tal ethics, and human munities can be creat operative. The third section positive traditions wit Practicing the Presence of God ing animals, suggestir repent of the former A Christian Approach to Animals This involves reclaimi can alternative," wh JAY MCDANIEL vidual animals have selves" even as they a other and fot God, a diverse and interco unique value for God The fourth section tions of the words "e "good news." I sugget a static set of ideas, b' "in process," and d of growth and chan souled creatures, wb variety of biological man characteristic is Can Christianity, "good news" for humanity as ticipation in what one process theologian, John ties for feeling and ~ the very term "Gospel" proclaims, become good Cobb, calls "the Earthist movement." 1 The or­ panied by intense a news for animals? I write as a Christian, influ­ ganizing themes of this volume, inspired by "good news" for ani enced by process theology and other sources, Thomas Berry, offer a similarly profound vision. mals kindly, proteai who believes that Christianity, which has often In this section I also draw upon an interna­ their autonomy, reo been bad news for animals, can become good tional document, the Earth Charter, the prin­ relations ~ith God, news for them in the future. I hope this essay ciples of which are clear statements of Earthist tions of divine prese will be of service not only to Christians who sentiments. The final seaion care about animals and who hope that Chris­ The second section explains why, even of Christian life in 1 tianity can become more sensitive to them, but though many Christians are now developing can become "good also to people of other religions or of no reli­ "ecological theologies," there is still a need to cal action, theologic gion, who are hopeful that Christianity might ask: "But can Christianity become good news tual depth. By become "good news for animals," if not for the for animals?" My argument is that ecological in-action: that is, VI sake of Christians themselves, then at least for theologians too easily emphasize "environmen­ needs of living be the sake of animals. The essay is divided into tal ethics" and "social justice for humans" over "theological under5 seven sections. I outline their contents as fol­ "compassion for individual animals," when, in insight concerning lows, so that you might read them in whatever fact, all three are important.2 A responsible ing the nature of ; order you wish. Christian ethic will seek to be good news for God. And by "spi The first section suggests that the transfor­ individual animals; good news for species ofani­ availability to the B mation of Christianity into "good news for mals and plants; and, of course, good news for in ecological contel animals" requires an encounter with the com­ people, particularly the poor and powerless. It In the fifth seai( modifYing effects ofconsumer culture and a par­ will try to combine animal welfare, environmen­ suggest that becom 133 PRACTICING THE PRESENCE OF GOD

tal ethics, and human rights, hopeful that com­ involves following the norms of the eco-justice munities can be created in which all three are movement, particularly its emphasis on soli­ operative. darity with victims, and then, as a way of con­ The third section considers negative and cretizing these norms, following the guidelines positive traditions within Christianity concern­ of the Humane Society of the United States.' I ing animals, suggesting that Christians need to hope that these norms and guidelines are suf­ repent of the former and learn from the latter. ficient to answer the question: How should we This involves reclaiming what I call "the Francis­ Christians treat animals? can alternative," which recognizes that indi­ In the sixth section I turn to theological un­ vidual animals have value "in and for them­ derstanding. I note three sources which can be selves" even as they also have value for one an­ of service to a theology sensitive to animals: the other and for God, and that they are part of trinitarian theology of Andrew Linzey, process a diverse and interconnected whole which has theology, and feminist theology of the sort de­ unique value for God. veloped by the neo-Thomist theologian, Eliza­ The fourth section offers more precise defini­ beth Johnson.4 I allude to a dialogue between tions of the words "Christianity," "animals," and Johnson and myself, in which we jointly affirm "good news." I suggest that "Christianity" is not that animals are lured by God as an indwell­ a static set of ideas, but rather a family of people ing Spirit, albeit in a persuasive rather than co­ "in process," and that this family is capable ercive way; that this Spirit also shares in the of growth and change, that "animals" are en­ suffering and joys of animals, on their own souled creatures, whose members lie within a terms and for their own sakes; and that, should variety of biological classes, but whose com­ there be life after death for humans, it ought mon characteristic is that they have rich capaci­ also be available for animals.5 This dialogue )logian, John ties for feeling and goal-guided action, accom­ shows the degree to which certain forms ofcon­ nt."l The or­ panied by intense capacities for pain, and that temporary theology, process and feminist, are inspired by "good news" for animals involves treating ani­ willing to move beyond anthropocentric habits round vision. mals kindly, protecting their species, respecting of thought toward animal-sensitive understand­ an interna­ their autonomy, recognizing their independent ings of God. er, the prin­ relations with God, and seeing them as revela­ In the seventh section, I turn to the spiritual s of Earthist tions of divine presence. dimension of Christian life, and more specifi­ The final sections turn to three dimensions cally to what Johnson calls "ecological contem­ why, even of Christian life in terms of which Christianity plation."6 Other theologians have other names developing can become "good news for animals": practi­ for it. The Protestant theologian Sallie McFague 11 a need to cal action, theological understanding, and spiri­ calls it "seeing with the loving eye;" while the good news tual depth. By "practical action" I mean love­ Orthodox theologian Kallistos Ware calls it "the t ecological in-action: that is, willing responsiveness to the contemplation ofnature."7 Following Ware, but 11Vironmen­ needs of living beings, animals included. By also in the spirit of McFague and Johnson, I mans" over "theological understanding" I mean discursive suggest that contemplative seeing involves see­ ," when, in insight concerning the nature of things, includ­ ing all things, animals included, in their particu­ responsible ing the nature of animals in their relation to larity, as subjects in and for themselves; com­ d news for God. And by "spiritual depth" I mean inner bined with a recognition that, in this particu­ ~cies ofani­ availability to the Breath of Life, as exemplified larity, they reveal the light of God. I propose d news for in ecological contemplation. that, in the last analysis, it is only when Chris­ lwerless. It In the fifth section I turn to practical action. I tians come to see animals in this way, as subjects vlronmen­ suggest that becoming "good news for animals" of their own lives and also as holy icons, that 134

