (BMUKK, 2009, p. 227). The following task was presented to the children and they worked out solutions in small groups. In the following discussion, the topics of mobile phone usage, required data volume and additional services such as free text messages were discussed. Finally, the children presented their calculations with regard to the task. The children decided from which period of time the second offer would be cheaper. They calculated the annual, monthly and daily mobile phone costs based on an assumed operating life of two years. ó Financial planning ñ Billing a Project Week One student used the mathematics lesson in a fourth grade to jointly bill the project week that had already taken place. All bills for bus trips, admissions, tips and concert tickets were added and finally divided by the number of children. The costs were recalcu- lated against the contributions already made. The children were highly motivated by this real life context and their personal involvement in the task. ó Displaying Money Amounts Differently Starting with a lesson on the history of money and the development of the security features of coins and banknotes, two students prepared ìquizzesî about the different ways of representing amounts of money in a third grade classroom. They started with a revision: The children had to be able to determine amounts of money (i.e. to determine the amount of a given collection of coins and notes), but also to display amounts of money in different ways and be able to change sums of money. At the same time, the question of the value of notes and coins as well as the distinction between their number and value were addressed: It does not depend on the number of coins or the size of a coin, but on their value. Finally, questions such as ìHow can you represent this amount with as many as possible/as few as possible/exactly seven coins or notes,î were solved in an action-oriented way using play money. Finally, the findings were entered into a table. It became evident that the children were obviously used to dealing with money and that there were hardly any problems in answering the questions. ó Estimate, compare and judge prices Children develop clear concepts regarding the standard units of euro and cent. To this end, three college students brought various goods worth up to one hundred euros into the classroom (second year primary school). First of all, children arranged these items from the cheapest to the most expensive product. Each child first thought about their personal ranking, then the children solved the task together. They understood that it was useful to indicate price intervals (less than one euro, one to three euros, three to five euros ...) for the items. It turned out that the children were able to assess the products chosen from their sphere of life well, especially in the lower price segment. In the course of the teaching unit the Youthstart (2018) worksheet 3 ìChecking pricesî was used. The children evaluated statements, e.g. ìa hair dryer costs 150 eurosî and discussed the origin of prices.

Conclusion Financial education is at the heart of public interest and is perceived as an urgent desideratum. At the center of primary school education (for children from six to ten years of age) many competences can realistically only be touched upon for the time being: This can be the childrenís ability to reflect on their own needs, to develop the ability to 98 Anita Summer judge the influence of advertising, to get information about the possibilities of saving money, the emergence of money and the money cycle, to acquire an ability to judge ecological and social consequences and of course the mathematical possibilities of handling money as well as a critical examination of the topic. By participating in the course described, students deepen their knowledge and analyse their attitudes towards money and financial education. They test and evaluate a teaching sequence on this topic. They are aware that it is not their mission to teach and influence, but to encourage children to acquire self-determined and critical thinking competencies. The course is constantly evaluated and further developed in line with changing requirements. It is one piece of the jigsaw in Entrepreneurship Education for students at the University College of Teacher Education Vienna/Krems.

Notes: (1) The ìpractical school studiesî at our university, which accompany the studies, enable the students to spend one morning per week in a primary school, whereby they must teach at least one teaching unit themselves. (2) Each group prepares a material or presentation-based ìinformation standî at which at least one group member stays and provides further explanations and clarifications to their peers. The other participants can move freely and get information at the other ìstandsî in the seminar room. (Compendium of Methods 2006)

References Benischek, I., Summer, A., & Zeindl-Steiner, R. (2017). Mathematik Bildungsstandards [Mathematics educational standards]. Wien: G & G. Bisanz, A., Hueber, S., Jambor, E., & Lindner, J. (2020). Social entrepreneurship education in the primary school: Empowering every child with the Youth Start Entrepre- neurial challenges. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 10(2), In press. BMBF. (2015). Grundsatzerlass zum Unterrichtsprinzip Wirtschafts- und Verbraucher- bzw. Verbraucherinnenbildung [Basic decree on the principle of economic and consumer education]. Wien: BMBF. BMUKK. (2009). Lehrplan der Volksschule [Syllabus of the primary school]. Wien: BMUKK. Franke, M., & Ruwisch, S. (2013). Didaktik des Sachrechnens in der Grundschule [Didactics of mathematics in primary school]. Heidelberg: Spektrum. Fridrich, C. (2017). ÷konomische Bildung in der Primarstufe [Economic education at the primary level]. In Braun, H., & Beer, R. (Eds.), Erziehung und Unterricht (3ñ 4). Finanzerziehung in der Grundschule [Journal for Education and Instruction (3ñ 4). Financial education in primary school]. (pp. 212ñ220). Wien: Obv. Grassmann, M. (2013). Die Grˆﬂe ìGeld(werte)î im Mathematikunterricht der Grund- schule [The dimension ìmoneyî in elementary school mathematics lessons]. In Braun, H., & Beer, R. (Eds.), Erziehung und Unterricht (3ñ4). Finanzerziehung in der Grundschule [Journal for Education and Instruction (3ñ4). Financial education in primary school] (pp. 245ñ253). Wien: ˆbv. Entrepreneurship Education in Mathematics Education for Future Primary School.. 99

Hedtke, R. (2018). Anpassen oder aufkl‰ren? Finanzerziehung und sozioˆkonomische Bildung [Adjust or clear up? Financial education and socio-economic education]. GW-Unterricht [Journal for Geography and Economic Instruction], 152(4), 14ñ30. Hˆlzel, B. (2011). Im Klassen-Kaufladen [In the classroom shop]. Grundschule Mathe- matik [Journal for mathematics in primary school] 28/2011. Seelze: Friedrich, 6ñ9. KPH Wien/Krems. (2019). Curriculum. Bachelorstudium als Voraussetzung f¸r ein Masterstudium zur Erlangung des Lehramtes Primarstufe [Bachelorís degree as a prerequisite for a masterís program to obtain a teaching degree in primary education]. Wien: KPH Wien/Krems. Lindner, J., & Huemer, S. (2017). Entrepreneurship Education f¸r Volkssch¸ler*innen [Entrepreneurship Education for elementary school students]. In Braun, H., & Beer, R. (Eds.), Erziehung und Unterricht (3ñ4). Finanzerziehung in der Grundschule [Journal for Education and Instruction (3ñ4). Financial education in primary school] (pp. 237ñ244). Wien: ˆbv. Lindner, J. (2018). Entrepreneurship education for a sustainable future. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 9(1), 115ñ127. May, H. (2010). Didaktik der ˆkonomischen Bildung [Didactics of economic education]. M¸nchen: Oldenburg. OECD. (2017). G20/OECD INFE Report on Adult Financial Literacy in G20 Countries. Hamburg: G20/OECD. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/daf/fin/financial- education/G20-OECD-INFE-report-adult-financial-literacy-in-G20-countries.pdf Sparefroh TV. (2015). Unterrichtsmaterialien inkl. DVD rund um das Thema Geld [Teaching materials incl. DVD about money]. Wien: Erste Group. Retrieved from https://www.sparkasse.at/sparefroh/medien/sparefroh-tv#multimedia/1/5 [10-08- 2019]. SSBS. (2006). Methodenkompendium [Compendium of methods]. Retrieved from www.sachsen.schule/~sud/methodenkompendium/module/ansatz2/3_5_5.htm [10- 08-2019]. Summer, A. (2017). Finanzerziehung 2.0. Praktische Realisierungsmˆglichkeiten in der Grundschule [Financial education 2.0. Practical realization in elementary school]. In Braun, H., & Beer, R. (Eds.), Erziehung und Unterricht (3ñ4). Finanzerziehung in der Grundschule [Journal for Education and Instruction (3ñ4). Financial education in primary school] (pp. 254ñ261). Wien: ˆbv. Weber, B. (2017). Verbraucherbildung in der Grundschule ñ zum Status Quo in Deutsch- land [Consumer education in primary school ñ to the status quo in Germany]. In Braun, H., & Beer, R. (Eds.), Erziehung und Unterricht (3ñ4). Finanzerziehung in der Grundschule [Journal for Education and Instruction (3ñ4). Financial education in primary school] (pp. 203ñ211). Wien: ˆbv. Youthstart. (2018). Entrepreneurial Challenges. Retrieved from http://www.youthstart. eu/en/

Correspondence relating this paper should be addressed to Anita Summer, University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems, Austria. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0021

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 100ñ111, 2019

Entrepreneurship Education in a Democratic Perspective

Britt Due Tiemensma and Connie Stendal Rasmussen University College Absalon, Roskilde, Denmark

Abstract Entrepreneurship Education often emphasizes the practical applications of competencies. This article aims to collect findings on entrepreneurship education linked to democratic formation in primary education as experienced by teacher students. Based on a model from the Danish Foundation for Entrepreneurship and theories on democratic formation and active citizenship, the authors analyze what entrepreneurship and democratic formation have in common. Entrepreneurship education will also be linked to education for sustainable development. By following a group of teacher students in two different cases, the authors discuss how a potential synergy is visible, when the teacher students learn by reading, discussing and solving concrete tasks connected to social entrepreneurship education. The teacher studentsí personal attitudes and understanding of authentic practical experiences turns out to be important to their learning from entrepreneurial education tasks. The structural organization of teacher education is a challenge to the organization of teaching entrepreneurship education. Key words: entrepreneurship, democratic formation, attitude, creativity, sustainability.

Introduction Competences in innovation and entrepreneurship as well as democratic citizenship have been part of the Danish teacher education program in various disciplines for more than 10 years. Teacher students learn to address and share problems in a community and learn how to act in an NGO or political sphere. Based on a presumption of a complex relationship between entrepreneurship education and democratic formation, teacher students can be introduced to generating ideas for the common good as the core of entrepreneurship education. The understanding of the common good as a principle of orientation depends on the type of society, and in this context it will be understood as maintenance and development of democracy as a way of living and as a system of governing. The question we tried to answer is how the relationship between entrepreneurship education and civic learning can be addressed by teacher students in primary education. In this article the framework for civic learning will be based on Gert Biestaís (2011) understanding of citizenship education. He distinguishes between Entrepreneurship Education in a Democratic Perspective 101

ó learning about democracy as a process of acquisition of knowledge and skills to be socialized into an existing sociopolitical order, ó or learning from democracy as a process of subjectification where students sense democracy as experimentation with systems out of order, and thus always in a process of transformation. Our framework for entrepreneurship education is mostly based on research and recommendations from The Danish Foundation for Entrepreneurship, an inter-ministerial partnership aimed at creating a coherent strategy for innovation and entrepreneurship at all levels of education in Denmark since 2010. To illustrate how entrepreneurship and democratic citizenship education can be interdependent we present two cases: ó In the first case, the framing of learning was creation of games as a creative and sustainable process for fourth grade students. ó In the second case, the framing was establishing a sustainable community or school garden at a Danish university college. The cases link an entrepreneurial mindset to the teacher studentsí creativity, design thinking and sustainability, but also expose a number of the structural challenges to innovation and entrepreneurship in the Danish teacher education program. Sustainable learning, in our opinion, contains four basic principles (Eskisi 2019): 1. Deep and Broad Learning: Deep and broad learning is about learning details as well as related concepts together, the use of learning opportunities when they arise, and creating opportunities for learning as much as possible. 2. Learning through transfer: Transfer is described as applying what is learned to a different situation and associating such learning with daily life. 3. Learning through dissemination: That means learning through sharing and disseminating what is learned and to convey content to other people and future times. 4. Learning by thinking ahead: It means that individuals decide what they will learn by considering the future. Due to rapid development of the society, school learning can seem irrelevant and useless in their future lives. To prevent it, what they learn, must be for the future. In this article, teacher student refers to a student studying to become a teacher in a primary and lower secondary school and student refers to children and young people studying at any level. We will not be discussing entrepreneurship as a driver of the economy; instead we focus on social entrepreneurship, democratic formation and how they might benefit from each other.

Entrepreneurship Education The development of entrepreneurial skills and mindset is one of eight key objectives for lifelong learning defined by the European Commission and in the recommendation from 2018, the national education systems are encouraged to promote entrepreneurship skills, creativity and sense of initiative, especially among young people (European Commis- sion, 2018, p. 189). Over the years in Europe, entrepreneurship education has become an established model of lifelong learning. However, the term seems to be understood fundamentally differently: on the one hand as ìan adaptation of the individual to a certain socio-economic logicî and on the other as ìa liberating educational opportunity to give more people a greater say in their livesî (Rasmussen, Moberg & Revsbech, 2015, 102 Britt Due Tiemensma and Connie Stendal Rasmussen p. 12). As a result of these differences, various approaches have developed: one schoolís main focus will be on training students to become drivers of economic and social dynamics in the local community, while other schools focus on competencies in social entrepreneurship. Thus, the concept of entrepreneurship education is far from clear. So far, no European consensus has been established on entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneur- ship education is implicated in a wider cultural, social, political and economic order and the aim can be fostering independent business protagonists with innovative power and skills to develop new products. At its core, the neoliberal European education policy has focused on individualization, standardization and accountability. Students must be job-ready, when they finish their education, but what about growing as democratic citizens with common values and fundamental rights? This is also part of the overall objectives of the Danish primary education. For primary and lower secondary education, the Danish Ministry of Education has adapted the definition ìEntrepreneurship is when you act upon opportunities and ideas and transform them into value for others. The value that is created can be financial, cultural or socialî. The definition was originally proposed by The Danish Foundation for Entrepreneurship and later presented by EntreComp (McCallum et al., 2018, p. 8). This definition is centered on the creation of values and it establishes a relationship between an individual or individuals and others. Entrepreneurship education can take place when one or more students open up an opportunity or idea by researching. They also learn to visualize and concretize how their idea or opportunity will affect others. Step by step they produce solutions. Students may learn how important empathy is. They are encouraged to use their knowledge and skills in a creative way to provide value or common good by trying to meet the needs of others. This approach might be understood as driven by an idealistic or ethical understanding of human beings and as committed to producing objects or materials of value for others; however, the term can also be understood in a pragmatic way. To open up an opportunity in entrepreneurial education involves engagement in a dialogue. With reference to John Dewey (Dewey, 1929, p. 185), it will be assumed that human beings come into existence through and as a result of communication. When students experience a value-creating process for themselves and others by having a social environment in which their activities are associated with other human beingsí engagement in problem- solving activities, entrepreneurship education can be facilitated. Gert Biesta has phrased the importance of communication more poetically: ìTo exist as a subject, as I will suggest, means being in a ìstate of dialogueî with what and who is other; it means being exposed to what and who is other, being addressed by what and who is other, being taught by what and who is other, and pondering what this means for our existence and for the desires we have about our existenceî (Biesta, 2017, p. 4). Entrepreneurial education involves interchange and raises normative questions based on value systems as well as questions to be answered, depending on subjectsí knowledge and skills. Understanding these relationships and learning to take responsibility for their functioning are matters of craft as well as ethics and both must be addressed in entrepreneurship education. To illustrate the core competencies in entrepreneurship education, the Danish Ministry of Education has presented a graphic model (fig. 1) and here attitude is understood as the core competence influencing and being influenced by creativity, action and outward orientation. The model also illustrates that the core curricula or Entrepreneurship Education in a Democratic Perspective 103 subjects are framing teaching and learning and that these competences are understood as part of the overall educational objective in primary education; to equip students as being co-creators of their own life in a changing world.

