Calculemus! The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics

Lcibniz's Two Legacies. Their Implications .for Knowledge Engineering

Mind, Symbolism, Formalism: Is Leibniz a Precursor of Artificial Intelligence?

Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Pedigree and Ancestors Ranganathan

Ranganathan Reprints Prolegomena to Library Classification, Ed.3, 1967 (1990), 64Op. DM 60.­ Colon Classification, 6th Ed. 1960 (12th reprint 1994), 450p. DM25.­ ClassifiedCatalogue Code, ed.5 (reprinted 1991), 644p. DM 30.-

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Books related to S.R.Ranganathan Rajagopalan, T.S.: Ranganathan's Philosophy, Assessment, Impact and Relevance, 1986, 690p. DM 48.­ Satija, M.P.: Manual of Practical Colon Classification, 3rd rev.ed. 1995 DM20.­ Satija, M.P.: Colon Classification, 7th Ed. Some Perspectives. 1993 DM 30.­ Satija, M.P., Sing, A.: Bibliography of Colon Classification 1930-1993 DM 30.- Navalini, K., Satija, M.P. (Eds.): Petits Petales. A Tribute to S.R.Ranganathan, 1993 DM 30.-

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Books from Friends of Ranganathan Gopinath, M.A.: Construction of Depth Version of Colon Classification. A Manual. 1986 DM20.­ Krishan Kumar: Theory of Classification. 4th rev.ed. , reprint 1992 DM 35.­ Krishan Kumar: Library Manual. 1985. DM25.-

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International Journal devoted to Concept Theory, Classification, Indexing and Knowledge Representation

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Contents page VoI.23(1996)No.2

Scheibe, E.: The problem of the application of logic and Kramer, S.: Mind, symbolism, formalism: Is Leibniz a mathematics. precursor of Artificial Intelligence? KnowJ.Org. 23(1996)No.2, p.67-76, 38 refs. Knowl.Org. 23(1996)No.2, p.84-87, 31 rell;. Starting out from Descartes' and Leibniz' idea of a mathesis The assumption that Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is a precursor of universalis the achievements of modern mathematics are di­ the idea of ArtilicialIntelligence is misleading. The argument is vided into three major parts: The creation of algorithms, the to distinguish between episteme and mind, recognition and invention of proof,>, and the application of mathematics to the cognition. Leibniz interpreted formal symbolic operations as a description of nature. This applicability has repeatedly been mere epistemological instrument, but not as a description of viewed as being just a miracle. One major idea to diminsh the what actually happens within the mind: Leibniz denied that a miraculous impression was to view mathematics as exploring machine can be used as an explanative model of cognition. the vast area of all kinds of abstract structures, thus establishing (Author) a huge store of humanly possible thinking from which the physicist has only to choose the structure appropriate for the case before him. There remains, howevcr, the problem ofmathematical overdetermination of physics: the structures suitable for Jaeneeke, P.: Elementary principles for Representing Knowl­ application usually contain mathematical elements that remain edge without physical interpretation. The true miracle then seems to KnowLOrg. 23(1996)No.2, p.88-102, 30 refs. be that it is often very difficult, if 110t impossible, to eliminate The vast majority of publications in language theory and those uninterpreted elements from physical theory. philosophy start with the language as the given and ask about (Author) their structures, about the meaning of their words and about the correct interpretation oftexts. This paper approaches the language problem from just the opposite side: the given is here a certain content; what is sought for, is an appropriate artificial language Marciszewski, W.: Lcibniz' two legacies and their impHca­ to represent this content. To this end, seven elementary tiOIlS regarding Imowledge engineering. representation principles are proposed. To illustrate the way KnowLOrg. 23(1996)No.2, p.77-83, 37 refs. they work, syntactic pattern recognition is introduced as a Knowledge engineering anticipated by Leibniz in such projects simple, but nOll-trivial example for representing knowledge in as ideal language for science reasoning automata, library fo rmal language. Anothercentral thema ofthe paper is LEIBNIZ' s organization, etc. owes to him philosophical presuppositions as characteristica universalis and the so-called LEIBNIZ project. to the scope of possible automation. The paper deals with an LEIBNIZ's investigations in this field arcreviewed against the ambiguity in his position. His attitude as an engineer implies background ofthe tasks required in syntactic patternrecognition. hard AI (as represented by A. Turing) while his metaphysical It is demonstrated that LEIBNIZ had, in fact, already worked insights involve an insuperable physical difference between with six ofthc seven representation principles proposed, fu rther, organisms and artificial machines, which is highly relevant to that his characteristica universalis is an early form of a formal efficiencyof information processing (this physicalism claiming language, and lastly, that - contrary to the prevailing view - the the import of hardware, accords withl. von Neumann's insights). LEIBNIZ project is not a matter of logic but rather one of

The paper's sections: l. Leibniz VS. Descartes in views on knowledge representation, a fieldlargely unexploited in today's knowledge. 2. On physicalism and antiphysicalism in logic. 3. logic-oriented epistemology and philosophy of science. It is Turing's claim as to the insignificance of hardware. 4. Von precisely this one-sided orientation ofthese disciplines, which is Neumann's claim as to the significance of hardware. 5. Why responsible for the distorted picture ofLEIBNIZ's work found in Leibniz would not have accepted logical physicalism. 6. Why the literature; some typical misunderstandings are finally Leibniz would have accepted logical physicalism. (Author) discussed. (Author)

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The more scientific data nrc generated in the impetuous present times, the more Thus, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION is meant to be 11 programme for the ordering energy needs to be expended to contol these data in a retrievable fashion. improvement of classification methods and processes, a forum for disellssion forall With the abundance af knowledge now available the questions of new solutions to those interested in the organization of knowledge on a universal or a subject-field the ordering problem and thus of improved classification systems, methods and scale, using concept analytical and/or concept-synthetical approilehcs ns well a� procedures have acquired unforeseen signi [ieanee. For llIany years now they have numerical procedures and comprising also the intellectual and automatic compiJil­ been in the focus ufinlerest Of illfol"mutiollscientists the world over. tioll and use of classification systems and thesauri in aU fieldsof knowledge, with Until recently, the special liternture relevant to clnssificatioll was published in special attention being given to the problems ofterminology. piecemeal fashion, scattered over the numerOllS technical jourmlls serving the experts of the varions fields,such as KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION publishes original miicles, repOlis on conferen­ ces and similar communications, the Newsletters of the International Society for

ph i losophy and science of science Knowledge Organization (ISKO News) and the Committec on Classification Re­ se ienee pol icy and science organiziltion senreh 0 fthe InternationalF ederatiOIl for I n formalion and Documentation (FIDleR mathenmtics, statistics, and computer science News) as well lIS book reviews, [etters to the editor, and an extensive annotated libral), and informatioll science bib1iography of recent classification and indexi ng I iterature, covering now some 500 ilrchivistics and museology items in each issue. j ounmI ism and C01ll1l1Ull ical ion sci enee KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION should therefore be available at evcry university indllstria I products and commodity sc iencc and research library of every country, at every information center, at colleges and tenninology, lexicography and linguistics schools of] ibrary and information science, in the hands of everybody interested in the

Bcginning 1974, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZA TlON (formcrly INTERNATIO­ ficlds mentioned above and thus also atevery office for updating information on any NAL CLASSIFICATION) has bcen serving ns a eOlllmon platform for thc discus­ topic related to the problems of order in our information-flooded times. SiOll of both theoretical background questions and practical npplicatioll problems in KNOWLEDGEORGANIZATION was founded in 1973 by international group many arcas of conccrn. In each issue experts from llIany countrics commcnt on m1 of scholars with a consulting board ofcditors representing the world's rcgions, the questions of nn adeq nate siructuri ng and construct iOll of ordering systems and on the special classificatioll fields, and the subject nrens involved. From [974-1980 ICwas problems onhcir usc in opening the information contents of new I itcratllfe, of dnla published by K.G.Sauf Verlag, MUnchen. llackissues of 1978-1992 are available collections and survey, oftablliarworks and of olherobjects of scientific intercst. from TNDEKS Verlag, 100. (The 14 volull1esof 1978-1992 are offered now at the Their contributions have been concerned with highly reduced price ofDM 200.-). (I) clarifying the theoretical foundations (general ordering theory, science As 0 f 1989, KNOWLEDGE OR GANIZA nON has become the officialorgan ofthc theoretical bases of classification,data analysis and reduction) INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION (ISKO) (2) describing practical operations connected wi th numerical tilxollomyl and is includedfor evelY ISKO-member, personal or institutional in the membership classi fication, as weII as appl ications of class ification systems and thesauri, fee (OM 60.-IDMI20.-). manual and machine indexing (3) tracing the h iSIOl)' of class ificat ion know ledge and methodology From 19900n for4 issuesfann.{including indexes) DM 128.-. No airmail (4) discussi ng questi OilS of education and training in classi fication Rates: delivery any longer. Membership ralessee above. -TNDEKS Verlag, Woogstr.36a, (5) concerning themselves with the problems of terminology in general and D·6043I Fmnkfurl. with respect to special ficlds.

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These thoughts reflect Guest-Editorial very clearly LEIBNIZ's unshakeable trust in the power of knowledge, and from this fo llows directly his esteem for the sciences: Felicity consists in contentment, he said, and since durable contentment depends on the confidence Gottfried Wilhelm LEIBNIZ we put in the future, sciences are necessary for true felicity on the occasion of his 3S0th birthday (1, p.lS3). But in order to fulfil their tasks, the sciences 1 July 1646-14 Nov. 1716 need a reliable foundation. Knowledge depends on proofs, and the invention of The wise lTIan always acts according to principles them again depends on the right method. But what is the (Theodicee, §337) right method leading to founded Imowledge? According to LEIBNIZ it is the art of proving practised in mathemat­ ics, where mistakes can be discovered with smallest effort LEIBNIZ passes for the last universal scholar who by calculati on requiring no more things than ink and workcd productively in nearly all fields ofhis time. He paper. It is fundamental in this consideration that the stimulated numerous contemporary scientists in their proofs are not meant for the matter itself; rather, they are work, as documented by more than 15,000 preserved executed in manipulating symbols which take up the letters from him directed to about 1,100 addressees, and fu nction of things they represent. Ifitwere possible to test many of his discoveries form today an integral part of non-mathematical knowledge by calculation as well, then scientific knowledge. Nevertheless he leads a shadowy there would bc no such a variety of opinions, and disputes existence in German philosophy and elsewhere: much could be solved by a His idea might be praised and often quoted, but little read. There are several calculemus! summarized in the catchword: Founded knowledge by circumstances which have hindered a full appreciation of means ofproof s) reliable proofs by means of calculations. his achievements: (1) He wrote in three languages: Latin, But while thi s method is inherent in mathematics from its French, and German. (2) He expressed his ideas mainly very nature, special precautions must be taken to use it in in letters or fragments that remained unpublished during other disciplines, too (1, p.lS3-157; 2, p.200). Many of his lifetime and have so remained to this day. (3) Al­ LEIBNIZ's fragm ents deal with this problem (3). He took though he left us a near-complete heritage of some 50,000 up thi s idea velY early already in his dissertatio de Grte items - a unique stroke ofluck - his work was published and it kept occupying him during his only at a late date and incompletely and is scattered over combinatoria, lifetime for a period of about 50 years. a vari ety of editions; the historico-criti cal complete edi­ ti on started only in 1923 with the appearance of volume His approach is very similar to what is now called 1. Roughly 30 volumes have appeared so far, but publish­ 'symbol processi ng' in artificial intelligence, and from ing is still going on and will take several more decades to this point of view the subject proved to be of a surprising be finished. And (4), his work, the work of a generalist, relevance, worth, therefore, of devoting a special issue to has been handled by specialists. This has led to mislead­ its philosophical fundamentals. Symbol processing in­ ing and one-sided interpretations, given rise to incorrect cludes three main aspects: algoritillnization, reasoning, translations, and influenced edition practice. Thus many and knowledge representation, all of which arc repre­ an idea of his has fallen into oblivion to be re-discovered sented in the four contributions to this issue: only later, with other discoveries possibly sti ll remaining In the firstart icle, Erhard SCHEIBE (Calculelllus! The to be made or understood, while in some fields he has problem of applying logic and mathematics) investigates preserved his superiority unchallenged so far. the performance ofmathematics in a qualitative sense. He Thus, e.g., our ti me of over-specialization has seen the distinguishes between its algorithmical, its demonstra­ complete loss of the art ofthinkillg in large, dimensions, tive and its descriptive capacity. The close relationship the reason fo r thi s being no doubt the loss of visions from between proofs in mathematics) conclusions in logic and whi ch philosophizing can start making sense. LEIBNIZ's computation is shown. The descriptive power is ascribed vision was his optimistic view that our world is the best of to the fact that in mathematics general structures arc all possible worlds and that nothing contributes more to considered. Finally, the amazi ng phenomenon is dis­ the public welfare of all people than the knowledge, cussed that a great many mathematical structures have perfecting as it does reason (I, p.IS7); for the highest their counterparts in physics. feli city of human beings consists in their greatest possible Witold MARCISZEWSKI (LEIBNIZ 's two legacies completeness. In promoting the human abi lities, com­ and their implications regarding knowledge engineer­ pleteness is a higher degree of health. The most powerful ing) starts with the assumption that Leibniz on the one human abi lity is the power of thinking, and the best hand believed in the possibility of automating the proc­ rem edy for the mind are a few elementary thoughts by esses of knowledge production, but that on the other hand which an infinite number of other thoughts can be pro­ he implicitly questioned thi s view with respect to his duced according to rules (1, p.429). Some of his aims conception about perception. Both positions are reflected typi cally concern knowledge organization, i.e. the search in the logical antiphysicalism held by TURING, and the

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 65 Editorial physi calism held by von NEUMANN, respectively. They except one, and that his characteristica universalis is an are synthesized in the hypothesi s that there is a mutual early form of a fo rmal language. dependence between perception and reasoning; percep­ We do not know where we will go from here, but where tion is afnon-digital nature supporting von NEUMANN's we como from we can explore to a certai n degree. The point of view, whereas the digital nature of reasoning issue contains also a list ofLEIBNIZ's ancestors and his corresponds to TURING's assumption. According to bi nary pedigree as compiled and updated by ArndtRI CH­ MARCISZEWSKI, LEIBNIZ failed to see the connection TER and Weert MEYER. between perception and reasoning. The above synopsis reveals that there are different In investigating similarities and differences between accesses to LEIBNIZ's work, and, as a consequence, LEIBNIZ's program and the goals which Artificial Intel­ controversial views cannot fai l to appear, thus illustrating ligence research pursues, Sybille KR AMER (Mind, sym­ the actuality of the topics dealt with. bolism, formalism: Is Leibniz a precursor of Artificial May this issue contribute to promoting the discussion Intelligence?) takes up again the theme dealt with by and to wi dening the understanding of the interesting MARCISZEWSKI. But in contrast to him, she comes to subject matter, remembering LEIBNIZ's assertion (i n a the conclusion that LEIBNIZ's statements about reason­ note to Van HELMONT): "We will regress if we do not ing and symbolic operations do not describe what actually progress, because there is no standstill". happens within the mind, rather, they have to be under­ stood as epistemological arguments. Peter lacnocke Whereas the previous authors follow the traditional way ofint erpreting LEIBNIZ's ideas as an undertaking in Leibniz, G.W.: Opuseules et fragments inedits. Extraits des logic, Peter JAENECKE (Elemental), principles for rep­ manuscrits de la BibliothCque Royalede Hanovre par Luis Couturat. Paris 1903. resenting 101owledge) attempts to show that they deal in 2 Gerhardt, C.1. (Ed.): Die philosophischen Schriften von fact with knowledge representation. Seven principles are Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Bd:VII: Berlin 1890: Reprint: suggested; their function is illustrated by means of the Hildesheirn/New York: Georg Olms Verlag 1978. features of a fo rmal language and by means of the tasks 3 To be published completely in the historico-critical edition in typically done in syntactic pattern recognition. He comes Series VI, Vol. 4 in foursubvolumes, announced fortheend of1997 to the conclusion that LEIBNIZ knew all principles by Akademie Verlag, Berlin.

66 Know!. Org. 23(l996)No.2 Editorial Erhard Scheibe Erhard Scheibe, professor for phi­ Hamburg, Germany losophy at the universities of Got­ tingen (1964-1983) and Heidelberg (1983-1992) is now retircd. Hc has specialized in philosophy ofscience Calculemus! The Problem of and the foundations of physics in particular. Two books and numer­ the Application of Logic and ous papers are devoted to these sub­ jects. Mathematics*

thinking, that which one docs in arithmetic and geometry"2. Scheibe, E.: The problem of the application of' logic and mathematics. Hence the example after which the universal language Knowl.Org. 23(1996)No.2, 1'.67-76, 38 rcfs. of thought is to be patterned is for Leibniz - as it was in a Starting out from Descartes' and Lcibniz' idea of a mathesis sense for Descartes, too - mathematics, and it is also clear universalis the achievements of modern mathematics are di­ just what it was about mathematics which one hoped to vided into three major parts: The creation of algorithms, the exploit in the new, far more sweeping enterprise: the invention of proofs, and the application of mathematics to the description of nature. This applicability has repeatedly been things one desired to make philosophical capital of were viewed as being just a miracle. One major idea to diminsh the its proofs and its mechanically reproduceable calcula­ miraculous impression was to view mathematics as exploring tions, of whose stringency and simplicity one wished that the vast area of all kinds of abstract structures, thus establishing even the very process of thinking itself should benefit. a huge store of humanly possible thinking from which the What blissful state of rationality, once one had accom ­ physicist has only to choose the structure appropriate fo r the plished that! case before him. There rcmains, however, the problem of "One would", wrote Leibniz, "convince everyone of mathematical overdetermination ofphysics: the structures suit­ able for application usually contain mathematical clements that one's findings or discoveries, since the calculations could remain without physical interpretation. The true miracle then easily be checked out ( ...). And if anyone should doubt seems to be that it is often very difficult, if not impossible, to my words, I would tell him: 'Let's calculate, Sir!' and, eliminate those unintcrpreted elements from physical theory. taking pen and ink, we would soon extricate our (Author) embarassement"3. Leibniz also left us dues as to how he let himself be guided by mathematics in constructing a characteristica 1. The Dream of a mathesis llllivel'salis lI11iversalis. The mental germ-cell was some sort of a As the title of my address indicates, I am going to treat principle of greater explicitness oflanguage or the reduc­ a systematic subject, but in doing so I will not fail to take tion of arbitrariness in the symbolic representation of Leibniz as my point ofdeparture - which is indeed the velY contents. Letus take, for example -to follow Leibniz4 - the least one may expect of an address designated to keynote arithmetical fact that three times three equals nine. In the a convention dedicated to Leibniz. As we all know, the decimal system we express this truth in a form by which numerouti plans entertained - but never completed - by no one can tell how this equation came about. The correct Leibniz included also a plan for a so-calledcharacteristica form ulation of this equation in the decimal system is a universalis or lingua generalis, so let's say: for a univer­ mere matter of designation: In the binary system, on the sal language with the wonderful properties that its mere other hand, this question is already disposed of with the grammatical mastery would make one speak truths and firsttwo numbers zero and one, and the representations of nothing but truths, including truths that would be novel the numbers three and nine are already expressions of ones in a very essential sense. Earlier, Descartes had, facts in the binary system . In particular, when calculating under certain conditions, dared in the usual fashion we will obtain together with the "to hope for a readily recognizable universal language, casy product also, in a way, its designation. Correspond-ingly, to pronounce and to write, which, to mention the main point, in the case where non-mathematical and in particular would also help the human intellect in presenting all objects philosophical subjects are included, the intention prob­ so clearly to it that it would be well-nigh impossible for it to ably was to construct the universal language in such a way be deceived ( ... ), and by means of which peasants could that in its formal structure it would become, to the highest judge on truth better than philosophers can now"l. possible extent, an image of the contents of the objects it That was in 1629, and less than half a century later we was designed to express. As Leibniz gushed as late as find Leibniz entertaining similar ideas: 1695: "If one could find characters or symbols", he says, "which "If God grants me enough time oflife and freedom, I hope to would be capable of expressing all our thoughts as clearly design a kind ofphi losophy no one has yet seen the likeness and precisely as arithmetic expresses numbers and analytic of, for it will rightly possess the clarity and certainty of geometry expresses lines, then one would evidently be able mathematics, containing as it will something similar to to do with all objects, insofar as they are subject to rational calculation. Admittedly, it is not yet possible to decide all

Knowl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 67 Erhard Schcibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics questions with its aid, but slich decisions as arc taken on this how and to what extent the rationalistic claim of the basis arc indisputable. ( . .. ) Once the trail has been blazed, universality of the mathematical presumptuous though it posterity will march forward on it".5 probably was at the ti me, has meanwhile been honored in Has it so marched forward, and where do we stand theory and practice. today? These are the questions on which I wish to say In making a few remarks on this subject in the follow­ something in the following - but not, mind you, as a ing, and thus speaking about mathematics and also a little historian, which I am not, but in a reflection by a bit about logic, I will be speaking about something which philosopher of science'. In so doing I hope to be able to is not everyone's cup of tea. Although everyone will at proceed from the assumption that people like Descartes some point in his or her life have come into contact with and Leibniz positively felt that the mathematical disci­ mathematics, for many onc the upshot of this experi ence plines of arithmetic and geometry, already available thcn will be no more than the recollection of seemingly endless as more or less complete, self-contained systems, not only hours of mathematical lessons at school. Mathematics were capable ofbeing developed further intrinsically, but and logic have entered into everyday language in seem­ also still fell short of being representative for the entire ingly different ways. We hear people say that this or that realm of the mathematically possible in the firstplace. matter is just "higher mathematics" to them, or that some The development ofmathematics in the 16th century was other thing is just "logical", meaning in the first case: certainly conducive to strengthening such a feeling in any "This I don't understand, it is beyond me", and in the person. The new algebra, the beginnings of analytic second case: "that goes without saying; it is crystal clear". geometry and the invention ofinfinitesimal calculus were Thus, logic seems to be making out even a little better in clear indications of a beginning expansion of mathemat­ popular language than does mathematics. In actual fact, ics both in a methodical and an objective respect. It took however, what is meant by the second locution is just as all the philosophical optimism of the epoch, however, to little logical in the proper sense as the fi rst one is jump ri ght away to entertaining, and seriously pursuing, mathematical in the propel' sense. Despite this, on the the idea of a universal language of thought or a mathesis whole, none too encouraging situation I may of course be universalis. Even in the present age of giant computers assured in this circle ofLeibniz scholars and Leibniz fans and artificial intelligence we are far removed from imag­ that the subject I have selected will not appear to be outof ining that, in the end, all rational thinking is - let alone: place. In view of my ensuing remarks my references to should be - mathematical thi nking. But we can all the Leibniz will not be in the nature of a cloak covering up a more readily sympathize with the cxpectati on ofthe time merely casual interest of this great man in mathematics. that mathematics was about to undergo a major expansion There is a nice story about Hilbert. When at a gathering knowing, as we do, with all the undeselved superiority everyone was asked to say what question he would ask granted by historical hindsight, that that is exactly what when being waked up from three hundred years' sleep of happened. death and being permitted to ask one single question as to Our reflections in the fo llowing will not, however, be how things had meanwhile progressed on earth, Hilbert restricted to the question of in how far the dreams inspired said he would ask whether Ri emann's conjecture had by the mathematics ofthe epoch ofalingua generalis, and meanwhile been proven. Now if Leibniz were given this ars illveniencii, a mathesis universalis have led at least to opportunity here and now, he might well ask us, I thi nk, a new and expanded vision of the mathematically possi­ how matters were with his matlIesis univel'salis. So let's ble. tell him! In the very spirit of the aforementioned classical au­ thors, the concept ofthe universality ofthe mathematical 2. Two Intel'llal Achievements of Mathematics includes more than doing justice to the full structural ri chness in abstracto. It also includes the concrete occur­ To start with a form ality: We already learnedthat from rence of abstract structures in as many fields as possible anci ent time mathematics was subdivided into ari thmetic of reality - for example the far-reaching embodiment of and geometry, Added to them in the course of ti me were the mathematical in nature. Together with the question a few fields of application we heard Descartes mention, "Just what is generally understood by the term mathemat­ and in the 17th century mathematics in a narrower sense ics?", Descartes raises the further question "Why not only was joined by algebra and infinitesimal calculus. As far (arithmetic and geometry), but also astronomy, music, back as 1868, the yearbook on Progress in Mathematics optics, mechanics and several other (branches of science) subdivides mathematics (including its fields of applica­ are designated as mathematical disciplines"7. Today one ti on) into 12 subfields, followed, for greater clarity, by a will be the most readily understood if alongside the still more detailed subdivision into 38 fields. In the question of the scope and systematics of mathematics Mathematical Reviews of 1979, two comparable subdivi­ itself one poses the question ofits fu ndamental applicabil­ sions produce 60 and approximately 3400 subfields re­ ity and the extent of its actual application. Now right here spectively" . Thus, particularly within the past 100 years, is the point where we have reached the main ti tle of this we are confronted here with an expansi on and differentia­ address, having crossed, as it were, the bridge leading to tion ofmathem atics which actually defies description: An it from Leibniz's "Calculemus!". The question at issue is absolutely fantastic development which even our bold

68 Know!. Org. 23(l996)No.2 Erhard Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics prophets of a mathematical univeral science would cer­ mathematics, and in fact, of course, the mere adherence tainly be rendered speechless. At the same time it is clear to an algorithm, once one has it, is so stupid an affair that that it would be simply ridiculous to try to present, in a one may assign it to a machine. On the other hand, we lecture, an adequate impression of the state of things, let know better today than any preceding generation that a alone of their development. Nevertheless, in this second disavowal taking place in so isolated a fashion is totally part of my address, still with the whole of mathematics out of place. For on the one hand the computer revolution before our eyes; I propose the fo llowing subdivision into we are witnessing today - and I believe we may really three for the consideration of us all. Unlike the classifica­ speak of a revolution here - is not, on its part, a mere tions already mentioned, intended as means to organize algorithmic accomplishment. Rather it is a highly com­ the immense mass of material, our division into three is plicated technological development based not only on oriented to the question, just what, in a more qualitative mathematical, but also on physical progress. And in any sense, mathematics accomplishes. And here the possibil­ event it is based indirectly, by way of physics, on a ity suggests itself of distinguishing between an algorith­ mathematical progress which has nothing at all or little to mic, a demonstrative and a des<;riptive accomplishment. do with algorithms. On the other hand the fact remains This distinction is not one that has just become possible that the transformation of our world through the compu­ for modern mathematics. All three accomplishments ter is based on a thoroughly effective integration of its have been known ever since antiquity, all of them arc algorithmic capability with other accomplishments. present in Leibniz's design for a universal mathematics, I need not describe here in greater detail what un­ and each one of them has undergone a tremendous dreamt-of influence modern computers are meanwhile expansion since then. exerting not only on our evelyday life, but also on the Algorithms are known to us all in the form of the four progress of science. There is only one thing I wish to fundamental rules of arithmetic with rational numbers in mention expressly. Normally the use of computers for the decimal system. Everyone knows how two natural scientific purposes has a conclusive character: within the numbers are to be added, and if the numbers are not too framework of a sizable proj ect they furnishe.g. numerical large, he or she is also able to actually perform the data which form a decisive part of the overall result, and addition. This is simply a matter of calculating the value this they do also e.g. in computer-assisted proofs within of a function for given values of the independent vari­ pure mathematics, for example in proving the Four Color ables. Another fu nction one is taught at school to calcu­ TheoremJo. In addition, however, computers also play a late is the function by which the greatest common divisor heuristic part in research. True, an ars inveniendi such as of two natural numbers is obtained: one calculates this meant by Leibniz and held possible until well into the with the aid of the so-called Euclidean algorithm. Quite 19th century we consider today to be impossible. But that generally an algorithm is a - so it is said - purely the heuristic use of computers in the recent past has mechanical procedure which in a finite number of steps brought research ahead cannot be overlooked. yields a well-definedresult from given data. The decisive A typical example is the theory ofdeterministic chaosll. th;ng is that it has been prescribed by wholly unambigu­ Here the problem is the description of processes which ous instructions just how every single step and how the obey a quite simple mathematical 1aw, but which both in sequence of steps is to be carried out. The availability of the individual case and in their totality may take place in an algorithm is in the given case the compliance with an extremely complicated way, in a word: chaotically. To Leibniz's "Calculemus!" While the pertinent basic idea is obtain an overview of such processes seems to overtax as old as elementary calculation, it is only since little more even the brains of trained mathematicians. A computer, than fiftyyears that we have a precise conception of the on the other hand, gives one quite rapidly a vivid impres­ algorithm9. The definition of this concept and thus the sion of the processes going on and of essential structural establishment of a strict science ofthe calculable is, in this characteristics. Usually this is quite sufficient for the first field of accomplishment of the mathematical, the physicists, and the mathematicians will find that the outstanding event par excellence since the 17th century, theorems they will have to prove are now occurring to The adequacy of the definition is expressed in Church's them. Euler is reported to have said: "If I only had the thesis that every intuitively calculable function is also theorems already! I would have no trouble finding the calculable in the sense of the precise definition, a thesis proofs". At least in the first part of this task computers which today is accepted by evelY mathematician. have an essential part today. This statement on the theory of the matter cannot be So much about the algorithmic accomplishment of made without mentioning also the corresponding prac­ mathematics. Now, as next thing, a word about itsdemol1- tice. It is well known that besides the, shall we say, strative function. Mathematics - it is said - is the proving Platonic tradition of philosophy with its high esteem of science par excellence. What is a mathematical proof? mathematics there has also been a tradition of a rather This, too, is something lllostofuswill probably have been anti-mathematical orientation and that e.g. Hegel has confronted with at least once at school. That, of course, is found less than kind words on the mathematical activity not sufficient to give us an impression of the fact that the of the human mind. These negative judgments pertain finding of proofs is the main business of mathematicians, predominantly to the algorithmic accompl-ishment of or ofhow they go about it. Characteristically, however, all