JAY MCDANIEL they-we-can be good news for animals in a also the stars and galaxies. The "world" is that priests are public poli( sustained way. diverse whole in which God took deep delight the world is, or ougb By way of conclusion, I ask the question: on the seventh day of creation. place united by a WOl Its "evangelists" are And how might Christians enter into this way It is difficult to know how Christianity can ofseeing? What kinds ofspiritual disciplines are be good news to the galaxies. Perhaps Chris­ play the products of ments, convincing us available to us? I suggest that the most impor­ tians, like others, are "good news" to the heavens "whole" unless we po tant discipline will be to spend time in the pres­ when they are awed by the womb-like presence ence of animals themselves, not as they appear of a dark and starlit sky, feeling both insignifi­ icons are window dis And its church is the on television screens or in cartoons, but as they cant yet included in a deeper mystery many core teachings is thai appear in palpable, physical presence. We Chris­ name "God." In any case, it is clear that Chris­ made whole, by con tians can become good news for animals, only if tianity can be, or at least should be, good news we allow ourselves to be awed, again and again, for the earth and its creatures. This is not be­ the year before. This religion is "1 by the sheer beauty oftheir mysterious presence. cause Christianity is the best religion or because creatures in several VI I suggest further that, for the economically all people should convert to it. Each religion and temporally privileged in our world, who has its gifts and liabilities. Mass conversion to the planet is a stock have the means and time to leave the city, this Christianity would destroy part of the world's there for the taking, may involve spending time in wilderness areas. religious diversity, which itself contributes to tions to preserve its tions of humans ani But for many in our world, spending time with the deeper mystery. Rather it is because slightly to reduce various fe animals can occur only in cities and at home. To­ less than a third of the world's population claim grasslands, for exan ward this end, I recommend a form of spiritual "Christianity" as their religion, and they will in­ be bought and sold discipline which is often considered sentimen­ evitably influence the world for good or ill. They leads us to think oj tal and patronizing by environmentalists, but can become "good news" for the earth by follow­ commodities with I which may well be necessary for urban peoples ing the first four principles of the Earth Charter fulness to humans. if they are to develop "the loving eye" in the age (see Steven Rockefeller, "Earth Charter, Ethics, The Protestant of consumerism. It is spending rime with com­ and Animals," in this volume). They can respect panion animals: dogs and cats, for example, or the earth and all life, care for the community gests that consum sion of a recent dwarf hamsters or snakes. My suggestion is that, of life in all its diversity, strive to build free, tory, which he cal if we are to develop the loving eye with ani­ just, participatory, sustainable, and peaceful so­ name fOT a way 0 mals, it will need to begin, for many, with the cieties and secure earth's abundance for present measures almost a loving touch - with the knowledge of the life of and future generations.8 Should Christians de­ nomic terms, and an animal "other" with whom were are in daily cide that following these guidelines, understood for its own sake a: relationship. as hymns of hope, is part of what it means to ciple. Cobb argue~ Back, then, to the question: Can Christianity be a disciple of Christ, earth would indeed re­ replacing Natiom become good news for animals? I hope this essay ceive good news. Ofcourse, ifChristians follow principle in man provides an introduction to this question and these guidelines, they-we-ought to do so in approximately th offers various ways for answering, with hope and cooperation with people of other religions, and ism replaced Chr humility, "Yes." no religion, who do the same. tral organizing pr In our time, there is perhaps only one reli­ Middle Ages. Eo gion that is almost incapable of bringing good much modern lit The Earthist Movement news to the earth, because its core teachings are their commodify inherently un-ecological. That religion is Con­ Christianity seeks to be good news to the world. sumerism. It is an overconsuming lifestyle char­ tive side. If Christianit; Thomas Berry and other ecological theologians acteristic of about a fifth of the world's popula­ potential, and if i rightly argue that "the world" does not simply tion, but aspired to by many others, as well as a cal liabilities, it v mean "the world of human beings." It means the set ofattitudes and values, promulgated twenty­ Economism. It , earth and its creatures, including humans, and four hours a day by the media and Internet. Its I35 PRACTICING THE PRESENCE OF GOD

: "world" is that priests are public policy makers who believe that lical theologian Walter Bruegemann calls "the 10k deep delight the world is, or ought to be, a global market­ prophetic imagination," which lies in critiquing place united by a worldwide consumer culture. the dominant modes of thought and practice in Christianity can Its "evangelists" are the advertisers who dis­ one's age, insofar as they are unjust and unsus­ Perhaps Chris­ play the products of growth through advertise­ tainable; and opening oneself to fresh possibili­ i" to the heavens ments, convincing us that we are not "happy" or ties for new and hopeful futures. Such imagi­ Ib-like presence "whole" unless we possess what they sell. Its holy nation was evident in Moses, Jeremiah, Isaiah, ; both insignifi­ icons are window displays in department stores .. and Jesus, so Bruegemann explains, and it can mystery many And its church is the shopping mall. One of its be part of Christian life today. lear that Chris­ core teachings is that each year we are saved, or How, then, can Christians live into this pro­ be, good news made whole, by consuming more than we did phetic calling? One way is to understand that This is not be­ the year before. they are part of a larger social movement-a ~on or because This religion is "bad news" for earth and its people's movement, if you will-which Cobb, Each religion creatures in several ways. It leads us to think that as mentioned earlier, calls "Earthism." This is conversion to the planet is a stockpile of unlimited resources, Cobb's name for a social movement, found of the world's there for the taking, and that we have no obliga­ in many different circles today under different contributes to tions to preserve its resources for future genera­ names, which puts devotion to the earth and hu­ eeause slightly tions of humans and other creatures. It leads us manity ahead of devotion to the economy and pulation claim to reduce various forms of land - wetlands and consumer values. The spirit of this movement is ld they will in­ grasslands, for example-to real estate that can found in people of many different religions and >od or ill. They be bought and sold in the marketplace. And it also of no religion. According to Cobb, Earth­ trth by foIl ow­ leads us to think of plants and animals as mere ism can overcome the dominance of Econo­ Earth Charter commodities with no value apart from their use­ mism only if it has the support of people from larter, Ethics, fulness to humans. many traditions and communities."9 If Chris­ ey can respect The Protestant theologian John Cobb sug­ tianity is to become good news for the earth, e community gests that consumerism is the popular expres­ it will need to lend its support to the Earthist :0 build free, sion of a recent development in world his­ hope. I peaceful so­ tory, which he calls "Economism." This is his :e for present name for a way of structuring public life that :hristians de­ measures almost all human interactions in eco­ Environmental