Figure 1. The four entrepreneurial dimensions embedded in the core curricula of educational institutions (Rasmussen, Moberg, Revsbech, 2015, p. 12)

The Danish model (fig. 1) has four competencies instead of three and thus it is a little different from the recommendation by The European framework for entrepreneurship education (EntreComp). The additional competence attitude is bringing in the importance of personal/ethical attitudes in entrepreneurship education. To illustrate the dependence on value systems, we focus on democracy and ìthe idea that the democratic experiment should be understood as a process of transformationî (Biesta et al., 2014, p. 7). The dynamics between individuals or groups and the interest of the common good will depend on a given context. Awareness of attitude gives a sense of direction and enables students to answer if a specific idea or product is moving them or things in the intended direction, and thus attitude draws the attention to the normative aspects of entrepreneurship education. To be successful, however, streams of psychological research indicate that attitude change will translate into behavior change when including factors as ìintention speci- ficity, action difficulty, contextual support, habitual behaviorî and thus to succeed, specific strategies must be applied in Education programs (Arbuthnott, 2009, p. 161).

Democratic Formation In this paragraph we present our theoretical approach to democratic formation, method and our findings on the teacher studentsí approaches to democratic formation. We will also try to substantiate how entrepreneurship education and democratic formation may support each other to meet the overall objectives of the Danish primary education. Method: In the spring of 2019, we observed and lectured in an entrepreneurship module for 14 weeks, and observed in two one-week courses on entrepreneurship for teacher students. The data gathered here will be the foundation of this article. The aim 104 Britt Due Tiemensma and Connie Stendal Rasmussen was mapping links between entrepreneurship education and democratic formation in the teacher education program. We collected observations on teacher studentsí understanding of democratic formation and entrepreneurship education and we used questionnaires and informal interview. Entrepreneurship education and democratic formation has been observed in and outside classrooms, and these observations and interviews have been analyzed and put into perspective based on educational philosophy and methods. We observed that the teacher studentsí attitudes and democratic formation approaches were based on an understanding of active and experimenting citizenship described in the following three dimensions (Fig. 2): 1. Knowledge Dimension; to give students knowledge about democracy, politics, citizenship and social conditions, 2. Value Dimension; to create confidence in democratic values; equality, respect, freedom, tolerance and solidarity, 3. Handling Dimension; To develop citizenship skills such as collaboration skills, handling conflicts, participation, dialogue, reflection and critical thinking (Jarvis 2010, Korsgaard 2001) These three dimensions in primary education encouraged the teacher students to work with a complex approach to democratic formation without describing a definite objective for the process to become responsible adult citizen in the world. In the classroom, the three dimensions were mixed. Teacher students were learning to perform using mandatory interdisciplinary topics and at the same time indirectly taking responsibility for ensuring that the students were introduced to democracy as a way of living by the way they communicate and interact with them. The formation task, when it came to democracy, was understood as an overall or implicit task, which was not in itself assigned to teaching lessons, but implemented by the individual teacher student in communication. In the classroom we observed that democratic formation without real content and without lessons becomes an almost impossible task for the teacher students, but it was considered to be a very important task. Why was democratic formation so important to the teacher students? The three dimensions of democratic formations can be identified in the first paragraph of The Danish School Act often referred to as The Mission Statement and thus part of the overall aim of primary education: ìThe ëFolkeskoleí (public school) must prepare pupils for participation, joint responsibility, rights and duties in a society of freedom and democracy. School work must therefore be characterized by intellectual freedom, equality and democracy.î (Børne ñ og Undervisningsministeriet, 2017) The schools are expected to be committed to providing age-appropriate knowledge on democracy, supported by skills that allow democracy to unfold in many different ways. Democratic formation is the individualís upbringing to become part of a society. There is a contradiction in this composition. Formation is in itself a very subjective and individual development, and democracy is a piece of reality that one can decide on or escape from, according to insight and consciousness. Karsten Schnack, professor of General Education formulates the mission in the following simple way: ìÖ the schoolís general task(s) ñ to create opportunities to understand the world and intervene in itî (Schnack, 1992, p. 15). He advocates that political formation is a necessary part of Entrepreneurship Education in a Democratic Perspective 105 democracy and it must take place in school in an interdisciplinary problem-oriented education. It is based on the childrenís experiences and must offer challenges and provoke them so that new understandings and concepts about the world can arise and be challenged. He defines democracy as participation, thus the task is to educate and qualify students as active participants in a civic society. ìIn a democracy, members are not spectators, but participants. Not equally active participants in everything all the time, of course, but always potential participants, who themselves assess, in what and when, you get involved. Education for democracy is therefore also upbringing and qualification for the participant role.î (Schnack, 1992, p. 52). Students may learn to navigate drawing upon previous experiences, and if they are challenged and provoked through the activities in the classroom, participation can become a means to acquire competences. To develop democratic formation in schools, students need to practice the role as involved participants. An example could be that in some places trash becomes a social and a political challenge when left on the streets or in schools by individuals and picked up by the municipality at the cost of the citizens. There is not a right or wrong solution and there is no linear process to change mindsets. When teaching civic learning as knowledge and skills in a classroom the outcome might not influence studentsí way of living. The three democratic formation dimensions might not be considered to be equally important by teachers or management in schools. In 2016 an International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS) was published on how the schools prepare students to live in a democratic society. The study was based on data from 15-year-old-students at 3800 schools in 24 countries. The study focuses on the studentsí knowledge and skills in the social sciences and on the studentsí attitudes, values and activities in school and in society. The Danish students had the highest score overall on knowledge about democracy, but they scored very low on the importance of active citizenship. The concept was understood by Danish students as adding little value to their lives (Bruun et al., 2017, p. 26). The ICCS study pinpoints some of the conscious or unconscious attitudes and values students in different countries may bring to entrepreneurship education. Attitude is understood as an important driver in the Danish entrepreneurship education model (Figure 1), but students might not think of attitude as influenced by democratic values such as equality and freedom of spirit because they only associate democracy with the knowledge dimension and do not experience it as their own fundamental value in action. In this perspective, civic learning might benefit from entrepreneurship education.

Democratic Formation and Social Entrepreneurship Education ñ What do They Have in Common? By comparing the content from the Entrepreneurship Education model, and the Democratic Formation model, we want to visualize the overlaps and the potential synergy in the model below. Some of the features in this area of competences seem to be overlap- ping and in our opinion, these features may be able to create even more clever entrepreneurs. In the model, Figure 2, there are several common features. The feature action is an obvious starting point. Teacher students in Entrepreneurship Education are expected to be involved in practical activities, cross-cutting different subjects, and to create value for others. In Entrepreneurship Education, some ideas will make a breakthrough when 106 Britt Due Tiemensma and Connie Stendal Rasmussen they have been examined, chosen and maybe turned into a prototype. In Democratic Formation, action means dialogue, reflection and critical thinking, which supports the choice of what is for the common good. Throughout the process, the teacher students are communicating about their activities and therefore they experience how important it is to be able to approach others during the process. The outward orientation from Democratic Formation can facilitate the communication with others. Based on Democratic Formation, teacher students may meet others with respect and understanding, and consecutively they have been learning to handle conflicts and thus promoting effective communication about their activities. Value is a consistent feature in both. In Democratic Formation the democratic values are in focus, and both ethnicity and social background create an inclusive arena where respect and tolerance may develop. In the Entrepreneurship Education attitude emphasizes a human centered competence and thus a normative aspect of entrepreneurship education. Teacher students stimulated in philosophical and ethical independence are trained in critical thinking also to be used in Entrepreneurship Education.

Figure 2. Comparison between Entrepreneurship education and democratic formation (authorsí graphic)

Attitude can be ignored in the European EntreComp model, however, students, teaching material and student teachers will bring attitudes into the EE projects anyway and thus, values are at stake. By openly addressing attitudes in Entrepreneurship Educa- tion, they are not just hidden drivers but understood as intended and the process becomes more transparent ñ from idea to some kind of outcome. The Knowledge dimension in Democratic Formation is somehow missing in Entre- preneurship Education, although it might be incorporated in the outward orientation. To add this dimension to Entrepreneurship Education seems very useful because knowledge about how society works is a good precondition for creating value for others. Entrepreneurship Education in a Democratic Perspective 107

Two Cases So far, we have presented approaches to Entrepreneurship Education and Democ- ratic Formation showing that they have mutual features of interest when planning entrepreneurial projects in primary education. In the following paragraphs we focus on two cases from a teacher education course and here also education for sustainable development will be introduced. ìEntrepreneurship Education emphasizes the practical applications of competencies. By adopting a framework that provides the basis to make a judgement on the sustainability of an activityÖîentrepreneurship education could enable entrepreneurs to make practical decisions on the sustainable development implication of their activities.î (Strachan, 2018, p. 43). The global climate crisis has been perceived as framing the future on this planet and already in 1980/90ís the crisis was used to train studentsí understanding of the need for more sustainable development. The UN Brundt- land Commission had defined sustainable development as ìMeeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needsî (Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). The definition points towards taking action in our time with potential consequences for future generations and even though the concept may not be all that clear it may be understood as a stepping-stone towards the UN 17 goals for 2030 to achieve a more sustainable future on this planet. These goals can become a period of transition where teacher students get new opportunities to develop their attitudes, for example to sustainable consumerism ñ by using recycled and natural materials in classroom assignment. (Ashworth and Steele, 2016, p. 44). To facilitate these technical and value-based changes, the module introduced the students to Entrepreneurship Education and to sustainability, i.e. problems can be tackled by applying the proper learning strategies. In Denmark 80% of primary education students grew up as urban citizens without an intimate relationship with nature and food production. Schools have responded by creating curriculum-based outdoor activities, for example specific subjects or interdisciplinary approaches like school gardening, that can be moved outside. Focus in the second case is how teacher students can meet these needs. In the first case focus is on entrepreneurship education, sustainable and civic learning and games. Case-study as method is interesting for us because we examine a phenomenon that goes on within the frame of its own life, and as researchers, we must meet other people on their conditions. Case-study is meeting people in their context, which means that the context can change, because people act and learn. (Johansen & Tetzschner 2006, p. 78ñ79)

Case 1: Inventing a Game for 4th Grade In this case, 12 teacher students, 5 Danish and 7 international students had a task of inventing a new game for 4th grade on civic learning and afterwards they tried out their game in two different classes. The teacher students had to evaluate their product and they had to go back and improve the games according to the studentsí feedback. At the end, the teacher students evaluated each othersí reinvented games. The process started with the teacher students playing a complex game about multilayered democracy. They discussed different ways to become a social entrepreneur in theory and practice; they had read and interpreted articles; and they had been working with many different practical approaches to entrepreneurship. Afterwards, the teacher students were given the following task in groups: 108 Britt Due Tiemensma and Connie Stendal Rasmussen

1. You must invent a game in your group, where pupils in 4th grade can test and develop democratic skills. You may start with a well-known game (card, ball, board, or computer) and develop from there. You can also develop a new game from scratch. 2. You must include 1 or 2 UN 2030 goals in the game. 3. You must include the purpose of the primary school (Folkeskolens formÂl www.uvm.dk) in your games. 4. You are only allowed to use recycled materials for the game. 5. Ö and you must describe the purpose of the game so that the pupils will understand perfectly what you mean. The pupils in 4th grade must be able to play the game in approx. 20ñ25 minutes. The teacher students worked on their games for two weeks, and presented them for each other, in order to give friendly critical feedback. They had very good questions and comments like ìHow does this game develop democratic skillsî? or ìIf you do this, it will be easier for the children to understandî. We went to a local school to test the games in 4th grade, while we, the teachers and the university college lecturers, observed the practice carefully. The teacher students had created very different games, and had very useful evaluations from the students, which they immediately transformed into improved games. In the end, the teacher students played the games in the teacher education program, and we discussed how teachers can get pupils to develop games with an entrepreneurial focus.