Know!. Org. 23(l996)No.2 69 Erhard Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics professional attempts undertaken so far to round up the It may well come as a surprise to the outsider that the proofs of mathematicians under a precise concept have reconstruction of mathematics' proof-producing appara­ failed to be as successful as they were in the case of the tus as being a logical apparatus is an insight that was algorithm 12. There is 110 Churchian theorem for the gained only in the post-Leibniz period, in fact only little concept of'intuitive' proof.We have several explications, more than 100 years ago. Was not logic invented by as but the practice of proving is not identical with any of ancient a community as the Greeks, and had not, since them. In comparison, it would make little sense to apply Euclid's opus, the demol1stratio more geometrico become an algorithm without, however, striving to be absolutely a paradigm of scientific thinking?Both, the one and the precise in doing so. Ifwe want to know the exact sum of other are perfectly true, and indeed logic and mathematics two numbers, we must apply the rules of addition exactly. have continued since then to be felt time and time again In contrast, mathematical proofs are often more plausibel to be somehow related. But this does not yet mean - far when they do not exactly follow the rules of an explicit from it - that e.g. the proof given by Euclid had been proof concept. expressly based on logic as it was known then. As we Nevertheless it must now be said here, too, that certain know today, the underdeveloped status of Greek logic at insights into the concept of proof which we have gained the time completely ruled out this happening in the first in the past 100 years through explicatOlY attempts consti­ place. It is only toward the end of the 19th centmy, first tuted a giant step fOlward when these efforts are viewed and foremost in Hilbert's Grundlagen der Geometrie in the light of Leibniz's aspirations and compared with (Fundations of Geometry), that it becomes transparent the then state of things. The essential recognition was that that the mathematical share in geometric proofs consists to a decisive, form erly under-estimated extent the math­ of no more thgan logical conclusions from the axioms of ematical proof is simply a logical inference. The drawing geometry15. The step fo rward taken in this connection was oflogically correct inferences has first of all, like calcu­ a step oflogic, not of mathematics. For the possibility of lation, the form al aspect that it occurs according to logical deduction is based on the occurrence, in the precise rules which can be combined to describe, in the propositions connected by a proof; mponents of purely aggregate, a calculatory procedure - a procedure governed logical significance, such as e.g. the words 'and', 'or', by logic. Seen thus, the drawing of conclusions is, there­ 'not'. Bur for the formulation ofmathematical statements fore, related to calculation. A big difference, however, is and the insight into their logical interrelationships it is that the rules of calculation prescribe what - step by step only the correct treatment of generality and existence - - one is obliged to do, whereas those for drawing conclu­ hence ofthe logical components ofstatements we express sions prescribe only what one is permitted to do. Pennis­ in everyday language with 'for all' and 'there is' - which sible - roughly stated - is anything which preserves the is absolutely decisive. Now these statements had, how­ truth - which, without limitation of the generality of ever, since Aristotle, hence for more than 2000 years, truthful premises, leads to a truthful inference. The been explicated only rudimentarily in the syllogistic basic freedom left the seer of proof within this fram ework, as forms 'B applies to all A' and 'B applies to some A'. Even contrasted with the blind "thou shalt" of calculation, is at the simplest theorems of geometry arc not correctly the same time that which makes proving harder than analyzable syllogistically. Unbelievable though it may calculating. sound, it was not until close to the end ofthe 19th century, that the mathematically fully relevant use of generality The realization that proofs are essentially logical infer­ and existence was correctly recognized, particularly ences - only inferences - seems to reduce mathematics to through the works ofFrege16, to which this and that was applied logic, which is something mathematicians loathe added later, but which undoubtely constituted the break­ to hear. In addition to that, there is the fact that the proof through. of a thesis, although not being an algorithm per se, may, in certain cases, quite well be replaced by one - by a decision procedure, as they call it here. That this 3. The Description of Nature trivialization ofmathematics does not come to pass in the The characterization given so far of the demonstrative more interesting cases is expressed by a limitation theo­ power and accomplishments of mathematics is possibly rem ofG6del13• The dream of a complete algorithmization incomplete. When a mathematician is asked what the ofmathematics, which Leibniz, too, entertained, has been purpose of a proof is it will be natural for him or her to dreamt to its unsuccessful conclusion. The answer that the purpose is the insight acquired in the truth metamathematical analysis ofproofs and possibilities of of the theorem proven. He (or she) might also say that the proof must, however, not be regarded anyway as an purpose is the establishment of a logical implication: the attempt to describe what mathematicians actually do. theorem proven follows from these or those other theo­ Rather, the sole issue at hand is the problem of relating rems. This latter answer would definitely close our sub­ mathematical proofs to a concept so that, on the basis of ject. But the form er answer, the one putting the tmth issue this proof concept, essential parts of mathematics should in the foreground , is heard more frequently. For those become reconstructible. The aforementioned solution by mathematicians are probably in the majority who believe having recourse to logic is the best solution we knowl4• that they are dealing with a mathematical subject sui generL') and unearthing truths about it. However, a proof

70 Know!. Org. 23(l996)No.2 Erhard Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics as described so far leads only - and this as a matter of "Anyone familiar with the present status of symbolic alge­ principle - to a shift or a postponement of the truth bra knows that the validity afthe operations of mathematical question rather than to its resolution. For in every case the analysis does not depend on the interpretation of the sym­ bols used (. .. ). Every interpretation which leaves the truth of question of the truth of those propositions remains open the assumed relationships intact is equally admissible, and ji'om which, as premises, the proof was arrived at. If one it is in this sense that the same operation constitutes in one wants more than that, the description of the demonstra­ interpretation the solution of a problem on properties of tive accomplishment becomes dependent of the question numbers, in another one of a geometric problem, and in a as to the object of mathematics. With this question one third one of a problem of dynamics or optiCS."18 penetrates right into the center of the philosophic discus­ But Boole, too, is standing - in the mid-19th centmy - sion of mathematics - to the question as to the - as I will only at the beginning of the uninterrupted upswing to­ call it -descriptive power ofmathematics, which question ward the universal mathematics of structure. This up­ will as of now occupy us until the end. In this third section swing was only made possible by Cantor's theory of sets we will first of all examine the separate, subordinated or aggregates and Hilbert's formalistic program. Under question ofto what extent mathematics itself will be able the influence of Hilbert, including his interest for the to provide us with an answer. physical applications of mathematics, it thereupon was The answer, one keeping strictly within the framework the G6ttingen school of mathematicians, particularly of mathematics, I will give to the question as to its subj ect Emmy Noether and her students, who contributed essen­ and descriptive power, will - in accordance with this dual tially to the development of the new views. Van der fo rmulation - be a twofold one. For one thing, the descrip­ Waerden's Moderne Algebra of 1936 probably was the tive power of mathematics is essentially - to put it some­ first textbook in the new style, with Bourbaki's math­ what paradoxically - an abstractive power which, in far­ ematical encyclopaedia of the 1950s and 1960s forming reaching independence of the obj ect, presents only some the crowning conclusion 19. such thing as its form and the form of what can be said Now what are structures and species ofstructures in the about it, this, however, with a certain completeness in that sense of modern mathematics? With a view to traditional possible forms susceptible to application are indicated. all mathematics one will assume that e.g. geometric figures In the terminology that has become customary for this - straight lines, circles, polyhedrons, etc. - are mathemati­ accomplishment of mathematics one might express this cal structures, as are, without a doubt, the natural num­ also by saying that mathematics considers structures bers of arithmetic. That is quite correct, too, if in addition types of structures in abstracto . And, as we already did the fo llowing essential consideration is made: When we before in the case of algorithms and proofs, we can now say of a geometric figure that it is a circle, or of a number also say with respect to stl11ctures and types of structures that it is a prime number, then in doing so we are referring which we have developed for them in our 20th century a to a larger entity - to the system of all numbers or to space conceptuality granting us expanses and depths of vision as a whole -, while fu rthermore applying certain universal which would have made the heart of a Leibniz beat faster. stmctures to these entities - e.g. multiplication, or the Similar to and in connection with the concept of proof, it function of distance - , and without our doing this we again is the expansion of logic and of its languages which would be wholly unable to say anything abont the indi­ has made this new perspective possible. But, again, we vidual structures, so familiar to us, of number and figure. find that here, too, the conceptuality of structure has not Structures in the sense of modern mathematics are, been definitely settled.Forthis, too, we have no Churchian therefore, fairly comprehensive, usually infinite forma­ thesis. Yet the exactness of this conceptuality will leave tions consisting of one or more basic domains whose everything far behind it which is undcrstood elsewhere by elements, subsets, etc. are structured by properties and 'structures' - a vogue-word, a fashionable expression of relationships. Against traditional logic, the matter to be the 20th century. particularly emphasized here is them ally-termed(p roper) Above all, however, we are truly confronted here with relation, which to understand was a source of difficulties a mathesis universalis: an incredibly wide formal descrip­ until far into the 19th century. Here in the descriptive tion framework which leaves the contents to a large extent field, matters are exactly the same as they are in the open. This framework is far wider than what Descartes logical field with respect to existence and generality: understood by order and measure when he said "that, to Without including proper relations in our considerations be precise, everything must be considered as mathematics a reconstruction worthy of the name of scientific asser­ which is marked by a search for order and measure"17. tions is out of the question. The second essential insight And when he continues "that it does not at all matter here which made the modem concept ofstructure possible was whether this measure is to be looked for in the numbers or the inclusion into the considerations of properties and in the figures or the stars or in the tones or in any other relations a/ higher order''. The property of being a prime object", then we can, with far more right, say the same number is in the system of natural numbers a property of thing of the modern mathematics of abstract stmctures. the 1st order, since itconCelTIS the elements ofthis system. Somewhat pithier to our understanding and illustrative of On the other hand, the property ofbeing a circle no longer developments since then is how George Boole expressed concerns the points ofthe given space, but itssubsets. Her himself 200 years later with the words: we are dealing with a concept of the 2nd order, and even

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 71 Erhard Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics concepts of a still higher order are continually being used of additive splittings-up ofa natural number - he has used today in applications of mathematics. Many-termed con­ in his work (23). But also into a field so close to life as cepts and concepts of higher order fonn today the germ room acoustics - to mention only one ±luther example - cell for a recursive procedure fo r introducing within a number-theoretical structures have penetrated. To im­ theory of sets or a logic of types the general concept of prove acoustics in modern concert halls with a too low structurel9. ceiling, a ceiling profile has been proposed which follows Now to what extent is use being made within and the powers of a primitive root of a Galois field (24). outside mathematics of this newly-acquired generality? Another class of structures whose recent appearance in

When we look firstof all to the applications, the answer, physics came as a surprise are the so-calledfi'actals (25). in a strict sense, must be: to an'infinitesimal extent. In all If a hundred years ago mathematicians had made bets on strictness, however, this is only intended to mean that by what mathematical structures would most certainly never the very nature of things we can only make a finite use of find application outside mathematics, highly plausible a potentially infinitediversity of types of structures, and candidates fo r such bets would have been, for example, in principle there is nothing at all we can do to change this the so-called Cantor sets or the function, found by ratio. But in comparison with the situation in the 17th Weierstrass, that is continuous everywhere but nowhere century the situation existing then has meanwhile been differentiable. Now how do such adventurous structures considerably expanded. First ofall there have been expan­ ever find application? The Greeks never made even so sions in the sense that wholly new types o/ structures have much as a start on physics, since the natural goings-on on had to be resorted to in order to arrive at an adequate earth appeared immeasurable complicated to them. Newer deseription of the obj ects of application. The most im­ physics lived for 300 years off the discovelY that these pressive examples ofthis are furnished us by physics, still complicated goings-on nevertheless obey simple laws. constituting as it does the most mathematics-oriented Now that we have come quite far already in knowing and empirical science we have. In generalizing the Newtonian understanding the laws of nature, interest is increasingly space-time, but simultaneously in deviating from it, the being directed toward the contingent happenings in all general relativity theory has led us to consider the so­ their complexity. And there we find e.g.in the determin­ called Lorentzian manifolds. A particularly dramatic istic chaos theory already mentioned that for characteriz­ turn was brought about by the quantum theory, when ing the solution behavior of quite simple equations such Hildert spaces and Banach algebras were used to describe exotic sets offer themselves as e.g. the aforementioned states or properties ofan atom 01'elementary particle. This Cantorian sets (26). Such a set is arrived at by starting marked the firsttime that, to the great surprise of physi­ from a finite interval which is divided into three equal cists, non-commutative algebras were introduced into parts, of which one leaves out the middle one (without its physics. Likewise, the classic probability spaces resorted end points), following which one performs exactly the to to describe common statistical phenomena must be same procedure with the two remaining intervals, then included in the list of novel structures frequently being again with the intervals remaining after this second applied today - far beyond physics - in the empirical round, and so forth. The residual set will cover the sciences2o• original interval as thinly as desired, yet it still contains Whereas these expansions occupied physicists par­ exactly as niany points as the original material. The ticularly in the first half of this century, we are since discovery of such a monstrosity was worthy of a Cantor. recently confronted with the realization that internal What we are confronted with is the problem why we find expansions of already known types of structures arc such structures in textbooks of mathematical physics. becoming physically relevanl. As an example we may So far I have spoken of the descriptive power of mention number-theoretical structures. To the outsider mathematics only insofar as it can be left open where the this may sound surprising, thinking as he does that, if structures come from ill concreto which mathematics anything, the natural numbers have been populating considers in abstracto. At the close of this section a word physics for a long time. This is undoubtely correct, but is still needed on whether mathematics itself does not only in the sense that, from a mathematical point-of-view, already furnishus structures. Two i'emal'ks on this ques­ the number structures that had found application were tion must sufficeus for the fo llowing. On the one hand the fairly uninteresting ones. Number theory in the narrower remark that models 0/ a theOlY 0/ sets answer this sense has always been the l'art-pour-l'art show-object of question adequately at least when in the spirit of the mathematics. The British. number theoretician Hardy purpose of this address present-day mathematics is re­ even prided himself of the utter uselessness of his doings, garded in the light of the idea of a mathesis universalis22• and in the Anglo-Saxon realm one speaks of Hardy ism as Evidently this answer is not unequivocal, but each one of the attitude that claims the self-sufficiencyof mathemat­ its intended specifications would permit, in a super­ ics21• But things have changed since recently, and .Steven abundant measure as far as the applications are con­ Weinberg reported only the other day of his statisfaction cerned, a uniform construction of mathematical struc­ over having been able, in a paper on the string theory of tures. In this c'onnection it is not necessmy at a11 - and here .the elementary particles, to quote Hardy, whose determi­ comes the second remark - to visualize a model based on nation of the so-called partitio l1umerOr1l11l ,- the number the theory of sets as a platonic heaven. Sufficient to us is

72 Knowl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Erhard Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics the empirical fact that man is capable of the mental arc certain they do not refer to reality". Weinberg offers constructions concerned. No matter how he may have us, in contrast, the following explanation: reached this point, we can furthermore note that in this "Mathematics is the science of order; so perhaps the spiritual world truths apply which we are able to realize reason the mathematician discovers kinds of order which without resorting to experience, without experiments and afe of importannce in physics is that there are only so without observations on material obj ects and which reali­ many kinds of order". zations are accompanied by an uncommon measure of These two explanations seem to state wholly different certainty. Now what, under these assumptions and in the things. In actual fact, however, they form part ofthe same light of everything said so far, does the application of picture and complement each other. Each is associated mathematics to nature look like? with a specific basic feature of modern universal math­ ematics as I pictured it: The attempted reduction of the 4. The 'Unreasonable Effectiveness' of Mathematics mathematical in the proper sense to the logical-formal Ever since the beginning ofmodern physics, physicists drawing of conclusions, thus simultaneously gaining the have been convinced that - as Galileo already put it - "the immense richness ofpossible structures which lend them­ book of nature is written in the language of mathematics" selves to such drawing of conclusions. Einstein elucidates (30). Furthermore, it has been expressed time and time his view by remarking that it was only through modern, again that the positive usability of mathcmatics for our axiomaticly-oriented mathematics that we received abso­ understanding of nature borders on the miraculous. To lute clarity as to the fact "that through it a clean break was Kepler and Galileo this miracle consisted in our being achieved between the logieal-fonnal and the objective able here, if anywhere, to directly read God's thoughts. A ( ....) contents (and that). only the logical-formal ( ....) modern physicist, Eugen Wigner, says: "The enormous (forms) the object of mathematics". It is thus precisely usefulnss of mathematics in the natural sciences is some­ through this isolation that mathematics acquires its much thing bordering on the mysterious, and there is no rational admired certainty. But as soon as we take mathematics out explanation fo r it" (31). The only possibility of an expla­ of this isolation and apply it to reality it loses this nation thereupon suggcsted by Wigner is an aesthetic one, certainty, or, to put it more precisely, it acquires as adopted by him from Einstein: "The observation which applied mathematics an uncertainty: the uncertainty, comes closest, to an explanation ( ...) is Einstein's state­ namely, of the decision which ones of the infinitely many mcnt that the only physical theories which we arc willing species of structures that can find application we should to accept are the beautiful ones". But Einstein still had select in a concrete application case. This, now, is the other things to say an the mattcr, and in this finalsection point where Weinberg's statement intervenes. Formu­ I will take up his cuc and that voiced in a parallel remark lated roughly, his statement says: Some kind of structure by Steven Weinberg, one ofthe founders of the theory of will do the job. It is like shopping in a department store: electroweak interaction. Some suit will fit. Modern mathematics offers us, in its present-day fo rm, all forms of exact thinking man is Einstein and Weinberg likewise make no secret of the capable of. By selecting one ofthem to use, we do the one fact that they find themselves confronted here with a and only thing we are in a position to do at all. And the miracle of sorts. Einstein speaks of the choice we have is gigantic. Small wonder that we find the "riddle which has troubled researchers of all times so right thing. much. How is it possible that mathematics, which after all Does the Einstein-Weinberg view explain the pre­ is a product of human thinking independent of all expe­ established harmony of mathematics and reality? On this, rience (and whose theorems are absolutely certain and many a thing could be said: I would like to conclude my indisputable), fits the objects of the real world so per­ address with the attempt to describe a difficultywhich is fectly?" (32). left out in this explanation and which still surrounds the Weinberg presents as it were an empirical confirma­ functioning ofthe matter with the aura of the miraculous. tion of the miracle in enumerating the many cases in To begin with, it is of course correct that in comparison which a sspecies of structures used by physics had been with the traditional stock of mathematics the immense found already before by the , mathematicians and now stlUctural richness of present-day mathematics scales ' merely needed to be correctly applied. down the miracle or its applicability. In the 17th eentmy "It is positively spooky", says Weinberg, "how the the rej ection of geometi'Y would have meant the rejection physicist finds the mathematician has been there before of the entire half of mathematics. One would not have him or her"23. known at all what to put in its place. Once.,' however, the The mathematician becoines so-to-speak the physi­ new universal-mathematical perspective had been gained, cist's Man Friday. Is there any explanation for this team­ the abandonment of the old geometry in favor of another play? one appears simply as a transition of one kind of structure to the next one. This does not mean that we or our Einstein has tried to solve this riddle through his now descendants will never have to be astonished again. No famous statement: "Insofar as the theorems of mathemat­ one can tell whether we won't fi nd ourselves compelled ics refer to reality they arc not certain, and insofar as they some day, for reasons coming e.g. from physics, to

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 73 Erhard .Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics abandon the aforedescribed contents-oriented mathemat­ regard these de facto non-interpreted terms with equal ics in favor of an alternative. In quantum field theory, and justification as interpreted as the actually interpreted thus in a solid piece of fundamental physics, a variety of ones. For this reason there can, at first glance and without 'mathematics' is used today which does not possess a set­ fu rther consideration, be no question of the borderline theoretical model, thus constituting insofar a riddlc24. between form and contents coinciding, according to Ein­ Likewise, we are acquainted today with mathematically stein's ideas, with that between mathematics and physical or physically motivated expeditions into border areas of reality. Rather, theories formulated in this fashion are mathematics in the contemporary sense such as C.g. non­ mixed forms which describe a material world by relating standard analysis, non-Cantorian theory of sets, it to a mathematical one. multivalued logic, quantum logic and the like25• But on a Do we now also have an explanation for the phenom­ mathematics of quantum field theory we still lack even the enon of mathematical overdetermination? It is notewor­ beginning of an idea, and the other undertakings have thy that the attempts at an explanation have mainly not, in any case, led so far to a revolution ofmathematized consisted in causing the phenomenon to disappear, i.e. in science which one would be compelled to follow. showing that theories manifesting it possess physically But also with respect to our present-day understanding equivalent formulations from which it is eliminated27• ofthe subject there remains, as stated before, a rest. I will Paradigmatic for this continues to be, even to this day, call it the phenomenon of the mathematical Euclidean geometry. Its modern version, preferred in overdeterminatioll ofphysicS26• Roughly put, it consists physics, as analytic geometry employs coordinate systems in our having, in the theories of physics, frequently more in space and thus numbers. It can be shown, however, that mathematics than we can interpret physically. Let us get one can also do without this analytical apparatus and that the genesis of this surplus straight in a very simple case, an equally strong formulation in purely geometric con­ e.g. that of the state equation ofa gas. With a gas equation cepts exists28. We will consider another case somewhat the physicist would like to formulate a lawlike relation, more precisely. Geometry is, in the common view, equipped valid for many gases, between pressure, volume and with a distance concept which lets the distance between temperature. Although united in one gas, these quantities any two points in space be an unequivocally determined are rather dissimilar in nature, and at first glance it is not number. This distance structure contains somewhat more evident at all where a possibility should come from to than is given in a physically objective fashion. We will formulate a relationship - any relationship - between obtain a specificnumber only if we arbitrarily lay down them. The trick by which this is de facto done goes as a unit of measure. Objectively given is only the equality follows: pressure, volume and temperature have this in of two distances: the socalled congruency. Now it is common that their values can be described by numbers. indeed posssible to present a formulation of Euclidean Through this uniforming, that which first seemed impos­ geometry which proceeds exclusively from the congru­ sible now all of a sudden becomes possible: the entire ency and betweenness relations and from which distance fulness of three-termed relations between numbers is numbers have disappeared. What has thereby been available for the formulation of a gas equation. However, achieved? When we say that the distance from Hannover a price must be paid for this: these relations between to Heidelberg measures some400 km we have interrelated numbers likewise do not gratuitously fall down from two places on our planet by a number. It is difficult to heaven; rather, they are based on the elementary calcula­ argue the fact out of existence that into this distance tory operations and on the limiting processes possibly relationship the number concerned enters in exactly the involved. And the mathematical entities thereby appear­ same fashion as the two spatial partners. Now two places ing on the scene have no significance in the gas theory materially defined in space are just as certainly physical arrived at in the given case. Hence we did nQt acquire our realities as a number - the third partner in our relationship physical law here by reconstruing it as a proposition in - is not. Why is it necessmy to talk in physics, besides on concepts that are physically understandable throughout. material realities (in a broad sense), also something Instead, we have acquired the physical structures sought entirely different, e.g. on numbers? One is tempted to for by imbedding them into richer structures at the price answer that there is something wrong here already in the that their elements will, and even should remain physi­ very question - that the numbers do in fact play a different cally unintelligible. And that we obtain physically useful role in the given theory than its actual objects. That may laws in this fashion is really a miracle. well be so. But unfortunately we do not possess a recon­ Nevertheless this miracle would not have to upset us if struction which would make this difference plain and thus it were an isolated case here. In fact, however, this is only explain our phenomenon. In the given case we can instead a description of what happens normally. It is wholly make the phenomenon disappear: as stated before, things normal that in physical theories - semantically formu­ will work here also without distance numbers. But is this lated - terms occur for which no physical significance, answer satisfactory and will this always work? however indirect a significance may be, has ever been Both questions, I am afraid, must be denied. The newer even so much as intended, although these terms occur in fieldtheories, including the quantum field theories, have a descriptive position. Anyone not knowing how the all been formulated with space-time coordinate systems formalism is to be interpreted in the first place might well being resorted to. Now even many physicists have a

74 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Erhard Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics tendency to keep the furtherdevelopment ofthese theories ematics", as Wigner calls it, I have described an attempt free of coordinates. But this does not remove the sting at a solution which starts out from the universalistic gains placed here in the very beginning. From the part of achieved by modern mathematics. We found, however, philosophy of science, the attempt was recently made to that difficultiesare encountered here, which to overcome eliminate, by the same process as just outlined for the has, admittedly, been attempted but not yet really achieved. distance fu nction, numerical values also from true field The difficulty here is that mathematics is more than logic fu nctions (37). The result is in these cases of appalling and shows us its teeth on the descriptive level. Thus an complexity. A preferred obj ect of reaxiomatizing at­ important idea, which Leibniz, as an early forerunner of tempts has been fu rthermore, ever since ist physical logicism, had entertained, too, has not been fulfilled. establishment 60 years ago, quantum mechanics. Its That, too, we would have therefore have to tell him in our original formulation, used today in all textbooks, pos­ story. 1fhe were not merely able to ask us the one question sesses a not even particularly conspicuous, but - in its con­ we started out by permitting him to ask, but also capable sequences - fa r-reaching mathematical overdetermination of counseling us in this situation, we would not be in the form of complex Hilbert space. Here the refor- assembled here and now in so large a number without 111Ulations have frequently been attempted for wholly lending him our ears. different purposes and, accordingly, have yielded nothing that would help us in our question. Other attempts have Notes

'I.' not yet been sufficiently clarified to permit a clear deci­ Translation of the paper ealell/emus! Das Problem del' sion as to their success29• From the point ofview ofphysics AI/wendling vall Logik lIIul Mathematik given at the Leibniz as a whole, all these undertakings are only punctual in Congress 1988 and printed in Studia Leibnitiana, Suppl. XXVII. nature, even though the points where they are undertaken Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag 1990. p.201-216. We gratefully acknowledge permission to translate and print the mticle by both, may be crucial ones. If nevertheless we wish to draw a author and publisher. lesson from them already now, we seem lo find the rule The h'anslation was accomplished by Dipl.Met. Jacques confirmed that the attempted economizing on ontological Zwmt, Laubestr. 39, D-60594 Frankfurt assumptions, hence here the avoidance of mathematical 1 R.Descaltcs, Oeuvres, cd. by Ch.Adam and P.TanneIY, Paris entitites in the position of objects - if practicable at all - 1897-New Ed. ibid. 1974-. Here: vol.I,p.80-. Cf. aIsoG.W.Lcibniz, frequently leads to undesirable complications. But this Vorausedition der Philosophischen Schrifien, Fusc.7, Miinster rule, too, cannot yet be considered as fu lly understood. 1988, p.1480-. 2 G.W.Leibniz, Opuscules et fragments inedits, ed. by L. Where - so I ask in definite conclusion - has this Couturat, Paris 1903, Hildesheim 1961. Here: p.155 investigation led liS? I have tried to outline in what the 3 Ibid. p.156. Sec also ibid. p.176 and C..T.Gcrhardt, Die decisive advancements of logic, mathematics and their philosophischen Schriften von G.W.Leibniz, Berlin 1890, applications since Leibniz's times can be seen to lie if Hildesheim 1961. Here: p.124-, 198-. lowe the reference to the developments arc viewed in the light of the idea of a collection of Ca1cuJcmus citations to Hide Ishiguro. universal language and universal science. For this pur­ 4 Leibniz, op.eit. no.2, p.284-. pose, three domains of accomplishment or power were 5 G.W.Lllcibniz, Samtliche Schriften und Briefe (Akademie- distinguished. Ausgabe), ser.I, voU 1, Berlin 1982. Here: 420� 6 For an interpreation of the relevant undertakings ofLeibniz The algorithmic success is the most conspicuous one: and his contemporaries see (1) and compare also (2). Leibniz's little calculation machine has been replaced by 7 Descartes, op.cit. no.l, vo1.X, p.37? our worldwide, even satellite-wide integrated large-scale 8 Sec (3) computing systems. And these systems can calculate 9 See (4) and (5) where the basic works have been printed. See anything regarded as theoretically calculable today. also (6) 10 See (7) The success achieved in the field of proal t"eO/y 11 See for instance (8) consists above all in logic having caught up with math­ 12 As an introduction into the "many fa ces" oflogic (9) is usenil ematics, so that appreciable parts of the latter can now be and for further reading take e.g. (10). treated axiomatically. This did not involve, however, a 13 See the references of note no.9. complete reduction of mathematics to logic. 14 On the concept of rational reconstruction in comparison to Noteworthy, finally is the immense gain in descriptive histOlY of science see (11) potency and the updating thereof, which appear to ex­ 15 See D.Hilbert in (12) and compare the description of the development in (13). press the universality of present-day mathematics most 16 See Frcge in (14) and (15) clearly. Quite a few things have come to pass here which 17 Descartes, op.cit. no.l, vol.X, p.3?8 no one could fo resee in the 17th century. 18 We owe Frege a modern understanding of relations and the Other hoped-for things have not been realized. In all, introduction of concepts of a higher order, see Note 16 as well as mathematics has achieved greater independence vis-a.-vis later on Whitehead and Russell in (19). other forms of knowledge, thus netting us the so-called 19 For a set-theoretical introduction see Bourbaki (20), for a modeltheoretical introduction see (10) yoU, ChAo application problem. This wide-branching problem I 20 Textbooks of theoretical physics consider the modern under­ have pursued only along n e line. Starting out from the 0 standing of mathematics too, see e.g. (2 1). amazement at the "unreasonable effectiveness of math- 21 See Hardy (22) as well as (3).