Ethics and Animal Welfare ;, understood nomic terms, and that takes economic growth : it means to for its own sake as the central organizing prin­ Ofcourse, Christianity has not often lived up to d indeed re­ ciple. Cobb argues that Economism is gradually its ecological promise. It has not often enough stians follow replacing Nationalism as a central organizing been "Earthist" in orientation. Often it has fos­ t to do so in principle in many modern societies; just as, tered anthropocentric forms of thought, feel­ :ligions, and approximately three centuries ago, National­ ing, and action that neglect the kinship of hu­ ism replaced Christianism, which was the cen­ mans with other creatures and presume that the 11yone reli­ tral organizing principle of the West during the earth and its creatures are but instruments for inging good Middle Ages. Economism is the public side of human use. This instrumentalist approach to :achings are much modern life. Consumerist attitudes, with the planet and nonhuman creatures has been re­ ion is Con­ their commodifying tendencies, are the subjec­ inforced by dualistic attitudes that elevate men estyle char­ tive side. over women, spirit over flesh, mind over mat­ 'd's popula­ If Christianity is to live up to its ecological ter, reason over feeling, urban over rural. All of as well as a potential, and if it is to grow beyond its ecologi­ this has been well-documented in theological ted twenty­ cal liabilities, it will have to do so in the face of critiques of the Christian past, particularly by nternet. Its Economism. It will have to exercise what bib­ feminist theologians. JAY MCDANIEL

For ecological theologians, feminist and they forget the intrinsic value of these individu­ also a contributor t, otherwise, the "good news" is that this "bad als in and for themselves. In these two ways, eco­ authors point to fi­ news" is not "all the news." There are also tradi­ logical theologies sometimes slide into a one­ in Judaism and Ch tions within the Christian past that are antidotes sided emphasis on "environmental ethics" at the tribute to prejudiCi to anthropocentrism and can provide nourish­ expense of "animal welfare." They satisfy the (1) that animals arc ment for a healthier future. Both sides of this legitimate concerns of the Sierra Club, but for­ some animals are i equation-the bad news of unecological ways get the concerns of the Humane Society. some animals arem of thinking and the good news of ecological purposes, (4) that; ways of thinking-have now been highlighted need, and (5) that a in many books on ecological theology. These are Diverging Paths Within Christianity? mind, or sentience well summarized in the published proceedings ings deserves extem from the Harvard Conference on Christianity Back, then, to the question. Can Christianity for example, that so and Ecology. My aim here is to extend the dis­ become good news for animals? I use the word involve a respect fo cussion by asking a new question: Can Chris­ "become," with its future emphasis. The point they recognize that tianity become good news for animals? is painfully obvious to many who have deep re­ to humans, and bee The question is important because, despite spect for animals, who find joy in their pres­ are "sacrificed" pre their good intentions, even ecologically sensitive ence, who are concerned with the suffering hu­ Nevertheless, Linze theologians can sometimes neglect individual mans too often inflict upon them, and who wish that all five teachii animals. By "individual" animals I do not mean that Christianity might validate such feelings. teach that animals a Cartesian individuals. I am not imagining ani­ Some of these people are Christian; others are ally problematic be, mals as disembodied souls whose relations with post-Christians who long since rejected Chris­ mere instruments, their own bodies and environments are exter­ tianity as hopelessly anti-animal. For the most God. nal. Rather I am imagining them as relational disillusioned among them, the only "good news" The first four are souls, whose very selves are creative responses to about Christianity is that it permits, and even tions themselves an bodily influences and environmental surround­ encourages, repentance and conversion. Their heritage ofJudaisrr ings. If individual human beings are persons­ hope is that Christians will repent of their at­ tianity, even Jesus in-community, then so are individual animals. titudes toward animals, and convert to a more albeit the last one.l They are subjects of their own lives, either con­ compassionate approach. once and for all, to( sciously or unconsciously, and their subjectivity Equally influen -their awareness and feeling, their creativity THE NEGATIVE TRADITIONS Christianity, howe and intelligence-is itself a creative response to mals are "here for L such influences. Let us begin by addressing the negative aspects According to Linz Ecological theologies come in many forms: of the tradition, because they have been domi­ time and again with Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant, and Evangeli­ nant historically, before we turn to the positive sented by notable cal; mystical, feminist, prophetic, and philo­ traditions, which I take them to be the heart and tine, Aquinas, LUl sophical. Amid their diversity, they rightly en­ soul of the Christian approach to the world. teaching-that ani courage a "care for the community of life in all Unfortunately, on the negative side, there is a more modern at its diversity," but then they can easily fall into much of which to repent. The anti-animal as­ ing. In our time, tI one or both of two traps. Either they can so pects ofthe Christian past have been well docu­ consumerist habits emphasize the diversity ofvarious "species" that mented in various books, including After Noah: above, tend to redl they forget the individual creatures who con­ Animals and the Liberation ofTheology. The book as well as animals stitute the species. Or they can recognize the is co-written by the most prominent of animal change in the mar1 importance of individual animals, but then so rights theologians, Andrew Linzey of Mansfield As I move tow; emphasize the instrumental value of these indi­ College at Oxford, and a professor of Judaism tions from Christia viduals to their species and to ecosystems that at the University of Wales, Dan Cohn-Sherbok, keep the negative tr 137 PRACTICING THE PRESENCE OF GOD

:ofthese individu­ also a contributor to the present volume. These illustrations can serve are reminders. The first is lese two ways, eco­ authors point to five teachings that are found Thomas Aquinas' view, following Aristotle, that i slide into a one­ in Judaism and Christianity, all of which con­ animals are here for us, and that we can use them .ental ethics" at the tribute to prejudice against animals. They are: as we wish: " They satisfy the (I) that animals are "put here for us," (2) that erra Club, but for­ some animals are inherently unclean, (3) that There is no sin in using a thing for the purpose .ane Society. some animals are meant to be sacrificed for ritual for which it is. Now the order of things is such purposes, (4) that animals are slaves to human that the imperfect are for the perfect. ... It is not need, and (5) that animals have no rational soul, unlawful if man uses plants for the good of ani­ tianity? mind, or sentience.lO Each of these five teach­ mals, and animals for the good of man as the ings deserves extensive discussion. It is arguable, Philosopher (Aristorle) statesP Can Christianity for example, that some ofthe sacrifice traditions als? I use the word involve a respect for individual animals