Case 2: Creating a Garden for Students The second case was about creating a community or school garden for teacher students at a university college, and the groups worked on this task for three weeks. The location was on the outskirts of town, close to the highway and railway. Most of the initiators were interested in experiential learning and sustainability and they had little knowledge on gardening. Small things can be important to the entrepreneurial mindset as well as understanding the overview about the financing and UN 2030 goals, and therefore, the narrative about the initiative will be constructed with some details as well as generalizations. To create attention on the community garden project, the teacher students invited other teacher students to attend a workshop on gardening and transforming old potatoes and overripe tomatoes into new plants. At the workshop, the participants used trash materials, old tins, flowerpots made of transparent and opaque plastic as plant containers. They experimented with self-irrigation systems and making windows in the plastic containers to be able to see how the potatoes evolved. The outcome for the teacher students can be difficult to describe. For example, observing an old wrinkled potato turning into a budding new potato plant growing in an old can is about trash turned into value. The word trash has many negative connotations such as worthless or low quality. Trash creates climate crises on land, in the sea and air. At the end of peopleís production or consumption, trash remains. In this project, trash instead became a poetic way of creating life. The next step was to find out about the possibility of establishing a school or community garden on a university college campus. The teacher students used a design- thinking method to learn about community/school gardening and the interests of Entrepreneurship Education in a Democratic Perspective 109 stakeholders, students, canteen staff, facility service and management. A proposal for a community garden was developed by the teacher students but turned down by the stakeholders as too time-consuming, expensive and unrealistic. As an alternative, plant containers were introduced to be placed at a nearby student residence. They were much cheaper when made from trash and they would stick out next to a new institution building. A prototype of recycled wood was developed and at the local Makerspace, it could be further developed. The nearby Makerspace is a member-driven association that gathers do-it-yourself people, inventors and geeks of all ages and levels, and teacher students can use the place to develop their products. These workshops are located in an old industrial building so different from a university college building with multifunctional classrooms where teacher students not are allowed to work with tools and wood.

Discussion The teacher studentsí evaluations, the questionnaires and informal interviews showed that it is possible to work on entrepreneurship education and at the same time on democratic formation, and that teacher studentsí attitudes are very important for coping with their own learning processes. Did we reach our goals? In many ways it is a YES. The teacher studentsí evaluations showed that they perfectly understood and used elements from the democratic formation and from entrepreneurship education when working on the games. ìIt made perfect sense that we should invent games and test them in school. It was a great experience for us and for the children. They learned a lot in the democratic field, and so did we. And the children were very entrepreneurialî (Student evaluation June 2019). The processes were great for the teacher students, and their energy and enthusiasm on the practical level was high and they also used their theoretical knowledge to develop the pupilsí skills in the games. The global perspective seems to be missing, however, it is the first time we have tested these cases, so we can improve here. The teachers in the school were very fond of the games and asked the students to copy and develop them afterwards. The teacher students perceived this part of the course as an authentic practical experience and their understanding of their own learning as a process where qualification, socialization and subjectification could not be distinguished but supported each other (Biesta, 2017, pp. 28ñ29). With reference to Biesta, they were learning from democracy. In the community/school garden project, the relationship between entrepreneurship and democratic formation was more unclear. To study entrepreneurship education and at the same time democratic formation can be a difficult task for teacher students when knowing that their design only will be an experimental exercise. ìTheoretically, inventing a school garden without doing something was unnecessary.î (Student interview June, 2019). Some teacher students were creating a passive learning atmosphere or felt insecure, uncomfortable and interpreted the freedom to contact and learn from a NGO as a lack of framework and organization of the module. They did not see a potential of democratic formation by learning from people doing something for the common good. Most of the teacher students were positive about working outside the classroom in other settings and they described how this gave them a bit more confidence in challenging themselves as teachers. The teacher students were expected to participate in activities and take part in workshops and this turned out to be incompatible with their private life and social 110 Britt Due Tiemensma and Connie Stendal Rasmussen expectations when they were uncertain of the outcome of their efforts. Most of the teacher students showed little interest in developing a prototype and solving practical problems when no students were involved. The game project had a specific outcome and the garden project did not, and this made a significant difference to teacher studentsí understanding of their learning outcome. Clearly, they considered experiential learning to be more efficient when ending with a usable product than when ending with different abstract options. To learn from Entrepreneurship Education, it is important to work with real challenges, but not always realistic within the present structure of a very theoretical teacher education program.

Conclusion For ten years, Danish teacher students have been educated in a system with mandatory entrepreneurship education, but in our sample they did not remember to be introduced Entrepreneurship Education until they enrolled in the teacher education program. In this program, the teacher students expected to meet authentic challenges generated from the teacher profession and to be able to transfer their new knowledge and skills to their future work in a classroom. They wanted to learn through active participation in entrepreneurship education and not just about entrepreneurship education from constructed scenarios. Democratic Formation can be included in Entrepreneurship Education in primary schools. Attitude is understood as an overarching competence influencing creativity, action and outward orientation, but difficult to pinpoint when planning lessons for students in a primary education classroom. The teacher students understood the relationship between entrepreneurship education and democratic formation, and they were able to use it in the concrete examples, and also to feel responsible for the studentsí development of democratic and entrepreneurial skills. It was complex and risky for the teacher students to focus on so many things at the same time, and once in a while the challenges designed by us were too many. Entrepreneurship education and the teacher education program must provide authentic learning opportunities for the teacher students, in order to promote entrepreneurial skills.

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Børne ñ og Undervisningsministeriet (UVM). (2017). Folkeskolens formÂl [Objectives of the primary school]. Retrieved from https://www.retsinformation.dk/forms/ R0710.aspx?id=196651#id022b0e44-841e-4caf-9378-363beeaf94c1 Bruun, J., Lieberkind, J., & Schunck, H. B. (2017). International civic and citizenship education. Internationale hovedresultater. Danmarks Institut for Pædagogik og Uddannelse. Aarhus: Aarhus Universitet. Dewey, J. (1929). Experience and nature. London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/experienceandnat029343mbp/page/n11 Eskici, M. (2019). Sustainable learning levels of high school students. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 10(1), 63ñ80. European Commission. (2018). Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. Official Journal of the European Union, 189(4). Jarvis, P. (2010). Adult education and lifelong learning. Theory and practice. Fourth Edition. London: Routledge. Johansen, P., & Tetzschner, H. (2006). Casestudiemetoden [Case study method]. In Voxsted, S. (Ed.), Valg der skaber viden [Choises that create knowledge]. Hans Reitzels Forlag. Korsgaard, O. et al. (2001). Learning for democratic citizenship. Copenhagen: DPU. McCallum, E., McMullan, L., Weicht, R., & Price, A. (2018). EntreComp into action, get inspired, make it happen. Luxembourg: Publications Office of European Union. Rasmussen, A., & Fritzner, A. (2016). From dream to reality. Learning outcomes and didactic principles for teaching entrepreneurship in Nordic schools. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers. Rasmussen, A., Moberg, K., & Revsbech, C. (2015). A taxonomy of entrepreneurship education ñ perspectives on goals, teaching and evaluation. Ejlkovsgrade: The Danish Foundation for Entrepreneurship. Retrieved from https://eng.ffe-ye.dk/ media/785766/taxonomy-en.pdf Rasmussen, C. S., & Christiansen, R. B. (2007). Medborger og verdensborger ñ udfor- dringer for lærere og elever i skolen [Citizen and world citizen ñ challenges for teachers and students in school]. In KLM i læreruddannelsen [KLM in teacher education]. Frederikshavn: Dafolo Forlag, 61ñ92. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. Our Common Future. (1987). Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/5987our-common-future.pdf Schnack, K. (1992). Dannelse og demokrati [Formation and democracy]. Copenhagen: DLH. Strachan, G. (2018). Can education for sustainable development change entrepreneurship education to deliver a sustainable future? Discourse and Communication for Sustain- able Education, (9)1, 36ñ49.

Correspondence relating to this paper should be addressed to Britt Due Tiemensma, University College, Absalon, Trekroner Forskerpark 4, 4000 Roskilde. Email: [email protected] and Connie Stendal Rasmussen, University College, Absalon, Trekroner Forskerpark 4, 4000 Roskilde. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0022

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 112ñ128, 2019

The Effects of Preschoolersí Media Usage Habits on Their Daily Life and Sustainability

Begum Canaslan Akyar Tarsus University, Mersin, Turkey ÷zkan Sapsaglam Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

Abstract Todayís children are born into a digital world and are exposed to various electronic devices and digital contents both in the home environment and other environments since the first years of life. Children, who are a natural recipient of the environment in which they live, are exposed to the effects of the digital world at different levels and reflect these effects in different ways. The purpose of the reported study is to investigate if preschoolersí daily media usage habits affects their drawings. This study is planned according to the case study design of qualitative research methods. The study was conducted with 15 preschoolers and their parents. There were nine boys and six girls in the study. The preschoolersí drawings and their parentsí interview data were analyzed by using the descriptive analyzing method. The study result shows that there are differences between boys and girls media usage habits. Boys spend more time with media tools than girls. Additionally, boys are exposed to more inappropriate content because of their preferences. The analysis of their drawings revealed that boys are more affected than girls from media contents since boysí drawings include more characters from media than girls. It can thus be suggested that media tools might be harmful when they are used in a developmentally inappropriate way, and excessive media tool usage has negative impact on children. Therefore, the reported study recommends that parents and caregivers take some precautions to limit preschoolers from spending time with media tools and to control content of childrenís activity. Key words: preschooler, media, drawings, early childhood, consuming behavior, sustainability.

Introduction The impact of early childhood on childrenís future lives is now a recognized reality in the world, and the family environment in which this period is spent is the childís first source of knowledge and experience (Sapsaglam, 2018). Digital technologies and appli- ances are rapidly expanding in homes and other environments (Arnott, 2013). Using media tools age is decreasing day by day. 52% of children who are from 0 to 8 years old The Effects of Preschoolersí Media Usage Habits on Their Daily Life and Sustainability 113 could access mobile devices in USA (Rideout, 2011). The number increased by 75%, children who are between 0- and 8-years old accessibility of mobile devices in 2013 (Rideout, 2013). In 2017, the report which was conducted in USA, stated that 42% of children have their own private tablet and they spend around two hours and fifteen minutes a day with media tools (Rideout, 2017). Infants and toddlers start media usage at three and five months (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). While increasing the childrenís rate of media tools usage, adults should be careful to prevent children excessive exposure of passive and nonsocial technology use (AAP, 2016). Caregivers and teachers should arrange tools and programs to encourage childrenís playful explorations because carefully selected programs support children to be active, and understand the world around them (Moore, 2017). Especially, early childhood educators find culturally responsive and developmentally appropriate way for sharing technology and digital tools (Donahue & Schomburg, 2017). Media tool is not always harmful when the use of media tool is controlled. Previous studies have reported that, appropriately designed media content provides interactive learning, improve their skills and healthy development (Thai et al., 2009). Furthermore, developmentally appropriate media content contributed to childrenís both cognitive, such as literacy and numeracy, and social-emotional development such as friendliness, sharing and acceptance of diversity (Courage & Howe, 2010). Seemingly, there is a positive relation between playing video game and creativity. Verenikina and Kervin (2011) stated that using tablet by under five-year old has positive impact on childrenís creativity According to the study, children who were 12 years old and who played more video games were significantly more creative than children who played less video games (Jackson, 2012). In addition, in the same study, parents reported that applications (apps) were promoting their childrenís play and creativity. Apps provided childrenís in-text and drawing creativity skills. By using apps, children could write, draw, paint and create collages (Marsh et al., 2015). However, parentís supervisor role is important for introducing new apps, which enhance creativity and play (Marsh et al., 2015). Beside these negative impacts, many of the media contents are not evaluated in terms of their appropriateness for childrenís development (Lieberman, Bates, & So, 2009). The uncontrolled, very poorly designed media contents are harmful to children because they are directed to childrenís aggressive and anti-social behavior by role modeling, rewarding and teaching. In addition, the inappropriate content indoctrinates to children fear and anxiety as well as identifying and ignoring ethnic and gender stereotypes (Lieberman, Fisk, & Biely, 2009). The sustainability interpretations are available in contexts of different scientific spheres: economics, ecology, psychology, philosophy, art and social sciences (SlunienÎ, 2019; SalÓte, 2015; Fedosejeva et al., 2018). World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) defined sustainable development as ìÖdevelopment is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needsî (WCED, 1987, p. 37). Sustainable development is believed to consist of three dimensions: the protection of the natural environment, the maintenance of economic vitality, and the observance of specific social considerations (Veisson & Kabadayi, 2018). Consumption is the largest problem for global sustainability for rich countries (Baudrillard, 1998). To deal with these problems, early childhood years are a vital period for the introduction of sustainability (United Nationís Educational Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO, 2008). The early year sustainability 114 Begum Canaslan Akyar and ÷zkan Sapsaglam awareness could be related to everyday behaviors, for instance, bathing, laundering, or the use of modern technological devices (Shove, 2003). Digital media tools have changed childrenís consumption behaviors. Media is a source of information which has an effect on peopleís knowledge of environment and attitudes (Keinonen et al., 2014). Digital media can be accepted as one of the childrenís part of environment. According to socio-ecological perspective, which is drawn by Bron- fenbrenner in 1986 mentions the childrenís development and environment relationship. Additionally, Lee, Bartolic, and Vandewater (2009) recognize the media context in the socio-ecologic perspective. The media elements of macrosystem could be linked with childrenís core values and beliefs towards environment via affect consumer choices (Skouteris, Do, Rutherford, Cutter-Mackenzie, & Edwards, 2010). Lindstrom and Seybold (2003) suggest that children have an excessive effect on familyís expenditure. A study shows that there is a positive relationship between increasing TV times and 3ñ 6-year-old childrenís decision of branch while shopping with their family (Kirdar, 2007). Digital games are another way of effecting childrenís consumer behavior. The consumerism behavior is emphasized in different ways like adverb-game and in-game advertising (Kusay & Akbayir, 2015). Therefore, the content of programs for children is very important. The messages conveyed by programs have the potential to influence childrenís perceptions and behaviors. For an ecologically and sociologically sustainable life, television programs can be used as a tool and can raise awareness for both children and parents. However, television programs often do not have such a concern and programs do not reach the masses (Bilgic, 2016). An example of this is public service broadcasting published at a time when the rate of audience is low. Tek and Ozgul (2013) stated that in order for the broadcasts to inform and raise public awareness, the necessity of broadcasting public spots on all television channels should be made and these broadcasts should be made within reachable hours (as cited in Bilgic, 2016). Consumers are becoming more aware of the fact that, through media, an altruistic ethical or environmental concern as well as greater enjoyment of quality, organic food or cycling for work motivates the reception of environmentally preferred behaviors (Soper, 2007). Internet, e-mail, television programs, documentaries and advertisements can be used for more sustainable consumption (Holbert, Kwak, & Shah, 2003). Excessive media tools usage causes some problems. In a study, parents reported that excessive media habits lead to difficult behaviors like difficult temperament (Thomp- son, Adair, & Bentley, 2013) or self-regulation problems (Radesky, Silverstein, Zucker- man et al., 2014). A study which was conducted at Korea with children found that high level of computer use causes low socio-emotional development score. In this study, children who spent more time with TV got low score from socio-emotional test (Seo et al., 2011). In addition, the other study mentioned that electronic media use and physical activity during early childhood period might be related to psychosocial health (Teychenne, Ball, & Salmon, 2012). If the psychosocial development is disturbed by for instance media tools, children can have problems about reading faces, basic communication, and relationship skills. Children who excessively watch TV tend to have to cope with social problems and they are less active during weekend and consume more snacks than children who spend less time in front of the TV (Pagani et al., 2010). Besides psychosocial development, there is an association between violent media content and aggressive behavior of children (Christakis, 2016) because children imitate what they see on screen and they reflect this kind of behavior in frightening content (Radesky & Christakis, 2016). The Effects of Preschoolersí Media Usage Habits on Their Daily Life and Sustainability 115