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 75 Erhard Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics 22 See e.g. Jensen (29) 1847. Oxford 1948. p.3 23 Compare (23)p.725-, sec also (33) (17) Van der Waerden, B.L.: Moderne Algebra. Berlin 1963. 24 Physicists (rightfully)disregard this circumstance, as they arc (18) Bourbaki, N.: Elements de mathematique. Paris 1939- vetysuccessful with their method in the (so-called)renormalization (19) Whitehead, A.N., Russell, B.: Principia Mathematica. Cam­ theories. bridge 1910. 2.1963 25 Compare here the references under note 12. (20) Bourbaki, N.: Elements of mathematics. Theory ofsets. Paris 26 Conceming the fo llowing see (34). 1968, Chapt.IV 27 This reaxiomatizatioll was firstformulatcd as a program in the (21) Thirring, W.: Lehrbuch del' Mathematischen Physik. 4 vols. beginning of reference (35). Wien 1977. 28 On this and on the fo llowing case see e.g. (36) (22) Hardy, a.H.: A mathematician's apology. Cambridge 1940. 29 In this regard I am thinking abovc all of Ludwig (38). (23) Mathematics: The unifyingthread in science. Notices of the Amer. Math. Soc. 33(1986) p.716-33, esp.731 References (24) Schroeder, M.R.: Number theory in science and communica­ (I) Arndt,H.W.: Methodo scientificapertractatum. Berlin 1971. tion. Berlin 1984. 2.1987. Seet. l3.9 and 26.6 (2) Schneider, M.: Funktion lind Grundlegung der Mathesis (25) Mandelbrot, B.B.: The fractal geomctry ofnature. New York Univcrsalis imLeibnizschcn Wissenschaftssystem. In: Heinckamp, 1977. 2.1983. A. (Ed.): Studia Leibniliana, Sonderheft 15, Leibniz: Questions de (26) Peitgen, H.-O., Richter, P.H.: The beauty of fractals. Berlin Logique. Stuttgart 1988. p.162-182 1986. (3) Davis, Ph.J., Hersh, R.: The mathematical experience. (27) Grossmann, S.: Chaos. Unordnung und Ordmmg in Brighton, Sussex 1982. p.29- nichtlinearen Systemen. Phys.BUitter 39(1983) p.139-45 (4) Davis, M.: Computability and unsolvability. New York 1958, (28) Devaney, R.L.: Chaotic dynamical systems. Benjamin! 2.1982. p.l 0 Cummings Publ.1986 (5) Davis, M. (Ed.): The undecidable. New York 1965. (29) Jensen, R.B.: Madelle del' Mengenlehre. Berlin 1967. (6) Fisher, A: F0t111ai number theolY and computability. Oxford (30) Le Opere di Galileo Galilei. Ed. Naz., Vo!.VI, Florenz 1933. 1982. Chapt.8 p.232 (7) Appel, K., Haken, W.: The four colour proof suffices. Math. (3 1) Wigner, E.: Symmetries and reflections. Woodbridge, CT Intelligencer 8(1986)p.IO-20 1979. Article 17, p.222-, 229- (8) Hofstatter, D.R.: Mathematische Spielereien. Spektrum (32) Einstein, A.: Mein Welibild. Frankfillt 3.1983. p.1 19- d.Wissensehaft. (1982) Jan., p.7-17 (33) Steen, L.A.: The science of patterns. Science (1988)No.240, (9) Bell, 1., Machover, M.: A course in mathematical logic. p.611-616 Amsterdam 1977. (34) Scheibe, E.: Mathematics and physical axiomatization. Merites (10) Gabbai, D., Guenthner, F. (Eds.): Handbook of philosophical et limites des methodes logiques en philosophic. Colloque interna­ logic. Dordrecht 1983. 3 vols. tional organise par la Fondation Singer-Polignac, June 1984. Paris (II) Scheibe, E.: Zur Rehabilitierung des Rekonstruktionismus. 1986. p.25 1-277 In: Schnadelbach, H. (Ed.): Rationalitat. Philosophische Beitragc. (3 5) Hilbert, D., Neumann, J .v., Nordheim, L.: Uberdie Grundlagen Frankfillt 1984, p.94-116 del' Quantenmechanik. Math. Annalen 98(1927)p.I-30 (12) Hilbert, D..: Gnmdlagen derGeometrie. Leipzig 1899.5.1922. (36) Tarski, A.: What is elementaty geometry?In: Henkin, L. et al (13) Becker, 0.: Grundlagen del' Mathematik. Freiburg 1954. (Eds.): The axiomatic method. Amsterdam 1959. p. I 6-29 Chapt.4, Sect. !. (37) Field, H.: Science without numbers. Princeton 1980. . (14) Frege, G.: Begriff"ehrift. Halle 1879. 2. 1964. (38) Ludwig, G.: An axiomatic basis for quantum mechanics, (15) Frege, G.: Grundgesetze del' Arithmetik, YoU. Jena 1893.. VoLl. Berlin 1985. Darmstadt 2.1962. (16) Boole, G.: The mathematical analysis of logic. Cambridge Prof. Dr. Erhard Schcibe,Moorbirkenkamp2a, D-22391 Hamburg

76 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Erhard Scheibe: The Problem of the Application of Logic and Mathematics Witold Marciszewski holds the chair of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Witold Marciszewski Science at Warsaw University, Poland. Warsaw University, Poland Mcmber ofLcibniz Gescllschaft.Presi­ dentofFoundationforInfOlmatics,Logie and Mathematics, Poland. Editor of the electronic joumal Mathesis Universalis Leibniz'sTw o Legacies. for "Logic andIntelligence, Mechanized Dcduction, Lcibnizian Perspective", as­ Their Implications fo r sociated with LogBank - a database for logic, informatics, etc. Authorofscveral Knowledge Engineering books relevant to the

Marciszcwski, W.: Leibniz' two legacies and their implica­ knowledge, and (2) his implicit questioning of the same tions regarding lm owledge engineering. possibility because ofthe role attributed by him to percep­ Know!.Org. 23(1996)No.2, 1'.77-83, 37 refs. tion as characteristic of organic life. Knowledge engineering anticipated by Leibniz in such projects The former makes him closer to Alan Turing as a as ideal language for science reasoning automata, library pioneer of hard AI, the latter - to John von Neumann as organization, etc. owes to him philosophical presuppositions as to the scope of possible automation. The paper deals with an one who acknowledged peculiarities of organisms, seeing ambiguity in his position. His attitude as an engineer implies their enormous advantages over electronic devices. hard AI (as represented by A. Turing) while his metaphysical These views, though opposing each other, have a point insights involve an insuperable physical difference between in common, to wit either makes a stand against Dcscartes' organisms and artificial machines, which is highly relevant to conceptions of mind and knowledge; thus Descartes efficiency ofinformation processing (this physicalism claiming provides us with a remarkable contrastive background to the importofhardware, accords with J. vonNeumann's insights). better perceive Leibniz's two approaches3• The paper's sections: 1. Leibniz VS. Descartes in views on knowledge. 2. On physicalism and anti physicalism in logic. 3. To express Descartes' position in a most concise way, Turing's claim as to the insignificance of hardware. 4. Von let us put it as fo llows: 'the mind does not belong to the Neumann's claim as to the significance of hardware. 5. Why same world to which matter does ' (cp Ryle [1949]). Thus Leibniz would not have accepted logical physicalism. 6. Why Descartes has created the paradigm of a physics-inde­ Leibniz would have accepted logical physicalism. (Author) pendent theory of mind; the article "the" is to hint at the enormous impact of that theory, to the extent of its becoming a commonsense approach (extremities of be� 1. Leibniz vs Descartes in Views on Knowledge haviouris111 may be partly explained as a revolutionary Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), who antici­ reaction to that paradigm). Leibniz's point results from pated so enormous areas of modern knowledge, is also a denying that denial, so that it reads 'the mind 'does' forerunner of what we nowadays call 'knowledge engi­ belong' (etc). Thus Leibniz paves the way to what nowa­ neering' - by his creations of library systems and his days starts to be called 'physics of mind' (cp Penrose proj ects of collective research, the latter fruitfully mate­ [1988]). rialized with the etablishing of learned societies and Now, there arehvo theoreti cally possible concretisations ministries of science according to some of his projectsl. of this general point: either (1) one reduces thought to We need this term to cover the issues of both correct matter (as, eg, in hard AI), or (2) one acknowledges their 'producing' and efficient 'organizing and managing ' distinctness and interaction (as, eg, Popper and Eccles human knowledge. The former is traditionally handled by [1997]; as to hard and weak AI, cp Gams [1995]). Leibniz epistemology and logic, including methodology of sci­ in his philosophy never endorsed (1) but in his practical ences, the latter - by a cluster of new specialized knowledge-engineering projects he came close to it, while disciplines. However, these two fields are not unrelated to in the main stream of his philosophy it was point (2) each other. To use an example to suggest the argument, which he firmly held. In this sense we can speak of let it be recalled that the procedures offonnalizing proofs, Leibniz's two legacies. His approaching point (1) was though belonging to the sphere of mathematical produc­ connected with the idea of his 'ars combinatoria' as a tion (and so handled by mathematical logic) turned out to universal method ofproblem solving which was combina­ be an indispensable tool for databases, in particular tory and finitist, hence feasible for mechanical devices. mathematical ones, which belong to the domain ofknow 1- In the sequel, the fairly 'materialistic' point (as that of edge organization and managementz. strong AI) is designated by the term 'anti-physicalism' Let us start from a comparison of Leibniz views to and the opposite one by 'physicalism'; this terminology those of Rene Descartes (1596-1650). Why should we may seem rather odd, but is justifiedas fo llows. The view start in this way? The answer is as fo llows. There are two that physical devices (mechanical, electronic, etc) in views of Leibniz to be discussed in this essay, which principle (technical complications notwithstanding) can oppose each other, namely (1) his explicit belief in the do the same job as organisms and minds do, involves the possibility of automation of the processes of producing irrelevance of a physical kind of hardware: it is not matter

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 77 Witold Marciszewski: Leibniz's Two Legacies · but software what matters. Thus the stress put on the 2. On Physicalism and Alltiphysicalism ill Logic import of what constitutes a physical component deserves Physicalism holds human thoughts and acts to be to be denoted as 'physicalism', while its opposite is called determined by physical laws (Webster [1971]). Logical 'antiphysicalism' . Physicalism, LP for short, holds reasoning processes to be Before we enter into the discusion of both approaches, determined by laws deriving from physical properties of it is in order to hint at their implications for knowledge the brain, hence from some hardware properties. engineering. Knowledge is produced by intelligence, In the heroic times of logical empiricism people used hence a step is needed towards a theory of intelligence as to employ the term 'physicalism' in a different sense; that data-processing faculty. Let us assume that in producing stmy, though, seems to be half-forgotten, so one can give knowledge three kinds of data processing are involved this word a new meaning, as suggested in Marciszewski and three skills respectively, to wit 'reasoning' (includ­ and Murawski [1995]. An alternativesuggestion is due to ing computing), 'abstraction ', and 'ordering'. Reason­ Schnelle [1988) who uses the phrase 'naturalization of ing with computing is the unique member of this triad logic'. However, it seems desirable to have a term related which so far, to some extent, has been successfully to the phrase 'physics of thought' (see below). Moreover, mechanized, lhat is, made feasible for machines, esp. the use of the adjective 'natural' in contexts like 'natural electronic ones; hence it plays a special role in the present logic' has been already established for what Gentzen discussion (cp Marciszewski and Murawski [1995]). called 'das natiirliche Schliessen '. As to reasoning, therefore, we can already sec its role It was the famous physicist Roger Penrose [1988) who in knowledge organization and engineering, for instance was bold enough to claim inquiries into ' the mathematics that of inferential mechanism in expert systems and olldphysics of thought'. His ideas can be combined in a databases. As for the other skills, the question is not fertile way with those ofJohn von Neumann [1958) which settled yet in an empirical way, hence a support should be prove crucial fo r the story in question. expected from philosophy. Abstraction is a subject-mat­ However, when associating physics with logic and a ter of AI research but at a most primitive stage, namely theory of mind, one has to regard the strong hold over that of pattern recognition (from that to, eg, abstracting philosophers got by the Cartesian paradigm concerning transfinite cardinals is a rather long way). Should we, for the mind-matter relations. With respect to that paradigm, the future, envisage its fu ll mastering by electronic de­ any phrase like "the physics of thought" is even worse vices, as antiphysicalism does claim? If so, then it is worth than a philosophical heresy; it is felt as a category­ while to devote time and money to such a promising mistake, like saying that numbers happen to be warm, or research. Ifnot, then it is wiser to spare resources for more that some thoughts are yellow. The term 'categ01Y­ feasible and payable AI projects. mistake ' is due to Ryle [1949]. In the same book the The same dilemma appears with regard to the skill of Cartesian doctrine is rendered as fo llows. "Human bodies ordering which includes creation of structures, as math­ [ ...) are subject to the mechanical laws which govern all ematical, syntactic, musical, technical, political ones, etc other bodies in space. [ ... J Minds are not in space, nor are (if we endorse such interpretation of Georg Cantor's well­ their operations subject to mechanical laws." (p. l1). ordering theorem)4. When the mechanical laws (like those stated by Newton) The ordering issue turns to be even more involved than are identified with the totality of physical laws, the mind­ the abstraction issue, since any non-trivial ordering pre­ body problem is doomed to be "solved" either in the supposes acts of assessing certain values. In the face of an Cartesian way or in the behaviouristic way (endorsed by enormous multitude of elements from which relevant Ryle). However, modern physics offers a more sophisti­ ones are to be selected for the structure in question one has cated approach, and that seems to accord with Leibniz's to be able to judgc which ones are duly important, insights. relevant, etc. This, in turn,presupposes a system of values Had Leibniz more influence on modern minds, than or goals. Such a system is inborn to any living entity, as Descartes seems to have even in our times, then the idea these have such goals (imparting values to means) as self­ of a physics of thought would be less shocking. For preservation and reproduction (to mention the most primi­ Leibniz this idea would be rooted in the notion ofthe pre­ tive ones). It is hard to imagine how an electronic device established harmony between perceptions of the monads could share such attitudes; however if there are people and the motions of the bodies. As he puts it, there is "the who can imagine such a thing, let them do their best concord and the physical union of the soul and the body, (anyway, were the present author a VIP in a ministry of which exists without the one being able to change the laws science, he would never grant a financial support to of the other"'. research based such an antiphysicalist philosophy). 011 If so, then the laws of thought must exactly mirror the These are only a few examples of connexions between physical laws offunctioning ofthe entity in question, and the theme of this essay and the issues of producing and vice versa. Hence, since electronic automata are SUbjected organizing knowledge. However, let this suffice to en­ to different physical laws than organic automata, ie courage those being interested in these issues, as well as monads, the laws governing their intellectual processes those who like inquiring into philosophical and logical must be different as well. This is a physicalistic thesis on presumptions of AI research inspired by Leibniz's ideas.

78 Knowl. Org. 23(l996)No.2 Witold Marciszewski: Leibniz's Two Legacies the relevance of hardware to intellectual performances, ie, all ofthem are ' universal' . A discrete-state machine is inherent in mature writings of Leibniz. On the other one that in a deterministic way passes step by step from a hand, the younger Leibniz's belief in the possibility of definitestate to another state, each step being determined constructing an artificial reasoning automaton to entirely by an appropriate rule. In other words, each state is a replace human reasoners implies the irrelevance of hard­ function of the previous state and an impulse. Imagine, ware in this important respect. eg, a wheel which clicks round through 1200 once a These opposing views may complement each other in second, but may be stopped by a lever operated from an attempt to express a live fundamental insight surpass­ outside; a lamp is to light in one of the positions of the ing either formulation. It seems a great task for Leibniz wheel. Let the machine states, ie, three possible positions

of the wheel, be referred to as s ' 82, S3 input signals as io scholarship to inquire into relations holding between J and t (for 'transition') is to denote that two-place thosc polcs ofLeibniz thought. Thc prcsent paper docs not i1 ; aim at such a remote target. Instead, it tries to clarify the function which assigns a value to each pair Sk' ik' tenets oflogical physicalism and logical anti-physicalism 1(81 ,;0) =82 I(S2,io) =s3 t(S3, io) = Sl and, farthermore, to present reasons for either point as seen by Leibniz. Thus it should be treated as a prelimary t(SI, ir) = SI t(s2,i[) = s, t(S3 , i1) = S3 study to pave the way to the more ambitious task of interepreting the alleged discrepancy. The input signal i consists in stopping the wheel and In a natural way, the main body of this study should t thus preserving the currentstate, while input the signal io consist offour parts, two ofthem providing paradigmatic means the lack of such a move, and so allowing the wheel statements of antiphysicalism and physicalism, the fa nner to reach the next from among its three possible internal represented by Alan Turing, the latter by John von states. Let another function assign each internal state an Neumann. Then there follow two items regardingLeibniz: external one which consists either in lighting or in non­ one concernedwith his supposed anti- and the other with lighting thc lamp. his pro-physicalist attitude. Turing's [1936-7] result is to the cffect that any procedure which can be computed at all, ie, any procedure 3. Turing's Claim as to the Insignificance of Hardware for which there is an algorithm, can be computed by his (1) Is a human brain a universal Turing machine? machine callcd, therefore, univcrsal. As Turing [1950] (2) Is the material that constitutes a thinking device, argued, a physical stuff from which such a machine is esp. a brain, of any consequence? made, ie, its hardware component, is irrelevant to its Turing's answer to the questions stated above, as found pCiformances in any respect, also with regard to methods in his [1950] article, is as fo llows. A human brain is rcally of reasoning. In this sense, his claim opposes logical a kind of computer. From the so-called universal Turing physicalism. machine it differs in that it may involve a random element, ie have instructions like that: " throw the die (the 4. Von Neumann's Claim regarding the Significance of throwing may have the counterpart in an electronic Hardware process) and put the resulting numbcr into store n (say, For the sake of convenience, let us repeat the questions 1000)" . Moreover, unlike the universal machine, it has posed in the preceding section. only a finite store (memory). (l) Is a human brain a universal Turing machine? To explain that the hardware to be used is irrelevant, (2) Is the material that constitutes a thinking device, Turing takes advantage ofthe fact that Charles Babbage's esp. a brain, of any consequence? Analytical Engine was a real prototype of modern elec­ Whilc Turing [1950] answers YES to (I) - with the tronic computers although it was a mechanical device, proviso that a brain may involve a random element, and using wheels and cards (Boden [1990, 46]; Babbage's NO to (2), Von Neumann [1958] answers YES to (2), ideas, going back to 1834, are discussedby Gandy [1988]). which implies NO to (I). (Cp. Schnelle [1988], Penrose Here is Turing's [1950] comment. "Since Babbagc's [1988]). Von Neumann concludes his essay as follows: machine was not electrical, and since all digital comput­ "Thus logic and mathematics in the central nervous ers are in a sense equivalent, we see that this use of system, when viewed as languages, must structurally be electricity cannot be of theoretical importance. [ ...J In the essentially different from those languages to which our nervous system chemical phenomena are at least as common experience refers" (ie those commonly used by important as electrical. In certain computers the storage logicians and mathematicians). This puts limitations to system is mainly acoustic. The feature of using electricity the project of creating Artificial Intelligence, unless a is thus seen to be only a very superficial similarity. Ifwe human creator proves to be able to imitate the emergence wish to find such similarities we should look rather fo r of the human brain and the conscious mind from the mathematical analogies of function." process of evolution (a definitionof AIis found in Boden That all digital computers arc equivalent fo llows from (ed.) [1990], Schnelle [1988], Sterelny [1991], Gams the fact that they can mimic any discrete-state machine, [1995]).

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 79 Witold Marciszcwski: Leibniz's Two Legacies Von Neumann's point docs not imply any postulate of 5. Why Leibniz would NOT have accepted logical symbolic reconstruction of those neural systems that physicalism would yield an alternative logic or mathematics (a differ­ Leibniz held it possible to build a logical machine ent set of theorems, or different meanings of operators). matching humans in the ability of reasoning and surpass­ What is at variance is a different information-processing ing them as to its infallibility: 'lit en"are ne passim us 'it technology' to produce concepts and theorems - quidam si velimus, et ut Veritas quasi picta, velut Ma­ when compared with that of fo rmalized-systems, Turing chine ope in charta expressa deprehendatur.' (letter to machines and digital computers. Technology involves Oldenburg, Oct. 28, 1675, quoted by Couturat [1901]). hardware, ie a physical component, as well as software; In his philosophy there were premises to judge that hence von Neumann's point can be called physicalist. Is programme impossible, but the "Zeitgeist" led him to the it right, then AI requires a human-like hardware, contrary opposite. It was the time of extreme optimism regarding to the claim involved in Turing's project. potentialities ofthe human mind (eg, Descartes was ready According to von Neumann, the hardware difference to prove all philosophical truths in one chat). It was only between a neural device and a digital computer consists in needed to findproper ways of improving the actual human the fo rmer's (1) being partly analog (eg, chemical) and mind; in some programs, as that of Leibniz, those ways only partly digital; (2) using a recording system that is not involved an ideal language combined with a universal digital but statistic, which meant)that the sense of a signal calculus. Once having such a system, one could feed it to depends on its intensity rendered as frequency ofoscilla­ a machine as well. tions. Though at his time nobody heard of a Turing machine, Here is an example which combines some recent the logical idea of formalized reasoning, as algorithmic neurological findings (Fischbach [1992], Crick and Koch computation (claimed by Hobbes), was in vogue owing to [1992]) with a logician's reflexion. In visual awareness the schoolmen, followed by Leibniz. A fo rmalized rea­ a significant role is played by 40-cycle-per-second oscil­ soning requires just a sheet of paper (Turing's tape), a lations in fi ring rate which synchronize the firing of pencil (,calamus'), and an eraser. The steps could be so neurons responding to different parts of a perceptual arranged that a single word was either written or erased scene, and so the whole object, eg, one's face emerges. in each step. 'Nihil eni11l aliLid est calculus, quam opel'atio There are specialised cells responsible fo r reassembling a per characteres, quae in omni ratiocinatione locum face picture from scattered components (a parallel process­ habet.' (letter to Tschirnhaus, May 1678, see Couturat ing). Such integration is accompanied by abstraction as [1901]). the resulting picture corresponds to faces with similar The technological assumption required to justify features rather than to one face alone. Leibniz's project ofa fu lly successful reasoning machine To find a logical point, let LISfancy the way by which runs as fo llows: whatever can be thought by the mind can the human mind must have made from perceiving, say also be recorded both on a sheet of paper and in an aptly (instead of faces), the SUll, the moon and round tree devised mechanism, as cogs of the arithmetical machine trunks, to the abstract concept of a circle (which, in turn, were aptto record data and operations (cp. Breger [1988]). may have suggested the technological idea of a wheel). When discussing such a programme, one should keep in The process starts from non verbalized, even not apper­ mind that still at the beginning of the 20th century (eg, ceived (in Leibniz's sense) percepts being unconscious Hilbert's 1900 programme) nobody was able to guess the counterparts of statements like " the sun is round". In the results concerning our cognitive limitations, as long course of information processing, such true state­ Heisenberg'S principle and the undecidability or incom­ ments result in true Euclid theorems on the circle; hence pleteness theorems (initiated by Godel [1930], [193 1]; cpo it is a 'truth-preserving ' process, characteristic of reason­ Church [1936], Davis [1988], Gandy [1988]). ing. Those theorems speak against the possibility of an Thus, perception should be defined broader, including algorithmic solution of some mathematical problems. intellectual percepts of mathematical and other abstract Another argument came from the research on the nervous objecls. This can be seen, eg, in Euclid's proofs, where the system, guided by comparisons with digital computers. It perception of an object, both concrete and typical, leads to proved that an enormous number of operations must be general proposilions (the famous Locke-Kant problem performed at the unconscious level, while their success (cp. Beth [1970], Beth and Piaget [1966], reported by depends on properties of the organic hardware involved. Marciszewski [1994]). The logical step in question is due Thus they are capable neither ofbeing verbally recorded, to applying quantifiers, a fact that shows a possible to be later translated into a piece of software, nor ofbeing mutual, dependence of perception and reasoning. Since performed by a digital machine. perceiving is due to the statistical (not the digital) nature The fact last mentioned as we11 as G6del's limitative of brain signals, the dependence confirmsvon Neumann's results may shed light on each other; their optimistic contention that such a logical process requires a piece of component is to effect that the human mind can do more hardware (hence a physical entity) different from that than any home-made machine, while the pessimistic one fo und in a digital computer. - that artificial machines, because of their less advanced

80 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Witold Marciszewski: Leibniz's Two Legacies hardware, in some cases fa il to strengthen human abili­ general quantifier elimination conflates with modus ties. AJI that might have been anticipated by Leibniz, were ponens; thus, so to speak, a 'macro-rule' replaces a set of he more sensitive to consequences of his own metaphys­ single rules. ics, and less eager in following his time's slogans. Obviously, the systems compared are identical as to the set of theorems and the meanings of logical constants