because We rightly note that "the order of things" to :1phasis. The point they recognize that animals belong to God, not which Aquinas appeals functions as a legitima­ who have deep re­ to humans, and because the very idea that they tion of a certain approach to animals to which joy in their pres­ are "sacrificed" presupposes their great valueY he is already committed. Here "theology" func­ h the suffering hu­ Nevertheless, Linzey and Cohn-Sherbok argue tions as a legitimation of domination. :1em, and who wish that all five teachings - including those which The second illustration is Martin Luther's date such feelings. teach that animals are to be sacrificed - are mor­ of Genesis 9:3, where God permits nristian; others are ally problematic because they reduce animals to meat-eating. Luther writes: lce rejected Chris­ mere instruments, if not for humans, then for mal. For the most God. In this passage God sets himself up as a butcher; e only "good news" The first four are found within biblical tradi­ for with his word he slaughters and kills the ani­ permits, and even tions themselves and are the common symbolic mals that are suited for food, in order to make conversion. Their heritage of Judaism and Christianity. In Chris­ up, as it were, for the great sorrow that Noah ex­ repent of their at­ tianity, even Jesus is understood as a sacrifice, perienced during the flood. For this reason God convert to a more albeit the last one. He is the "lamb ofGod" who, thinks Noah ought to be provided for sumptu­ once and for all, took away the sins of the world. ously now.13 Equally influential within later historical Christianity, however, are the ideas that ani­ Apparently, even God is more interested in the mals are "here for us" and that they are "slaves." gastronomic needs of Noah than the suffering he negative aspects According to Linzey, these two themes recur ofthe animals. Here, too, a hermeneutics ofsus­ y have been domi­ time and again within Christian theology, repre­ picion seems appropriate. urn to the positive sented by notable theologians such as Augus­ to be the heart and tine, Aquinas, Luther, and Calvin. The final THE POSITIVE TRADITIONS ch to the world. teaching- that animals are mere machines - is gative side, there is a more modern and Cartesian way of think­ Within historical Christianity, these negative ne anti-animal as­ ing. In our time, this teaching is intensified by traditions are dominant, but they are not the lvebeen well docu­ consumerist habits of thought which, as noted whole ofthe tradition. Christianity contains less :ludingAfter Noah: above, tend to reduce all living beings-plants influential traditions that serve as correctives to Theology. The book as well as animals - into commodities for ex­ each of the five themes identified above. For the ominent of animal change in the marketplace. sake of balance, I will name five of them. jnzey of Mansfield As I move toward more positive contribu­ First and foremost, there are various themes ·ofessor of Judaism tions from Christianity, it is important for LIS to 'within the Bible that are friendly to animals. Ian Cohn-Sherbok, keep the negative tradition in mind. Perhaps two These include the injunction to give animals rest JAY MCDANIEL on the sabbath; the idea that animals are sub­ for whom a kindly approach to animals is a for themselves" as wei ject to divine purposes which are beyond hu­ sign of Christian compassion; the examples of "for God" in a "divers man need; and the idea that animals, no less many a saint, who-at least in depictions to value" for God. Certa than humans, are beneficiaries of the messianic the sixteenth century-were so often presented value "in and for the age. John Wesley, for one, took the latter idea to as companions to, and protectors of, animals. possess value "for onl suggest that individual animals, no less than hu­ Francis ofAssisi is a prime example, but there are So do animals. And mans, will enjoy life-after-death. many others. Finally, the additional resources as making possible I While many imagine the Bible to be mostly within historical Christianity include ways of and animal. From th "bad news" for animals, some theologians sug­ feeling, celebrated by many Christians, which, to the World Counc gest the contrary. One contemporary theolo­ if extended to animals, can be quite good news. values are contained gian, Lukas Vischer, has written a book on ani­ These include empathy for the vulnerable, non­ the life of the divine mals for the World Council of Churches in violence, compassion, and what Kallistos Ware, In short, a Franc which he argues that the Bible as a whole is good has called "the contemplation of nature," as rather than issue-da news for animals, or at least better news than mentioned earlier. centered, animal-ce modernity. In his words: systems-centered, a1 THE FRANCISCAN ALTERNATIVE centers; rather it is The testimony ofthe Bible sees humans and ani­ that understands th mals in close community. They are near to one What I am suggesting, then, is that there is a life, individually al another. Even though the special role of hu­ "Franciscan" alternative to the dominant tradi­ interconnected, div, man beings is emphasized, scripture as a whole tion, which might be called the "Instrumental­ To be sure, trad( takes for granted that animals are part of the ist" tradition. At the heart of this alternative is values are sometim{ environment. a recognition that individual animals are kin to must sometimes be The degradation of the status of animals to us, that they have value in and for themselves, some organisms-l objects finds no justification in the Bible. While and that they are sacramental presences in hu­ ample-have "in a the cultural roots of it are in antiquity, it is essen­ man life. Of course, for some environmental­ value that others­ tially the product of the sequence of modern ists, it may seem as if this Franciscan alternative infect- also have" thought since Descartes (1596-1650) which has neglects larger ecological considerations. It may A Franciscan al made humankind the center of the universe and seem sentimental, short-sighted, environmen­ ranking organisms has seen the outside world as subject to the hu­ tally irresponsible, and a distraction from more sake ofpractical co man mind.14 important concerns. And, for human rights ad­ be made between vocates, it may seem to neglect the needs of hu­ it will probably cn If Vischer is correct, this is good news indeed, man beings. chose between the because the Bible is, of course, the single most These suspicions are not necessary. The heart of a Franciscan ap important document of the Christian tradition. of the Franciscan alternative lies in recognizing last resort, not a If Christians were to think more biblically, and the value of all life, human life included, as was spect all life as m less Cartesianly, they might be better news for evident in the example of Francis himself. This live as lightly an( animals. "Franciscan" point of view is well captured in a that "absolute m< Additionally, however, there are four more single sentence from a 1998 Report to the World cause life inevital resources within historical Christianity that are Council of Churches. The sentence defines that It is to live loving relevant to animals. These include many stories the World Council calls "the integrity of cre­ the reality of con concerning Jesus' companionship with, and ation." That "integrity" is: "the value ofall crea­ of life. If life is r kindness toward, animals in early Christian tures in and for themselves, for one another, and little and as huma noncanonical texts, such as the Gospel of for God, and their interconnectedness in a di­ realization that al Pseudo-Matthew; the teachings ofvarious theo­ verse whole that has unique value for God." ters to God "in a logians within the history of Christianity­ The Franciscan alternative I recommend lies Back, then, to such as John Chrysostom and John Wesley- in recognizing the value of creatures "in and seek to live ligh1 139 PRACTICING THE PRESENCE OF GOD