Boys are more likely affected by the violent content. In the early childhood period, boys and girls have different preferences, for instance, boys tend to like sports, action, and violence concepts for both media tools and books. Moreover, scary scenarios such as dinosaurs or alien fantasy heroes and superpower characters might be their favorite (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). On the other hand, girls generally are interested in nurturing themes. Dancer, fairies, and princesses are their favorite characters (Valken- burg & Piotrowski, 2017). For this reason, studies have presented that boys select aggressive play like imaginary fights or battles, rowdy sports, roughhousing and aggressive play. On the contrary, girls prefer requiring fine motor skills play such as designing jewelry, handicrafts, or dressing dolls (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Some countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia officially do not support the use of screen media for children who are under 18-month-old. Additionally, France does not allow TV stations from airing a program which aims children who are under three years old (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Some researchers argue that media tools improve childrenís learning, on the contrary, a study shows that children who are less than 30 months of age, cannot learn new information without any adult supporting with real-life experiences (Dickerson, Gerhardstein, Zack, & Bar, 2013). Furthermore, children who are less than 2.5 years old cannot learn new words from videos if an adult does not repeat or use the same words in their daily interactions (Richert, Robb, Fender, & Wartella, 2010). When considering childrenís developmental features, childrenís drawings give important clues about childrenís inner world. Drawing is a reflective way of childrenís emotions and thoughts across events around them, inner world, and cognitive development (Saglam, 2011). In addition, childrenís drawings give clue about their personality (Striker, 2005). In short, drawing is not only a pleasurable activity for children, but also a tool for expressing themselves (Hayes, Symington, & Martin, 1994) regarding emotion, feeling, thought, culture, opinion, values, personality and their inner world (Buyurgan & Buyurgan, 2007; Lin, 2006; Malchiodi, 2005; Sapsaglam, 2017). The usage of the childrenís media tools should be carefully monitored by adults to protect childrenís both excessive exposure and inappropriate content for their development (AAP, 2016; Donahue & Schomburg, 2017). Excessive media tool usage leads to some social problems (Thompson, Adair, & Bentley, 2013; Radesky, Silverstein, Zucker- man et al., 2014; Seo et al., 2011). Especially, violent content has negative effect on boys because violent content tends to be more interesting for boys (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Digital media is in the middle of young childrenís life. The researchers believe that explaining the impact of digital media on children is important for all development. Children can reflect themselves by drawing and drawing is a tool of understanding young childrenís inner world. The aim of the study is to determine whether the characters drawn by children are affected by digital media and to compare the drawings of boys and girls. Additionally, knowing their daily digital media tools habits are vital for the study in order to explain the media effect on childrenís drawings. For this reason, parent interviews help examining the drawings in a frame. It is thought that the study is important in terms of the absence of a previous research in this regard and the findings of the research. In this frame, the researchers ask the following questions: ñ How many hour children spend time with digital media tools? ñ Has digital media impact on childrenís behavior? 116 Begum Canaslan Akyar and ÷zkan Sapsaglam

ñ Does digital media effect boysí creative drawing? ñ Does digital media tools effect girlsí creative drawing?

Research Methods This study was planned according to the case study design of qualitative research methods. The study was carried out in the spring semester of 2017ñ2018. The case study is a useful strategy to examine the current situation is related to which factor(s). In addition, how the factor affects or is affected by the situation is investigated (Yildirim & Simsek, 2013). In this research, using case study was appropriate because the study focuses on the childrenís daily media usage at their natural environment.

Participants The study group was selected based on homogenous sampling method. The study group is formed by 60ñ66-month-old children who enrolled in early childhood education and their parents. There were nine boys and six girls in the study group. These children were selected from a public pre-school is in the Tokat district in the Middle Black Sea. In order to obey ethical rules, and follow privacy policy, code numbers were given to children and their parents.

Data Collection Instruments Childrenís drawings and semi-structured interview were used to gather data. In this regard, data collection and data sources are differentiated. The children closed their eyes, thought a character, and then the researcher asked to the children to draw this character on a blank sheet of paper. Then, each interpreted their own drawings, and the researcher took notes. In order to support the childrenís drawings analysis, parent interviews were conducted to have knowledge about the using media habits of the children. The semi-structured interview form was created by the researcher and arranged after an expert opinion. The first part is for demographic information and the second part of the form is about childrenís daily habit of screen-based devices and contains 14 items. Before conducting the interviews, the participants were informed about the purpose of the study, volunteer participation and right to withdraw whenever they wanted. In addition, the researcher mentioned voice recorder. The parent interviews were generally conducted at the school before picking up and after dropping their children in a silent and isolated room for children and adults. Each interview took almost 20 minutes.

Data Analysis The childrenís drawings were analyzed by content analysis. In addition, the interviews were firstly listened again and then transcribed. After transcribing the data set, these were analyzed by using the descriptive analyzing method. According to the descriptive analyzing method, the aim is to analyze data by a summary and interpretation (Yildirim & Simsek, 2013). The Effects of Preschoolersí Media Usage Habits on Their Daily Life and Sustainability 117

Research Findings The characteristics of the childrenís parents and their home situation regarding technological devices were firstly mentioned. The parentsí using social media frequency is changed between half an hour and four hours in a day. In addition, all the children have a TV and smart phone at their home, then tablet is most reachable media devices (n=10) and some children have a PC (n=9) at their home.

The Usage of Media Tools According to the result of the data analysis, one of the themes is the usage of media tools. The theme has sub-themes which are the total hours of using media tools and type of activity. Figure 1 shows the themes.

The Usage of Media Tools

Total hours of using Type of activity media tools

Figure 1. The childrenís usage of media tools

Figure 1 includes themes related to the use of media tools. When the findings are examined, two important themes emerge. The first theme is related to the use of media tools and the second theme is related to the type of activity. The descriptive statements of parents on these themes are given below. When analyzing the codes, the most emphasized point is that all children spend their time with media tools. The time interval is changed between 30 minutes to more than four hours. The table 1 demonstrates the childrenís total hours of media tools usage. According to the responses of the parents the boys are spending more time than girls with media tools. The girls generally spend time in 30 minutes to one-hour interval. However, the boys are generally in two hours to more than four hoursí interval. In this context, one of the mothers (P11) stated that: ìHe is spending time around totally four hours with a mobile phone. I allow him to play with mobile phone because he says that he could not play with it when he was at schoolî The mother emphasized that the four hours is with a break, the child plays with media tools in a different time frame in a day. The other mother (P2) stated that ìSometimes it takes longer than two to three hours. If I do not warn him or take away the mobile phone from him, he does not leave it.î 118 Begum Canaslan Akyar and ÷zkan Sapsaglam

However, some children do not stop using media tools, therefore, mothers put limit, or they have to take the tool from their children.î

Table 1 Total Hours of Using Media Tools Time f 30 mins ñ 120 mins 9 121 mins ñ 240 mins 4 240+ 3

The childrenís type of activity with media tools was deeply investigated in the study. Most of the parents stated that children play games with the media tools. In addition, children prefer watching video via YouTube. Table 2 shows the childrenís type of activity with media tools. Even children do not play a real game, they are watching videos which the content of the video is playing game or describing a video game. There are differences between boys and girls in the type of activity with media tools. The girls are mostly watching video with the media tools. In addition, they are interested in princess, do it yourself or something which is related to daily life. P1 stated that ìShe watches videos via YouTube, she is watching making play dough, or assembling Kinder surpriseís pieces of toys.î The other mother (P3) reported that ìShe watches cartoon videos or videos which children are playing games on it. Sometimes, she watches videos related to wedlock.î On the other hand, the boys prefer to watch or play about war, zombie, or something which contains violence. P9 pointed out that ìHe watches a video which name is GTA 5, if there is an internet connection. If there is no internet access, he plays car race game.î In addition, P15 stated that ìHe played nonstop a Zombie Catching game, he did not hear us, and he was looking meaningless anymore, I banned playing with the media tool for fifteen days.î It can be said that the children, especially the boys do not play appropriate game regarding their age.

Table 2 Type of Activity Activities f Playing game 8 Watching video 6 Watching cartoon 1 The Effects of Preschoolersí Media Usage Habits on Their Daily Life and Sustainability 119

Effects of Media The other theme is the effects of media tool on children based on the analysis of the study, behavioral effects and domestic problems.

Effects of Media

Consuming Behavioral Problems Domestic Problems Behavior

Figure 2. Effects of media on childrenís life

Figure 2 indicates themes related to the effects of media tools. When the findings are examined, three important themes emerge. The first theme is related to behavioral problems, the second theme is related to domestic problems of use of media tools, the third theme is related to consuming behavior. The descriptive statements of parents on these themes are given below. When analyzing the parentsí responses, most of them stated that children reflect the effect of media tools on their behavior. In addition, the parents mentioned only negative effect of the media tools. The table 3 presents the behavioral effect of media on children. The boys are further affected than girls from the media tools according to parentsí report. For instance, P6 stated that ìSometimes he wakes up in fear and screams as saying mother! I do not know the source of the fear that the games which he plays in tablet or the cartoons which he watches on TV. However, I believe that cartoons can affect him more because he usually more watches cartoon than plays with tablet.î P13 pointed out that ìHe cannot realize the danger, he cannot understand that danger is danger. He says that it was just a game. He harms his sibling because he thinks that it is a game.î The exemplary quotas explain the relationship between the boysí activities and effects on their behavior.

Table 3 Reflecting on Behavior Responses f Equate themselves with media characters 3 Tend to violence 2 Fear from something 2 Use bad words 1 Desensitization 1 120 Begum Canaslan Akyar and ÷zkan Sapsaglam

The media tools cause some problem at home, as well, according to parents. Most of the children decide what they are going to do with the media tools. However, sometimes the content of the videos or games are not appropriate in the parentsí opinion. For this reason, the parents and children cannot compromise, and they have chaos at home. P4 stated that ìHe is offensive and aggressive if I intervene his play.î In addition, parents reported that the siblings are fighting because no one wants to give the media tools to another. P15 emphasized that ìHe has sisters, they do not deal with the games. Because the girls want game for girls, and he wants to download games for boys. They are fighting for this reason.î

Table 4 Domestic Problems Problems f Disagreement about content 3 Fratricidal quarrels 2 Eating separately 1 Getting stubborn 1 Showing aggressive behavior 1 Demoralized 1

The last theme is about consuming behavior of children. According to parentís reports, these children mostly are impacted by digital media regarding consuming behaviors. The childrenís meal preferences, clothes, and toy preferences were asked to their parents. The answers show that children prefer eating Turkish dinner, meatball, and rice. In addition, most of the children do not have any persistence on digital media character on their clothes and toy preferences. On the other hand, some of them want a hero or popular characters on their clothes. For example, P7 stated that; ìHe usually prefers to wear Spiderman t-shirts as clothes.î Additionally, a mother stated that digital media characters are a key factor of toy selection for her daughter. M14; ìShe likes playing with dolls; therefore, she wants to buy dolls generally. Especially if she sees the characterís doll, she persistence to buy the toy.î

Table 5 Consuming Behavior Type of consuming f Toys 2 Clothes 2 Meal 2 The Effects of Preschoolersí Media Usage Habits on Their Daily Life and Sustainability 121

Childrenís Drawings The character drawings of girls and boys were analyzed by their verbal transmissions and evaluation of the pictures. The findings are given below.

Boysí Drawings When the pictures drawn by boys were examined, their characters were exposed through digital media appearing in the direction of their explanations. Boys have drawn characters like superheroes, dinosaurs, knights, weapons, such as war and in the drawings. A few examples of the character drawings made by children are as follows

Figure 1. C9ís cartoon affected character Figure 2. C11ís game affected character

Figure 3. C7ís cartoon affected characters

Figure 4. C13 cartoon affected character

In the drawing of the participant, C9, he said that he had drawn the character of Tortuka, which he saw in the Kratt brothersí cartoons in Figure 1. The participants, C11, explained that he depicts the knight character shown in Figure 2, which he saw while playing a game on mobile phone. In the drawing shown in Figure 3, participants, C7, explained that he drew the characters of Ben10, which he saw both in TV and game. One of the children, C13, depicted the character Ugur Bocegi, which was shown in Figure 4, in the picture he made in a television cartoon. 122 Begum Canaslan Akyar and ÷zkan Sapsaglam

Girlsí Drawing When the drawings of girls are examined, it is revealed that the pictures they made contain more princess figures. In addition, children reflect what they see in daily life in their drawings is another finding according to the childrenís expressions. A few examples of childrenís drawings are given below.