6. Why Leibnizwould have accepted logical physicalism (hence no alternative logic is at stake), but are different technologically, ie as to the mechanism of producing That Leibniz would not accept logical physicalism is conclusions, depending on the hardware involved. The easier to defend than the answer in the affirmative. connexion betwecn the quantifiers and the perception Premisses for the fanner were stated by Leibniz explicitly, (requiring an organic hardware) as well as the macro-rule while those for the affirmativc statement may be guessed technology may form a basis for "the logical language as being implicit in his concepts of perception and of truly used by the central nervous system" (von Neumann organic machincs (cp Breger [1989], SchneJle [1991D. [1958, 82]. The example of Mizar MSE suggests a way of For the same reason, though, the affirmative answer is imitating organic reasoning with the macro-rules strat­ deeper rooted in Leibniz's thought. egy, but the entanglement of reasoning with perception, Leibniz failed to see the connexions between percep­ characteristic oforganic reasoners, is hardly imitatable by tion and reasoning - those exemplified above. Had he computers. noticed them, he would have acknowledged the essential Had Lcibniz had our present logical knowledge with its difference in the "technology" of reasoning between limitative theorems, accompanied by suitable biological natural and artificial machines. As to perception, he premises, he would not have expected the full-scale voiced its non-mechanical nature in the fo llowing way: mechanization of reasoning. Instead, he would have 'pel'cepNon alld that which depends it canllot be 011 welcomed such limitations as supporting his belief in the explained mechanically, that is to say, by figlfres and range of physical differences between natural and artifi­ motions.' (Monadology, item 17). cial hardware - the belief that ' each organic body is a Did Leibniz admit processes ofreasoning, unlike those kind of a divine machine, or a natural automaton, which of perception, to be of mechanical nature? This is likely infinitely SllllJasses all art(flcial automata. ' (Monadology, if we consider his fascination with Hobbes' idea that item 64). reasoning is like computing. In the latter there does not exist any direct link with perception. In reasoning it does, Notes but that vital fact was not likely to be discovered until 1 These creations are so commonly known that there is no need to modern quantification logic came into existence, esp. in dwell upon them except for, possibly, Leibniz's role in establishing a computerized form of infercntial logic mainly due to state offices, like ministries, to manage science in the countly in Gentzen [1934-35],. question. In fa ct, his project of the l'russian Academy in Berlin For, it is the rules of manipulating quantifiers (and like made it more similar to a state office thanto a learned society in the operators, as that of description) that makes us aware of style of the Royal Society of London. Even greater was this similarity in the case of the Russian Academy, what complied with the involved relations between the concrete (as given in the autocratic mode of I1lling of Peter the Great. (l owe this to a perception) and the general. The data-proccssing done by spoken communication, viz. the address of Vladimir S. Kirsanov, neural "face cells" (as Fischbach [1992] calls them) the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences, held at the which results in perceiving many faces ofthe same class, opening of thc Lcibniz-Symposion in Leipzig, April 1996.) forms a generalization, rendcred by the rule of introduc­ 2 Cf. eg, the 'QED Manifesto' in the electronic journalj\tfa thesis ing thc general quantifier. Universalis whose Internet address is as fo llows: http:// The rule of introducing the existenlial quantifier de­ www.pip.com.pl 3 The fact that Descartes' position is so strikingly one-sided, fines another kind of reasoning in which a perception disregarding complexities ofmind-malter relations, makes it even yields the premiss in question. Usually, sllch a premiss more useful for the present purposes. The narrower a view, the remains unverbalized, hence not manageable by a digital greater may prove its cognitive value, provided its limitations computer (unless one becomes able to feed it with non­ being due to a fitting idealization,even a countelfactual one. In our verbal representations oftheobjects perceived, and estab­ century a nice example ofsuch a strategy is fo und in the programmc lish logical rules to process such representations). for science furthered by logical empiricism. An even more impres­ sive paradigm (firmly opposing both empiricism and logicism) The rule of concretization (ie eliminating the general which preserves its vitality for fo ur centuries, is that produced by quantifier) is of special consequence for the present Descartes. Any reflection on knowledge, mind and logic has to discussion as it can exemplify von Neumann's claim involve references to his so illuminatively clear (even if false) regarding the difference between the textbook logic and ideas. the logic of our brain. The example is found in 4 More on this issue can be found in my paper 'Polish notation, Marciszewski [1994, 145-9] where the reasoning of an well-ordering and praxeology' for the conference on the work of apc is reconstructed in terms of a computerizcd system, Jan Lukasiewicz, Dublin, July 1996. Its electronic version is to be termed Mizar MSE, of quantification logic. The system found in the database associated with the electronic journal accepts an orthodox "textbook formalization" as well as Mathesis Un iversa/is. The path is as fo llows: hltp:llwww.pip.c0111.pIlLogBanklindex.html another one, closer to actual reasonings, in which the

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 81 Witold Marciszewski: Leibniz's Two Legacies At the LogBank home page accessed in this way findthe Section 37( 1930)p.349-60. lI Academic Meetings, subscetion on the Dublin Conference and G6de1, K. [1931] ber fo rmal unentscheidbare Satze derPriJlcipia select the paper quoted abovc. MatiTematica und verwandter Systeme, I. Monatshefte f. 5 Prillciples de /a nature et de fa gracefimdes en raison, item 3. Mathematik lind Physik, 38(1931)1'.173-98. This statement is taken from the English translation, Leibniz Berken R. (Ed.) [1998] The Universal Turing Machine. A Half­ [1973]. To render all the nuances ofthis important text, it is worth Century Survey. Oxford: Oxford University Press while to quote it in the French original and in a suggestive German Leibniz, G. W. [1973] Philosophical Writings. Ed. by G. B. R. translation. "Ainsi il y a harmonie parfaite entre les perceptions de Parkinson. Everyman's Library, London, etc. (includes la Monade et les mouvements des corps, preetablie d'abord entre Monadology). Ie systeme des causes effieienteset celuy des causes finales, ct e' cst Leibniz, G. W. [1982] Vernunftprinzipien der Natur llnd der en cela que consiste l'accord ct l'union physique de l'arne el du Gnadc. Monadologie. Franz6sisch-Deutsch. Hamburg: Meiner corps, sans que J'un puisse changer les loix de l'autre". Here is the Verlag. Germantext: "DaherbestehteinevollkommeneHarmoniezwisehen Marciszewski, W. [1994] Logic fi·oma Rhetorical Point ofVicw. den Perzeptionen der Monade und den Bcwegungen der Korper, BerlinlNew York: Walter de Gruyter. Reihe: Grundlagen del" die von Anbeginn an zwischen dem System dcr Wirlmrsaehen und Kom111unikation und Kognilion, Ed.: R. Posner and G. Meggle. dem del" Zweekursachen prastabilisiert ist; und eben darin besteht Marciszewski, W. [1994aJ A laskowski-stylesystem of compuler­ die Ubereinstimmung und die natiirliche Vereinigung von Secle assisted reasoning. In: Wolenski (Ed.) [1994]. lind Karper, ohue dan cines die Gesetze des anderen Zll andern Mareiszewski, W., Murawski, R. [1995] Mechanization of Rea­ vermochte". See Leibniz [1982], p.6-. soning in a Historical Perspective. Amsterdam/Atlanta: Rodopi. Series: Poznan Studies in the Philosophy of the Sciences and the Humanities, Ed. by L. Nowak. References Pcnrose, R. [1988] On thc physics and mathematics ofthought. In: Albertazzi, L. and R. Poli (Eds.) [1991] Topics in Philosophy and Rerken (Ed.) [1988] p. 491-522. Artificial Intelligence. MiHeleuropaisehes Kulturinstitut, Bozcn. Penrose, R. [1989J The Emperor's New Mind. Conccrning Com­ Beth, E. W. [1970] Aspects of ModernLogic. Dordrecht: Rcidcl. puters, Minds, and The Laws of Physics. Oxford - Ncw York - Beth, E. W., Piaget, 1. [1966] Mathematical Epistemology and Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Psychology. Dordrecht: Reidel. Popper, K., Eccles, J. [1977] The Self and Its Brain'. Berlin: Boden, M. A. (Ed.) [1990] The Philosophy of Artificial Intelli­ Springer-V crIag. Routledge and Kegan ed. 1983, reprinted 1990. gence. Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Press Ryie, Gilbcrt [1949] The Concept ofMind, New York: . Bames and Breger, H. [1988] Das Postulat der Explizierbarkeit in der Debatte Noble. LIm die kiinstliche Intelligenz. In: Leibniz. Tradition und Aktualitat. Schnelle, I-I. [1988] Turing naturalized: von Neumann's unfin­ V. Internationaler Leibniz-Kongress. Vortriige. Hannover 14.-19. ished project. In: Berken (Ed.) [1988], p. 539-559. November 1988. Leibniz-Gescllschaft, Hanllover. Schnelle, 1-1. [1988] From Leibniz to artificial intelligence In: Breger, H. [1989] Maschine und Seele als Paradigmen der Albertazzi and Poli (Eds.) [1991], 1'.61-75. Natllrphilosophie bei Leibniz. In: von Weizsacker,K. and Rudolph, Stere1ny, K. [1991J The Representational Theory of Mind. Cam­ E. (Eds.) [1989]. bridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. Crick, F. and Cll. Koch [1992] The Problem of Consciollsness. It Turing, A. M. [1936-7] On computable numbers, with an applica� can be now approached by scientific investigation of the visual tion to the Entscheidungsproblem. P. Lond. Math. Soc. (2), system. [ .. .]. Scientific American, Sept. 1992, vol. 267, no. 3, 42(1936-37) 1'.230-265; a correction, ibid. 43(1937) p.544-546. 1'. 111-7. Turing, A. M. [1950] Computing machinery and intelligence. Church, A. [1936] A note on the Entscheidungsproblem. '1. Symb. Mind, 59(1950)No.2236, p.433-460. Also in Boden [1990]. Log. vol. 1, 40-41; a correction, ibid. 101-102. von Neumann, 1. [1951] (lecture held in 1948) The general and Couturat, L. [1901] Logique dc Leibniz I'apres des documents logical theory of automata. In: Collected Works, Pergamon Press, inedites. Alcan, Paris. New York 5(1963) Ed. A. H. Taub. Davis, M. [1988] Mathematical logic and the origin of modern von Neumann, 1. [1958] The Computer and the Brain. New computers. In: Rerken (Ed.) [1988], 1'.149-174. Haven:Yale Univ. Press. Fischbach, G. D. [1992] Mind and Brain. The biological founda­ von Weizsacker C. F. [1981] Ein Blick auf Platon. Idccnlehre, tions of consciousness, memory and other attributes of mind havc Logik und Physik. Stuttgmt: Reclam. begun to emerge; an overview ofthis 1110St profound ofa11 research von Wcizsackcr, C. F., Rudolph, E. (Eds.) [1989]. Zeit und Logik efforts. Scicntific American 267(1992)No. 3, p.24-33. bei Leibniz. Studicn zu Problemen der Naturphilosophie, Gams, Matjaz [1995] Strong vs. Weak AI. Informatica: An Inter­ Mathematik, Logik lind Metaphysik. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. national lournal of Computing and Informatics, 19(1995)No. 4, Webster [1971J Webster's Third New International Dictionary of p.479-93. the English Language. Unabridged. Springfields, MA: Mcrriam Gandy, R. [1988] Theconfluenceofideas in 1936. In: Herleen (Ed.) Co. [1988], p.55-111. Wolenski, 1. [1994] Philosophical Logic in Poland. Dordrecht: Gentzen, G. [1934-5] Untcrsuchungeniiberdas 10gischeSchliessell Kluwer. I - 11'. Math.z. 39(1934-5)1'.176-210, 405-43 1. G6det, K. [1930] Die Vollstandigkeit der Axiome des logischen Prof.Dr. Witolf Marciszewski, Krochmalna 3 m 917, PL-00864 Funktionenkalkiils. MOllatshefte f. Mathematik lind Physik Warszawa, Poland. e-mail: [email protected].

82 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Witold Marciszewski: Lcibniz's Two Legacies Sybille Kramer Sybille Kdimer is professor for phi­ Freie Universitat Berlin, FE Philosophic losophy (epistemology, themy of mind) at the Institute for Philoso­ phy, Free University of Berlin. Her publications arc on rationalism, his­ Mind, Symbolism, Formalism: tory of formalization, philosophical aspects of Artificial Intelligence, Is Leibniz a Precursor of consciousness, metaphors, theory of melancholy, computer as a medium Artificial Intelligence? and media-theory.

Kramer, S.: Mind, symbolism, formalism: Is Leibniz a computer is transferable to the human mind. What hap­ precursor of Artificial Intelligence'! pens within our mind is the unconscious working of a Knowl.Org. 23(1 996)No.2, p.84-87, 31 refs. computer-like mechanism. Thus the computer is an ex­ The assumption that Gottfried Wilhelm Lcibniz is a precursor planative model ofthe human mind: the mind is a kind of of the idea of Artificial Intelligence is misleading. The argu­ computer. ment is to distinguish between epistcmc and mind, recognition and cognition. Leibniz interpreted fo rma! symbolic operations But the idea of a fu nctional analogy between the as a mere epistemological instrument, but not as a description machine and the human mind, is not a rationalistic one. of what actually happens within the mind: Leibniz denied that More over: This assumption is inconsistent with the a machine can be used as an explanative model of cognition. rationalistic concept of the mind: Leibniz (II) - as before (Author) him Descartes (12) - explicitly excluded that a machine is ofuse as a model ofthe mind. If the association ofLeibniz with Artificial Intelligence is based on the assumption 1. The Relation between Artificial Intelligence and that a machine gives us an explanative model of the Leibniz: a Common Misunderstanding human mind, then this assumption is wrong. There is a broadly shared opinion within contemporary But we have a more modest version of what Artificial theories of mind: Rationalism in 17th century and espe­ Intelligence is about: Artificial Intelligence creates real cially Gottiiied Wilhelm Leibniz' version, is a precursor machines which are capable ofexecuting virtual symbolic of the fundamental ideas of Artificial Intelligence and machines. Computational Thcory of Mind (1,2, 3). Rene Descartes' The history of the human mind comprises the evolu­ "mathesis universalis" interpreted as the project of a tion of the exterior instruments of human reasoning, universal artificial language for producing and represent­ particularly artificiallycreated symbolic systems. If such ing quantifiable knowledge (4); Gottfried Wilhelm a symbolic system is organized in form of an interpreted Leibniz' "characteristica universalis" interpreted as an calculus, it can be characterized as a "symbolic machine" instrument to derive and to demonstrate all true sentences (13). Symbolic machines are culturally created epistemie automatically (5): Are these ideas not the early versions technologies. They rationalize the process of problem­ of a research program which the pioneers of Artificial solving by means of external algorithmic processes of Intelligence, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon claimed symbol manipUlation. Interpreted in the context of this with their dictum (6): That a mechanized physical symbol non-connectionistic symbolic technologies, Artificial system is the necessary and sufficientcondition for intel­ Intelligence creates automatized symbolic machines. ligent behavior? And which the Computational Theory of Leibniz was an upholder ofthe epistemological useful­ Mind (7, 8) condensed to the thesis that cognition is ness of symbolic machines. He developed the idea of a nothing but the computational manipUlation of mental formal system as a general instrument of knowledge representations (9, p.I I)? procedures and he discovered the possibility oftransform­ Butto claim ArtificialIntelligence as a successor ofthe ing a virtual formal system into a real machine. Thus rationalistic philosophy in the 17th century is much to there is a relationship between the Leibnitian theory of sweeping a statement (10). It is - in a certain _sense - knowledge and the Artificial Intelligence program exte­ misleading and wrong. riorizing and mechanizing human intellectual activity. To get this sense, wc have to introduce a distinction. But to interprete Leibniz as the pioneer of Artificial­ What Artificial Intelligence isabout can be interpreted in Intelligence-as-a-model-of-the-mind constmcts a conti­ a double way: we can sketch a quite excessive or a more nuity where we actually finda significantgap. It is the gap prosaic picture. between a certain external epistemical technique and its Here is the excessive version: Artificial Intelligence is internalization into internal mental processes (14). In this a kind of operative research on the human mind. Insofar view, mechanized symbolic operations function for Leibniz as human cognition can be described as an algorithmic as a methodological prescription and not as an explana­ formal operation, and insofar the computer is a machine tive model: A fo rmal system establishes a norm how we to execute fo rmal procedures, the functioning of the should think if we want to get hue knowledge, but it is by

Knowl. Org. 23(l996)No.2 83 Sybille Kramer: Mind, Symbolism, Formalism no means a description of what we actually do if we are was onlypossible in the context ofa media-invention: The thinking. invention of a non-linguistic art of writing. To be aware of this difference, may be a way to make Normally we interpret alphabetic writing as the spatial us more subtle and sensitive for the question what is a image ofthe temporal sequence of spoken discourse. But promising aim and what is a dead end in Artificial with the rise of written reckoning in the 15th century and Intelligence research. with the invention of the symbolic algebra in the 16th centmy, a kind of writing emerges, which was not a transition from spoken into written language any longer. 2. Reducing Truth to Correctness by Symbolic Ma­ This writing - it is well known under the label "formal chines language" - functions as a pure graphical construction, a Letme first demonstrate that calculization is for Leibniz genuine writing system: We may spell out a fo rmalistic an exterior technique of reasoning. expression, but we cannot communicate within a formal­ Besides the experiment in natural science, the inven­ istic system. tion of the calculus is the most momentous scientific The rise of operative symbolism in the premodern era innovation of the early modern era. "Calculus" is under­ was possible only in the context ofthe discovery offormal stood not only in the restricted sense of the infinitesimal writing systems as a medium for knowledge acquisition calculus but as a general technique of reasonIng and and demonstration. demonstrating. Leibniz is - as far as I can see it - the first to get the idea ofthe general epistemic benefits ofcalculi zed operations. A benefit which is connected with the ration­ 2.2 Leibniz' Contributions to Operative Symbolism alistic project of reducing truth to correctness. But before Refering to the shift from ontological symbolism to we reconstruct this idea, we have to sketch an epochal operative symbolism Leibniz is a - perhaps the - dominant change, the threshold of which is marked by the work of figure. And it is just his insight into the functioning of a Leibniz. This change may be described as the transition formal system, that gives him the idea that reasoning and from an "ontological symbolismH to an "operative sym­ consciousness may be separated if thinking can be bolism" (15). calculized. Descartes in his "Regulae ad direction em ingellii" still

2.1 From "Ontological" to "Operative Symbolism" supported, that to operate with intellectual symbols pre­ supposes a permanent awareness of the symbolized ob­ "Ontological symbolism" means that a symbol refers to jects (4). But Leibniz discharged this awareness with the an object which exists independent of its symbolic repre­ fo llowing arguments: sentation. If our intellect operates symbolically, it really operates with the "things" the symbols stand fo r. Under (a) All our reasoning is based on sign processes: this condition the idea of rules to manipulate symbolic "ratiocinatio omnis in usu characterum constitit" (16). The reason for the indispensible semiotic nature of the expressions which arc independent of its interpretation cannot arise. Within ontological symbolism formalism is human intellect is, that the finite human mind is insuffi­ excluded. cient fo r grasping the infinitely many attributes which things possess. Thus instead of having an unmediated This changes, however, with "operative symbolism". experience with the objects of knowledge, we build sym­ Here the interpretation of symbolic systems is detached bolic stmctures to represent these objects (17). But this from its construction; the rules of fo rming and transform­ can be done in multiple ways. ing the symbols are not depending on their meaning any longer. Within operative symbolism the process of sym­ (b) Our natural language is the most influential repre­ bolic activity gets a certain self-sufficiency. The charac­ sentational medium. With its vagueness, its metaphoricity teristic feature ofthe operative symbolism is the calculus, and its grammatical variability, every day language serves a fo rmal system which can be interpreted in different very well for our communicative behavior, Qut it is ways. inadequate fo r our cognitive activities (16). Thus we have to look for a language which can be used as a technique. Although "ontological" and "operative" symbolism Such a symbolic instrument for reasoning cannot be are idealized categories, we may recognize that during found, it must be produced - mtificially. Greek antiquity - the era of the formation of classical tragedy, science and philosophy - "ontological symbol­ In contrast to the fleeting natureof human speech, such ism" was the dominant model - even in mathematics. But a "language" should be a system with an ongoing fixed in the premodern era of the 15th, 16th and 17th century materiality, which speaks not to the ears but to the eyes. the idea of operative symbolism got more and more Leibniz called such graphical signs which m'e independant influential. of speech, "charaeteres". Characters are of permanent material stability, with the consequence that they can be The basic idea of operative symbolism is that we have manipulated. Within mathematics, systems of characters not to take care of the meaning of the symbols when we have already been established which successfully func­ manipulate symbols corresponding to pregiven rules. tion as cognitive instruments (17). These are the socalled This independence ofthe signs from the signified objects, calculi.

84 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Sybille Kramer: Mind, Symbolism, Formalism (c) The prominent example for the operative use of a toire of characters and rules to form and transform strings calculus is the decimal numeral system. Like evelY calcu­ of characters. (b) An interpretation for the calculus must lus it has a double fu nction: It is al1lediu1J1for representing be discovered, which stated a connection between the infinitely many numbers with a finite alphabet ofnumer­ objects and the calculus in such a way, that the legal als and at the same time it is an instrument to operate with formulae of the calculus correspond to true sentences numbers by the manipulation of the numerals according about the objects represented. Insofar as (a) and (b) is to algorithmic rules. With the decimal numeral system, fulfilled, problems of the domain in question can be written reckoning becomes a cultural technique. For solved by the aid of mechanized symbolic operations. A Leibniz a reckoning-rule has the status of a rule to complex and complicated intellectual action can be re­ transform signs (18): The concept of the algorithm is duced to the rule governed manipulation of signs. The born. calculus serves as a ,jililimAriadne" which directs recog­ With the dissemination of the decimal system the use nition under the condition, that we have no immediate of a formal language became a model even for higher access to the world. Leibniz calls this kind of calculized, mathematics. The invention ofLetter Algebra by Francois non-intuitive recognition "blind or symbolic reasoning" Vietc, Analytical GeametJ}' by Rene Descartes, and - last (25). not least - infinitesimal Calculus created by Leibniz (f) Leibniz tries to generalize the operative fu nction of himself: these mathematical achievements were all based formalizing. He had the vision of a "sci entia generalis" on the construction of calculi. organised as an "ars characteristica" (16). Within this (el)The dodge of a calculus is, that the rules offorming "calculus ratiocinator" all true sentences would be me­ and transforming the characters do not refer to the chanically derived and refering to each sentence it would meaning but only to the syntactical features of the char­ be decidable, ifit is well formed or not, that means, if the acters. The construction and the interpretation of calculi sentence is true or wrong. With such a "calclilus diverged. Leibniz was aware of this detachment: ratiocinator" all knowledge acquisition and all knowl­ edge proving would be an effective procedure. Errors of He characterizes the profits of his infinitesimal calcu­ reasoning would be pure mistakes of calculization. lus as the possibility that the mathematical operation with the differentials becomes independent of beliefs concern­ The research of Godel, Church and Kleene in the 20th ing the "ontological nature" of infinite mathematical century has demonstrated, that such a universal calculus obj ects (19). Unlike the proponents and the opponents of is logically impossible. But what is not impossible, is the his calculus, who both interpret his calculus in a invention of "local" calculi; that are formal systems denotational manner, Leibniz emphasized that the inner which represent a limited region of objects (26). coherence of his calculus does not depend on the meta­ physical dispute how to interpret the differential symbol­ 2.3 Followers of the Leibnizian Program ism (20). To calculate correctly does not presuppose an Concenling the connection between Leibniz and Arti­ answer to the question, if an infinitesimal magnitude ficial Intelligence, it is of importance only, that the exists as an actual or as a potential infinity (21). Leibnizian program of calculized reasoning as a "scien­ Even concerning his logical calculi Leibniz stressed tific practice" and as a "prophetic concern" has estab­ the autarky of his systems in relation to special interpre­ lished a certain tradition. The precursor of this tradition tationo: His logical calculi developed about 1686 can be is the Katalanian philosopher and theologicianRaimundus interpreted in a multiple perspective, as extensional, Lullus (1235-1315), its followers are George Boole (1815- intensional or modal systems (22, 23). As Detlef Thiels 1 864), Gottlob Frege (1848-1925), the young Wittgenstein argued: They do not only allow different interpretations, and Rudolf Carnap. This tradition is marked by four but seem to be constructed for different interpretations assumptions: (24). (a) Rational thinking can be made explicit by algorith­ When Leibniz sketched his aI's combinataria, the mic procedures within a formal symbolic system. variations, permutations and combinations of the strings (b) These formal procedures can be interpreted 111 a of signs do not refer to a special referent: A diversity of numerical and in a logical perspective. referential domains is possible. Leibniz stresses: If we (c) The semantics of the formal e'xpressions is a interpret the signs as multitudes, we get Algebra; if we compositional semantics, that is: semantical differ­ interpret them as spatial points, we get Geometry, and if ences are definable as syntactical differences. we interpret them as terms, logic is the result (17, p.531). (d) All knowledge is propositional or can in principle be (e) ButLeibniz was not only a practicianofcaiculization, transformed into a propositional fOlmat. he also got the concept of a calculus and of ealculizing But what is missing is the idea, that calculi zed opera­ reasoning. A concept which is ex�mplary realized in, but tions on symbolic .representations is something which not limited to Mathematics and Logie (16). happens inside the human mind. Neither for Leibniz nor To use a calculus as an intellectual instrument, two for Boole, Frege, Wittgenstein, or for Carnap formal conditions have to be taken into account: (a) There must procedures are explanations of mental processes which be given a symbolic system consisting of a finite reper- actually take place, if we are thinking. Mechanized

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 85 Sybille Kra.mer: Mind, Symbolism, Formalism reasoning establishes a methodological norm how to 3.2 The Distinction between Episteme and Mind, Rec­ acquire reliable knowledge and is not a description how ognition and Cognition the mind really works. An epistemological technique is Here a Leibnitian distinction is relevant. It is the intended, but not a theory of the mind. difference between "essentia" and "existentia" (31). "Es­ As far as I can see Alan Turing is the firstauthor, who sence" is the intelligible nature of things, the homogene­ claimed, that effective procedures which can be executed ous result of abstract thinking, the status of which is by "a machine, are suitable descriptions of human cogni­ possibility and virtuality. But a possibility which is real­ tion (27, 14). With Alan Turing there is a shift fr om ized, is "existence". For Leibniz whatever exists, exists as "operative symbolism" to "mental symbolism". But this an individual being, that is: as a monade. Existence is process of the internalization and transformation of for­ concrete, it is individualized essence. mal procedures into mental representations and mental What really exists represents the world from an events is another subject. indispensible individual point of view. For some monads We should know more about Leibniz' refusal of a this representation is a kind of unconscious perception, machine as a possible model of the mind. for some it is a conscious perception and for some - Leibniz calls them "souls", "minds" or "spirits" - it is apperception or self-consciousness (30). Having self­ 3. Why a Machine is not a Model ofthe Mind consciousness does not only mean to be able to use the In Leibniz' oeuvre we can find initial stages of the intellect, but to show reflective activity, to speak ofthe "I" insight, that formalization and mechanization are equiva­ and the "Me" and to have a will (30, § 30). With regard lent procedures: They are concepts with the same exten­ to minds Leibniz speaks of "being free". sion. The consequence is, that if an intellectual activity is We have not to investigate here the complicate relation fonnalizable, it can - in principle - be executed with a real of reasoning, speaking and willing. What is of relevance machine. here is the fact, that "episteme" in the sense of Lcibniz tried technically to realize the symbolic ma­ intersubjective reasoning procedures and "mind" in the chines, he had created. He designed the firstfo ur-species sense of the individual cognitive activity represent the adding machine (28). He invented the binary numeral difference between "essentia" and "existentia": Cogni­ system and algorithms to operate on binary representa­ tion is the concrete performance of an existing, an indi­ tions; and he tried to outline a machine working on the vidual being, whereas calculizedrecognitions areepistemic digital numerals (29). Furthermore we have some blue­ strategies belonging to the region of "essentia". To think prints of logical artefacts and machines. of a calculus as a predicate not of the episteme but of the concrete working ofthe human mind, would be a category

3.1 Consciousness Cannot be Explained in Mecha­ mistake: Abstract essence would be confused with con­ nized Terms crete existence. But the machine did not serve as a model for the human Because mechanized recognition is an epistemological mind. Lcibniz - as Descartes - refused the idea of an ideal, the inference from epistemic procedures to the analogy between the machine and the mind. The most fu nctioning of the human mind is inadmissible. Thus famous reference is his thought-experiment in the Leibniz excluded that the machine can serve as an ex­ "Monadologie" (30). Leibniz argued: Imagine that we planative model of the human mind. could design a machine capable of perception, thinking, c and consciousness. Imagine further that we ould enlarge 3.3 The Compnter not a Tool, but a Medium of the the machine to the dimensions of a mill so that we could Human Mind enter it. What we will find inside is the mechanical It is not by chance that the Leibnitian program of movement ofthe parts ofthe machine, but we look in vain calculized reasoning is located within the area ofEnlight­ for something which can explain consciousness. Thus enment. Striving to enlighten the people, was based on the consciousness or perception "is inexplicable by means of assumption that the natural light of human reason was mechanical reasons, that is by means of shape and move­ distributed to everybody and it was ofrelevance only to get ment" (30, § 17). people to use their mind in a correct way. Calculized We seem to be confronted with a paradoxical configu­ thinking was the project of transforming truth into cor­ ration. With regard to calculi zed reasoning, thinking can rectness, an epistemological knowledge-technique, nec­ be externalized as a formal operation, that is: it can in essary just because the normal activity of our mind is not principle be mechanized. But concerningmental activity, wworking in this way. that means: the concrete working of the human mind, If we interpret symbol-oriented ArtificialIntelligence thinking cannot be explained in technical terms. The split in the horizon of the long lasting history of calculizing off between mind and consciousness is possible for the and nowadays even automatizing the exterior symbolic epistemic operations, but impossible for our cognitive operations, this perspective gives us a fruitful explana­ behaviour. The question is: why? tion of what is happening within AI. But to pretend that