animals is a for themselves" as well as "for one another" and tures? Can it become good news for animals? Let : examples of "for God" in a "diverse whole" that has "unique me define my terms more carefully. depictions to value" for God. Certainly human beings possess :en presented value "in and for themselves" even as they also o£ animals. possess value "for one another" and "for God." Definitions but there are So do animals. And ecosystems possess value lal resources as making possible many forms of life, plant CHRISTIANITY ude ways of and animal. From the perspective of this report jans, which, to the World Council of Churches, all of these By "Christianity" I do not mean a static set of : good news. values are contained within, and contribute to, doctrines with a well-defined essence. Rather erable, non­ the life of the divine. I mean a multicultural and multigenerational Ilistos Ware, In short, a Franciscan alternative is holistic family of people, with roots in the healing min­ nature," as rather than issue-dominated. It is not human­ istry of Jesus, who seek to live what they call centered, animal-centered, plant-centered, or the Christian life. Among the world's Christians, systems-centered, at the expense of these other 20 percent live in North America, 20 percent in centers; rather it is divinely centered, in a way Latin America, 15 percent in Mrica, 30 percent that understands the divine life as including all in Europe, 14 percent in Asia, and I percent in t there is a life, individually and communally, within an Oceania. They represent and are influenced by nam tradi­ interconnected, diverse whole. many different traditions: Catholic, Protestant, trumental­ To be sure, tradeoffs between these kinds of Orthodox, Evangelical, Pentecostal, and Mri­ :ernative is values are sometimes required. Honest decisions can Independent Churches. In certain parts of are kin to must sometimes be made between the value that the world, the latter two traditions are the fastest ~emselves, some organisms-malarial mosquitoes, for ex­ growing. This means that, if Christianity is to ces in hu­ ample-have "in and for themselves," and the become good news for animals, it will not be be­ )nmemal­ value that others-children whom they might cause a single theology, emerging in the West, Llternative infect-also have "in and for themselves." will be a voice for that good news. Rather it will ns. It may A Franciscan approach, thus, cannot avoid be because the Christian life, as lived from many 'ironmen­ ranking organisms, relative to context, for the different points of view and in many different 'Om more sake ofpractical considerations. Ifa choice must ways, becomes good news for animals. rights ad­ be made between the mosquito and the child, Should this happen, it will not be that Chris­ ds ofhu­ it will probably choose the child. Just as it will tians have adopted "care for animals" as an issue chose between the tick and the dog. But the aim among issues. Rather it will be that they will rhe heart of a Franciscan approach is to make tradeoffs a have grown deeply dissatisfied with the many ognizing last resort, not a first resort. The aim is to re­ problems of the world, and seek a better way ], as was spect all life as much as possible, and then to of living, of which care for animals will be a elf This live as lightly and gently as possible, realizing part. Their "preferential option for animals" will Ired in a that "absolute moral purity" is an illusion, be­ be part of a larger "preferential option for the eWorld cause life inevitably involves the taking of life. earth." They will call this preferential option nes that It is to live lovingly, and also to be honest about "the Christian life." of cre­ the reality of conflicting aims within the scope all crea­ of life. If life is robbery, it involves robbing as ANIMALS ler, and little and as humanely as possible, with a humble in a di­ realization that all life, not just human life, mat­ By "animals" I mean something close to what ) d." ters to God "in and for itself." the Bible means by creatures of "the flesh," that :nd lies Back, then, to the question: Can Christianity is, creatures with fragile tissue who have inner in and seek to live lightly and gently with other crea- drives akin to humans and who can suffer in 140

JAY MCDANIEL ways that resemble human suffering. My point but who does so with no interest in the "in­ being, so that ecolo is not that such creatures are "better" than other trinsic value" of the individual, or who does not justice, are the nor creatures who are less like humans, but rather think that animals have independent relations by Dieter Hessel, i' that we have moral obligations to these kinds of with God, or who does not think that animals work for thought creatures that are different from our obligations can reveal God to human beings. This person logical integrity ar to other kinds: sponges and mites, for example. would be good news for animals in a minimal economic justice. By "animals," then, I mean something more sense. This good news would then be completed tive human respor specific than is found in an ordinary biology if, in addition to treating animals ethically, she health and social t text. I mean members of the animal kingdom, approached them with respect, amazement, and of human beings , primarily but not exclusively chordates, with gratitude, as expressed in the three additional Hessel explaim brains and nervous systems similar to our own, sensibilities named above. is grounded in fm who possess four properties. I mean creatures who can feel the presence of their surround­ • Solidarity wit ings; who, within the limits imposed by body Practical Action companions, 1 chemistry and environmental influences, can munity, reHec choose and be guided by subjective aims for ECO-JUSTICE AND THE HUMANE SOCIETY • Ecological "living well" in situations in which they find fitting habits. themselves; who can suffer pain, distress, dis­ If Christianity does become good news, that life to Hourisl comfort, anxiety, and fear; and who act as "rela­ news will involve all three dimensions of Chris­ dally appro pi tively unified selves" or "subjective centers of tian life: practical action, theological under­ • Sufficiency as awareness," and thus who receive energy and in­ standing, and spiritual depth. By practical ac­ which require fluence from their bodies and initiate responses, tion, I mean what Christians usually mean by for equitable much as we do. 15 "discipleship." I mean moral behavior, guided • Participation by sound thinking and spiritual discernment, tain sustenar GOOD NEWS which promotes the well-being of animals. By for the good "theological understanding" I mean voluntary commons.16 By "good news" I mean a certain way of feel­ assent to worldviews, stories, and ideas that ing, thinking, and behaving toward animals that help orient a person to the role and value of Eco-justice a. include compassion, humility, and amazement. animals within the interconnected and diverse en t Christian tr I mean treating animals-and more specifically whole Christians call "creation." And by "spiri­ ent racial, ethnic nonhuman animals-with compassion and pro­ tual depth" I mean preverbal and predoctrinal identities. But 1 tecting them from