Figure 5. C10 character drawing Figure 6. C13 character drawing

Figure 8. C14 character drawing Figure 7. C3 character drawing

In the drawing shown in Picture 5, the child, C10, drew a garden. There is a girl in the garden. She would like to take an apple from a tree, but she canít. Then a super hero came and gave the apple to the girl. One of the children (C13) depicted that princes and her dog. They have a walk. She added that she saw them in her dream. In Figure 7, the child, C3, explained that there is a person who is driving a car. She see them around every day. One of the children (C14), drew a superhero. The superhero is giving an apple to the child. The Effects of Preschoolersí Media Usage Habits on Their Daily Life and Sustainability 123

Research Findings The aim of the study is to determine whether the characters drawn by children are affected by digital media and to compare the drawings of boys and girls. The study was constructed on the case study design of qualitative research methods. Purposive sampling and homogeneous sampling methods were used to form the study group. The obtained data were analyzed by descriptive analysis technique, according to the result of the research. All the children had at least two media tools in their home. TV and mobile phone are the most common digital media tools which are accessible by children. In addition, most of them have also tablet and PC in their homes. Our findings confirm Vandewater et al. (2007) results, they stated that children are born and grown in media-saturated environment. Accessing and using of any media tool became part of their daily life (Van- dewater et al., 2007). Because they are surrounded by the media tools, as usual, they spend much time with them. Previous research has detected that the common media tool preferred by children is dominantly television. Even children play with video games or use computer, they play around under one hour (Vandewater et al., 2007). On the contrary, the current study results demonstrate that children spend most of their time with mobile phone, tablet and then television. Especially boys allow more than two hours for media tools. Todayís children do not use mobile phone or tablets for only playing games, they frequently watch videos via YouTube if internet connection is available. Even the child does not know reading and writing, they can find whatever they want to watch. One of the study states that media tools take away children from hands-on play, although the hands-on play is controlled and generated by children throughout their interest (Vibbert & Meringof, 1981). There is concern that digital play causes decreasing spontaneous and traditional forms of play (Brown, 2009). However, not only spontaneous and traditional type of play, even digital play might be under a risk, because children watch videos and the videosí topics are play. The children watch other childrenís play rather than play their game. The content of the media tools which children are exposed to is important as well. Based on the result of the current study, children, especially boys are not exposed to appropriate content. They are prone to play war, zombie games, containing bad word videos. This result fits well with very poorly designed games that can teach, model or reward aggressive behavior, instill fear and anxiety (Christakis & Zimmerman, 2009). The very poor content causes violent behavior, being afraid and not aware of harmful behaviors. American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Communications discussed that media violence related to aggression, lack of empathy and desensitization to violence (2009). Accordingly, the media devices cause poor social competence, social withdrawal and poor communication skills (Ebbeck, Yim, Chan, & Goh, 2015). As stated in the current study, the children have problems with their siblings and sometimes with their parents, especially mothers, because of media tools. Additionally, digital media tools affect childrenís consumer choices (Skouteris et al., 2010). However, children have not been affected by digital media tools regarding consumer choices. This interpretation contrasts with that of Kirdar (2007), stated that there is a relationship between increasing screen time and decision of branch while shopping with their family. Finally, media tools limit childrenís creativity and predetermined responses (Haug- land & Wright, 1997). Similarly, with the Haugland and Wrightís study, the current study shows that exposure to prolonged hour media tools decrease creativity. However, 124 Begum Canaslan Akyar and ÷zkan Sapsaglam the findings of the current study, are inconsistent with the literature mentioned before. For instance, in the literature review part, Jackson (2012) argues that children who played game long hours have higher creativity score. In the current study, the children who spend more time with media tools, drew only characters from the media tools. On the other hand, the children who spend less time with media tools, drew more independent characters from media tools. Monitoring by an adult is important for controlling the content of the media and setting time limits (Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood. Alliance for Child- hood, & Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Childrenís Entertainment, 2012). Therefore, children are required to be warned by someone to limit themselves in terms of spending long hours in front of any media tools. A study which was conducted at 2013, stated that mostly mothers decided what children do with media tools, then children and finally fathers decided (Álvarez, Torres et al., 2013). On the other side, today most of the time children decide what to do with media tools. However, children are not mature enough to decide what content is appropriate themselves. For this reason, parents are aware of possible risks of media tools like cyber-bullying, sexual overtures or threats to privacy have negative effect on children social development (Livingstone et al., 2011)

Conclusions The study reveals that boys allow more time than girls to media tools. The children reflect effect of digital media contents on their behavior. For example, they face violent behavior, having fears, and desensitization. Additionally, the study shows that boys are exposed to inappropriate content for their development. Besides boys, girls spend less time with media tools and they consume more appropriate content for their development. There are variety of content and activities which children can access. In the study, the children spend time with YouTube. Additionally, children are not negatively affected from digital media tools regarding consuming behavior. Parents report that their children do not insist of any brands in costume, food or toys. The children consume more traditional foods, and they decide costume with their parent. Therefore, it could be said that digital media may not impact childrenís consuming behavior. Based on their parentsí reports, most of them do not watch inappropriate content. Although some parents ban them, some children still watch. The childrenís drawings reveal that the boysí drawings had more under effect of media tools. As parentsí reporting, the drawings show that boys are highly exposed to digital media tools. Therefore, boysí creative drawings contain much digital media sign than girlsí creative drawing. The negative effects of media tools are widely known, however, limiting time and decreasing childrenís spending time with media tools are out of the question.

Implications for Practice It can thus be suggested that, parents can resist childrenís desire to play with media tools. Similarly, Teichert (2017) suggested that parents and caregivers limit childrenís screen time because they are concerned for childrenís physical and social development. Furthermore, the increasing time of spending with digital media tools could lead to increase childrenís consuming behavior. The children can tend to consume well-known branches and plastic packet foods, etc. For this reason, a future study can analyze the The Effects of Preschoolersí Media Usage Habits on Their Daily Life and Sustainability 125 relation between childrenís screen times and type of branches that they show behavior tendency. The parents also can put rules and do not flex these rules. Again, the same study mentioned that parents set a rule as children can use media tools only with a parent (Teichert, 2017).

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Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Begum Canaslan Akyar, Tarsus University, Mersin. Email: [email protected] and ÷zkan Sapsaglan, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0023

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 129ñ141, 2019

Parental Thinking, Beliefs and Values: Establishing Entrepreneurial Skills in the Family

Maria Hercz Eˆtvˆs Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary Ferenc Pozsonyi ELTE UKids Research Group, Budapest, Hungary Nikolett Takács Szeged University, Szeged, Hungary

Abstract This present paper focuses on the pedagogical aspects of parentsí thinking in order to get acquainted with the ideal mindset for supporting the development of entrepreneurial competence, one of the key competencies of the 21st century. Our quantitative research applied a questionnaire with 101 items and a reliability of Cronbach-a=0.856, N=1,146. Respondents from different regions and social classes in Hungary filled in the forms. Results indicate that parents are aware of the 21st century ideal; however, their educational views suggest conservative practice, which is not as supportive for the formation of entrepreneurial skills. Key words: entrepreneurial education, social entrepreneurship, parentsí thinking, positive psychology, sustainability.

Introduction Public consciousness assumes that the ideal age of starting to deal with the issue of entrepreneurship is around sixteen. However, if we think of success stories and exemplary carriers, or read biographical novels, it is clear that the roots of the aftermath lead back to early childhood. The adult entrepreneurs do not start from scratch; the reason for their success is the coincidence of countless factors. Assuming that people could be prepared for an entrepreneurial life, the education of preparation in this area must be handled equally with other fields of education. Genetic inheritance and education form the foundation for functioning as a personal entrepreneurial competence system. If a young person or an adult has this foundation, each will explore the possibilities and niche markets easily, find their own ways in business life, and furthermore each could be educated and continually trained effectively as is required. 130 Maria Hercz, Ferenc Pozsonyi, and Nikolett Takács

Theoretical Background Becoming an entrepreneur is a dynamic, creative and long-lasting developmental process. The basic skills and attitudes could evolve from the very early years but its ìknow-howî is unclear. This is a great challenge for educators and consequently for researchers and theorists to find the appropriate methodology for the successful education of students of the new net-generations Z or Alpha (Tari, 2015; Turner, 2015; Fedosejeva et al., 2018). Actually, it is necessary to see parents as educators. Based on the results of the foregoing researches it can be stated that schools and education need an urgent paradigm shift: student-based education and joyful learning can no longer be a slogan but need to be couched in reality. Similarly, and in parallel with this, principles and values of education in the family, and parental views on childrenís development and its support needs to be revised in order to be able to bring up happy and mature people for the future. Numerous scientific groups and researchers have been studying the characteristics and educational possibilities of the ideal employee for 25 years (Rychen & Salganik, 2001; OECD/DeSeCo, 2003; UN, 2017; Davies et al., 2019). Their results suggest that the gist of education is the development of the so-called key competencies and skills, and it should put an emphasis on learning and entrepreneurial skills in partnership with the traditional scientific disciplines (EU Commission, 2016; Nagy, 2010). Considering the fact that humanity is faced with severe global problems in the 21th century, contemporary education must also revise its approach towards different teaching methods and content. For instance, the case of education for sustainable development illustrates in high accuracy that schools tend to teach facts about the issue instead of the possibility for personal involvement (Eriksen, 2013). International programmes for educating in entrepreneurial skills are typically designed for secondary school students; however, there is a European programme for lower primary students with a challenge-and-project-based framework requiring active learning (Lindner, 2015). The competencies proposed for development and the methods agree very well with the popular positive psychology (Csíkszentmihályi, 1991; 1997). The UKids programme (Hercz, 2019) gives high priority regarding educating for independence, brain- storming and creativity; moreover, we could find the same concept and view in the criteria for happiness defined by Csíkszentmihályi and the ideal conditions for educating flow state in the family. Searching for the successful and happy adultís basic traits, the development of social skills is a keynote (Zsolnai, 2013), besides the self-efficacy. The developers of the programme used Banduraís theory on self-efficacy. It describes the human preference for activities that lead to results or successful coping behaviour; consequently, decisions are influenced by the personal judgement on self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Of course, it should not be forgotten that all the results of our education is the resultant of a multi- factorial system. The recognized human ecology theory by Bronfenbrenner postulates that the development of children is largely determined by the way that their parents educate them, and that is influenced by the peculiarities of their family and the social safety net, including neighbourhood or community (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The family is the first place of education ñ every scientist come to this conclusion. However, it is unclear what ideas and concepts parents respect and follow. The traditional view of the child and the idea of parenting have changed a lot in the last decade but its Parental Thinking, Beliefs and Values: Establishing Entrepreneurial Skills in the Family 131 depth is not enough. The Council of the EU draws attention to the importance of studies dealing with the issue of changing the mindset and socialization within modern societies. There are several different strategies of making someone successful in mature adulthood. Our research prefers to use positive parenting on the analogy of positive psychology. Seay and colleagues reviewed 120 pertinent articles about this notion and created the following definition in virtue of them: ìPositive parenting is the continual relationship of parent(s) and a child or children that includes caring, teaching, leading, communicating, and providing for the needs of a child consistently and unconditionally.î (Seay et al., 2014, p. 207). The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (2006) similarly defines positive parenting: ìparental behaviour based on the best interest of the child that is nurturing, empowering, non-violent and provides recognition and guidance which involves setting of boundaries to enable the full development of the child.î Studies on transgenerational inheritance proved that parentsí beliefs, motives, values and attitudes are transferred to their children directly and indirectly, consciously and unconsciously, and although most of the information is encoded, the successors can decode and download them. The existence of a personal role model is crucial in this process (‹lavere & Veisson, 2015). Childrenís sets of views and experiences continuously gain from the very first moment of their lives, and this functions as a parent-based system in the everyday life giving safety and often determining their adulthood. Indeed, parentsí beliefs and behaviour are not exclusive but are the main factors to help children to understand and explain the world and their experiences in their own realities. In addition, the role of genes must be considered since they encode information and feelings, and they represent the biological parents on a cellular level; nonetheless, the caretakers are those who share their conscious and subconscious belief systems with the children. In classroom environments, boys and girls usually seem to be the representatives of, or simply the mouthpieces for, their parents as their ìownî beliefs mirror the familyís beliefs. Con- sequently, if our intention is to understand studentsí behaviour better and to have the utmost impact on their education, we must explore the gist of parental thinking and the values inherent in both parents and their children. Parentsí attitudes towards school could be another notable field of research with a focus on their participation (Kazlaus- kiene, Gaucaite, & Juodaityte, 2012).

Figure 1. Number of studies on teachersí and parentsí beliefs in Scopus, 1963ñ2019 132 Maria Hercz, Ferenc Pozsonyi, and Nikolett Takács

Measuring beliefs has become a quite popular trend in scientific studies for the 21st century. Examining the Scopus database shows, that even if there are some scientific studies related to teachersí or parentsí beliefs from the year 1963, this topic became popular only from the turn of the millennium and its popularity is constantly growing. Taking a closer look at Figure 1 and the database of Scopus, we can find 3,816 documents related to the topic of teachersí thinking, but only one-sixth of this number is available about parental views (N=617). There are also some studies, that measure both parentsí and teachersí views according to mostly educational topics (N=11). The most common keywords related to the topic of teachersí beliefs are most closely linked to education and developmental practices in teaching: teachers beliefs (906), teacher education (224), teaching (198), beliefs, (161), professional development (153), education (79), teacher thinking (75), teacher knowledge (71), students (63), teachersí thinking and knowledge (59), human (57), pre- service teachers (57). On the other hand, studies examining parentsí views vary on a wider scale: (94), female, (48), male (47), child (42), parents (33), article (30), adolescent (28), adult (26), child parent relation (37), parent beliefs (35), beliefs (12), academic achievement (10), child behaviour (10), motivation (8), socialization (6), social perception (6).