86 Know!. Grg. 23(J996)No.2 Sybille Kramer: Mind, Symbolism, Formalism the formal procedures ofthe computers are an example for (12) Descartes, R. : Von dcr Methode des riehtigcn the inner functioning of the mind, transforms a culturally Vernunftgebrauchesund derwisscnschafUichen Forsehung. Ham­ created medium into the natural equipment of the mind. burg: Felix Meiner 1960. (13) Kramer, S.· Symbolisehe Maschincll. Die Idee der For Leibniz the situation is the other way round: The Formalisierung in gesehiehtlichem AbriJ3, Darmstadt: impossibility to explain the phenomenon of conscious­ WisscnsehafU. Buchgcsellscha1l 1988. ness in technical terms, is a hint that our mind in its ([4) Kramer, S.: Denken aIs Reehenprozedur: Zur Genese eines mental life docs not v/Ork like a mechanism, because it kognitiolls\vissenschaftlichenParadigmas,Kognitionswissenschaft realizes an indispensible subjective point of vie'w. But (1991)2, p.I-1O intersubjectivity as an epistemological ascription cannot (15) Kramer, S.: Bercchenbare Vernunft. Kalklil und Rational ismus substitute subjectivity as a cognitive description. im 17. lahrhundcrt. Berlin, New York: de Gruytcr 1991. (16) Leibniz, G.W.: Die philosophischen Sehriftcn. Gerhnrdt, c.I. \Vhatclo \ve learn from this story? Whatever a machine (Ed.) Hildesheim: Olms 1965. Vol. VII, 1'.205, 31, 191 is doing, should not be expressed in terms of substihlting (17) Lcibniz, G.W.: Opuseulcs et fragments inedits de Lcibniz. human beings. Incredible overestimation and groundless COllturat, L. (Ed.). Hildesheim: Olms 1966. p.43 1, 513, 155 fear, both are founded on such an anthropomorphic ([ 8) Scholz, H.: Leibniz und die matbematische conception of technical artefacts. Symbolic Artificial Grllncllageniorschung. ln: Scholz, E.: Mathesis UniversaIis. Basel Intelligence physically realizes symbolic machines. It 1961. p.128-51 creates a kind ofentities the use ofwhich is notto do better (19) Leibniz, G.W.: Mathematische Schriftcll. Gcrhardt, Cl. (Ed.). what humans already do quite well, but to facilitate I-lildesheim: Olms 1965. Vol. IV, p. 92 ' experiences, we do not have without thc computational (20) Kr�imer, S.: Zur Begriinclung des InfinilesimalkalkiHs. Philosophia Natural is 28(1991), p. 117-146 apparatus. The computer should be interpreted not as a (21) Lcibniz, G.W.: f-listoria et Origino calculi differentialis a tool - or a model - of the human mind, but as a medium G.G. Leibnitio conseripta. Gerhardt, c.l. (Ed.). Hannoyer 1846. of human knmv ledge. (22) Leibniz, G.W.: Philosophisehe Schriftell. Gerhardt, C.l. (Ed.). Hildesheim: Olms 1965. Vo!' VII, p. 203-210, 228-235, 236-247 (23) Kauppi, R.: -abel' die Leibnizsche Logik. Mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung dcs Problems del' Intension und Extension. Acta References Philosophica Fennica Fasc., XII, Helsinki 1960. p. 181 ff (1) Gardner, H.: Dem Denken auf del' Spur. Stuttgart, Klett-CoHa (24) Thiel, Chr.: Zm Bcurtcilung del' intensionalen Logik bei 1989 (New York 1985). Leibniz und Castillon. Stud. Leibnit. SuppL XV, Wiesbaden: (2) Haugeland, Kiillstliehe Inlelligenz - Programmierte 1. : Steiner 4, p.27-37 Vernunf? Hamburg: McGraw-Hill 1987 (Cambridge 1985) l (25) Leibniz, G.W.: Betraehtungel1 iiber die Erkcnntnis, die (3) I-label, Ch.: Perspektiven einer logisehen Fundierung del' KI. Wahrheit und die Ideen. In: Gerhard, I.C (Ed.): Philosophische Kiinstliehe 1ntelligenz (! 992) No. 3, p.7-13 Schriftcll. I-Iilclesheill1: Olms 1965. VoL IV. p.422-426 (4) Descartes, R.: Regeln zur Ausriehtung del' Erkennntniskraft. (26) Poser, H.: Zm Thcorie del' Modalbegriffe bci G.W. Leibniz. Hamburg: Felix Meiner 1979: Shiel. Lcibnit. Suppl.YI. Wiesbaden: Steincr 1969. (5) Leibniz, G.W.: Zm allgcmeinell Charakteristik, in: (27) Turing, Intelligent Machinery. In: Meltzer, B., Michie, D. Hauptschriften Grundlegung del' Philosophie, Bd. I, Hamburg, A: Zlll' (Eels.): Maehinc Felix Meiner 1966, 1P.30-38 I Intelligence 5, Eclinbllrgh 1969. (6) Newell, A. Simon, H.: Computer Science as empirical & (28) Maekensen, L. Yon: Zm Vorgeschichtc und Entstehung del' inquiry: symbols and search. Thc 10th Turing Award Lecture. erstcn digitalen 4-Spezies Rechenmaschine Yon Gottfried Wilhelm COllllllunic. Assoc. CompuL Machinery, 19(1976)March, p. 1 13- Leibniz. Stud. Leibnit. SuppL II, Wicsbaden: Steiner 1969. p. 34- 126 68 (7) fodor, J.: Representations. Philosophical Essays on the Foun­ (29) Mackensen, L. Yon: Leibniz als Ahnherr del Kybernetik - ein dations ofCognitiYe Science, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [981. ' bisher unbekanntcr Leibniz'sehcr Vorsehlag einer "Machina (8) Pylyshyn, Z. W.: Computation and Cognition. Toward a aritilmetieadyadicac". Stud.Leibnit. SupplXII I. Wiesbaden: Steincr foundation for Cognitive Science. Cambridge MA: MIT Press 1972. p. 255-268 1986. (30) Leibniz, G.W.: Monadologie. In: Philosophische Schriftell. (9) Huth, M.: Symbolic and Sub-symbolic Knowledge Organiza­ Gerhardt, c.I. (Ed.). Vol. VI. Hildesheim: Olms 1965. '.607-23 tion. Know!. Org. 22(1995)No. l, p. 10-16 1 (3 1)Jalabert, J.: La notion d'essence ct d'existenee dans la (J 0) Kramer, S.: Rationalismlls und Kiinstliche Intelligenz: Zur philosophic de Leibniz. Stud. Leibnitiana, Suppl. Wicsbaden: Korrektur cines MiBverstiindnisses. Kiil1stLInteiligenz (1993)No. 1. Steiner [968. p.13-21 I, p.31-35 (I I) Leibniz, G.W.: Monado[ogie. In: Hauptschrirten zur Grllnd[egullg del' Philosophic, Bd.II. Hamburg: Felix Meiner Prof Dr. Sybille Kramer, FU Berlin, FB Philosophic (WE 1), 1966. I' 435-457 Habelschwerdter Allee 30, D-14195 Berlin

Know\. Org. 23( 1996)No.2 87 Sybille Kramcr: Mind, Symbolism, Formalism Peter Jaenecke Dr. Peter Jaenecke (b.11943), stud­ ied physics and philosophy in Gies­ sen. At present at the research center of Alcatel SEL, Stuttgart, deals with Elementary Principles for MPEG coding. Interested in cogni­ tive science and philosophy of sci­ Representing Knowledge ence. Chair of German {SKO Chap­ ter.

laenecke, P.:Elementary principles for Representing Knowl­ For theoretical scientists the situation is less favour­ edge able. Their task is to represent given knowledge in a Know!.Org. 23( 1996)No.2, p.88·l 02, 30 refs. systematical way; their main problem may best be char­ The vast majority of publications in language theory and acterized by the question: how to represent something? It philosophy start with the language as the given and ask about falls into two subtasks: first, theory formation, i.e., the their structures, about the meaning oftbcir words and about the systematic preparation of the content to be represented, correct interpretation of tcxts. This paper approaches the and second, construction, or, ifpossible, selection ofa tool language problem from just the opposite side: the given is here a certain content; what is sought for, is an appropriate artificial adequate for representing that content. The first subtask language to represent this content. To this end, seven elemen­ has already been dealt with elsewhere being characterized tary representation principles arc proposed. To illustrate the as domain-internal knowledge organization (13); the way they work, syntactic pattern recognition is introduced as a second subtask appears in artificial intelligence in the simple, but non-trivial example for representing knowledge in context of knowledge representation. However, in artifi­ formal language. Another central thema of the paper is cial intelligence with its emphasis on implementation LEIBNIZ's charactcristica universal is and the so-called techniques, the matter is treated quite pragmatically, and LElBNIZ project. LElBNIZ's investigations in this field are the fu ndamental representation problems concerning the reviewed against the background of the tasks required in interdependence between form and content are generally syntactic pattern recognition. It is demonstrated that LEIBNIZ had, in fact, already worked with six of the seven representation neglected. LEIBNIZ was apparently the first (and per· principles proposed, fu rther, that his eharacteristica universalis haps the only thinker to datc), who recognized and is an early form ofa fo rmal language, and lastly, that - contrary seriously treated both problems. In numerous attempts, he to the prevailing view - the LEIBNIZ project is not a matter of tried to express knowledge in a system ofsymbols in such logic but rather one of knowledge representation, a field largely a way that reasoning could be performed by symbol unexploited in today's logic-oriented epistemology and phi­ manipulation. His plan, now called the LEIBNIZ project, losophy of science. It is precisely this one-sided orientation of has a fu turistic touch, enticing one to compare it with these disciplines, which is rcsponsible for the distorted picture what we know today about this field. In confronting his ofLEIBNIZ's work found in the literature; some typical misun­ ideas with approaches now practiced with computers, this derstandings arc finally discussed. (Author) paper intends to contribute to an up-to-date understand­ ing of LEIBNIZ's efforts. Thus it pursues two lines of thought interlaced with each other: Knowledge represen­ 1. Introduction tation as such and the LEIBNIZ project in particular. From childhood, we are accustomed to communicate To begin with, seven elementmy principles will be in natural language. We take it for granted that the words proposed for representing knowledge in an artificial we speak and write will be understood by all those sharing language. They are illustrated using formal language and with us the same mother tongue. We assume that we can the syntactic approach to pattern recognition as an exam­ convey in our language all our thoughts without any ple ofhow a formal language can be applied for represent· restrictions although we may have to contend occasion­ ing knowledge. It is concluded from the parallels found in ally with difficulties in wording. Words arc used by us in the tasks of the syntactic approach and those described in such a way that they would in fact carry a meaning; we the relating works ofLEIBNIZ, that his ars characteristica learn their meaning in using the language, but we do not aims at knowledge representation, and that his concern ourselves about where the meaning comes from, characteristica universalis is an early form of a formal nor about the way language functions: we use language language in which his aI'S iudicandi and inveniendi unconsciously. Perhaps for that reason linguists and aI'S can be viewed as bottom-up, respectively top-down pars­ philosophers tend to be quite vague about the origin of ing. The confusing variety ofLEIBNIZ's efforts is shown meaning and about representation principles. Interested to be orderable in a natural way as attempts to apply his in topics like comparative analysis, linguistic structures, project to concrete cases. Because knowledge representa­ linguistic relationships, etc., they are in the apparently tion is currently neglected in logic-dominated epistemol­ enviable position of starting always with a fu lly qualified ogy and philosophy of science, the LEIBNIZ project is research subject. generally misconceived here as a logical undertaking, an

88 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Peter laeneeke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge interpretation which yields a quite distorted picture of contradiction and tautology alternate with one another. LEIBNIZ's intentions, To correct this one-sided view, The underlying schema some typical misunderstandings concerning thinking and symbol processing, and concerning the relation be­ (2) A is no A n 11 tween artificial and natural languages are discussed. The B is B 11 n paper concludes with a plea for a more intensive consid­ n = 1, 2, ... ; AI1,Bn any abstract concepts, eration of knowledge representation in philosophy. easily recognized by the reader, can be considered as an 2. Principles instruction to form fu rther text. Thus the reader can About 40 years ago, the literary movement called participate to the creative process by taking up this concrete poetry took rise world-wide, claiming to meet insttuction and continuing the text, or indeed by feeling modern humans's desire for quick and concise communi­ him stimulated to invent his own forms, thus generating cation. Aiming at a most economical use of linguistic new content. In inventing new forms, character manipu­ resources, the concrete poets addressed themselves to the lation in general is understood as a universal tool of most elementary language constituents, the letter and representation. Thus the concept of concrete poetIy in­ word. The concrete poels removed them from their usual cludes the principles of representation in nuce. position in sentence structure and treated them as self­ In order to produce such a creative effect, a concrete contained units of expression (8, p,155). In contrast to the poem must transmit some content to the reader. How does conventional way of writing poems based on sound, this work? The text (1) - apparently absurd from a logical rhythm and meaning, the visual form of the language point of view - was constructed according to the schema constituents was taken up by the concrete poets as a (2) found by "feeling". For this schema, there is neither a styling element; thus the "poetry of surface" was created formal justificationnor a justification by content; never­ (25, p.167). The new poem is a matter of both reading and theless there are intcrpretations which can give it a seeing and as such they are even displayed in art galleries, meaning. Contradictions, evcn violations of language The language constituents may be arranged on a convention, do not impede the mediation of content, no surface either in a pictorial-figurative or in a schematic more than observing grammar rules guarantees a mean­ manner. Both styling tools arc often used simultaneously. ingfulness. The schema alone cannot produce the con­ An important feature of the pictorial-figurative arrange­ tent. Where then does the content originate? The answer ment is the use ofthe blank space serving as separator and is: It originates in the mind of the interpreter; the signs as surrounding a space; in this way, the blank space percieved trigger associations either directly, or, more creates possibilities of thought association, since it not abstractly, in applying rules. In any case, the associated only seperates the elements but also connects them (9, thoughts are perceived as content inherent in the system 1'.163), like in the poem': of the signs used in the poem. The perception of signs calls for interpretation; in Hommage it ehe giving himself to the interpretative process, the inter­ preter may gain attractive new insights (i.e., new connec­ AB D FG I tions between ideas stored in his memory). Using free JKLMNOPQR associations, one is therefore capable of reading appar­ STUUVWXYZ ently meaningful content into structures originating purely by chance like tea leaves in a cup or playing cards in a pack. Perhaps this phenomenon of creative association Here the schematic clement of the poem is thc alpha­ might explain why unclear concepts in publications hardly bet. Concrete poets emphasize fo rmal operations with the ever cause offence to their readers, and why unclear elementary language constituents; thus inversion, combi­ authors may often have more followers than authors who, nation and permutation are the styling instruments of like LEIBNIZ, aim at accuracy. Self-generated insights their choice (8, p.157t). Like theorists in the sciences they are taken up more willingly than bare existing truthes normally start with a message and look for a suitable presented in dry words. Obviously it is more attractive to representation for it; their premise is that the form must give free reign to ones own cognitive processes than to fit the content. Consequently, there are, for them, no art struggle to comprehend someone else's thoughts. A fur­ rules to restric the sphere of poetic activity; the poet - as ther manifestation of this phenomenon can be found the expert afthe language game - is completely free in his combined with the belief in a divine being or a legendary selection of the linguistic elements and their ordering in person giving rise to caballistic and similar mystic prac­ schemata; indeed even violations offundamental conven­ tices. Because of their triggering effect, signs have an tions are allowed. For instance, in the lines informative character regardless of how they are came into being or by whom they were created. To represent (1) freedom is no freedom knowledge, however, it does indeed matter, whether or duty is duty, not the signs chosen evoke precisely that content which etc, they are intended to represent. To meet this goal, one must

Know!. Org. 23(1996)Na.2 89 Peter lacnecke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge take care that the �igns chosen evoke the intended and choosing the order in which the signs are transmitted. on ly the intended associations. This can be achieved by The assumption is that the receiver has available in his/ fo llowing her mind a set of content elements capable of fu nctioning as a carrier set. In perceiving a certain sequence of signs, Reprcsentation principle 1: a certain sequence of content elements from the carrier set Dissect the content to be represented into clear basic is activated and held in the memory, i.e., the "transmit­ components, determine their relations and then assign ted" content constitutes a subsel standing out from the uniquely to each component and to each relation an carrier set like a trace of ink on a blank sheet of paper. It elemcntary languagc chal'acterl. can only be triggered insofar as it already exists. But the induced trace itself can now become a new content which is added to the carrier set as a new element, which again LEIBNIZ, taking mathematics as his model, assumed and in turn itself can be activated by new signs. In reading that this could be done: a novel, e.g., not the words, but the plot is remembered. "If it would be possible to find characters or signs suitable to This shows, that the sequence of signs may indeed be very express all our thoughts as straightly and stringently as the long, and that, consequently, the induced content may be arithmetic represents the numbers, or as the geometry repre­ very extensive. In spite of the transmission principle's sents figures, then all things, as far as they are subjected to apparent simplicity , far-reaching conclusions can be drawn reasoning, could be dealt with in the same manner as is done ill from it. Thus, for example, the so-called herl1lcncu';c arithmetic and geometry" (20, p. 155; 22, p.90). circle is based on this principles. From the transmission prihciple fo llows Thoughts, of course, can be very extensive; principle I deals only with the basic components. How to handle the Representation principle 3: complexer contents is defined in Content is recorded in a system by distinguishing a subset from a carrier set.

Representation principle 2: A complex content is represented in two steps: first, it In an artificial language, principle 3 is applied by is dissected into its basic components and relations selecting a certain sllbsetofwords from the setof all words and, by mealts of the characters assigned to them, the over an alphabet. Principle 3 would appear to be a general term for the complex content is formed, second, in sllch principle holding for all kinds of representation; in par­ a way that the rclations between the basis components ticular, it is not restricted to content representation in correspond to the relations between the characters. formal systems. In order to communicate with each other, all members This famous principle, now called the iSOJ/lOlplty prill­ of a speech community must use the words of their oIJ/e, can be fo und word for word by LEIBNIZ3. I-Ie seems language more or less in the same sense, i.e., a given to have been the fi rst to recognize that representation sequence of words must evoke in all these persons nearly consists in a structural equivalence between terms and the same sequence of associations. Because of this univer­ objects. lsomorphy is often viewed as the representation sality, it is justified in a fi gurative sense to speak of a principle par excellence; in fact, however, more princi­ meaning of words. Usually it is here objected, that the ples are needed to succeed in knowledge representation4• meaning of a word could be reconstructed only in the The next complex of questions deals with the transmis­ context; however, this is a misleading point of view: sion problem. Which of [he associations a word sequence triggers, depends on the mental state ofthe reader/listener; and this When signs clo nol themselves carry meaning but only state again is determined more or less by all his preceding trigger content already existing in the mind of the re­ experiences. However, it is an acknowledged fact, that ceiver, then the question: How does meaning get into a with respect to a new communication, the immediately system of signs? becomes itselfmeaningless. Moreover, it antecedallt thought exercises a special dominance; we also remains unclear, how any information at all can be may call this phenomenon pre-text dependency. It is transmitted by means ofa system of signs. Ifonly signs are rooted in (human) memory processes, which can neither sent, and if these signs do not transport anything, then be deliberately influenced, nor evaded. The pre-text de­ nothing would appear to arrive at the receiver end. But pendency can therefore be used to point the reciever's this contradicts everyday experience: To return to the allention in a certain direction, thus influencing his/her example ofthe poem H01lllJlage d Cite, with the exception mental state, e.g., by informing him/her that the message of the title, the poem consists only of111eaningle�s char­ to fo llow is something worth knowing, or by manipulat­ actcr�, nevertheless it evokes a meaning in the mind of the ing the opinion, or by causing confusion. In knowledge reader. Hence it must be possible somehow to transport representation, pre-text dependency is used to produce a c'ontent with "containers" having no content. chain of coherent thoughts: A transmitter communicates content to a receiver by selecting an appropriate set of signs, e.g. words, and by

90 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Pctcr laenecke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge Representation principle 4: author has made faulty use of words and rules of the To be understandable and to effe ct transmission of language. In that case, it is not the language which is to extensive contents, the pre-text must always give infor­ blame. Thus, in terms of the two requirements, unambi­ mation about how the immediately following text should guity and storage capacity, there is no plausible argument be interpreted. against the use of a natural language in sciences as can be seen, C.g., from the role of natural language in mathemat­ This principle is the presupposition for applying rules. ics. However, in mathematics there is also extensive use of LEIBNIZ complained about the fruitless disputes in formulae. Evidently, there are contents for which it is philosophy and theology in his time, but unlike the more economic to use other means to represent them. analytic philosophers of our time, he did not hold that the Although any natural language can incorporate a nearly natural language is responsible for these shortscomings6. unlimited spectmm ofcontent, it does not cover cxaustively Instead he located the source of confusion in the disor­ all the possibilities of language. Thus LEIBNIZ searched dcrly state of the sciences. He compares them to a large for an formalism which could serve thinking as a kind of general store offering for sale a wide range of goods, Ariadne's thread, providing certainty and clear naviga­ which, however, are displayed chaotically (20, 1'.214; 21, tion through the labyrinth of thoughts when used cor­ 1'.177). Searching for a remedy, LEIBNIZ looked for a rectly (20, 1'.351et passim; 5, 1'. 14, 1'.22 et passim), i.e., tool to represent proven knowledge so that talented per­ such an artificial language must guarantee that each sons are no longer induced to search their laurel by correctly constructed statement proves itself to be true, overthrowing what was handed down fr om predecessors and that, in principle by systematic and correct applica­ (20, 1'.215, 21, 1'.118). Behind these ideas - the use of an tion of its grammar rules all true statements can be fo und. (artificial) language as an aid to thinking and preserving With natural languages, this goal cannot be achieved: A knowledge - there is a hidden assumption that only syntactically correct sentence is not necessarily also a genuine knowledge, not nonsense can be represented meaningful sentence. Thus, in contrast to his predeces­ formally. Under this assumption, representability emerges sors LEIBNIZ realized that knowledge representation as the touchstone for objectivity: requires in addition

Representation principle 5: Representation principle 6: The regularities of a content are the keys to its An artificial language must be a rule-based system in representation. which syntax and semantic are identical.

Regularities are expressed as subsets according to This principle is the presupposition for his aI'Siudicandi principle 3. But before a genuine content can be repre­ and inveniendi. Grammar rules combine in such a system sented, it must be put into a systematic fo rm. LEIBNIZ clarity of order with certainty (22, 1'.21) and thus provide realized very clearly, how close is the connection betwcen orientation, but they do this only for a restricted domain representability and the quality of the content. Thus he of knowledge. In natural langages, syntax and semantics devotcd considcrable effort to systematisizing the knowl­ are only very loosely connected7: This is the price which edge of his time in the fo rm of a general encyclopedia. must be paid for their being open for (nearly) any content. The preceding discussion has referred mainly to the Principle 6 describes what is called /o J'lIlahzatiol1 in natural language used above all as a tool fo r communica­ modern usage: tion. But here onc must ask whether natural language is adequate to fulfill the requirements for the representation DefInition: Formalization of scientific contents? In principle, LEIBNIZ gives an Formalization is the process of representing knowl­ affirmative answer to this question, but he concedes that, edge in a fo rmal language in such a way that syntax to achicve this goal, it would require far-reaching modi­ and semantics are identical. fications ofnatural langllage and sllch interventions havc In the literature, one finds considerable opposition to no chance of a realization however advantageous they this definition. Formalizing is often confused, for in­ might be (22, 1'. 12; 22, p.2I). In our day, by contrast, it is slance, with formal operating, whereas in fa ct fo rmaliza­ customary to deny rashly the suitability of natural lan­ tion only provides the prerequisites for such operating. In guage fo r this purpose. This is done, for the most part, addition,jormal is often used mistakenly in a pejorative without making any effort to precise what suitable fo r sense suggesting abstract, mechanistic, being without scientific pUl]Joses might mean. Against the scientific meaning. Properly understood, however, because of the use of natnral language, the objection is often made, that identity between syntax and semantics, formalization texts in natural language would be too ambiguolls, that produces a language without redundancy; in this sense, it they would always leave open too much scope for interpre­ is "knowledge pure". A further misunderstanding con­ tation, something good for poetry, but bad for the science. fu ses fo rmal terms with logical terms and views formali­ This, however, is not true. Only words alone can be zation as a task of logic. ambigous; if a text is ambiguous, then only because the

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 91 Peter laenecke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge In principle 1, thc use of atomic units was called for, on L* has a fu nction very similar, e.g., to that of the the assumption that complex subjects can be constructed Cartesian plane. Both L * and the Cartesian plane form from such atomic units. However, the merely sequential carrier sets: the former is a general contentless spectrum addition of basic units to represent complex ones fa ils to of potential words, the latter is a general contentless two­ provide structuring and recUl'sivity. For both tasks ab­ dimensional space containing a potentially unbounded stract objects are required as auxiliary units: number of figures;both arc in a certain sense blank sheets providing the condition for the possibility ofrepresenting Representation principle 7: content. According to principle 3, a content is recorded in The formalism must be capable of distinguishing be­ such a system by selecting a particular subset from the tween entities in different levels of abstraction. respective carrier set, i.e., by selecting a certain subset of words from L *, respectively by selecting a certain subset This important principle provides the basis for a of figurative elements from the plane, e.g. a particular recursive use of rules, making it possible to comprehend curve. Subsets of words are described in formal languages an infinite number of objects by means ofa finite number by characters combined according to rules of grammar. of grammar rules as will be shown in more detail later in Thus the problem of defininga fo rmal language is shifted this paper in the context of formal language. Abstract to the problem of defining a grammar. entities are generalizations and as such are not real obj ects and events; they mtlstfirstbe invented before they Definition: can be used for representation, therefore they are not A phrase-structure gram11lar G is a fo ur-tuple included in principle 1 and 2. Principle 7 has remained pretty much unknown. Recursive operating according to rules was a technique presumably discovered by LEIBNIZ in which: (22, 1'.21; 22, p.24f; 22, 1'.27; 5, 1'.206; 22, p.114); nevertheless he made usc ofit only in recursive formulae. 1. V is the alphabet of nonterminals Although he repeatedly emphasized its importance, it N seems that he did not know how to handle it with respect 2. V. . is the alphabet of terminals to characters and grammar rules. ,

3. P is a finite set of rewrite rules (or productions) 3. Formal languages denoted by 0; � fl where 0; and fl are strings over V The representation principles compiled above seem to N U V.,. and with 0; involving at least one symbol of V ' be quite simple when considered in isolation. However, N when taken together in connection within one and the 4. S F. V is the starting symbol of a sentence. same formalism, some interesting conclusions can be N drawn from them. For their illustration, now the formal language approach is inlroduced as a tool for a special) but Production starts with any appropriate starting rule; it non-trivial knowledge representation. In philosophy, the stops when no further11llecan be applied. By convention concept formal language is often applied quite it is a "leftmost" approach, since the general order of unspecificly. In this paper, by contrast, it is used as a processing the symbols in the sentences is from left to terminus technicus in the sense of mathematical linguis­ right whenever possible. Characters mentioned in princi­ tics; the origins of which may be traced to the middle ple 1 correspond to the terminals; the terms for describing 1950s when CHOMSKY began developing mathematical complex objects according to principle 2 are the words models of grammar. For our purposes here, the basic ideas (sentences) of the language. Nonterminals are needed to alone may suffices. grasp abstract entities according to representation princi­ ple 7. An alphabet E is a finite nonempty set of characters. A word P over an alphabetE is a finitesequence xr""r'\'of One of the most attractive aspects of the syntactic characters inL; 11;' 0 is the length 01'1'.The word oflength approach is the recursive nature of grammar. A grammar rule can be applied any number of times (point 3 in the zero, called empty word) is denoted by E. The set of all above grammar definition), so it is possible to express in words over an alphabet E, including the empty word E, is denoted bYL*' A fo rmal language L is a well-defined set a very compact way some basic structural characteristics of words over an alphabet L, i.e., of an infinite set ofsentences by using small sets of simple elements and grammar rules. The basic idea here is often illustrated by LEIBNIZ's pointing out the way numbers L CL'. are constructed, especially binary numbers (20, p.284f, p.429fl) . And, indeed, the set of all binary numerals Normally, no distinction is made between words and sentences. { 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, ... }

can be considered as a fo rmal language:

92 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Peter laencckc: Elementary Principles for Represcnting Knowledge Example: Grammar for constructing binary numerals grouped into two general approaches: the decision-theo­ retic approach and the syntactic approach. The former is G � (VN, V"� P, S) where based on numerical description; the latter rests upon the analogy between the structure of patterns and the syntax

VN � { S, A} of a formal language. In the syntactic approach, a pattern

V, � { 0, I } is an image-like idealized description of an individual real object or event like the "fiIigrees" in fig. 1. Such and P: patternsare composed of subpatternsin various ways,just (I) S-')IA as phrases and sentences are built up by concatenating (2) S -,) 0 words, and words arc built up by concatenating charac­ (3) S -,) I ters. Each pattern is thus described by a string of charac­ (4) A -,) OA ters9 which is assumed to be a word or sentence in a formal (5) A -,) IA (pattern description) language. Syntactic patternrecog­ (6) A -,) 0 nition proceeds in two stages: fo rmalization and recog­ (7) A -,) I nition. Formalization is a matter of 1mowl edge represen­ tation whereas pattern recognition is the application of the represented knowledge. The following introduction is With G, e.g., the numeral ' 1011' can be derived as restricted only to the basic ideas!O. fo llows:

S -,),IA -,), lOA -,), lOlA -,)7 101 I; 4.1. Formalization With respect to syntactic pattern recognition, formali­ the numbers indicate the rule used. Note that G excludes zation deals with primitive selection and grammatical numerals with a leading 0 except for a single 0 (rule 2). inference. The first step in formulating a syntactic model is to determine a set of pattern primitives and their relations in It can be seen hom the above example, that the terms of both elements the patterns can be described remaining representation principles are likewise fu filled (principle 1). At present, there is no general solution by formal language: Each interim result fu nctions as pre­ available for the primitive selection problem. It will be text focllssing attention on the next rule to be applied largely influenced by the nature oHhe data, by the specific (principle 4). The law governing binary numerals, and, at application in question, and by the technology available thc same time, the knowledge to be represented, is that '0' for implementing thc system. The primitives must be so and ' 1 ' can occur in any order, as long as no leading zero constituted as to provide a compact but adequate descrip­ appears in a multi-figure numeral (principle 5). In this tion of the complex patterns,and they should be so simple example, syntax and semantics are identical (principle 6), in lheir structure that they can be easily recognized. After because each object gencrated by this grammar is a primitives and relations have been identified, to each numeral, and there are no numerals which can not be primitive is assigned a character from the terminal alpha­ gcnerated by this grammar. Finally, the ability to distin­ bet (principle I). The basic relation is that ofconcatenati on; guish between different levels of abstraction (principle 7) other relations are likewise assigned a character from the is realized by the nonterminal, A, meaning numerals alphabet of terminals. fo llowing a leading lIumeral. This abstract concept is needed to exclude leading zeros by omitting the starting A fo rmal language is then most appropriate for repre­ rule S -,) OA, the counterpart to rule (1). Nonterminal,A, sentation, when the patterns to be recognized can be built causes recursivity, as can be seen very clearly from the up from a small set of primitives by recursively applying grammar. The grammar rules can be viewed as axioms, a small set of production rules. A patternclass is a set of and the words derived fr om them as theorcms. Seen in this patterns sharing some common struchlral properties (prin­ light, formalization is a kind of axiomatization. ciple 5) from which appropriate grammar rules have to be inferred. A straightfOlward approach would be to con­

struct for each of them classes ofpatterns Ingrammars G ' 4. Representing and using knowledge in n fo rmal I G2, "'J Gill such that the strings generated by the grammar language G would exactly represent all patterns in class w. (princi- i ' The main application area offormal languages outside ple 6). linguistics seems to be syntactic pattern recognition. Recognizing patterns means assigning them to their Recognition respective classes. Typical applications ofpattern recog­ 4.2. nition include character recognition, target detection and Formalization provides the linguistic means for de­ identification, analysis of biomedical signals and images, scribing the objects under study; it must be designed speech recognition, identification of human faces and specifically for each recognition problem. Recognition fingerprints, automatic inspection etc. The many differ­ itself is the application of the formalization result; it must ent techniques used to solve recognition problems may be be carried out for each pattern to berecognized. Recogni-

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 93 Peter Jaeneeke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge tion consists of two steps, pattern description and syn­ r B a, 1 B b, one line above B x, one line tax analysis. below B y. Before recognition can begin, thc real event or object (given, c.g., as a digitize picture) must be transformed Using these terminals, the filigrees can bc transcribed into an image-like pattern according to the tools estab­ as fo llows: lished in the phase of primitive selection. This procedure normally requires an extensive non-syntactic preprocess­ (1) byabyaaxbaxb ing to extract significant fe atures or stl'Llctures from a (2) ab background of irrelevant details. After that, the image­ (3) abybybxaxa. like pattern is segmented into its primitives, and the relation ofthe primitives are identified as shown in fig. 1. Since there is only one pattern class, only one grammar Then the corresponding terminal characters are assigned IS required. In order to establish it, the characteristic to each primitive and to each relation in such a way that fe atures of the filigrees must be known; it is the knowl­ at the end, the pattern is desribed by a string of concatenated edge to be represented. Assume that filigrees are patterns symbols. having always an equal number of! and 1 primitives and Classification is the work of the syntax analyzer or that a switch fro m the above to the below position or vice versa is only possible when different primitives adjoin parser. It decides whether or not a sentence x describing an unknown pattern is syntactically correct, i.e., the each other. A primitive may occur twice only if its predecessor changed the position. The grammar, G problem of recognition x is reduced to the answer of the jilig,-ec' question: of the respective pattern language can then be defined as fo llows:

Is x L(G) for i � ... s 1, , III? Filigree grammar

L(G) is the language generated by the grammar G( A pattern is uniquely assigned to the ith class if it is a sentence only in L(G) and in no other language. If a VN � {S, A, B) pattern is not a sentence in any of the languages under V, � { a, b, x, y ) consideration, it is assigned to a rejection class consisting of all invalid patterns. The output from the analyzer and P: usually includes more than the class number; the parser ( 1) S 7 aB is also able to produce the derivation trce of the string, (2) S 7 bA which, provided that the sentence is syntactically correct, (3) S 7 axB gives the complete description of the pattern and its (4) S 7 bxA subpatterns. (5) S 7 ayB (6) S 7 byA (7) A7aS 4.3. Recognition of filigrees (8) A 7 a Suppose that there are stroke patterns as shown in fig. (9) B 7 bS 1. Some of them are of special interest called 'filigrees'; (10) B 7 b. the recognition task consists in subdividing stroke pat­ terns into filigrees and non-filigrees. The patterns are Applying the filigree grammar, it can be shown that quite simple, being composed of only two primitives, r pattern(I) and (2) belong to the class of filigrees,whereas and l, respectively. The filigrees are two-dimensional pattern (3) docs it not (numbers added to the arrows patterns; to describe a position, the two relations one line indicate the production rule used): above and one lil1e below are needed.

Il'-f (1): S 7' byA 77 byaS 7' byabyA 77 byabyaS 73 II byabyaaxB 79 byabyaaxbS 73 byabyaaxbaxB 7 10 byabyaaxbaxb (1) (2) (3)

Figure 1: Filigree-like patterns. (2): S 7' aB 7'" ab

(3): cannot be derived, because the sllbpatterns {/x{/ and The sequence of units fr om left to right is described by byb arc invalid; the rules 3 - 6 only permit terms where at concatenating the characters in that direction; thus for the left and the right side of x and y different characters this relation no fu rther character is required. To the two are standing. primitives and their two relations terminals arc assigned: Again the nontenninals cause recursivity and serve at the same time as structuring elements: A and B can be

94 Know!. Org. 23(l99G)No.2 Peter laeneeke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge interpreted as a-balandngand b-balanci!1g, respectively. but the matter itself is often dealt with in the context of It goes without saying, that in inferring Lhe grammar, the analysis. According to LEIBN1Z, the seemingly infinite search for suitable nonterminals is the crucial problem. variety ofthoughts is only apparent; it originates fl:om the infinite number ofpossibilities in which the basic thoughts can be combined with each other. He asserts repeatedly The LEIBNIZ pro.iect reviewed 5. that all human thoughts can be reduced to only a few In numerous fragments, LEIBNIZ speaks astutely about "original" ones (22, p.112) which, when identified, can the features of an artificiallanguage system called by him serve as an alphabet of human thoughts (5, p.185). among other expressions characterista universalis. For Similarly, he claims that most concepts can be split into this thought complex, the name LEIBNIZ project has subconcepts and these again into still more elementary been coined. concepts etc., until the "ultimate" concepts are reached which are no longer capable of decomposition (5, 292ft) . Definition: The LEIBNIZ project All such analyses involve the notion of resolving a The LEIBNIZ project is the search for an artinei,,! complex object into its elementary components and iden­ language as a representation fo rmalism tifying the basic relations governing their association. Thus, LEIBNIZ clearly distinguishes between primitives - to store knowledge, and relations of the type illustrated by the example of - to clarify controversial statements, fe ligree recognition. Examples of LEIBNIZ's usage are - to produce new statements, fu ndamental thoughts or concepts, fundamental geo­ - to provide certainty, metrical figures, equivalence, ordering relations, similar­ - to provide unambiguity. ity, congruence!!. Likewise he assigned characters to basic units and to One of LEIBNIZ's main ambitions was to bring to­ their relations on a one-to-one correspondence (18.1, gether in compact form the knowledge of his time scat­ p.200). For formal operations, the form ofthe characters tered in diverse sources. Clarifying controversial state­ assigned is without importance; however, for a better ments and bringing forth new knowledge should be done understanding, it is preferable to choose signs which by the ars iudicandi and by the ars invenicndi, respec­ illustrate their function(5, p.192; 18.1, p.200). Thus, in tively. With the ars iudicandi, each statement can be the filigree example above, the initial letters of the tested to see whether it can be generated with the rules of alphabet are reserved for primitives, whereas the final the artificiallanguage; if so, the statement isjudged to be letters are used to characterize the relations. a true statement belonging to the store of knowledge The most difficulttask in syntactic pattern recognition represented in this language; if not, it is judged to be false is to find the appropriate grammar, and so, as expected, (16, p.138). In LEIBNIZ's conception, instead of fruit­ LEIBNIZ had to struggle with the corresponding difficul­ lessly disputing about the truth of a statement, one can, ties, too. The greater part of his calculus fragments deals with the help of the ars iudicandi, compute the decision, precisely with the problem of establishing a suitable set of and because of this, the result will be certain and convinc­ rules Lo represent such different domains as logic, geom­ ing for all (20, p.156). The aim ofthe ars inveniendi is to etry, optics, differential calculus etc. Beginning with discover new truths by applying the rules of language LULLUS, there is a continuing tradition of attempts to systematically (16, p.138). Although LEIBNIZ some­ represent knowledge by an artificial language and to times speaks about the aI'S iudicandi and the ars inveniendi discover new knowledge by manipulating the elements of as distinct arts, they in fact make use of one and the same such a language. But LULLUS and the other predecessors formalism. Finally, artificial language should exclude ofLEIBNlZ, as indeed the early LEIBNIZ himself, had a ambiguity, i.e., because a statement is not only true or fixation about simple grammars of the type all false, but has also a reference, it must be represented in VCIY combinations of, or all permutations of Taking such such a way that in reading it, in every mind will experi­ operations for granted, they confined their efforts to ence, in principle, the same sequence of associations. research for basic concepts; to put it in our terminology: Substituting pattern for thought when reading LEIBNIZ they restricted themselves to primitive selection and to texts, one sees the close connection between knowledge some elementary symbol manipUlations. In his letters, representation and LEIBNIZ's ideas. This connection LElBNIZ prides himself for the insight that to represent becomes clearer, when comparing the problems ofsyntac­ something, adequate rules must be sought. It would tic pattern recognition with their counterparts he inevita­ appear, however, that he failed to recognize the need for bly encountered in attempting to realize his ideas. In his nontermil1als. He confinedhimself, for the most part, to work, LEIBNIZ addresses questions of knowledge or­ principles 1 and 2, in keeping with his early idea of using ganization, primitive selection, grammatical inference words as "adding pieces": his "grammars" are based on and recognition. terminals. At firsthe experimented with combinations Many of fragments reveal that LEIBNIZ knew what is and permutations; later he took up concatenation, rewrit­ called in syntactic pattern recognition primtive selection. ing, and changing symbols (5, p.3 l) as is done today in This expression, of course, does not appear in his work, using formal language, i.e.,. he switched fr om all cOl1lbi-

Knowl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 95 Peter laencekc: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge nations to some combinations the latter being separated tion method is to be applied. For one and the same set of by certain rules fro m the set of all combinations. Never­ data, different problem specificationswill result in diffe r­ theless, his "grammars" allow only non-hierarchical flat ent selections of primitives and rules. However, the structures, i.e., complex objects can be described with it, knowledge ofthe subject alone is not enough: this knowl­ but for generating them, a genuine grammar is required edge also Inust be made available in a systematically having nonterm ina Is. For example, filigree grammar ordered way (22, p.GO; similarly: 20, p.296). Inconsisten­ permits only patterns in which the a's and b's are equal cies in the knowledge of his time was one of the main in number; this fe ature is reflected in its nonterminals. obstacles to LEIBNIZ's efforts, and it is still crucial for When these grammar rules are considered as laws of the today's knowledge engineers. Where, as in case ofthe growth, it becomes clear that they describe all ten possi­ differential calculus, the field of knowledge was easily bilities ofcreating filigrees. Itwould appearthat LEIBNIZ comprehensible, LEIBNIZ was successful. With respect was aware that his syntactic methods insufficiently ex­ to other subjects, however, he saw very clearly that the pressive, thus he also tried arithmetical approaches. For domain in question would first have to be systematized instance, he operated with the multiplication of prime before a characteristica universalis could be applied. numbers to combine propositions, anticipating in this Many of his fragments therefore deal with theoretical way GOOELization. He also invented the plus-minus­ clarifications, but also, at the same time, with establish­ calculus, etc. However, in using a ready-made math­ ing rules. He knew, however, that such isolated clarifica­ ematical formalism, one is bound to its "grammar", and, tions must be inserted into a general context to assure consequently, by its restrictions: Although, e.g., inclu­ validity. This task was to be achieved by his encyclopedia, sion can be represented arithmetically by the relation of which he viewed as a compedium of scientific theories divisibility, it is not possible to represent incompatibility (20, p.31-41; 21, 1'.177). by multiplication, because there are no unvalid products Until now, we have been discussing LEIBNIZ's theo­ (16, p.106). LElBNIZ had the right idea, but he failed (0 retical approach to knowledge representation. As regards apply it successfully. But there is still another problem the use ofthe represented knowledge, LEIBNIZ extols the which he fa iled to observe: advantage of his method as being ars iudicandi and ars For a given set of patterns, a diffe rent selection of inveniendi at the same time. By means ofthe ars illdicandi pattern primitives will necessarily result in a different it should be possible to decide fo r a given statement grammar. As a rule, the complexer the primitives, the whether or not it has a special fe alure, e.g., whether it is simpler the grammar. This crucial point can become quite true or fa lse. By means of the ars inveniendi it should be important in the implementation of the recognition sys­ possible to generate systematicalIy the complete knowl­ tem. Often, a compromise is necessary in order to develop edge of the domain. Until now, most authors have not a suitable grammar. It is generally recognized that in­ known what to do with these arts. HERMES (II, p.93), creased descriptive power of a language must be paid for fo r instance, is irritated by the fact that both arts are in terms of increased complexity of the analysis system. referred to LEIBNIZ apparently without distinction. How­ It fo llows from this, that there arc no true basic units as ever, the comparison with syntactic pattern recognition LEIBNIZ and many others had erroneously assumed. can help illuminate this matter. Here use is made of two Consequently, primitive selection and grammar con­ complementary parsing approaches, top-down and bot­ struction should be treated simultaneously rather than tom-up parsing. In the firstcase, syntax analysis proceeds successively. Because of this interrelation between the top-down from starting symbol S through intermediate primitives selected and the grammar, one should be very sentential forms until the sentence in question is achieved careful in speaking about structures found in the object as done in the examples above. In the second case, one which can be represented one-to-one in any language. begins with the sentence and, by applying rules in a One frequently encounters such assumptions in discus­ reverse fa shion, attempts to reduce the sentence to the sions of the isomorphy principle (principle 2) where it is starting symbol S. Although both approaches require overlooked that, according to principle 7, structuring also somewhat different techniques, there are no differences requires "virtual" abstract entities, which are born in the in principle. The bottom-up parsing is comparable to the mind and therefore to some degree arbitrary: For one and ars iudicandi, since for each pattern described by termi­ the same recognition task and for one and the same set of nals the class membership can be determined. Con­ objects, there is an infinite number ofpossiblc grammars versely, with top-down parsing, in principle all patterns and, as a consequence, also an infinite number of struc­ of a class can be generated systematically, i.e., new tures. stmctures can be discovered this way, being comparable As the above discussion shows, primitive selection and to the ars inveniendi. Note that both approaches are based grammar inference presuppose a profound knowledge on one and the same grammar; they differ only in the way about the domain to be fo rmalized. For examplc, if size or they usc this grammar. shape or location are relevant for recognition, then the To summarize the above discllssion, we can conclude primitives must contain information relating to size, that the LEIBNIZ project, i.e. his ars characteristica shape or location, in such a way that patterns from the conceived as the art a/generating characters and order­ different classes are distinguishable by whatever recogni- ing them in such a way that they represent thoughts (1,

96 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2

Peter laenecke: Elcmcntmy Principles for Representing Knowledge p.80) can best be understood by treating it in the context utterances lead interpreters to conclude that LEIBNIZ of what is called know/edge representation, and what thought it possible to reduce operations with thoughts to today is a key issue in artificial intelligence. In using a operations with characters; in short: they claimed that for fo rmalism in practical applications, this understanding is LEIBNIZ, thinking is nothing more than symbol process­ in best accord with LEIBNIZ 's maxim theoria cum praxi; ingl3. This is the interpretation usually given to his it excludes a mere logical interpretation of his project. statement: The artificial language needed for this task should be the characteristica universalis; it is an early form of a formal "Omnis ratiocinatio nostra nihil aliud est quam characterum connexio et substitutio, sive illi characteres sint verba, sive language in today's understanding. LEIBNIZ clearly notae, sive denique imagines"'4. understood what his project required, in particular, he realized that, before fo rmalization can be done, the knowl­ It is normally translated as all our thinking . .. as in (22, edge must be prepared in a systematical way; this is the p. ll0), however,l'atiocinatio, or in French,raisol1nement task of knowledge organization. He realized too that the does not mean thinking, but among others proof, reaSOJ1- whole undertaking must be put on a general mcthodologi­ ingl5; thus the statement must be translated: cal fo undation. Admittedly, LEIBNIZ's strange and some­ times confusing terminology impedes correct understand­ "Each of our proofs/all of our reasoning is nothing more than ing, thus, with all due caution we suggest translating his connection and substitution of symbols, whether those symbols terminology in the fo llowing modernterms: be just words, or characters, or even pictograms." characteristica univcrsalis fo rmal language That for LEIBNIZ, thinking does not consist in symbol ars charactcristica knowledge representation processing is evident from the fa ct that thinking at least ars inveniendi top-down parsing aI's iudicandi bottom-up parsing is needed to establish the first calculus. Some authors analysis primitive selection appear not to realize the consequences of their assertion: synthesis grammatical inference If the goal of symbol operations be to determine the encyclopedia scientific knowledge truthness of a statement, and if thinking be nothing more represented in theories than such symbol manipulations, then it would fo llow sci entia generalis philosophy of science that thinking be identical with the investigation of the truth value ofpropositions. There is no basis inLEIBNIZ 's work for such a naive position. This table, though oriented to syntactic pattern recog­ nition, reflects the different tasks necessary for realizing LEIBNIZ's goal was much more ambitious: Our intel­ the LEIBNIZ project. LEIBNIZ himself took them into lect, he says, is unreliable; as soon as we depart from account, but not systematically. Thus someone not fa mil­ experience, the intellect is confusedimmediately by dark­ iar with the demands of knowledge representation can ness and by the diversity of the things. It is governed by easily gain the impression that he would pursue contra­ deceptive .conjectures and by vain opinions. Thus an dictory goals. However, the confusing variety of topics organon of thinking, an organon mentis, is needed to fo und in his fragments can be explained, for the most part, guide us in making judgments and to lead us to new by referring them to diffe rent tasks involved inknowledge discoveries (2 1, p.IS7!). Clearly, LEIBNIZ did not plan representation. to replace thinking by formal operations; rather, his intention was to use such operations as a tool fo r helping our thinking to achieve clarity (19, §5). In using charac­ 6. Discussion ters, we can order our thoughts (IS.2, p.4SI); characters Because of a lopsided logical/meta-mathematical point are especially necessary to shorten and to summarize long of view, problems of knowledge representation have trains of thoughts and to make them accessible to our hitherto been treated in philosophy with little real under­ limited mind (18.2, 481). standing. To a certain extent, this holds true as well for the A major problem is that ofcontroling such long trains relating subdisciplines of artificial intelligence. In this ofscientific thoughts. This is a problem ofhmnan memory section we shall consider some fu ndamental misunder­ which, at one moment, can only hold a restricted amount standings appearing in contemporary discussions about of information in view. Written language serves as an aid what the formal approach can accomplish and what it to the memory: a sequence of characters evokes a succes­ canl1ot. There are two topics: confusion between thinking sion of associations. In reading a text, fo r example, only and symbol processing, and misunderstandings about the a limited amount of content is activated at a single relationship between natural and artificial languages. moment; each association includes only so much infor­ mation as the mind can hold actively at one moment of 6.1 Confusion between thinldng and symbol processing time. Texts, thus, can control long trains of thought. If, LEIBNIZ points out that a mathematical proof is not however, an artificial language should be an instrument performed with the things themselves, instead, it is ofthe human mind to invent new experience, its linguistic performed only on a sheet of paper by manipulating structure cannot consist of closed complex texts; instead characters which stand in fo r thingsl2. This and other it must consist of small texts capable of generating (new)

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 97 Peter Jaenecke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge small texts according to rules. LEIBNIZ recognized that word general: Characteristic a universalis understood as a rule formalism can serve several purposes: For transmit­ a general artificiallanguage for representing knowledge, ting knowledge, correct sequence of associations must be can be intelpreted in three ways: (1) as a general fo rmal induced by a sequence of symbol groups; such groups can tool like the formalism offonnal language, where special be generated step by step in applying suitable rules. With grammars must be inferred to represent the knowledge of such an instrument, the mind is directed in a two-fold a special domain; it can, however, also be interpreted (2) way: first, the percieved symbols trigger associations for as a special grammar representing general, high-level the content to be transmitted and, secondly, they provide knowledge. These interpretations do not contradict one at the same time information about which rule has to be another, because in the firstone general is an attribute of used in the next step to get new symbols triggering again the formalisms used, whereas in the second one it is an new associations etc. In fo llowing the rules strictly, the attribute ofthe knowledge to be represented. With respect mind has a kind of Ariadne's thread to help it find its way to LEIBNIZ both interpretations are relevant: he de­ through the labyrinth of thoughts. On the other hand, it is scribes a general approach, but he also attempts to carry possible for the mind to follow the rules strictly because it out with respect to numerous special domains, among each idea can be transformed from the domain of mind them, the domain of logic. However, because LEIBNIZ into visible signs. Trains of thoughts are thus made intended his formalism to open up new experience, he comprehensible for the eyes of the reader, thus giving could hardly start by developing a calculus without refer­ them certainty (21 , 1'. 1 87, p. 196). According to LEIBNIZ, ence to experience. Thus, however general might be the the success ofmathematics is based precisely on its use of domain he studied, the calculi he uses are always content visual guide lines which can be taken in with the eyes and related; they must never be interpreted posterior to their which, so to speak, can be grasped by hands (2 1, 1'.1 85; being established. There is, nevertheless a third meaning 20, p.335, p.351, p.420; 5 p.ll, 1'.14, p.22, 1'.57, etc.). to general, namely that of an all-embracing logical calcu­ That is what LEIBNIZ had in his mind when speaking of lus. This idea is frequently attributed to LEIBNIZ, but in ratiocinatio. Thinking, however, is knowledge-driven fact it is nmvhere to be found in his works. and therefore based on associations not necessarily trig­ It was apparently SCHLEIERMACHER" who intro­ gered by language signs. duced the frequently repeated claim, that LEIBNIZ's intention was to formalize natural language after the 6.2. Misunderstandings about the relationship be­ model ofa mathematical calculus!7. However, there is no tween natural and artificial language evidence in LEIBNIZ's work for such a naive and utopian It is a grave misunderstanding deeply rooted in modern goal, doomed to failure from the start. Moreover, this epistemology, to think that form and content could be interpretation is incont>istent with his writings on the separated, i.e., that it should be possible to defineforms German language Ill, which, unfortunately, are largely (in the sense of logical calculi) independently on any ignored by the philosophers of language. Perhaps this content. This view assumes the existence of two different erroneous view derives in part at least from LEIBNIZ's and independent steps. In the first step, the characters and ill-advised attempts to create an "arithmetical language", formulas allowed in the system are fixed, and in the an approach going back to DESCARTES' ideas". In this second step the meaning of the formulas is defined (29, approach, LEIBNIZ lets numbers function as words and p.56). Such a view, however, is incompatible with knowl­ multiplication as "grammar", and assigns to the numbers edge representation; translated into syntactic pattern artificial syllables for the purpose of communication (20, recognition, this would mean first defining a grammar p.277-279). The question, can natural language be re­ and then going to look for the patterns which could be duced to a calculus? is answered in the negative by v. described by it - a senseless undertaking. In artificial WEISZACKER and other authors, on the grounds, that, intelligence, a similar misunderstanding can be found. however desirable it might be for scientific purposes to Knowledge representation is done here using a fixed state natural language more precisely, this cannot be done formalism supplied mostly by the programming language using an artificial one, because such a language always selected. It is at>sumed that the formalism is general requires a natural language as a meta-Ianguage2o• Of enough to hold all relevant knowledge. But such an course, this argumentation is correct, but it does not go to approach is doomed to failure: the heart of lhe matter:

The form must be ti tted to the content, not vice versa. Not languages, only content can be formalized.