cruelty and destruction, pro­ modes of perceiving and feeling the presence of four themes in tecting the species to which they belong, such animals in their intrinsic value. Toward this end advocacy, and t that earth is filled with biological diversity, rec­ of practical action, two sources are particularly to Hessel, eco-, ognizing animals as having intrinsic value quite helpful: the eco-justice movement, which is now ationally signifi apart from their usefulness to humans, recog­ some three decades old, but has roots in the so­ problems: eneq nizing that they have their own unique ways of cial gospel movement, and the guidelines of the able develop me being related to God, however God is under­ Humane Society of the United States. rity, and enviro: stood, and recognizing that, precisely amid their to thought am uniqueness, they can reveal the mystery ofdivine THE ECO-JUSTICE MOVEMENT climate change presence to human beings. livelihoods. "0 From an animal's perspective, the first two "Eco-justice" names a moral perspective that is recommendinE are probably the most important. We can imag­ part of the worldwide ecumenical movement political) aime ine a Christian who treats individual animals within Christianity. It links concerns for justice and then helpi with compassion and who protects the species, and peace with concerns for environmental well­ enact and enfc 141

PRACTICING THE PRESENCE OF GOD

1 the "in­ being, so that ecology andjustice, not ecology or My suggestion, then, is that Christianity can ) does not justice, are the norm. Accordingly, as explained become good news for animals ifparticipants in : relations by Dieter Hessel, it "provides a dynamic frame­ the eco-justice movement also begin to work on It animals work for thought and action that fosters eco­ issues of animal abuse. Already they are work­ liS person logical integrity and the struggle for social and ing on the preservation of species, which is part minimal economic justice. It emerges through construc­ ofwhat it means to be "good news for animals." Dmpleted tive human responses that serve environmental The need is to combine such work with atten­ cally, she health and social equity together-for the sake tion to individual animals and their suffering. In lent, and of human beings and otherkind." terms of sheer numbers, the most serious abuse dditional Hessel explains further that this perspective lies in the rearing, transporting, and slaughter­ is grounded in four basic norms: ing ofanimals for"meat," particularly under fac­ tory farm conditions. The animals at issue in­ Solidarity with other people and crearures­ clude chickens, pigs, cows, and lambs. In the companions, victims, and allies - in each com­ interests of the first of the four norms iden­ munity, reflecting deep respect for creation. tified above-solidarity with the victims-an IETY Ecological sustainability-environmentally eco-justice ethic will protest against the abuse of fitting habits ofliving and working that enable these animals, recommend consumer boycotts, NS, that life to flourish; and using ecologically and so­ and help develop legislation to prevent future fChris­ cially appropriate technology. abuse. Similar attention will be given to animals under­ Sufficiency as a standard of organized sharing, used for the testing of industrial products (soaps :ical ac­ which requires basic floors and definite ceilings and shampoos), animals used for recreational lean by for equitable or fair consumption. purposes (rodeos, bullfights), and animals that guided Participation in decisions about how to ob­ are hunted for pure sport. nment, tain sustenance and to manage community life At the same time, an eco-justice approach lalS. By for the good in common and the good of the will attend to connections between the abuse luntary commons.16 of animals in these settings and the abuse of IS that human beings: e.g., the workers in slaughter uue of Eco-justice advocates belong to many differ­ houses, who are often poor and powerless, and diverse ent Christian traditions, and they have differ­ whose working conditions are oftentimes inhu­ "spiri­ ent racial, ethnic, sexual, economic, and gender mane. And it will attend to ways in which the ctrinal identities. But they generally emphasize these abuse of animals is connected to other forms of nce of four themes in their ethical deliberations, their violence in the world, as is exemplified in studies lis end advocacy, and their actions. To date, according that suggest linkages with domestic violence and :ularly to Hessel, eco-justice ethics has become oper­ serial killing. lsnow ationally significant in relation to several major In short, an eco-justice approach to animals he so­ problems: energy production and use, sustain­ will not compartmentalize "the abuse of ani­ of the able development, population policy, food secu­ mals," treating it as an issue disconnected from rity, and environmental justice. It is also relevant other forms of injustice and violence in the to thought and action on endangered species, world, but will see this abuse as part of a larger climate change, and equitable and sustainable and more destructive way of living in the world livelihoods. "Operational significance" involves to which Christianity, and other religions as hat is recommending public policies (economic and well, offer peaceful alternatives. The best hope menr political) aimed at addressing these problems for Christianity becoming good news for ani­ lstice and then helping to create the political will to mals at an ethical level lies in eco-justice advo­ well­ enact and enforce those policies. cates adding animals to the creatures with whom 142

JAY MCDANIEL

they feel solidarity, and then encouraging others Theological Understanding Spiritual Depth to do the same. Ethics cannot really be separated from theology. THE CONTEMPLAT HUMANE SOCIETY OF THE UNITED STATES How we understand God in relation to animals will influence how we treat them. Thus, ifChris­ Theology itself car To the moral perspective ofeeo-justice, the Hu­ tianity is to become good news for animals, it final analysis, Chris mane Society of the United States adds practi­ will require that traditional Christian teachings for animals only if cal guidelines for treating animals, each ofwhich be displayed in their relevance to animal life. mals in fresh ways. can help in the application ofeco-justice norms, In our time, the theologian who has done ply new ways of rj and each of which can guide legislation and the most to show this relevance is Andrew Lin­ more contemplativ other forms of public policy. The guidelines are zey. He has developed many ideas to show how In the Christian tr: stated as mandates: trinitarian thinking would be relevant to ani­ "contemplation" de mals. Suffice it to say that Linzey has himself things. It refers to a • It is wrong to kill animals needlessly or for developed a theology that satisfies these very de­ mind does not fun enterrainmem or to cause animals pain or tor­ mands. For Christians interested in what he calls is relaxed and alert. memo "Animal Theology," his own trinitarian perspec­ tos Ware interprets • It is wrong to fail to provide adequate food, tive is the modeL nature. He means, shelter, and care for animals for which humans Two additional forms of theology that can don to naturaL wor, have accepted responsibility. help Christians become "good news for animals" "ecological contem • It is wrong to use animals for medical, educa­ are process and feminist theologies, particularly calls it "the loving, tional, or commercial experimentation or re­ as the latter is exemplified in the neo-Thomist search, unless