Dimensions and Assumptions of the Research The goal of present research is to reveal parental thinking and attitudes in connection with educating entrepreneurship, especially social entrepreneurship. Its framework is based on the exploration of parenting, doctrines and methods of education in the family, and the existence of a positive family climate beneficial for the flow state. We were curious about what kind of image of the ideal 21st century adult and schoolchild they have, what they think about the possible reasons of school success or failure, finally, what upbringing methods and styles they prefer and why. The parental set of views could be directly compared with the educational and developmental objectives of the UKids social entrepreneurship programme (Hercz, 2019). The statements used for mapping the set of views could also be contrasted with the theoretical characteristics that we revealed due to the analysis of the professional literature and the construction of curriculum for developing and supporting entrepreneurial competency. An indirect goal of the research is to develop a measuring instrument that could be used by any educational institution to map the parental view, thus they would be able to optimize their educational efforts with an evidence-based tool. The evolvement of the parents into the program is a supportive and developing factor for the children in itself. The research focused on two large areas. (1) Features of the parental views and their effects on their everyday life: a. views and their background, b. parenting, c. links between beliefs and behaviour (values and rules in the family). (2) Educating entrepreneurship. Parental Thinking, Beliefs and Values: Establishing Entrepreneurial Skills in the Family 133

The assumptions of the research are the following: (1) Parental beliefs are rather modern; their supporting activities are based on modern thinking and conception of children. (2) Parents believe that their role in educating and upbringing is determined by their beliefs in parenting. In connection with this, they have positive and children-centred ideas. (3) Deterministic thinking could cause learning success or failure. (4) Parents provide the necessary conditions to shape their childrenís independent, successful adulthood and their entrepreneurial competence at the same time.

Methods and Tools of the Research The questionnaire. A questionnaire was developed based on the concept of our previous research on parentsí learning and supporting strategies some years ago. The success- failure scale was also developed in that time (18 items, Cronbach-alpha=0.811). There are 101 items in the questionnaire, in which seven items mapped respondentsí background. For the parentsí better reading and filling-in experience, we structured the four thematic subscales into seven question blocks. The reliability of the whole questionnaire is Cronbach-alpha=0.856 for 94 items. Subscales are between 0.854 and 0.754; KM0 is between 0.744 and 0.707; sig=0.000; both the KMO and Bartlett criteria, factor analyses of the data were appropriate. The paper-and-pencil questionnaires were filled in at parents-teacher meeting or at home in the spring semester of 2019. The sample. Twelve schools were asked to participate from different parts of Hungary; types of settlement were also taken into consideration. We did not have the possibility to use a representative sample; however, we persisted in order to get data from parents from schools in counties having different level of economic development. We asked the parents of 9-to-11-year-old children (classes 3 and 4), mainly because thinking about parenthood could vary with the age of children, but it is the exact age group of our UKids project (Hercz, 2019). Out of the 1,500 questionnaires planned, teachers completed 1,247 but we could use only 1,196 because of incompleteness. 1,069 women and 365 men participated in the survey; the gender of 39 persons is unknown. 23.2% of the questionnaires were completed by father and mother altogether. The total amount of the completed questionnaires is 1,196 although the respondents reflect the opinion of almost one-and-a-half thousand (1,473) respondents. Letter N indicates the number of questionnaires.

Table 1 Questionnaires and Respondents in the Sample Questionnaires fulfilled by Genders in the sample Mother Father Both Other Sum Woman Man Unknown Sum % 66.2 7.4 23.2 3.3 100 73 25 2 100 N 792 88 277 39 1.069 365 39 Questionnaires in the research: N=1,196; Respondents: N=1,473.

There are two peculiarities of the families that should be highlighted: their living place and the number of children living in the family. The sample was constructed in a way that the ratio of the bigger and smaller cities (Budapest and the county seats) is 134 Maria Hercz, Ferenc Pozsonyi, and Nikolett Takács almost the same, while inhabitants of villages represent 20% (see Table 2). As for the number of children, almost one-third of the families (29%) have one, half of them (47%) have two children. 20% of the families brings up three children, the remained 4% have four children in the family.

Table 2 Respondentsí Living Place Living place Frequency Percent (%) city 506 42.3 town 435 36.4 village 255 21.3 Sum 1.196 100

Parentsí educational background is a remarkable factor in our research, although it is a piece of sensitive information. To enhance reliability and response tendency, based on the efficiency of our previous research, we asked the responding parents what level of education they wished for their children. According to numerous research project outcomes, this belief depends on the degree of parentsí supportive strategies; moreover, it reacts to childrenís efficiency (Dizon-Ross, 2018). The link between economic development and education is widely known nevertheless it also has several social benefits. A notable long-term effect is that educated parents can lend a helping hand to their children with the result that a follow-through effect on the literacy and life quality of the upcoming generation, is apparent (CsapÛ, 2002).

Table 3 Wished Highest School Level for Children Versus Parentsí Average School Level (%) Average school level of parents Wished school level Very low Lower than Higher than Total of child Middle High (max. basic) middle middle (%) basic (%) 30 70 ñ ñ ñ 100 middle (%) 12 16 50 20 0 100 high (%) 5 7 37 26 26 100 Total (%) 7 10 40 24 19 100 N=1,146

Using the parentsí highest school level we constructed a five-grade family education marker to compare that with the desired school level for the children (Table 3). After running a c2 test, it can be stated that parentsí literacy and the wished highest level of education for their children significantly correlates (Pearson c2 =177; df=8; SG=0.000). We could also collect data from those parents who do not live in the same household with the family, but it was impossible to trace back one-parent families or children living in S.O.S. Childrenís Villages. We need to specify this background question in the forthcoming surveys to eliminate the distortion in data processing. The sample consists of enough items for the comparison of living places: the ratio of cities (42%) and towns (36%) is almost equal, and the remaining part shows the villagers (21%), for exact figures (see Table 2). Parental Thinking, Beliefs and Values: Establishing Entrepreneurial Skills in the Family 135

It is well known that parental effects are the most important in childrenís development; however, this evidence just does not work in our present-day society. Maybe it is wise to expand the scope of the term ìparentî with those adults who live under the same roof with the children and/or spend quality time with them. Education is a bipolar process with direct and indirect dimensions in a system of complex environmental effects, and all the events are filtered by the childrenís personalities.

Results The different dimensions of the parental thinking about enterpreneurial education are introduced in the following ways: the first part of this chapter features the traits of the successful 21st century adult as a kind of framework and a faraway goal of the education in the family, then it concludes parentsí thinking about children having school success and failure with the help of two aspects; the second part reveals the views of the family having ìidealisticî educational, aka positive parenting, style for developing enterpreneurial skills. Idea of the successfulness. Everybody has their own folk-pedagogical theories which are innate or derived from experiences. Interaction with peers are highly influenced by the so-called intuitive theories, for example: the ones explaining how children learn or what causes their development (Bruner, 2004). That is the reason why we considered it important to clarify what idea of adult and what idea of child the respondent parents have. The characteristic list of the successful 21st century employee have been collected with the usage of research studies and models downloaded from the internet (more: Angyal & Hercz, 2019); parents had to evaluate on an intensity scale of five how important they consider each of the items (Table 4). The dispersion of the means of the 11 skills was low with the lowest value of 4.33. None of the respondents rejected contact- making skill, creativity and risk-taking (minimum=3). The exploratory factor analysis identified two significant factors, these are allocated in two diffent coloumns in descending order of popularity in Table 4.

Table 4 Evaluation of the Ideal 21st Century Employeeís Skills (After Factoranalysis) Personal skills and lifestyle mean SD Entrepreneurial skills mean SD good communication good at making contact 4.84 .410 4.88 .434 (in writing and speaking) takes risks / starts new 4.83 .473 well-informed / regards persistent 4.78 .548 4.52 .782 information critically can have an effect on others 4.75 .549 well-posted in economic issues 4.48 .809 has interesting ideas, creative 4.74 .525 LLL attitude 4.42 .867 makes a stand for something 4.74 .604 lives a healthy life 4.37 .877 (somebody) bravely active in social life 4.33 .959 flexibility 4.60 .723

After analysing the frequency distribution of the variables derived from the two factors, it is unambiguous that factors (Figure 2) considered as basics for entrepreneurship are more popular with parents (mean=4.7; SD=0.3) than personal skills and the peculiarities of lifestyle (mean=4.4; SD=0.6). 136 Maria Hercz, Ferenc Pozsonyi, and Nikolett Takács

Figure 2. The ideal 21st century employeeís two main skills (two variables out of the factors)

School success and failure. There is a strong connection between parentsí view about childrenís school success (6 items) and failure (12 items), and their own parenting style. Criteria lists of success had been developed in our previous research; however, its scaling seems to be insufficient since the highest score is only 3.9 whilst there are all kind of answers for factors of failure. Table 5 shows the evaluated rank and the characteristics joining items with similar content. It is evident that objective factors top the list: studentís motivation, relations, aptitudes, personality. This group, (the borders are marked in the table), features only being bored during lessons, albeit it depends on the studentís personality. People affecting children are at the end of the list. Respondents believe that the teachers, the school and their parental role have the lowest effect on children (Table 5).

Table 5 Parentsí View on School Success and Failure Mean SD success items FACTORS failure items Mean SD 3.7 0.8 student-subject learning unmotivated, incurious 4.9 0.37 relationship attitude 3.8 0.9 student-teacher social rela- bad relation with teachers 3.9 1.13 relationship tionships bad relation with peers 3.8 1.06 3.9 0.9 childís personality genetics underdeveloped learning 3.8 1.11 skills not ìsmartî enough at school 3.7 1.12 (in theoretical subjects) school bored, forced to be passive 3.7 1.17 (teacher) in class personality low self-discipline 3.6 1.20 low self-esteem 3.5 1.18 3.2 0.8 special help (extra school has no possibility to 3.5 1.26 lessons) (teacher) ìcreateî / adopt their ideas exaggerated requirements 3.4 1.07 at school Sequel to Table 5 see on the next page. Parental Thinking, Beliefs and Values: Establishing Entrepreneurial Skills in the Family 137

Sequel to Table 5. 3.6 0.9 family atmosphere parents inconsistent and unhelpful 3.0 1.16 supporting learning (family) parents 2.6 0.9 financial background poor family background 2.9 1.28

Flow family and educating for flow state. Content analysis was applied to find those views listed in the questionnaire which are determining for a child living in a family to be able to seek out a job and live a happy life as an adult. Csíkszentmihályiís works, mentioned before, were used as a reference point, and the selected parental views were evaluated on a scale of five with an average of 3.55 and notable dispersion (SD=0.9699). The frequency distribution of the contracted variables indicates that in the test, 3% parents are supportive totally. It is good to see that they are not completely repulsive (scores 1 and 2), most of the families have mainly positive views in this field. Significant differences (p<0.05) were detected with regard to literacy and living place: well-educated respondents from bigger settlements gave higher scores (Figure 3).

N=1,146; Used scale: 1ñ5.

Figure 3. Family climate for preparing children to become a ìflow personî (derived variable using factor analysis)

Entrepreneurial education in family context. The questionnaire consists of 56 sentences with inverse copular and locative inversion constructions to probe parental views and attitudes, and 12 sentences dealing with the respondentsí own family and parenting attitude. In this chapter, views relating to parental attitudes are analysed, afterwards the main categories form a complete system of views; thus respondentsí educational views and strategies, especially, and the key notions of entrepreneurial education come known. One of the most interesting questions for us was to get to know what parents asked when thinking about their role in their childrenís teaching and supporting. 15 typical ideas were given to be compared with their own beliefs on a five-grade Likert-scale, the ideal case scored 5. The minimum score of the answers was 3.17, the maximum was 4.5, and the mean of the variable reached 3.83. The distribution of the categories is displayed in Figure 4. In almost 40% of the families, parents share positive and supporting views (black columns Figure 4); however, ratio of families with traditional views (white columns on Figure 4) with controlling and commanding or overprotective attitude is nearly the same. 138 Maria Hercz, Ferenc Pozsonyi, and Nikolett Takács

Figure 4. Parentsí educational views by their positive content (frequency in percents)

From the six derived variables (see Table 6) we did not reveal significant difference in two cases (p<0.05): taking up challenges and permitting challenges (3rd factor; mean=3.9); and permitting and supporting self-management 4th factor; mean=3.6). It is not surprising that the factor of paternal support is notably lower while the average of other respondents is between 4.4. and 4.5. The factor of democracy is low on the average but ìOtherî (grandparents, foster parents) respondents; one is markedly lower with a mean of 3.2. Those parents who filled the questionnaire together scored more positively the issue of supporting childrenís creativity and communication.

Table 6 Some Statistical Features of Factors Derived from Parental Views Factor Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation 1. Supporting child / care 3 5 4.4 .549 2. Improve creativity 3 5 4.2 .543 3. Challenge-permission 3 5 3.9 .317 4. Self-management 3 4 3.6 .488 5. Bases democratic thinking 3 4 3.5 .498 6. Communication 2 4 3.3 .484 N=1,196; Scale: 1ñ5.

If we compare the question of childrenís desired highest school level with the abovementioned factors, the result is compelling. Values are substantially lower in every factor, the one dealing with support reached 0.7. Luckily, only a small part of the sample is involved. Another exciting result comes from the comparison of the parentsí highest school level with their gender. The highest-qualified mothersí scores are significantly higher in the case of standing with children, educating self-determination and supporting creativity. Fathers with low-level qualification have far more negative opinion about the substance of entrepreneurial competence, self-determination, creativity and challenges. The link between the importance of derived parental supportive factors and the value of social entrepreneurship was revealed with the Pearson correlation. All the tested cases show significant correlation if p<0.05 and p<0.01 (Table 7). Parentsí variable of values for the elements of social entrepreneurship indicated close connection and notable Parental Thinking, Beliefs and Values: Establishing Entrepreneurial Skills in the Family 139 links in the case of childrenís creativity, the support of their ideas and positive attitude toward challenges.