Where this principle is not observed, repairing mecha­ LEIBNIZ intention was to represent in artifical lan­ nisms such as non-monotonic logic have to be installed. guage the knowledge hitherto expressed in natural lan­ guage; thus it is simply a matter of translation from ono According to a widespread view, LEIBNIZ intended language into another, albeit that the target language his characteristic a universalis to be an all-embracing must first be invented. This is a typical task a theorist is logical calculus. This misinterpretation of his intentions faced with in the course of his day-to-day scientific work. rest on the unclear idea of knowledge representation outlined above but also on the ambiguous meaning of the Such translation is necessary in order to attain a

98 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Peter laenecke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge language consisting of sentences which represent all and other; they serve diffe rent functions: only all true sentences of a specific domain. In such a language, one can operatc with symbols as representa­ Language: natural language fo rmal language Goal: communication knowledge tivcs of real things, evcnts or thoughts. Sinec grammar reprcsentation rules refer only to syntactic structurcs; operations v'/ith Degrce of coupling symbols are performcd in a purely fo rmal way, i.e., between syntax and without, during the formal operations, taking into ac­ semantics: low 100% count the meaning of the symbols21• Because the philo­ Range: nearly all possible eX(lctlyonedomain sophical view focussed only on this formal aspect, it contents can be included concluded that the formalism as such must be contentless. The next step then was to conclude, that the fo rmal system Although contrasting with another, these fu nctions are be completely abstract without any inherent meaning. But part of in science; and, because of their contrast, they to represent knowledge, the formal language must be require different kinds of language. constructed in such a way that a "mechanical" manipula­ The hope of remedying the natural language's inad­ tion of symbols is possible: equacies by substituting for it an exact logical language is thus a fatal error, and it is WlTTGENSTEIN's tragedy The schematic, formal use of symbols is not a presup­ that he fell victim to this error in attempting to solve position of' formalization, but rather its consequence. problems ofknowlcdge representation by means of logic. In his early Tractatus logico-philosophiclfs, he called for Ifexactly all true sentences ofa domain are represented an artificiallogic- oriented language. Howcver, by its vcry by a fo rmal language (that means especially, there is no nature, there can be no language problems in a formal sentence in the formal language which does not belong to language; and in natural languages the real problems arc the true sentences of the domain) thcn the domain is not linguistic but content related, since in natural lan­ rcpresented by this formal languagc without redundancy; guage syntax and semantics are but loosely coupled. What it is a formalism optimally fitted to the content. In this needs to be clarified, is not the language but rather the scnse v. WEIZsAcKER calls such a formalism jJure content contained in the human mind, and that is defi­ ill/ormatioll (29, p.55): nitely not a language problem. In a formal language, as described above, the structure of the represented domain

\V hen a fo rmalization of a domain's knowledge is corresponds to thc structure of language. However, carried out correctly by means of a fo rmal language, WITTGENSTEIN's reverse assertion the structure o..lthe then syntax is identical with semantics. world correjponds fo the structure of the language is mistaken, for language must always be fitted to content. On the supposition that language precedes rcality, Here fo rmal docs not mean abstract in its pejorative WlTTGENSTEIN's "world" is dissected into things and sense, rather it means: judged according to (j orlllal) "facts in order to fit the requirements of the language. The rllle.,,'. later WITTGENSTEIN recognized the error of his earlier Many authors emphasize the richness of natural and approach, but,' in his Philosophical Investigations, he the poorness of fo rmal languages. They regard fo rmal goes to the opposite extreme, reducing philosophy now to languages as an atrophied versions of natural languages, natural language, Both approaches represent the classical and argue that complete fonnalizalion of knowledge way out, to escape he problem of know ledge representa­ would "kill" language; i.e.: it would thwart communica­ tion. Because lhis problem is prevalent in sciences, both tion. Such argumentation confuses C0ll111l1ll1icatiol1 and schools of WITTGENSTEIN's followers, the advocates knowledgc representation. Their distinction parallels the of logical empiricism and ideal language philosophy all distinction betwcen thinking and ratiocinatio: Communi­ the one hand, and the advocates of ordinary language cation requires a language capable of describing (nearly) philosophy on the other, miss the mark and fa il to meet lhe all possible contents; for a language to have such capacity, real needs of contemporary science. In order to exercise among other things, syntax and semantics must (ncarly) the aI'S iudicandi and the ars inveniendi in a language, be decouplcd. It is a direct consequence ofthis fe ature that syntax and semantics must be identicaL However, as in such a language errors and nonesense can also be explained above, then this language would be unsuitable expressed, since grammatical correctness 110 longer guar­ for communication. LEIBNIZ needed therefore in addi­ antces meaningfulness. In order to be free to express a tion to his eharacteristica universalis another language wide range of content, one mllst risk making mistakes. appropriate for scientific comlTIunication2J, Natural lan­ Real knowledge is always unambiguous; thus there is no guages are based on quite sophisticated grammars, and room for an interpretation, and by formalizing it, no they include some inconsistencies so that it is justified to disadvantage arises. If there is no redundancy, there can look for a more regular language. Based mainly on Latin, be no errors. Ratiocinatio is bound to the content of the LEIBNIZ dealt with the development of such languages formal language t1l1der consideration, Thinking may go which he called lingua philosophica, lingua ration is, astray, but ratiocinatio cannot22• Natural languages and lingua ltlliversalis2•1• It should be not a formal, but a formal languages should not be played off against each

Know!. (Jrg. 23( I 996)No.2 99 Pcter Jaencckc: Elcmentary Principles tor Representing Knowledge simplified natural language open for each content. His problem of undecidability must be left for a subsequent intentions are realized in our times in three quite different paper. For the present, our discussion of the elementary fields all characterized by using a standardized language: principles must suffice to correct some widespread mis­ (I) in the fieldof artificial universal languages for com­ understandings in the context ofLEIBNIZ's characteristica munication like ESPERANTO or UNITARIO"; (short­ universalis. Nothing was misunderstood in philosophy so hand-systems also belong to this Iineagc); (2) in the field completely and for a so long period of time than the role of computerized knowledge representation found in of knowledge representation in epistemology which can formalisms like semantical networks, or rule-based logi­ best be seen in the way the LEIBNIZ project was adopted. cal systems, and (3) in thc field of Analytical Philosophy On the one hand, reinforced now by the celebration of as so-called logical grammar (17, p.222ff) . his 350th birthday, LEIBNIZ is praised as one oftl,e great philosophical geniuses of all time. On the other hand, he

7. Summary and Conclusion is accused of quite simple errors incompatible with philosophical genius. In fact, such contradictions should Againsl the background of formal languages and syn­ lead scholars to take a criticical look at their own posi­ tactic pattern recognition, seven elementary principles tions. Many of their objections are derived from a narrow, have been introduced for representing knowledge in an lopsided point of view, failing to take into account that artificial language: LEIBNIZ was concerned with the whole spectrum of An analysis of the domain under study has to be knowledge in his age. Although, by comparison to our performed to get the basic elements and their relations own times, the sciences LEIBNIZ knew were still in their (principle 1, primitive selection). In assigning corre­ naceney, one docs no justice to his work ifit isjugded and sponding characters to them, the supposition is to com­ interpreted by means of special philosophical doctrines pose complex objects from simple ones observing ignoring, in particular, the results of temporary (compu­ iso\11orphy (principle 2). The essential step in representa­ ter) sciences. LEIBNIZ had to content himself with tion is to distinguish a subset from a carrier set (principle theoretical studies. However, it requires little phantasy to 3); in the formal language approach the distinction is imagine how many things he would have realized with a done by a grammar. However, above all in order to make modern computer. possible a representation, the questionable content must It is hardly conceivable that LEIBNIZ should have have some structure (principle 5). The structure of the devoted about fifty years of his life to pursuing a philo­ valid combinations is represented in rules so that a finite sophical phantom. It is quite dubious to understand his number of characters together with a finite number of project as a problem like the FERMAT's conjecture, for rules include all the knowledge of a domain. To permit the proof of which lifetimes have been spent in vain. formal operations, the artificial language must be devel­ LEIBNIZ himself considered his representation concept oped in such a way that syntax and semantics are identical to be an invention, and he attempted to usc it in all (principle 6), and for recursivity and because knowledgc domains. In fact, it forms a leitmotif, directing his re­ is characterized by different kinds of ordering relations, search in specific directions, leading him to pursue cer­ the formalism must allow for distinguishing entities of tain lines of study and to avoid others. In this it is rather different levels of abstractions (principle 7). Finally, like the law of conservation of energy. Once such a law is concerning the use of thc represented knowledge, clear recognized by scientists, it acts as a guideline for their conditions for starting and stopping must be defined,and subsequent work, influencing both thinking and behavior, each pre-text must give information about how the imme­ e.g., in avoiding proj ects like the search for a perpetuum (l iately following characters are be interpreted (principle mobile. Even where such regulative ideas are not explic­ 4, parsing requirements). itly mentioned in texts, they can well be at work. Probably In discussing the LEIBNIZ proj ect in the context of in this way LEIBNIZ's representation concept has to be syntactic pattern recognition, we demonstrated that understood. It would be an attractive task to pursue the LEIBNIZ had recognized all these principles, with the influences of this concept in. the diverse areas of his possible exception of principle 7, and that his project thinking. It would be interesting, for instance, to investi­ deals in fact with knowledge representation. Syntactic gate thc ways the concept underlies his factorization of the pattern recognition, as an example for the latter, can basic arithmetical operations into elementary mechanical therefore be seen as a proofthat, at least within a specific operations for constructing his four-species machine. His domain, the LEIBNIZ project can indeed be realized. monadology is another area possibly influenced by his Admittedly, the domains oflmowledge involved here are representation concept and not vice versa as sometimes very small. In order to include more extensive domains, asserted. Indeed, LEIBNIZ's ideas here prove to be so obviously more expressive representation too Is are needed central to his thinking, that it can well be asked, ifthey are such as are found especially in mathematics. The latter not in fact the real driving force for his immense creative could be applied particularly successful in physics, so that power? If this be the case, then possibly even today these it can be said that the LEIBNIZ proj ect is realized today ideas can be a source of creative impetus well worth in the theories of physics. The principles of such kinds of listening to. knowledge representation, the role of algorithms and the

100 Know\. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Peter .Taenecke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge Acknowledgement 14 (5, p.31; similar 5, p.204; 20, 1'.155). I should like to acknowledge with many thanks the help IS In the Diafogus de cOll11exione inter res et verba LEIBNIZ writes: "Imo si characteres abessent, nunquam quicquam distincte given by Dr.Thomas Riplinger, Tiibingen, in bringing this cogitaremus, neque ratiocinaremus", i.e., he distinguishes vety article into a readable English form. well between cogitatio and ratiocinatio. 16 In his speech in the academy on July 7, 1831 (possibly influenced by HEGEL). See also: (23, p.275). Notes 17 (23, p.249f, p.250, p.275 ct passim; 14, p.141; 29, p.48). I The author could not be ascertained. 18 "Unvorgrciff1iche gedancken, betreffcnd die ausiibung und 2 Against this principle it might be objected that thoughts are not verbesserung der teutschen Sprache" sowie "Errnahtlung an die discursive and therefore cannot be dissected. This may be true in Teutsche, ihren Verstand und Spraehe beBer zu i.iben, samt non-scientific do'mains; but language is of its very nature discur­ beigefiigten Vorschlag einer Teutschgesinten Gesellschaft", pub­ sive. Thus, either the thoughts must be fitted to the language lished, e.g., in (19). requirements or their representation must be abandoned. On the 19 DESCARTES's letter to MERSENNES fi'omNov. 20, 1629. other hand, it is argued (sometimes by the same people who made 20 (29, 1'.56, similarly: 1'.59; 23, p.294 et passim). the above objection) that thinking would be determined by lan­ 21 (16, 1'.2, 1'. 57, similarly: 16, p.68, 1'.86, p.138 et passim). guage. They do not realize that fi'om the discursive nature of 22 One is reminded here of SCHILLER's: "Where much fi:eedol11 thinking, and, as a consequence, the discursive nature of thoughts there is much room to move, but celiain is the narrow way of duty." fo llows from their objection. The representation principle 1 makes 23 The philosophical languagc is often equated with the no general assumption about either the nahlre of thoughts, or of characteristica universalis (e.g., 3, p. p.l0f, p.25). COHEN (2) has thinking; it supposcs only that there can be discursive thoughts. tried to show that LEIBNIZ was not so original as he is normally 3 "I call a character a visible sign representing a thought. AI'S made out to be. COl-ruN calls attention to LEIBNIZ's predeces­ characteristica is the art of creating and arranging characters in sors, who likc DALGARNO and WILKINS had before him such a way that they reflect thoughts, i.e., that the characters are invented univcrsal languages. But COHEN fa ils to realize that related one another in the same manncr as the thoughts are related LEIBNIZ was not primarily concerned with languages of this type to each other. A term [of such an artificial language] is the and is therefore surprised to findthat LEIBNIZ appears not to take concatenation of characters which stands for the object to be the writings ofDALGARNO and WILKINS seriously. According represented. The l

Knowl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 101 Peter Jaenecke: Elementary Principles for Representing Knowledge (7) GINSBURG, S: The mathematical theory of context free Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam lUll. t 1983. languages. New York cte: McGraw-Hill Dook Company. [966. (20) LElBNIZ, G.W.: Opl1scLlles et fragments ine'dits. Extraits n.;) GOMRINGER,E.: vom verszurkonstellation, in:(I5,p. 155). des manuscrits de In Bibliotheque royaJe de Hanovre par Luis (9) GOMRINGER, E:: clefinitionen zm visuellcn poesie, in: ([5, Couturat. Pm'is 1903. p.163). (21) LEIBNIZ, G.W.: Sch6pfcrische Vernunft. Schriflcn aus dell (10) GONZALEZ, R.C. & THOMASON, M.G: Syntactic Pattern lahren I668-16B6. Zusaml11engcstellt, iibersetzt, lind crliiutert Recognition. An introduction. London ctc: Addison-Wesley Pub­ von W. v. ENGELHARDT. Marburg : Simons Verlag 1951. lishing Comp,my. 1978. (22) LEIBNIZ, G.W.: fragmentezurLogik. Ausgwiihlt, i.ibcrselzt (1 1) HERMES, II.: Ideen von Leibniz zur Grundlagen[orschung: und erHiutcrt von FRANZ SCHMIDT. Berlin: Akademie-Vcrlag Die ars invenielldi lind die ars iudicandi. In: Studia Lcibnit., Supp!. 1960. III, Wiesbaden:franz Steiner Verlag 1969, 92-102. (23) LUTHER, W.: Sprachpbilosophie als GrundwisscnschaH. e 12) I-JUTI-I, M.: Symbolic and sub-symbolic knowledgeorganiza­ I-Icidclberg: QueUe & Meyer 1970. tion in the computational theory of mine!. Knowledge Organization (24) GARCIA MARCO, F.1.: Organizaci6n del Conocimiento cn 22/1, 1995, 10-17. Sistemasdc Informati6n y Documentati6n 2. Aetas del II EnCllentro (13) JAENECKE, P.: Knowledgc organization due to theory for­ de ISKO-Espagna, Madrid, 16 y 17 de Noviembre de 1995. mation. To appear in (24). Zaragoza: Capitulo Espagnol de la International Society lorKnowl­ (14) KLUGE, E.-H. W.: Frege, Leibniz and the notion oran ideal edge Organization; Ministcrio de Ecucacio'l1 y Cienea; Universidad, language, Studia Lcibnitiana 12/1, 19BO, 140-JSll. 1996. (15) konkretc poesie, antbo1ogie von cugen gOlllringer, philipp (25) MON, P.: zur poesie der flaehe, in: (15, p. 167). reclam jun. stllttgarL ! 972. (26) POSER, I-I.: Signum, notio und idea. Elementc del' (16) KRAMER, S.: Symbolische iVlaschinell. Die Idec der Leibnizschen Zcichentheorie. Semiotik 1, 1979, 309-324. Forl1lalisierllng in gesehichtlichelll AbriB. Wissensehaftliche (27) RISSE, W.: Die charactcristiea universal is bei LEInNIZ. Buchgesellschaft Darmstadt 1988. Studi internazionali di 1ilos. I, 1969, 107-116. (17) KUTSCHERA, f. v.: Sprnchphilosophie. Wilhelm FinkVcr lag (28) SALOMAA, A.: formal Languages. Academic Press 1973. Mi.inehen 21975. (29) WEIZSACKER, C.F. v.: Sprachc als Information, in: v. (I in LEIHNIZ, G.W.: Samtliehe Schriftcn und Bricfe, hrsg. v.d. WEIZsAcKER, C.F.: Die Einheit del' NHtur. Miineben: Carl Deutschen Akadcmie der Wissensclmften zu Bcrlin, Dannsladt Hanser Verlag 1971. 1923C Leipzig 1938f, Berlin 1950r. Reihe VI: Philosophisehe (30) WITTGENSTEIN, L.: Dns Biaue Buch. Eine Philosophische Schriflcn Band 1 llnd Band 2. Belrachtllllg. Frankfurl: Suhrkal1l]J Verlag, 1984. (19) LElBNIZ, G.W.: Unvorgreifliehe Gedanken, betrctfe nd die AusiibLll1g lind Verbessenmg derdcutsehen Spraehc. ZweiAufsatze. Dr.Peter laellecke, An der Mauer 32, 0-75334 Strallbenhardt

102 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Peter Jaenecke: Elemcntary Principles for Representing Knowledge GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ (1646-1716)

Pedigree and Ancestors

compiled by Arndt Richter and Weert Meyer

Figure 1. Binmypedigree �tLEIBN1Z to the extent that in ancestors (I). By converting a binary position number it has been explored so fa r. into the decimal number one obtains a code introduced in 1898 by Stephan KEKULE v. STRADONITZ; it is en­ tered in the figure, too. In this code, a maternal grandfa­ The structure of a binary pedigree is as follows: To the ther has the code word '6'. proband always ' I ' is assigned regardless of its sex; each male ancestor is characterized by '0', each female ances­ tor by 'I' so that, e.g., a maternal grandfather gets the The pedigree shows a conspicuous predominance of code word ' 110' in following the line from the proband the male ancestors: Because of their social position, the position to his position in the pedigree. This notation tracing of female ancestors is much more difficult than allows a very compact description of an ancestor's posi­ the tracing of male ancestors in civil ancestorships. tion in the pedigree: The number of places is directly correlated with the number of generation reflecting the (1) MEYER, W.: Ein Computerprogramm flir die fact that a proband has 2! parents, 22 grandparents, 23 Ahnentafelanalyse nach den Regeln der quantitativen great-grandparents, etc. From it also a measure for the Genealogie. Computergenealogie 11(l995)No.33,p.175- degree of relationship can be defined which takes into 183. account "irregularities" like multiple ancestors or decline

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 !O3 Arndt Richter/Weert Meyer: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Pedigree and Ancestors la LEIBNIZ,(Leibnitz) Gottfried Wilhelm; Richter in Altenberg, 1572 Ratsherr Philosoph und Universalgelehrter, 1576 Steuereinnehmcr in Pima Dr. jur. utr., Reichshofrat, ledig * 10.09.1537 Rochlitz ; * 01.07.1646 Leipzig, st. Nicolai; t28.05.1587 Pima t 14.1 1.1716 Hannover 111.06. 1559 I b LEIBNIZ, Anna Catharina; 9 N.N.,Barbara; * 31.8.1648 Leipzig, t 22.2.1672 ebd. Kammcljungfer del' Kurfiirstin Anna, 1 05.09.1666 Leipzig geb. Prinzessin v. Danemark, LOFFLER, Simon * 11.12.1539 Kahlenberg, liitland Archidiakonus zu St. Nicolai in t 11.07.1577 Pima Leipzig 10 DEUERLIN, (Deuerlein ), Heinrich, Nachkommcn bis heute nachweis bar der JUngere Bergzehender und Verwalter des l.Generation Hammergutes Ehland bei K6nigstcin, 2 LEIBNIZ, (Leibniitz,Leubllitz), Friedrich; * um 1535 in K6nigstein ?; Notar u. Aktuar der Universitat, t 08.12.1595 Ehland Professor der Moralphilosophie i... * 24.11.1597 Altenberg im Erzgebirge; II ADLER, Maria; t 05.09.1652 Leipzig aus K6nigstein I. Ehe : 31.01.1625 12 SCHMUCK, Wendel in; FRITZSCHE, Anna; IJ4.03.1634 Handelsmann in Suhl

2. Ehe : 24.05.1636 Leipzig * ? 10.1526; t 31.01.1575 Suhl VOIGT, Dorothea; t 1643 i 1557 3. Ehe : 21.05.1644 Leipzig 13 HORNEFFER, Margaretha ; 3 SCHMUCK, Catharina; * .. ; ·1· 28.09.1584 Suhl * 05.11. 1621 Leipzig ; 14 LINDNER, Johann, der Altere t 04.02.1664 Leipzig Oeconom,(Rendant) in Sehulpforta, 1600-1623 Questor im St. Georg 2. Generation: Kloster in Naumburg, 4 LEIBNIZ, ( Leibnitz ), Ambrosius; * 26.03.1554 Dresden ; Angestellter boi den sachsischen t 18.06.1623 Naumburg Bergwerken in Altenberg, Stadt und I. Ehe 13.09.1580 Naumburg Bergschreiber zu Altenberg 15 KLODT, (KLOTHIUS), Elisabeth;

* 24.04. 1569 BerggieBhiibel * . .. ; 01.04.1615 Naumburg ·1· 28.05.1617 Altenberg 1 23.08.1596 K6nigstein 4. Generation: 5 DEUERLIN, ( Deuerlcin ), Anna ; 16 LEIBNIZ, ( Leibnitz ), Christoph, der *K6nigstein?; t 14.04. 1617 Altenberg Altere ; 6 SCHMUCK, Wilhelm; Ratsherr u. Geleitsmann in Rochlitz stud. Leipzig 1591, baceal. das. * 1510 ; I 18.06.1562 Rochlitz 1595, mag. 1596, stud. Wittenberg 2. Ehe: Janual· 1541 1600, creatus rector acado Lips. HAUFF, Agnes 1606, utr.jur. lie 1611; utr. I. Ehe 1535 juris Dr. 1612, Prof. ord. pandect. 17 JOPPEL, Barbara (?Veroniea);

zu Leipzig; Assesor der luristen­ aus Niirnberg; * ... ; t 1540 Fakultat und Collegial des kleinen 20 DEUERLIN, (Deuerlein ), Heinrich, Fiirstenkollegs. der Altere ; * 01.05.1575 Suhl ; in K6nigstein im kursaehsisehen I 25.12.1634 Leipzig Bergbau tatig ; Kaufmann u. Berg­ 124.08.1612 werksuntenlehmer 7 LINDNER, Gertraude; * um 1512 Laufbei Nurnberg ; * 29.09.1591 Sehulpforta t vor 1572 K6nigstein t 26.12.1631 Leipzig 22 ADLER, Martin; Burger, Brauer, Kaufmann u. Guts­ 3. Generation: besitzer in K6nigstein 8 LEIBNlTZ, ( Leibnitz ), Christoph, 24 SCHMUCK, Jacob; der Jungere; Burger u. Kaufmann in Suhl 1559 Organist zu Pima, 1564 Berg­ * ; t 1550 meister in Berggiel3hubel, spater i...

104 Know!. Org. 23(J996)No.2 Arndt Richtcr/Weert Meyer: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Pedigree and Ancestors 25 MARTENS, Os ana; 5. Generation: * ; t 1572 32 LEIBNIZ, ( Leibnitz ), Ambrosius, der 28 LINDNER, Wolfgang; JUngere; herzog1ieher Kiiehenmeister (Ren­ Biirgermeister in Rochlitz dant) bei Herzog August in Wei Ben­ * .. ; t ? 12.1551 Roeh1itz fe1s, 1556-1583 Rendant in Sehu1- 34 JOPPEL, Balthasar; pforta, bis 1597 Biirgenneister in Hoforganist des Herzog Georg des Naumburg Bartigen v. Sachsen in Dresden; * Halle ; t 1597 Naumburg aus Ni.i111berg i vor 1550 40 DEUERLIN, ( Deuerlein ), Johannes; 29 FRANKENSTEIN, Gertrud; aus Pegau 1523 in Niirnburg * ; t vor 1570 48 SCHMUCK, Buchard (Burch); 30 CLOTHIUS, (Klodt), Stephan; Karneraus Grimmelshausen fii rstlich weimarischer Kanzler, * Grimmelshausen? ; t 1541 Suh1 30.4.1557 wird er Biirger in Weimar, i. .. erwarb ein Haus am Marlet ( Osttei1 49 N.N.) Osana; des spateren Hotels Erbprinz, 1945 50 MARTENS, Wilhelm , genannt Heinkel; zcrstort), 1553 "wesentlieher * .. ; t ?08.1540 Hafrat" bei Herzog Johann Friedrich 56 LINDNER, Johann; II., des Mitt1eren(l529-1595) der Bommeister in Halle ( im Tal ) alteren siichsisch-ernestinischen * Halle ; t ... Linie Saehsen-Coburg-Eisenaeh. 1566 60 CLODT, Ro1of (?) Kanzler bei Herzog Johann Wilhelm Burger von Reval (1530-1573) der Linie Saehsen-Weimar ( 1.5.1566 eingewandert ) ( Bruder von Herzog Johann Frie- drich II.; nach clem Teilungsvertrag 6. Generation: von 1566 wird 1etzterer 1567 gefan­ 64 LEIBNIZ, ( Leibnitz ), Ambrosius, der gen genolTImen). Bei den Kirchen­ Altere; streitigkeiten zwischen den um 1500 in Gottenz bei Halle strengen Lutheranern (Flacins) und 1... den Anhiingern Me1anehthons(Strige1, 65 N.N., Apollonia Stosse1) Stand Stephan CLOTHlUS auf 112 LINDNER, Kunz; ScHen del' letzteren. Er hatte er­ (Kunst-)Tiseh1er in Halle heb1iehe Sehwierigkeiten mit den * Halle ; t 1544 Halle streng lutherischen Pfarrern in Weimar (Rosinus li,a,), dem sich 7. Generation: aueh Herzog Johann Wilhelm verbun­ 128 LEIBNITZ, ( Leibniz ), Ambrosius; den White. CLOTHlUS tritt 1569 von Gutsverwalter aus Rochlitz, unter Kanz1eramt zuriiek; Wo1fv. Kotte­ Hans v. Dieskau im Stift Magdeburg; ritz wird sein Nachfolgcr. 224 LINDNER, Hans; 1564 nennt Stephan CLOTH1US den Ratsherr in Halle, Kanzler Christian BROCK (Pontanus) genannt 1479 bis 1503 [ Goethe-Ahn v=490] seinen "lieben ( Bruder LINDNER, Marten; Dr. Jur., Gevatter und Schwager". BROCK Kanzler des Erzbisehofs von " 1517, 1556 Kanzler bei Hzg Joh. Magdeburg ) Friedr. II.; 1567 in Gotha hinge­ * ; l' naeh 1502 riehtet (geviertei1t). Christian Bruck war mit Barbara Cranach 8. Generation: verheiratet [Goethe-Ahn v=49 1], 448 LINDNER, Michael; einer Tochtcr des MaIers Lucas erwarb 1429 das hallisehe Cranac'h d.A .. Biirgerreeht (wahrseheinlieher Bruder Stephans: CLODT v. JORGENSBURG, Just/Justus Anmerkung: LEIBNIZ' Lebensweg kreuzte sieh aueh KurHindiseher Kanz1cr einmal mit Goethes UrurgroB-vater Johann Wolfgang(!) *Warburg um 1520125, tRiga um Textor [Goethe-Ahn v=24]: Am 22.2.1667 erfo1gte 1570172, begraben im Dam zu Riga) LEIBNIZ' feierliche Promotion zum Doktor beider Reehte * Warburg in Westfalen ; an der Universit;;t Altdorf dureh J.W. Textor, Dekan der t vor 13.09.1 580 juristischen Fakultiil.

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 105 Arndt Richter/Weert Meyer: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Pedigree and Ancestors References to Lcibniz's Ancestors am Beispiel des Menschen. In: Archiv fiir Sippenforsehung 45 (1979), 11.74, p.96-1 09. (1) Kroker, E.:Leibnizens Vorfahren. In:Neucs Archiv fLirSaeh­ sisehe Gesehichte und Altertumskunde 19(1898),p.315-338 [nlJr Die Numerienmg der Ahnentafel erfolgt hier naeh der wohl Trager dcs Namens Leibniz, d.h. Stamm- bzw. Namenslinie]. "natiirlichsten" Art und Weisc; sic korrcspondiert unmittelbar mit

(2) Arnswaldt, W.C.v.:Die Ahnentafel des Philosophen Gott­ der Ahnentafel, die von Generation Zll Generation exponentiell fried Wilhelm Leibniz. In:Mittcilungen del' Zentralstclle fiir dcut­ naeh Zweierpotenzen wachst (2 Eltcrn,4 Grof3eltern, 8 Urgrof3e1- sehe Personen- u. Familiengesehichte 7(1910), p.61-67. tern usw.). (3) Hiinicken, R.:Der Philosoph Leibniz und seinc hallischen Jede "nonnale" Almentafel entsprieht strukturcll cinem Dualzahl­ Ahnen. In:Hallische Naehriehten v.29.5.1933 [Lindner-Linie]. "Stammballm", wie er hier mit Leibniz' bisher erforsehten Ahncn (4) Lampe, LAristokratie, Bofadcl ll. Staatspatriziat in Kur­ dargestellt ist (Abb . ....). Werden die Ahnennummern dual ge­ hannover. Gottingen, 1963 (Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht), Bd.lI, sehrieben, dann gibt die O-I-Folge der Dualzahl die Generations­

Ahnentafel 122, p.304. Abstammungs-Folge der Geschlechter (Mann = 0, Frau = 1) (5) Bricflichc Mitteilungen von Genealogen an Arndt Richter, zwischen Proband lind dem jeweiligen AIm wieder. Ausnahme: Mlinehen: der Proband selbst hat unabhangig vom Geschleeht immer I (erste a) Brief von Friedrich Wilhelm Euler, Bensheim (Institut ZlJr Ziffer links!). Erforsehung historischer Fiihnmgssehiehten) v. l O.4.1978. b) Brief von Dr. Adalbert Brauer, Frankfurt a.M. (Leibniz­ Die dezimale Ahnennummer ist del' Schliissel (Code) zur geneti­ Genealoge) v.19.1.1979. schen Verwal1dtsehafts- und Erbwahrseheinlichkeits-Bereehnung c) Briefvon Gero v.Wilcke, Berlin (Spezialist fiir Genealogie in fiir den autosomalen Erbgang: Proband - Aim. Mitteldeutschland) v.26.12.82 [Schmuek-Linie]. d) Brief von LupoId v.Lchsten, Bensheim (Institut furpersonel1- Aus der dualen Ahnennummer lassen sieh dagegen besonders geschichtliche Forschung) v.6.12.95 [Clodt-Linie; weimariseher leicht die entsprechencJen Bereehnungen fiir den x-chromosoma­ Kanzler!]. len El'bgang durehfiihren.

Auch aUe Mehrfaehahnen-Bereclmurtgen (inel. "Generations­ vel'schiebungen" ) bei Almenimplex (" Ahncnsehwund" ) konnen Interdisziplinarc Bemerkullgell zur mathematischen Stmk­ mittels del' sog. Verschwisterungsliste - auf diesel' Ahnen­ tur von Ahllclltafcln numerierung basierend - allsgefiihrtwerden. Siehe: Weert Meyer: Ein Computerprogramm fiir die Ahnentafelanalyse nach den Es besteht eine interessante Strukturgleichheil (Fibonacei-Zah­ Regeln del' quantitativen Gencalogie. In: Computergenealogie II lenfoJge bzw. Goldner Sehnitt) zwischen del' Bienenahnentafel - (1995) II. 33, p. 175-183. die Biene hier als Beispiel einer Fortpflanzung durch Mischpar­ thenogenese bei Hautf1i.iglern, wo nm die Weibchen (K6nigin und Dicse Ahnennul11erierung (dezil11al) wurde 1898 von dem Arbeiterin) Valer, die Mannehen (Drohnen) aber keine Vater Genealogen Stephan Kekule v.Stradonitz (1863-1933) - einel11 besitzen (halber Chromosomensatz!) - und den x-ehromosomalen Sohn des Chcmikers und Entdeekers der Benzolring-Struktur Ahnentafel-Positionen bcim Menschen (und damit allen zwei­ August Kekule v.Stradonitz (1'829-1896) - vorgeschlagen. Ilmer­ gesehlechtigen Lebcwesen, die sieh "normal" fortpflanzen). Sie­ halb del' dcutschen Genealogie hat sich diese sog. Kekule-Ahnen­ he: Arndt Richter: ErbmiiBig bevorzugte Vorfahrenlinien bei nummer inzwischen weitgehend durchgesetzt, wahrend sie von zweigeschleehtigen Lebewesen. Die Spaltungs-Proportionen in den biologisehen Wissenschaftenm.W. bisher kaum zur Kenntnis der Aszendenz bei gcschleehtsgebllndener Vererbung, crlautert genommen wordell ist.