absolute necessity can be found perspective of Elizabeth Johnson. Process the­ QUIET LISTENING and demonstrated, and unless this is done ology and the feminist neo-Thomism of John­ without causing the animal pain or torment. son have much in common. Both are forms of Ware distinguishe~ • It is wrong to maintain animals that afe to be philosophical theology that entet into the fray ing. The first inve used for food in a manner that causes them of contemporary philosophical debate, recom­ uniqueness-the "1 discomfort or denies them an opportunity to mending worldviews that can make sense not of God's creation: develop and live in conditions that are reason­ only to Christians shaped by Christian lan­ each leaf, each blad ably natural for them. guage, but also to people of other orientations: man face; for what • It is wrong for those who eat animals to kill scientists, artists, politicians, and homemakers. ness and intensiry c them in any manner that does not result in Both recognize that too much traditional Chris­ In seeing an an instantaneous unconsciousness. Methods em­ tian theoLogy has been wedded to particularized template nature" \ ployed should cause no more than minimum modes of discourse that have often grown stale behold her face, a apprehension. and static. And both recognize that these stale silences. We bracke • It is wrong to confine animals for display, im­ modes of discourse, such as the insistence that and are simply pre poundment, or as pets in conditions that are God always be conceived as He Who Is, and Ware's point is thaI not comfortable and apptopriate. never as She Who Is, have supported and valo­ appreciative eonsci, • It is wrong to permit domestic animals to rized patriarchal habits ofthought and behavior. lation to stones and propagate to an extent that leads to overpopu­ Both seek to be postpatriarchaLP as people. It is pra) lation or misery. In the seeond as there is also the qui An eeo-justice movement that takes these guide­ But this listening is lines seriously will, in fact, be good news for things in their sud animals. ing beyond themsc them, and the one 143 PRACTICING THE PRESENCE OF GOD

Spiritual Depth their particularity: "we see all things, persons, and moments as signs or sacraments ofGod." 19 from theology. THE CONTEMPLATION OF NATURE In looking into the eyes of an animal, for ex­ tion to animals ample, we may be aware that there is something Thus, ifChris­ Theology itself can take us only so Far. In the sacred and holy, something divine, in the ani­ for animals, it final analysis, Christians can become good news maL God's Spirit is in her, shining through her, [stian teachings for animals only if we feel the presence of ani­ even as she is more than the Spirit. It is as ifshe ) animal life. mals in fresh ways. What is needed are not sim­ is a holy icon, a stained glass window, through who has done ply new ways of thinking about animals, but which holy light shines. This is the second aspect is Andrew Lin­ more contemplative ways of perceiving them. of contemplation noted by Ware in his discus­ as to show how In the Christian tradition, of course, the word sion of contemplating nature. Ifwe call the first elevant to ani­ "contemplation" does not mean thinking about "mindful attention," we might call the second :ey has himself things. It refers to a kind ofprayer in which the "sacramental consciousness." It is sensing others :s these very de­ mind does not function discursively but rather as visible signs of an invisible grace. in what he calls is relaxed and alert. In The Orthodox Wtly Kallis­ According to Ware, this contemplation ofna­ itarian perspec­ tos Ware interprets this attention in relation to ture can be parr of our daily lives. It does not nature. He means simple, non discursive atten­ preclude thinking and acting; we can approach :ology that can tion to natural world. Elizabeth Johnson calls it life prayerfully even as we approach it thought­ :ws for animals" "ecological contemplation" and Sallie McFague fully and practically. This does not mean that particularly calls it "the loving eye." we approve of all that we see. Some of what Ie neo-Thomist we see is tragic, some horrible, and some sinful. ,no Process the­ QUIET LISTENING TO NATURE But it does mean that we can see things lovingly )mism of John­ and forgivingly, gratefully and empathically, like th are forms of Ware distinguishes two aspects of such see­ God. Our anger over the world's injustices and er into the fray ing. The first involves appreciating the sheer tragedies can be, like God's wrath itself, the ob­ debate, recom­ uniqueness-the "thusness" or the "thisness"­ verse side ofpain. Thus, "we are to see all things nake sense not of God's creation: "We are to see each stone, as essentially sacred, as a gift from God and a Christian lan­ each leaf, each blade ofgrass, each frog, each hu­ means of communion with him." 20 Such is the ter OrIentations: man face, for what it truly is, in all its distinct­ life of prayer. It receives the world prayerfully, d homemakers. ness and intensity of its specific being." 18 with a listening spirit, full of wisdom. aditional Chris­ In seeing an animal, for example, we "con­ The question then becomes: And how can o particularized template nature" when we look into her eyes, we cultivate this listening spirit? Traditionally, ten grown stale behold her and listen to the sounds and the answer has been: "With the help ofspiritual that these stale silences. We bracket our own subjective agendas disciplines." If Christianity is to become good : insistence that and are simply present to her in her suchness. news for animals, we will need such disciplines le Who Is, and Ware's point is that this mindful awareness, this that take us into the palpable presence of ani­ erred and valo­ appreciative consciousness, can be enjoyed in re­ mals, such that we can listen to them and be Ilt and behavior. lation to stones and frogs, rivers and stars, as well awed by them, again and again. 17 as people. It is prayer. For the privileged among us, spending time In the second aspect ofcontemplating nature in the presence of wild animals can help. Their there is also the quiet listening and inner silence. very wildness bespeaks an "otherness" that is be­ But this listening is slighrly different from seeing yond self-absorption and that can have a healing things in their suchness. We see things as point­ effect in our lives. We appreciate them in their ing beyond themselves to the one who created suchness, precisely because we do not matter to them, and the one who shines through them in them. In our irrelevance, they help heal us of 144