Table 7 The Correlation Between the Variable Social Entrepreneurship and the Parental Views Factors 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Supporting ideas and creativity 1 .058* .358** .177** .598** .475** .651** 2. Supporting communication .058* 1 .179** .270** .105** .100** .131** 3. Parentsí role in education 1 .602** .303** .511** .420** 4. Democracy in the family 1 .188** .409** .352** 5. Supporting self-management 1 .395** .361** 6. Attitudes with challenges 1 .546** 7. Social entrepreneur features 1

The correlation between respondentsí living place and the three most important factors of entrepreneurial education was also examined. Villagers (N=255) do not attach any significance to the support of creativity and ingenuity; they less prefer coping with challenges, and their attitude is less democratic towards children and family rights or the communication than the average of the two other groups.

Summary The goal of the present research was to explore parentsí educational views in the context of entrepreneurial education. Initially, we assumed that there is more chance to bring up active citizens having sensitivity to joyful pursuits and basic skills for an entrepreneurial life; (for example, self-determination and self-management, attitude for innovation, the latter manifestation is creativity and ingenuity in the case of small children) ñ if their family shares modern views, and have positive and supportive climate with democratic values. Parents involved into our research believe in a properly modern 21st century idea; they think that the existence of different properties related to entrepreneurial competence is important. However, it is considered that lifelong-learning, conscious citizenship and the factors of personal health are marginal in the century of knowledge. Parental conception of children, more precisely, conception of the student brought a surprising result. Examining the reasons for success and failure, it was evident that the role of parents and school is not remarkable, that is due to the student. The average popularity of the education for a joyful life (for flow state, as we used) is notably lower (3.55) than we expected. Nevertheless, we used non-referring statements to investigate parental views. Forty percent of the families involved in our research are educating in the basics of entrepreneurship somehow. Although our sample is non-representative but differentiated by many background factors, it is important to notice that if our intent is to establish and develop childrenís entrepreneurial competence, we need to find possibilities to involve parents and shape their thinking, especially in the case of parents who attained low or middle level education and live in smaller settlements. Their involvement is prominently efficient according to international studies. It was verified that the amount of the modern parental views and their beliefs in positive parenting are in close relation with the values of education for social entrepre- 140 Maria Hercz, Ferenc Pozsonyi, and Nikolett Takács neurship. In other words, it is unavoidable to involve parents into school activities (ìparentsí schoolî) if our intention is to have families supporting the development of entrepreneurial competence. Parents who live in smaller settlements are more considered since they are conservative in their views in almost every question. Further consideration of the abovementioned tasks is the development of teacher training and professional development in the immediate future.

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Correspondence related to this paper should be addressed to Dr. Mária Hercz. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/dcse-2019-0024

Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 142ñ156, 2019

Social Entrepreneurship Education in Primary School: Empowering Each Child with the YouthStart Entrepreneurial Challenges Programme

Andrea Bisanz, Susanne Hueber, and Johannes Lindner University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems, Austria Eva Jambor YouthStart, IFTE, Vienna, Austria

Abstract This article provides an overview of challenge-based social entrepreneurship education in primary schools in Austria. The ìYouthStartî-Programme ìEmpowering Each Childî is introduced as well as its impact on children. Research accompanying the programme shows that small challenges strengthen particularly the following skills and abilities of pupils: self-confidence and self-initiative, innovation, creativity, mindfulness, empathy, self-motivation and participation in society. Many of the challenges are based on the SDGs, so children are encouraged to learn to think and act in a sustainable way already at the beginning of their school career. The aim is to make young people aware of the fact that a change of peopleís mindsets is needed worldwide, educating responsibly acting individuals, who do not only have their personal benefits in mind but also the needs of future generations. Key words: entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial challenge-based learning, social entrepreneurship, sustainable entrepreneurship, youth start entrepreneurial challenges.

Introduction To think independently and to act responsibly must be learnt in early childhood. Therefore it is crucial to start Social Entrepreneurship Education as early as possible. The programme ìEmpowering Each Childî is a precious vehicle to show young people, that every individual makes a difference, that each personís active participation in society is needed and that every single child can make valuable contributions to the common good. By means of various (small) challenges children get to know themselves and their potential better, they strengthen their competences and gain enough self-confidence to dare to believe in their own ideas. This enables them to put their ideas into action and to take their personal but also our global challenges in their own hands to create a sustainable common future. Social Entrepreneurship Education in Primary School: Empowering Each Child.. 143

The article deals with the following questions: 1. What does Entrepreneurship Education mean, especially Social Entrepreneur- ship Education at primary level? 2. How can Social Entrepreneurship Education be implemented at primary level? 3. Which in-service training supports the implementation? 4. What results can be achieved through Social Entrepreneurship Education at primary level?

Definitions Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship refer to an individualís ability to turn ideas into action. It includes creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives. This supports individuals, not only in their everyday lives at home and in society, but also in the workplace in being aware of the context of their work and being able to seize opportunities, and is a foundation for more specific skills and knowledge needed by those establishing or contributing to social or commercial activity. This should include awareness of ethical values and promote good governance (EU Commission, 2005, p. 17).

The term Entrepreneurship Education has established itself for the learning of entrepreneurship competences. This is the learning process through which knowledge as well as skills and abilities are imparted which support learners in developing and implementing their own ideas (Hueber & Lindner, 2017). The objective of Entrepreneurship Education is for people to learn to actively participate in society with their own ideas and to lead a self-determined life. Entrepreneurship Education comprises personality development, cooperation, empathic togetherness and economic education. Entrepreneurship Education according to the TRIO model (Aff & Lindner, 2005) comprises three areas: ó Core Entrepreneurial Education describes the basic qualities of the creative development and structured implementation of innovative ideas. ó Entrepreneurial Culture stands for personality development ñ to be proactive, to believe in oneself, to act empathetically and in a team as well as to encourage oneself and others. ó Entrepreneurial Civic Education means the strengthening of social competence as a citizen ñ taking responsibility for oneself, others and the environment (Strachan, 2018). At the primary level it is therefore useful to extend the term Entrepreneurship Education to Social Entrepreneurship Education (SEE). Social Entrepreneurship Educa- tion focuses on learning opportunities that work on innovative solutions to social problems or more generally on a positive development of society, e.g. in accordance with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGís) (Lindner, 2018). With SEE, professional competences, personal competences and social skills are acquired that enable children to take a holistic view of themselves and their environment at an early age. 144 Andrea Bisanz, Susanne Hueber, Johannes Lindner, and Eva Jambor

Figure 1. Reference Framework of Entrepreneurship Competences, overview (Lindner, 2014)

Entrepreneurial Challenge Based Learning The ìYouthStart Entrepreneurial Challengesî programme was developed as part of a European cooperation between the Ministries of Education of Luxembourg, Portugal, Slovenia, Austria and NGOs (as part of an Erasmus+ Key Action 3 policy experimentation project) and field tested for three years. In addition to Primary Schools, Secondary Schools, Business Colleges, Colleges of Social and Services Industries, Technical Colleges and Vocational Schools were also involved. The field trial took place between 2015 and 2018. Austria had the leading role in the programme in matters of methodology. The holistic programme is based on the Reference Framework for Entrepreneurship Com- petences and the Entrepreneurship Education understanding of the TRIO model: ó The Youth Start Reference Framework of Entrepreneurship Competences (Lindner, 2014) comprises three main categories: Developing ideas, implementing ideas and thinking sustainably. There are different levels of competence depending on the age group, A1 corresponds to primary level (Figure 1 and Table 1). The reference frame corresponds to the later developed EntreComp. ó The programme comprises 18 challenge families of the TRIO model (Figure 2) and thus covers a broad spectrum of topics. Its aim is to promote self-determination and self-motivation as well as to strengthen the potentials of children. ó The programme is modular and cross-curricular and offers learning pathways for smaller and larger challenges in a wide range of subjects, embedded in existing curricula. It is a flexible, innovative, transferable and scalable programme. It also includes videos with body exercises for activation and concen- tration as well as a training programme for mindfulness (Teufel, 2018). Social Entrepreneurship Education in Primary School: Empowering Each Child.. 145

Table 1 Reference Framework of Entrepreneurship Competences (Lindner, 2014) Extract for A1 (primary level) Developing Attitude I can perceive my surroundings attentively with all my senses and ideas can describe my perceptions. I can recognize my strengths, can use them and do not let mistakes discourage me. I can use my strengths to set myself motivating goals and pursue them confidently and consistently. Identifying I can find out how I can learn best. opportu- I can look at topics from different angles. nities I can recognize problems and develop creative ideas for their solution. I can see also opportunities in challenges and problems. Implemen- Organizing I can carefully plan simple projects and consider their consequences. ting ideas I can complete my tasks by myself or as part of a team, even when things get difficult. I can see myself as part of my environment and take responsibility for the completion of my tasks. I can recognize what I have to learn in order to perform my tasks well. Working I can work with others. together I can recognize my feelings and needs and can name them. I can listen attentively and ask whether I have understood everything correctly. I can recognize the feelings and needs of others and deal with them carefully and empathetically. I can express and justify my opinion. I can word oral and written stories that appeal to others. Thinking Acting as I can take on duties for the community I live in. sustainably a visionary I can name some Global Sustainable Development Goals and think about creative ideas to solve them. I can understand that many resources are limited and I handle waste carefully. I can create something new and valuable out of used objects. Financial I can collect information about money. literacy I can plan and spend my pocket money economically. I can estimate and compare prices of products and services. I can define myself as part of the economic cycle. I can calculate the price of a selfmade product and play the role of a salesperson. 146 Andrea Bisanz, Susanne Hueber, Johannes Lindner, and Eva Jambor

Figure 2. YouthStart programme for primary school, overview poster

ó All challenges can be downloaded in an open source access at www.youthstart.eu and can be used individually for teaching purposes. There are also explanatory videos on many challenges that give teachers an overview of the content of these challenges. They can also be found online together with the corresponding challenges. ó The programme is available in German, English and other languages and can therefore be used in bilingual classes as well as in foreign language classes.

The Programme and the Challenges in Detail The programme comprises 18 Challenge Families (Figure 2) in the three areas according to the TRIO model: Core Entrepreneurial Education, Entrepreneurial Culture and Entrepreneurial Civic Education. The challenges are based on mindfulness (Teufel, 2018) and a holistic learning approach (Teufel, 2019). During the three-year field trial children in 3rd and 4th grades were taught 4 to 6 challenges every year. As a finding of the research done after the field trial schools were recommended to start the programme in 2nd grade and to combine the challenges in the way shown in Figure 3. To make the programmeís intention clear it was named ìEmpowering Each Childî for primary level. Social Entrepreneurship Education in Primary School: Empowering Each Child.. 147

Figure 3. Empowering Each Child Programme for primary school (Jambor, 2018)

In the area of Core Entrepreneurial Education, four challenges are particularly promoted in the ìEmpowering Each Childî programme, which are briefly outlined here: ó Idea Challenge: Get ideas rolling. The challenge for the children is to analyse a product and then to develop their own idea for a product and, ideally, to realise it. The children reflect on which possibilities are available for them in order to implement their idea by using resources wisely in an environmentally fair way. The learning event is accompanied by an age-appropriate story with the Lewi mouse. The children learn that even seemingly simple products consist of components that may come from all over the world (division of labour). For this purpose, they get to know the building blocks that are necessary to implement their own ideas (production factors). ó Idea Challenge: Creating value. The children explore how value can be created while acting sustainably and thinking globally. Using strawberry jam as an example, the children experience a value chain from planting the young plants to processing the harvested fruit and eating the jam in pancakes. Every good idea can create value. Furthermore, the children reflect on various other ways how to act sustainably. ó My Personal Challenge: Becoming aware of prices and value. The children guess what individual products cost, find out the real price and how it is established. They find out what is valuable to them and learn how to plan their expenses. Questions such as ìDo I really need this?î, ìCan broken things be repaired and reused?î or ìIs there an alternative to simply throwing things away?î are discussed with the pupils. ó In the Lemonade Stand Challenge, children learn how to sell a product or a service at a real market stand (e.g. on a special Market Day, organised for them). They start with planning: What can we sell? How can our products or services be sustainable? The product should require a minimum of resources, 148 Andrea Bisanz, Susanne Hueber, Johannes Lindner, and Eva Jambor

but still be attractive to customers. The children learn to set up a timetable and to divide the individual tasks among themselves. Then they prepare their goods or services in order to sell them to customers on Market Day. Therefore they consider prices, and reflect on whether these prices are fair. They calculate expenses, income and profit. In sales talks, they train how to address potential buyers.

Figure 4. The Storytelling Challenge (www.youthstart.eu, illustration: Helmut Pokornig)

In the area of Entrepreneurial Culture, seven challenges are briefly outlined: ó The Expert Challenge supports children to become experts of their own learning process. The challenge combines different and diverse (learning) methods and techniques to enable holistic learning. In addition to teaching these numerous learning techniques, pupils are instructed to define their own learning goals and give their own assessment of what they have learned. The Challenge refers to the 21st Century Skills and aims at empowering children to be more resilient, to act responsibly, to deal with problems and conflicts and to keep pursuing their goals (Teufel, 2019). ó The Be A YES Challenge is based on scientific findings from brain research and positive psychology (Seligman, 2012; Seliman, 2018; Fredrickson, 2009). The challenge to strengthen self-esteem is to know oneís own strengths and potentials and at the same time to know where one still needs support. Various exercises, thought-provoking impulses, games etc. support the children in recognising their strengths and developing an optimistic attitude. A strength treasure hunt (also as app) completes the material. ó The Empathy Challenge contains the basics of non-violent communication (Rosenberg & Chopra, 2015). The challenge is to be empathetic and mindful with oneself and others. Through exercises, tasks and games the children experience how to express their feelings and needs and how to guess the feelings and needs of others (Figure 4). Social Entrepreneurship Education in Primary School: Empowering Each Child.. 149

ó In the Trash Value Challenge, children learn that they can create something valuable from supposedly worthless waste products (upcycling). They present their newly created objects to their classmates and reflect on what value means, on limited resources and on how to avoid waste. ó The Storytelling Challenge is about telling stories vividly in order to gain the attention of others. With a variety of narrative and writing impulses, the childrenís imagination and creativity are trained as some of the core competences for the 21st century. Step by step, the childrenís linguistic competence and critical thinking skills are also promoted. The children get inspired by pictures (Figure 4), phrases, poems, games and little stories told in different rooms of an imaginary castle of stories. ó In the Perspectives Challenge the children perceive themselves as part of the (simple) economic cycle. They experience this by reading an age-appropriate story (ìTracking 20 Eurosî). They also collect information about money and get to know companies (in their environment). ó The Extreme Challenge is designed to be used in sports lessons. The challenge is to run a certain route twice at the same speed. The exercise covers three distances (small, medium, large) with two runs each. Whoever has the smallest time difference in the end has mastered this challenge particularly well: The challenge is not about running the fastest, but assessing oneself and oneís timing well.