JAY MCDANIEL our pretensions. We realize that they have their My suggestion, then, is that one kind of ditionalist, "nev own connections to the Mystery at the heart of "spiritual discipline" which is good news for ani­ nist, process, an the universe, and that we are not the center of mals, because it leads to contemplative listening, cess theology as things. is taking care of companion animals and being vidual animals a But most people on our planet do not have in their presence. This discipline is good news Scharper's geneI the luxury ofwilderness excursions. They live in for animals, among other reasons, because there ture: Ecological j cities; they are overly busy; and their closest pos­ are so many animals who need such care. It can (Nashville: AbiI sibility for intimacy with animals is with com­ also lead to a wider respect for the whole ofani­ the tendency an panion animals. Thus, as a spiritual discipline mal life, wild animals included. And it can lead phasize "collect for learning to listen to animals, I recommend one to consider the many ways in which domes­ 83). For readers "taking care ofpets." Clearly the relationship in tic animals-chickens, pigs, and cows, for ex­ tional Christian such caretaking is hierarchical, like that ofa par­ ample-are inhumanely reared and slaughtered dations" for an I ent and a child. The parent establishes guidelines for food. without parallel. for behavior and the child lives within them. Ac­ If Christianity is to become good news for eludes attention cording to Sallie McFague, this is a serious prob­ animals, it will be because all three dimensions 3. For an inti lem in relation to pets. She equates owner-pet of Christian life are involved: practical action, ment, see Dieter relations with parent-child relations, and deems theological understanding, and spiritual depth. Earth Commun both problematic, because they so easily lapse And it will be because Christians in different nos. I and 2 (Sun into subject-object relations. parts of the world, some among the overcon­ guidelines recon However, for many people today, a relation­ sumers of the world, and some among the poor­ of the United S ship with their pets (or "companion animals," to est of the poor, grow dissatisfied with the illu­ in Charles Birch use a term preferred by many), is the first way, sions of consumer culture, seeking instead a Animals The Con and perhaps the only way, they can learn to lis­ more holistic approach to life, in the compan­ WCC Publicatic ten to animals. They will enter into what Sallie ionship ofothers who seek the same. I have writ­ 4. See Andre McFague calls "the loving eye" by first discover­ ten this essay in order to show how this trans­ don: SCM Press, ing "the loving touch" ofan animal theylove and formation might occur among Christians. For Terrence Tilley, care for. This touch can itself be good news for many Christians, a first step will be to dwell in on the Theology G the animal. Manycompanion animals do indeed the presence of animals already in their midst. Crossroad, 1999) benefit from being loved and cared for by their Itwill begin, not with theology, but with touch: cess approach to "owners," and in many ways, they "own their flesh-upon-flesh, as enlivened by the Spirit. For a particular attenti, owners" in delightful and loving ways. The re­ religion that celebrates enfleshment, supremely pp. IIO-16 are] lationship is subject-subject, and it is mutually realized in incarnation, salvation by touch is an ology, in which s beneficial. appropriate beginning. neo-Thomist per 5. See Zaganc especially pp. 56­ NOTES 6. Elizabeth} ator Spirit (New' 1. John B. Cobb, Jr., The Earthist Challenge to (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994); Theology 7. SallieM& Economism: A Theological Critique ofthe World Bank for Earth Community: A Field Guide (Maryknoll, We Should Love 1\ (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999). NY: Orbis Press, 1996); Dieter T. Hessel and Ste­ 2. Surveys ofecological theologies include: Peter phen Bede Sharper, eds., Redeeming the Time: A W. Bakkan, Joan Gibb Engel, and J. Ronald Engel, Political Theology of the Environment (New York: eds., Ecology, Justice, and Christian Faith: A Critical Crossroad, 1998). Scharper's survey is particularly Guide to the Literature (Westport, CT: Greenwood instructive vis-a.-vis the issue of "environmental eth­ Press, 1995); Max Oeschlager, Caring for Creation: ics" and "animal welfare," In his survey he treats An Ecumenical Approach to the Environmental Crisis many kinds of ecological theology: biblical, tra­ 145 PRACTICING THE PRESENCE OF GOD

me kind of ditionalist, "new cosmology" approaches, ecofemi­ 1997), pp. 91-117; Kallistos Ware. The Orthodox Jews for ani­ nist, process, and liberationist, but singles out pro­ Wily, revised edition (Crestwood, N.Y.: St. Vladi­ lve listening, cess theology as one of the few that attends to indi­ mir's Press, 1995), p. II9. Is and being vidual animals as well as collectives. An exception to 8. These are the first four principles of the Earth ; good news Scharper's generalization is James Nash's Loving Na­Charter (Benchmark Draft II). ecause there ture: Ecokgical Integrity and Christian Responsibility 9. Cobb, The Earthist Challenge to Economism, 1 care. It can (Nashville: Abingdon, I99I). Nash is well aware of p.82. I'hole ofani­ the tendency among ecological theologians to em­ ro. Andrew Linzey and Dan Cohn-Sherbok, d it can lead phasize "collectives" over "individuals" (pp. 179- After Noah: Animals and the Liberation of Theokgy hich domes­ 83). For readers interested in ways in which tradi­ (London: Mowbray, 1997) pp. 1-16. :ows, for ex­ tional Christian doctrines might offer "firm foun­ II. For a systematic discussion of animals as un­ slaugh tered dations" for an ecological theology, Nash's book is clean, see Walter Houston, "What Was the Mean­ without parallel. His own constructive approach in­ ing ofClassifying Animals as Clean or Unclean?" in od news for cludes attention to individuals and collectives. Andrew Linzey and Dorothy Yamamoto, eds., Ani­ : dimensions 3. For an introduction to the eco-justice move­ mals on the Agenda (London: SCM Press, 1998), pp. :tical action, ment, see Dieter Hessel, "Ecumenical Ethics for the 18-24. For a discussion of animals as see ritual depth. Earth Community," Theology and Public Policy 8, J. W. Rogerson, "What was the Meaning ofAnimal in different nos. rand 2 (Summer and Winter 1996): 17-29. The Sacrifice?" in ibid., pp. 8-17­ :he overcon­ guidelines recommended by the Humane Society 12. Linzey and Cohn-Sherbok, After Noah, p. 7. ngthe poor­ of the United States appear, among other places, 13· Ibid., p. 7. lith the iIIu­ in Charles Birch and Lukas Vischer, Living with the 14. Vischer, Living with the Animals, p. 2. 19 instead a Animals The Community ofGod's Creatures (Geneva: 15. In process theology, we call such selves :he compan­ WCC Publications, 1997), pp. 80-81. "souls," and recognize that there can be degrees of :. I have writ­ 4. See Andrew Linzey, Animal Theology (Lon­ soul. An embryo just after conception, for example, w this tlans­ don: SCM Press, 1995); see also Phyllis Zagano and has less soul than an embryo in the third trimester. lIistians. For Terrence Tilley, eds., Things Old and New: Essays Moreover, we suggest that "souls" are evolutionary e to dwell in on the Theology ofElizabeth A. Johnson (New York: expressions of, not exceptions to, the kind of ener­ their midst. Crossroad, 1999). I wrote pp. 56-80, offering a pro­ getic aliveness found also in the living cells ofplants, t with touch: cess approach to God in relation to animals, with in microorganisms, and in rocks. By this definition, eSpirit. For a particular attention to problems ofanimal suffering; "souls" are natural, not supernatural. By animals, t, supremely pp. IIO-I6 are Johnson's response to process the­ then, I mean sentient beings with souls. By this defi­ y touch is an ology, in which she draws parallels from a feminist, nition, humans, too, are animals. neo-1bomist perspective. 16. Hessel, "Ecumenical Ethics for Earth Com­ 5. See Zagano and Tilley, Things Old and New, munity," p. 19. especially pp. 56-80 and IIO-16. 17. See Zagano and Tilley, Things Old and New, 6. Elizabeth A. Johnson, Women, Earth, and Cre­especially pp. 56-80 and IIO-II6. ator Spirit (New York: Paulist Press, 1993), p. 63. 18. Ware, The Orthodox Wily, p. II9. )94); Theology 7. Sallie McFague, Supernatural cnristians: How 19. Ibid. (MaryknolL We Should Love Nature (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 20. Ibid., p. 120. esse! and Ste­ ; the Time: A t (New York: is particular!y :>nmental eth­ rvey he treats biblical, tra­