Figure 5. My Community Challenge ñ WILMA inventorís workshop, (www.youthstart.eu, illustration: Helmut Pokornig)

In the area of Entrepreneurial Civic Education two challenges are presented: ó The My Community Challenge encourages children to use their ideas and energy to solve problems (as defined by the United Nations in the Sustainable Development Goals / SDGs) that affect all of us. In the WILMA inventorís workshop, the children look for a problem, together find creative solutions and create prototypes (Figure 5). Using the DO-IT-approach of the makerspace community children are encouraged to believe in themselves and their ideas and to act as changemakers for global challenges. Trying to come up with a solution for one of the 17 SDGs, children realize that every single person is 150 Andrea Bisanz, Susanne Hueber, Johannes Lindner, and Eva Jambor

needed to contribute to help our planet to survive and learn to act responsibly and sustainably. ó The Debate Challenge is about having the children find arguments for their opinions and introducing them in a debate. Clear rules are needed for a fair debate. To convince others, you need good arguments and well ordered thoughts. In the ìLittle Philosophersí Boxî the children find inspiration to let their thoughts run free and discuss them in class. During the ìping-pong debateî they also learn to stand up to opposing opinions. By debating together, the children strengthen their understanding of problems, their ability to judge and articulate, and last but not least their tolerance towards other people. A debate regarding the environment, social fairness, being a responsible costumer and many other topics, gives the individuals the opportunity to analyse pros and cons and to form their own opinion.

Figure 6. Market Day for primary schools at the Vienna University of Economics and Business, 2019

Further challenges will be developed for the primary level, which will be added to the programme step by step. For each challenge, there is a pupil manual and a teacherís guide containing didactic explanations and copy templates for games. Since the end of the field trial, the online version of the A1 Challenges has regularly been revised using feedback from classes. In German the A1 Challenges are also offered as printed workbooks (Figure 3). All challenges have a similar structure. After a short introduction, in which the content of the challenge is explained, the children learn in a step-by-step model how to reach their goals. Every challenge includes tasks, group work and debates fostering the new skills and abilities of the children. One objective is to develop language skills: children expand their vocabulary, learn to prepare and give presentations or to express their own opinions. Social Entrepreneurship Education in Primary School: Empowering Each Child.. 151

The competence checks at the end of each challenge in the form of self-assessment give the pupils the opportunity to reflect on their learning progress and to take over responsibility for their own learning. The main ideas of some challenges are explained in childrenís booklets containing childrenís stories with the girl Julia and a soft toy, a mouse called Lewi (Figure 3). At the teachersí disposal there is a ready-made Powerpoint presentation to be used in class. Two challenges are supported by festivals, which in Vienna are held with partner organisations: the Trash Value Festival, together with the childrenís museum ZOOM and the Market Day, together with the University of Economics and Business Adminis- tration (WU-Vienna). Viennaís Market Day is a cooperation with the so called ìChange- maker Programmeî of the University: as an integrative part of their studies students support classes at primary schools with three workshops to prepare for the Market Day and to reflect on it (Figure 6) (Kardos, 2019).

In-Service Training During the field trial a two-year inservice training, consisting of 3 training courses per year, was provided by the University Teacher College (KPH) Vienna/Krems in order to support teachers to implement the challenges. 49 teachers from 14 primary schools in Vienna took part in the training, thus reaching 1,035 pupils. Based on the findings of the field trial, the learning programme and the training cycle were further developed and the programme was given the programmatic title ìEmpowering Each Childî. The actual training cycle for ìEmpowering Each Childî ñ for Social Entrepreneur- ship Education in primary school ñ for teachers from the second to the fourth grade consists of four parts. The training cycle is offered by the University Teacher College (KPH) Vienna/Krems and the University Teacher College (PH) Salzburg: ó Developing potentials mindfully at school. The first module of the training introduces exercises from the Youth Start mindfulness programme and proven methods for holistic learning (A1 Expert Challenge). ó Strengths treasure hunt. The second module comprises four challenges: A1 Be A YES Challenge, A1 Empathy Challenge, A1 Idea Challenge: Getting ideas rolling and A1 Trash Value Challenge. ó Discover the world through stories. The third module includes the A1 Story- telling Challenge, the A1 Perspectives Challenge, A1 My Personal Challenge and the A1 Community Challenge with the inventorís workshop WILMA. ó Shaping our future. The fourth part includes the A1 Idea Challenge: Creating Value, A1 Lemonade Stand Challenge, A1 Debate Challenge and A1 Extreme Challenge. In addition to in-service training, the KPH Vienna/Krems also provides in-school training, sending a trainer to schools. The advantage of this training is that all teachers of a school acquire the same level of knowledge and cooperate in the implementation of the Social Entrepreneurship programme in different classes at the same time. With the UKids project Social Entrepreneurship Education will be integrated into the initial-teacher training for primary education at the University Teacher College Vienna/Krems (KPH Vienna/Krems). Willke (2001) emphasises that if a change is desired 152 Andrea Bisanz, Susanne Hueber, Johannes Lindner, and Eva Jambor in the education system, one should start with training student teachers. The Social Entrepreneurship programme is therefore implemented as part of existing courses (mainstreaming) and as a specific focus.

Research Design for Primary School In order to investigate the effect of the learning programme on children, a research design for the primary level (A1) was1 developed. The 139 participating teachers from primary schools were interviewed through online surveys (pre- and post-test) and group interviews. The head teachers were interviewed individually. The questions of the interview were developed by the Austrian research team (Hueber, 2019). This is an open, partially standardised survey, whereby ìopenî refers to the respondentís ability to make statements that a specific teacher regards as relevant. This method was chosen in order to leave as much room as possible in the interviews for the experiences of teachers and head teachers. ìThe guide book and the topics addressed provide a framework for data collection and analysis that makes the results of different interviews comparable.î (Bortz & Dˆring, 2016). The group survey of teachers does not only show the views of teachers on the subject but also the group dynamics in communication. ìBasic idea: Evaluation research wants to scientifically accompany changes in practice and assess their impact by describing the processes in practice in an open, case-intensive and subject- oriented way.î (Mayring, 2016). The interviews focused on the following topics: ó Entrepreneurship Education: What is important about Entrepreneurship Edu- cation in primary school? (Comparison of experiences at the start and the end of the project.) ó Challenges: How can the challenges be integrated into lessons? ó Implementation of the project: How do you assess the organisation and communication during the project and the workshops for teachers? ó Anchoring within the school: How is the knowledge disseminated within the school? ó Added value: What added value does the programme and the associated teaching materials have for the school, the teachers and the pupils?

Outcomes At the start of the project, many teachers asked themselves the following question: ìIs Entrepreneurship Education in primary school feasible?î They primarily associated economic topics with general science and social studies, but the term ìEntrepreneurship Educationî was largely unknown to them. The comparison of the interviews at the beginning of the project and at the end of the school years or at the end of the project shows a different picture. Using the challenges has proven that the obvious strength of the programme lies in its holistic learning approach, which fosters the potentials of the children and puts more prominence on social entrepreneurship education The following quote by a teacher, ìPupils can do more, the more confidence you put in them ì shows how important independent learning, initiative, critical thinking and belief in oneself are. Exactly these qualities, among many others, are acquired successfully by mastering the challenges. In their interviews teachers describe that by working with the challenges Social Entrepreneurship Education in Primary School: Empowering Each Child.. 153 they see their pupils from a new perspective: They have more trust in their pupilsí competences and perceive the commitment and joy of the children in working independently, alone or in a team. The sense of community within the class has improved considerably through empathic communication and reflection on oneís own communication behaviour. At the same time the awareness of oneself, others and the environment has increased. Teachers emphasise that the implementation of the programmme in several classes of a school leads to increased cooperation and exchange among teachers. Additionally, parents give a lot of positive feedback. For the individual school, this programme provides new ideas for school development and further professionalisation of teachers. Through the Trash Value Festival, the inventor workshop WILMA and the Market Day, the programme attracts great public interest. Contributions to the school website or articles in newspapers also add to the promotion of Social Entrepreneurship Education. The following competences ñ in line with the key competences for lifelong learning (European Commission, 2005; European Commission, 2018) ñ will be promoted: ó Personal initiative and entrepreneurship: Trust in oneís own ideas and the ability to implement them is empowering. Thinking in networks is stimulated. Economic cycles and the relationship between production, distribution and the consumer market are recorded. Financial knowledge is developed according to age. ó Mother tongue competence: Pupils can express thoughts, feelings, but also opinions appropriately to their age and linguistic competence. Pupils with a first language other than German benefit in a significant way from the programme. ó Foreign language competence: If challenges are presented in English during lessons, the linguistic abilities in this language also increase. ó Mathematical competence: On the one hand the handling of and calculating with the Euro is implemented and trained in the classroom, on the other hand expenses, income and profit are calculated as part of the production process. ó Learning competence: The entire challenge ìLearning to learn holisticallyî is dedicated to this competence, promoting the independence of the pupils to organise their own learning and to record their progress. ó Social competence and civic competence: The pupilsí personal, interpersonal and intercultural competences are promoted and also changed. The children learn to recognize and respect the diversity of people. They also learn to recognize their own feelings and needs as well as those of their counterparts. Further- more, they learn how to deal with their own feelings and needs and how to pay attention to those of their classmates. Their own self-esteem, self-confidence, self-respect and self-efficacy, i.e. their belief in their own ideas, are strengthened. Teamwork and cooperation are encouraged. The pupils learn to take responsibility for society when they deal with a problem that concerns us all and seek creative solutions. ó Cultural awareness and expression: Pupils experience different ways of expressing their ideas artistically, for example by creating works of art from recycled products that are exhibited at school. They also manufacture products that they offer for sale on the Market Day with a view to the resource-saving use of materials. The value chain from the planting of strawberry seedlings, their 154 Andrea Bisanz, Susanne Hueber, Johannes Lindner, and Eva Jambor

care through harvesting and processing shows the children a responsible approach to nature. When baking biscuits, they deal with recipes that come from different countries and use their creativity to make their own biscuits.

Outlook: Making the Experience of Self-Efficacy Possible In Austria, a growing momentum regarding Social and Sustainable Entrepreneurship Education as early as in primary school can be observed. The Austrian Action Plan for Entrepreneurship Education (Kiss & Lindner, 2019) addresses competence levels from primary to secondary level. The new primary school curriculum takes up the integrative theme of entrepreneurship. In the UKids project, Social Entrepreneurship Education is being introduced in an Austrian college of education ñ KPH Vienna/Krems ñ for the first time as part of the initial teacher training for future primary school teachers. In the region of Salzburg, a broad implementation of the ìYoutth Startî programme to promote self-efficacy and self-esteem in primary schools is being implemented (Land Salzburg, 2018). In the2 first two years, 230 teachers were reached at 72 primary schools, teaching around 5,000 children. The growing number of teachers using Social and Sustainable Entrepreneurship Education in their teaching shows that there is a shift in thinking about Entrepreneurship Education. The holistic concept ìEmpowering Each Childî promotes professional, personal and social skills as essential building blocks that people need for a successful life. Social and Sustainable Entrepreneurship Education is to be further disseminated at primary level, as every child already benefits from it at this age. Each child in primary school should take part in annual activities that make self-efficacy possible (Mayerhofer & Coudenhove-Kalergi, 2017) to experience how to develop ideas and to put them into action. In order to create a world where people act sustainably it is essential to introduce young learners to ways how to deal with the environment, society and economics in an appropriate way. According to the proverb ìYou canít teach an old dog new tricksî it is important to start as early as possible so that young children become acquainted with values and essentials of life. Teachers should act as role models and put emphasis on sustainability education as much as possible. The Social and Sustainable Entrepreneurship Programme provides many opportunities to meet this goal.

Notes: 1 The qualitative research design for the primary level in Austria was part of a three-year field trial in four EU member states (Luxembourg, Austria, Portugal, and Slovenia). The overall design of the field test was developed by Kare Moberg, the Danish Entrepreneurship Foundation, in consultation with research teams in all four countries. The field test covers the competence levels A1 to B2 with the core question about the effect of the learning programme. A qualitative research design was pursued at primary level and a quantitative randomised research approach at secondary level. 30,078 children and young people from 175 schools took part in the field trial in all four countries together (PEEP, 2018). 2 In cooperation with the State of Salzburg, the Salzburg Directorate of Education, PH Salzburg and IFTE, with the support of KPH Vienna/Krems, Gesunde Schule, VWG Salzburg and WIFI Salzburg. Social Entrepreneurship Education in Primary School: Empowering Each Child.. 155

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Correspondence relating to this paper should be addressed to Andrea Bisanz, Center for Entrepreneurship Education and valuebased Business Education at the University Teacher College, Vienna/Krems, Austria. Email: [email protected] and Eva Jambor, www.youstart.eu/en. Email: [email protected]