106 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Arndt Riehter/Wcel't Meyer: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Pedigree and Ancestors 1995 INTERCOCTA Worlcshop in Tampere Reports and The Committee on Conccphtal and Terminological Analy­ sis of the International Social Science Council (IS SCI Communications COCTA) held a Workshop from Dec.l5-17, 1995 at the University ofTampere, Finland, Department ofAdministra­ 6th International Stndy Conference on Classifica­ tive Science on the topic "Use of Computers to SUppOlt the Conceptual and Terminological Analysis". The Workshop tion Research, Call for Papers Organized by FID/CR and University College London, in was organized by Mr. Matti Malkia. 18 papers were pre­ association with ASLlB, the ClassificationResearch Group sented in the following 5 sessions. I. Conceptnal and and the International Society for Knowledge Organization, Terminological Analysis. The INTERCOCTA Framework. the Classification Research Conm1ittee of the Federation 2. Use of Hypermedia and Internet for Conceptual and Internationale d'Information et de Documentation (FIDI Terminological Analysis. 3. Distribution of Terminological CR) will hold its 6th international Study Conference from Infonnation through Intemet. 4. New Opportunities in 16-19 June 1997 in London on the topic "Knowledge Softv.tare Development. 5, Tenninological Case Studies. Organization jar In/ormation Retrieval". This topic was Experience with Real-Life Problems. The papers: chosen because of the 40th anniversmy ofFID/CR's First Mal/aa, M. : iSSC/COCTA and INTERCOCTA: Aims and Study Conference, held at Dorking, 13-15 May 1957 on activities. - Riggs, F. Tif'. .' Semantics to onomantics: The "Class(jicatioll fo r fI�rOrJllatiol1 Retrieval" , COCTA experience. - Nuopponen, A.: Concept-oriented The 1997 conference will be held in University College London. tenninological analysis. -SUlni, 1.:Conceptual and termino­ The themes that the conference will explore include: logical problems in ethnicity research. - Miilldii, M: To­ The role of classificationin the management of information wards the self-regulatioon of social science language. Coor­ - Classification research for retrieval of information pub­ dination through cooperation. - Riggs, F.W: Conceptual lished electronically - Automatic methods of classification- analysis. From micro level towards macro, An example. - The researcher and the real world - Tools for classification Budill, G.: Distributed terminological knowledge model­ and classification as a tool - Data modelling. ling. A WWW-based methodology for cooperative descrip­ Papers addressing knowledge organization within any ofthe tive terminology work in the social sciences.-Stocla'nger, J: fr ameworks outlined above are invited. Abstracts (ca 500 Comparative presentation of distributed hypermedia sys­ words) should reach the chair ofthe Conference Committee tems (WWW and Hyper-G) with view to their possible not later than I October 1996. Proceedings will be published. application in INTERCOCTA cooperation. - Murray-Rust, Conference Chair: Dr.LC. McIlwaine, School of Library, P.: Virtual hyperglossary project. - Graham. G.,.!r. : Com­ Archive and Information Studies, University College Lon­ puters, contexts, and concepts. Open-ended collections for don, Gower Street, London WCIE 6ET. Tel: +44-171-380 continuous analyses of sociological and political science 7204, Fax: +44-171-383 0557. concepts, terms, and meanings. -Nuoopponell, A . .' Distribu­ tion of terminological information through Internet: Need

for terminology collection. - Pozzi, M. .' Quality assurance EUROVOC Seminal' 1995 available on the international computer networks. - Alppe, The Seminar for EUROVOC Thesaurus Users fi'om Central A . .' Tenn extraction from unrestricted text. - Kangassalo, and Eastern European Parliamentmy Libraries and Infor­ H.:Concept D. A graphical language for conceptual model­ mation Institutions was held under the auspices of the ling and information construction. - Sierra, G. .' European Parliament and the European Centre for Parlia­ Onomasiological Search System (OSS): Methodology and mentHIY Research and Documentation (ECPRD) in the basic design. -Kunz, K.:PRlSCES. A multilingual database Czech Parliament, Prague, June 27-28, 1995. in fisheries. Objectives, methodolobry and rcal-life problems A proceedings volume of 110 pages with the summaries of in terminology work. - Is kra, T., Ostrowski, K..' Designing 14 papers (in English and Czech), the list of the 54 partici­ data base for comparartive research. An example fo compu­ pants fi'om 13 countries and the conclusions of the Seminar ter application of concephml analysis. - Vuoria, P.: Profes­ was published at the end of 1995 by the Chancellery of the sional medical metalanguage compared to computer-based Chamber of Deputies, Parliamentary Librmy, Prague, edited language. by Ms . .fana .firil11kowi. The 10 conclusions concern: 1. For fu rther information hIm to Dr. Matti Malkiii,University ConvcrsionofEUROVOC into the CommunicationFormat. of Tampere, Dept. of Administrative Science, Tampere, 2. CIP in the documents of the Officefor Official Publica­ Finland. tions. 3. EUROVOC Indexing Manua!. 4. E-mail Confer­ ence for EUROVOC Users. 5. Regular meetings with the EUROVOC Maintenance Unit. 6. EUROVOC Newsletter. 304th Meeting, Classification Research Gronp 7. Seminar Proceedings. 8. Online access to EP and OOP This meeting was held on Friday, April 26, 1996 with 9 Databases. 9. Subject-oriented extracts of EUROVOC. 10. mcmbers present. Symposium on Using Thesauri in Parliamentary Libraries. Mr. MILLS presented outlines of schedules covering the -The next EUROVOC Seminar( 1 996) is expected to beheld three separate fields making up Volume 2 of Bliss Classifi­ in Warsaw, Poland. cation, 2nd ed. (Vo!.1 is Introduction and Auxilimy sched-

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 107 Reports and Communications ules). He explained that for historical reasons this was likely mal concept analysis. - TYeisel, L., Dieckmann, B.: Enduser­ to be the last volume to be published. The three fields are: oriented searching of online bibliographic databases. Some Class 2 Generalia, Class 3 Phenomena, and Class 4/9 statistics on the acceptance by and behaviour ofscientists and

Prolegomena to a General Bibliographic Classification. The students. - Wolff,K.E. : Conceptual knowledge representa­ contents of these classes were then discussed during the tion and nlzzy theory. - meeting and documented in 7 paragraphs of the Minutes .. On March 5 an "Advanced Vocational Course for Librar­ The next meeting, scheduled for July 12, 1996, will deal with ians" took place, chaired by H.J.Watjen, Universitat thc Earth Sciences in BC2. Oldenburg with nine papers and a plenmy discussion on Trends and perspectives for the nlrther developments of 20th Annual Conference, Gesellschaft fij r Klassi­ search tools. The papers: Mai, A.: Intemet-Kataloge. - Gliiser, Ch.: Internct-Kataloge mit Klassifikation.- A.: flkation, Freiburg, Germany Mm� Clearinghouses. - Glaser, CIt : Katalogisierungsprojekte The German Society for Classificationheld its 1996 confer­ von Bibliothekaren. -Moennich, Lycos, WebCrawler, ence in Freiburg fiom 6-8 March with more than 200 M W: WWW-WOlm. - Dielal/ann, B.: Harvest) Harvest Physics speakers. The topic "Classification, Data Analysis, and Broker, Excite NetSearch. - Wo w/'({, Inktomi, InfoSeek, Knowledge Organization" was specified in 42 Sessions, s.: Open text. - lYci'(jell, Meta-Indices, kombinierte und interrupted by 16 Plenmy and Semi-Plenaty Lectures. Lo­ B-1.' simultane Search-Engines. - Ahlers, Finden von und cally it was organized by Prof.Dr. Riidiger KIaI' fi'om the T: Snchen in WAIS-Datenbanken. - Department of Medical Infonnatics, University ofFreiburg. March 6, the AG Decimal Classification held a Work­ Of the 155 papers listed in the program, the fo llowing 20 On shop chaired by H. Havekost, F.Knell and A. WeiSe. The seem to be relevant in the context of this journal (in following four papers were presented: Hermes, Die alphabetical order of author): H-.l.: Konkordanz von Klassifikationen - hat sie eine Chance? - Bernauer, J, Schoop, M., Schoop, D.: Conceptual recon­ Loth, K.: CornputergerechteAufbereitung del'UDK. -OOI1lS, stmction of medica 1 concept systems considering part-whole F.: Pflege del' UDK in Den Haag: State of the Art. - BolteI', relations. - Carranza, c., Lenski, J'v. : Ein planungsbasierter A.: Die Anwendung del' Dezimalklassifikation/Forstliche Ansatz ftir intelligentcs Information Retrieval in Dezimalklassifikation in del' Hochschulbibliothek del' Tcxtdatenbanken. - Diij3lel', R., Otto, A.: 3-D Navigation in Fachhochschule Eberswalde. virtuellen Infonnationssraumen: von der Textorientierung zum kognitiv-motorischen Nutzerdialog im WWW. - de Vries, P.H. : Conceptual nehvorks, self-organization, and Terminology for a Multilingual Europe, Cologne their application to personal documentation systems. -Feger, This was the topic of this year's conference ofthe Deutsche !-l , Wille, R.,' Fomal concept analysis and fe ature pattern Tcnninologietag e.V. (DDT) in Cologne, Maternushaus, analysis. - Goder!. W, Lepsky, K: Vom OPAC Zllm April 12-13, 1996, combined with a small exhibition . The Hyperkatalog: verbesserte Literatursuche durch Ranking­ 13papers presented to a European audience ofmore than 130 Verfahren, Hypertext-Links und automatische Indexierung. attendees were all in German. Here is their English transla­ - Graubner, B.: Bearbeitung medizinischer Klassifikationcn tion: Dammeyer, M. : Multilinguality - a challenge for fiir Computer-programme (ICD und ICPM/OPS-301). - Europe. - Zerwes, H: Language policy and terminology. - Hahn, U, Romacker, Ad. : Automatic knowledge acquisition Metz, E.) New Hungarian developments in terminology. - from medical texts. - Kaiser, A.: Intelligentes Information Bllchel� A.-L.: Terminology work and terminology coopera­ Retrieval im World Wide Web. - Kelle, U: An overview of tion in the Nordic countries. - FIJI, Deborah: Terminology computer-aided methods for concept-building and typifica­ cooperation. Planning and organization 011 a European tion in qualitative data analysis. -Klein, H.' Classificationof level. - Schmitz, K-D.: Technical infrastructures in Euro­ text analysis software. - Kluck, A1. : Developing a classifica­ pean terminology cooperation. - Pulitano, D.: Building a tion scheme for German social science databases. -Klickartz, multilingual terminology database for law and administra­ U: Computer-aided text analysis and typology constl1lction. tion. - Sandrini, P.: New developments in the area of

- Kuhn, H.C.: WebPublishing, Suchmaschinen und die computer supported terminology management. - Galinski,

Katalogisienmg dcs WWW. - Leuski. W: , Welte-Roch, E.: ell. : Terminology and copyright. - Reisen, U: On the work Ein integrativer Ansatz fUr die Verarbeitllng inhaltlichen of the DDT (German Terminology Day). - Koller, Fl.:

Wissens in LIS. - McCray, A. T: Conceptual complexity in Establishment of competitive language services within fu­ biomedical terminologies: The UMLS approach. -Popping, ture settings. - Gerzymisch-Arbogast, H: New develop­ R.: Network approaches in text analysis. -Pl'ifJ, U, Wille, R.: ments at the Institut for Translation and Interpretation at the Ideas of relational concept analysis. - QuoniaJII, L., BOlltin, University of the Saarland. - Lovenberg, A.: The European E., Rostaing, H., DOll, H. : Qualitative analysis of databases certificatefor terminology. - The conference was chaired on key-words. -Recto,., A.L.: Developing a re-lisable model for the first day by Prof. Reiner Arntz, who delivered also the medical terminology: Experience from the GALEN Project. intmductory speech and ananged the program and on the - Schulz, u.: Endnutzer-orientierte Gestaltung von Daten second day by Ms. Ursula Reisen, President ofthe DDT, who und Datenbankzugritf am Beispiel eines Online-Katalogs summarized the results at the end. flir Kinder. - Skoorsky, M., Vogt, F.: TOSCANA and For fiuther information please contact: MS.Ursula Reisen, An ANACONDA: Current dcvelopments of programs for for- del' Alten Post 18, D-508859 K61n, Tel.lFax: +49-2234-76826.

108 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Reports and Communications Interdisciplinarity and Terminology Special Relationships. Annual Stndy Weekend of The 3rd International Terminology Meeting in Brussels, the CIG, BIackpool, GB April 19-20, 1996, was meant to pursue two aims: 1) to list The Cataloguing and Indexing Group (CIG) of the British the terminological processes and phenomena linked to Library Association held its annual seminar from June 21- interdisciplinm'Y communication, and 2) to establish a set of 23, 1996 in Norbreck Castle Hotel, Blackpool. It started late terminological guidelines forinterdisciplinmyresearch teams. in the aftemoon with the CIG Annual General Meeting, Itwas organized by the CentTc de Terminolo gie deBruxellcs, fo llowed by a paper by P. Oddy on the Anglo-American Institut Libre Marie Haps and AELPL, the Association Authority File. During the next morningthree papers were Europeenne des Linguistes et des Professeurs de Lal1gues. discussed: Cross, A.: The OPAC and community infonna­ Conference languages were French and English. According tion. - Woodhouse, s.:DC21: new approaches for a new to the program, the following papers were presented: Lel'at, lllilleniulll. - New, G., Trotte/� R.: DC21: revising the Life P.:Lc contenu tenninologique au peril de I'interdisciplinarite. Sciences - 20 years in the making. - The afternoon was Le cas de 'collllaissances', - Lerot, .I.: Qu'est-ce qu'un devoted to attend demonstrations ofDewey for Windows and lexique concephlcl? - Depecker, L.: Analyse du signe in the evening an Open Forum on current professional issues linguistique. Application it plusieurs disciplines. -Nederland!, was convened by Sue Brown, Chair CIG. On June 23, two P.: Difficliites de comprehension entre psychologues, papers were given on MARC Harmonization. R. Bourne logopedes et audiologucs. - Tel11l11erJll({n, R.: The process of considered its progress and possiblities, whereas F Hendrix (neo-)lexicalisation: the case of 'life sciences'. - Gaudin, F: looked at its strategies for the future. The conference was Du flou dans les categorisations en bio-infonnatiqllc. - rounded up by a general discussion of MARC Hannoniza­ Verine, H. : Interdiscplinarit6 ou transdisciplinarite: Ie cas tion, convened by Stuart James. d'une methode de cal cui graphique, Ia nomographie. - For fu rther information contact Andrew Coburn, Biblio­ Baude!, '! -c.:L' ingenieur aux tcnnes de I'interdisciplinarite. graphic Services, Essex County Libraty HQ, Goldlay Gar­

- Steurs, F.: Conceptual and terminological problems in dens, Chelmsford, Essex, CM2 OEW, England. translating texts on taxation in the European Community. - Ndi11lurulwndo-Kw'lfrll, B.: Les concepts de communication 13th Terminology Summer School: Methods of et d 'information dans les domaines de la communication, en Terminology Management, 12-16 Ang.1996, didactique et dans Ie discours politique. - Schaetzel1, de: C. TermNet invites to a week of instruction in Vienna, Austria, Changements dc vocabulaire au sein des disciplines on motivation and applications, all kinds of methods in informatisees. -FVynands, P.: L' interdisciplinaritc dudiscours Terminology Management including software and prob­ sur l'identite culturelle: les mots d'auteur. -Laurent, La c.: lems ofstandardizatiol1. Trainers are Prof. Sue Ellen Wright, geshon de la terminologie interdisciplinaire dans une USA and Dr. Gerhard Budin, Vienna. For further infonna­ enlreprise de traduction. -Baste, Application du standard s.: tion contact TennNet, GrUngasse 9/17, A-I050 Wien, informatiquedecodagedescaracteres Unicodeal'elaboration Osterreich. d'un thesaurus biomedical. - The conference concluded with recommendations. For further information, please contact: Ad Hermans. Centre de tennillologie de Bruxelles. Rue Methods of Terminology Standardization. Work­ d' Arion 1 I, B-1050 Bruxellcs, Belgium. Fax: +32 2 51198 37. shop, Vienna, 14-16 Aug.1996 ISOrrC37, the International Standardization Organization, Technical Committee 37, Terminology together with Descriptive and Subject Cataloguing at the 86th TermNet organizes this WOll(shop which will deal with the German Library Congress, ErIangen 'basics', with terminology project management and with Among the 17 Sessions of this year's Deutscher software support. A draftprogram has been circulated, it is Bibliothekmiag (28 May - 1 June, 1996) with the general available fium TcrmNet, Griingasse 9117, A-I050 Vienna, topic: "Utilization of Resources fo r New Tasks" one was Fax: +43-1-586 77 64. The program contains many practical devoted to Cataloging (May 31). It had 6 speakers, two of sessions with presentations of experiences fl:om different which came fr om the Libraty of Congress: Dr.Barbara standards committees such as TC 176 Quality Tenninology, Tillett and Dr. Sarah Thomas. Their papers were concerned TC 207 Environment Terminology, CS Basic Semantic with questions of cooperation between descriptive and sub­ RepositOly Project in support ofElectronic Data Interchange ject cataloguing in both countries. The other papers were: (EDI) and also computer applications besides theoretical Gasleiger, Ihlenfeldt, W.D., Pfortner, .1., Ai. : and methodological insh·uctions. Speakers of this W0l1(shop SacherschlieBung elektronischer Publikationen - Probleme are Ch.Galinski, G. Budin, H. Suonuuti, B. Nistrup-Madsen, am Beispiel von Dissertationen aus del' Chemic. - Lepsky, D. Michaud, H. Hutcheson, D. Hill. K.:Inhaltsersch lieBungvonbibliothekarischenMassendaten. - Stumpf, G.: Quantitative und qualitativc Aspekte der verbal en SacherschlieBung in Online-Katalogcn. - ISO/TC 37 Meetings in Vienna, August 1996 GeiJ3elmann, F: Systematik im Online-Katalog. The ISOrrC37 Plenary Meeting will be held on August 23, Abstracts of these papers were published in a small volume 1996 at the Austrian Standards Institute (ON), Heinestr. 38, (86p.) together with the names and addresses of the 86 A-1020 Wien. The Draft Agcnda includes RepOlis on the speakers. activities of TC37 Sub-Committees and Woddng Groups

[(nowl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 109 Reports and Communications such as SCI: Principles of Terminology, SC2: Layout of 6 Copyright in Terlllin% gy. T organized by C. Galinski, Vocabularies, SC3: Computational Aids in Term inology. 29 Aug. AM A fu rther point deals with rcPOlts from special groups and 7 Economics of Terminology. W organized by M. Schaar, liaisons, such as ISO 639-1 and 2/RA: Registration Author­ 30 Aug. PM ity (Infoterm) and (Library of Congress) respectively. 8 Mu ltilingual Conceptual Representation of Words and Meetings ofthe Subcommittees 1-3 and their special work­ TerlllS. T organized by G. RahmstOlf, 30 Aug. PM ing groups have been scheduled for Monday, Aug. 19through The proceedings are already in preparation and will be Thursday, Aug.22. Subcommittee 2 is concerned at present published by INDEKS Verlag. For fm1herinformation turn with two documents: Translation-oriented tenninography to TermNet, Griingasse 9/17, A-1050 Vielma, Fax: +43 1 and Alphabetical ordering of multilingual terminological 586 77 64. and lexicographical data represented in the Latin alphabet. For fhrther information please turnto thc ISO/TC37 Secre­ DIMDI News tariat, Austrian Standards Institute, Heinestr. 38, A-I020 Wien. Phone: +43 1 213 00 307, Fax +43 1 216 32 72. Bibliography of Editions of the International Classi­ fication of Diseases (lCD) and other Health Related ClassificationSystems 60th Anniversary of ISO/TC37 DIMDI, the German Institute for Medical Documentation ISOITC37 will celebrate its 60th anniversaty on Aug.24-25, reports that the Bibliography mentioned above (and once 1996 by h'avelling down the Danube to Budapest where included in this journal) has been updated and can be TC37 was founded. The excursion will take place under the obtained from DIMDI. The number of entries amounts to auspices of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Aug.24: 300. There are printed versions and also machine-readable travel by boat from Vienna to Budapest. Workshop on "The ones. The compilation gives priority to German language Multilingual Information Society and Terminology Stand­ coding systems. A lot of 'older' classifications have been ardization - Overcoming Communication and Cultural Bar­ retained on request of several users. Owing to the require­ riers". Evening in Budapest. Reception. ments and the contributions of users, further titles can be Aug.25: Bus tour of Budapest, independent sight-seeing, added. Comments on the bibliography are welcome. returnto Vienna by bus. The trip is designed as a fittingfinale to the ISOITC37 meetings (see above) and a bridge to the 4th International Congress on Terminology and Knowledge MeSH German Translation Engineering (TKE'96) in Vielma (see below). Total cost The Thesaurus of the u.S. National Library of Medicine, including accomodation in Budapest approx. OS 3,000 known as MeSH, is now available as German language (DM430, US$300). Reservations to be made to Mondial version and can be ordered as machine-readable version Congress, Faulmanngasse 4, A-II040 Wien, Fax +43 1 from DIMDI. The thesaurus contains at present morc than 5869185. 18.000 subject headings of medicine and related fieldsand is used by NLM for cataloging and indexing (e.g. MEDLINE). So far, a medical thesaulUs like the MeSH was missed in the TKE'96, 4th International Congress on Terminol­ Gennan speaking countries. DIMDI had received over ogy and Knowledge Engineering, Vienna, 26-30 several years requests for a German translation. The devel­ August opment of the UMLS (Unified Medical Language System) Already in KO 95-3/4, p.128 the Call for Papers for this and the integration of the German MeSH in this system Congress had been published with the list of the sections increased the impOltance of the translation efforts. Further planned. A fourth mmouncement has been released recently information about technical details, contractual tenns in­ with the fo llowing additional news: the Keynote Speeches cluding copyrigfht tcrms of delivery and charges are obtain­ will be given by John SOWA (USA) and Yorick WILKS able fi'omDlMDl; a demo diskette will be enclosed. Contact (UK). The Pre-Conference Excursion to Budapest is men­ Dr. Elisabeth Schorn, DlMDl, Postfach 42 05 80, D-50899 tioned (see above). Post-Congress Workshops (W) and K61n. Tel.: +49 221-4724-3 13, Fax: +49-221-411429. Tutorials (T) have been finalized as follows: 1 EAMT 1996. W on Machine translation. organized by D. Theologitis, 29-30 Aug. DIMDI in the Internet - WWW A DIMDI Intcrnet server could be implemented last year. 2 D,:stributed Te1 111il1% gy lVJanagement I W organized by G.Budin, K. Ahmad, 29 Aug. AM The fo llowing online services, a.o. are available fi:ee of 3 Terminology Interchange. T organized by S.E.Wright, charge; D IMD I -Il1fonnation on host services and databases; K-D. Schmitz, 30 Aug.AM Legal tasks; the DlMDINewsletter("grips-news"); the press 4 Distributed Terminology Atianagement II. W organized releases of the Federal Ministry of Health and subordinate by G.Budin, K.Ahmad, 29 Aug. PM authorities; Communication with the DlMDI helpdesk. The 5 Terminological S'rucfu";ng of WWW Applications. W. DlMDI address (URL) is: http://www.dimdi.de organized by G. Heyer, 29 Aug. PM

110 Know!. Org. 23(l996)No.2 Reports and Communications second one, it is due to its dynamic aspect. In the firstcase, the incompleteness is caused by the knowl­ ISKO News 24 edge system's being 'closed', whereas, in the second one, it is precisely the 'open system' character which implies the impossibilityof regarding a cognitive agcnt's knowledge as complete. Models and Modeling During the Seminar, these problems were addressed to Seminar in Rome, 17-18 May 1996 internationally known scholars. At the proposal of the Knowledge Organization Working Piero PAGLIANI, who took an active pmt in organizing the Group which includes members of ISKO, the Italian Na­ event, introduced the theOlY of Concept Lattices, presenting tional Research Council's Institute of Studies on Scientific a series of significant examples on modeling methodology. Research and Documentation organized a seminar on 'Mod­ Rudolf WILLE's spoke on the 'Conceptual Landscape of els and Modeling'. Knowledge: A Pragmatic Paradigm fo r Knowledge Process­ The event, staged at the National Research Council on May ing' and stressed that lmowledge understood on the basis of 17-18 1996, sought to continue and develop the dialogue Peirce's pragmalism can be activated by using the metaphor which first began in December 1992 with the seminar of a landscape. He outlined the idea by discussing conceptual 'Categories, Objects, and Stl1lctures ofKl1owledge'. Its aim landscapes ofknowledge within the developments ofForl11ai - to spread the principles and methods of conceptual knowl­ Concept Analysis. He then went on to consider various edge among scholars from differentbackgrounds -was once knowledge processing tasks, such as exploring, searching, lTIore didactic as opposed to heuristic. recognizing, identifying, analyzing, investigating, decid­ But, whereas the earlier meeting set Qut to introduce reflec­ ing, improving, restl11ctming, and memorizing, providing tion on the 'object' and connected ontological problems on examples of concrete applications for each. categorization and on conceptual structures, the recent Carlo CELLUCCI stressed the difference between closed initiative focused on the 'action' of knowledge ordering, on systems, which envisage a closed world concept and are the procedures, which allow us to create concept systems based on the axiomatic method (a theory fo rmulated by Frege according to a project or methodology. and adopted in mathematical logic ) andopel1 .5ystems, which In her presentation, Giliola NEGRINI, national co-ordinator envisage an exchange with the 'environment', use hypoth­ of ISKO, reminded those present that, as it has developed, eses which may change as the system gradually devclops, the notion of the model has consistently acquired scientific and are based on the analytical method. Detailed analysis of validity, to the extent that it is now the tool ofonc ofthe most the distinctive features ofthe second system reveals the need effective fo rms ofscientific practice. She also stressed its role to arrive at the open world concept, legitimated, in part, in in the representation of the knowledge of mathematical Godel's first theoremof incompleteness. Mecting the condi­ logic, the science of reasoning, which uses fo nnalisms to tions imposed by this theorem also implies the need to furnish generally valid solutions. replace the closed system notion with the open system one. Modelling has become a fundamentai methodologieal tool 'Models of complexity' was the subject of Marcello eIN!'s for systems supporting decisions, planning, simulation, paper. Cini showed how the new approach, which studies the prediction, automatic reasoning, automatic learning, infor­ fonnulation of complex phenomena, does not seek to unifY mation classification and the interpretation of empirical complex, irregular phenomena by identifYing simple, ir­ data. regular common elements but seeks, on the contrary, to It is significant,for example, that the mathematical theory of highlight different behaviours in sh'ucturally identical sys­ Concept Lattices was introduced by Prof. Rudolf WILLE to tems. It is possible to settle the contraposition between the meet an explicit need of psychologists. No less significantis two approaches by identifYingthree fundamental character­ the fact that the Darmstadt Conferences of his Institution at istics of biological systems which they share with other the Technische Hochschule together Ernst-Schroder­ complex systems: the existence ofdif ferent levels oforgani­ Zentrum and with ISKO are attended evelY year by people zation not stemming from a single structure made up of with heterogeneous interests and backgrounds. elementary components; their story's irreducibility to struc­ Modeling is a back-up to concept building even when tmed fa ctors; and the self-referential character of their information is incomplete. The 'Darmstadt School' ap­ internal structure. proach manages to fix available Imowledge in any given Models allow us to study complex natural phenomena and moment to extract conceptual patterns, but other problems predict future results. A particularly relevant speech in this require dynamic tcchniques and approaches. This is the case context was Hellmut LOCKENHOFF' s 'StlUchlring knowl­ of automatic reasoning, for example, which involves a edge for simulation to guide complex societal challenges number of 'intelligent' agents with diffe rent knowledge and illl1ovatively', in which he analyzed the foIIowing points: deductive capacities, at times at odds with one another and Knowledge order for societal cOlitrol; modelling by the with asynchronous dynamics. The same dynamic dimension knowledge order to control; radical meta-constructivism; is, necessarily, present in simulation and in action plans. knowledge and control in a viltual (postmodern) society; the We are thus faced with two paradigms of conceptualization pensive aftermath: living in a virtual environment. based on incomplete information: in the first one, incom­ Roberto POLl's paper analyzed the difference between pleteness is due to the static aspect of the paradigm; in the abstraction and idealization. He underlined the various

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 III ISKO News 24 interpretations ofthe two concepts in traditional and modern 3rd Regional ISKO Conference in Moscow philosophy up to the present centmy, to Husserl's distinction A Call for Papers will be distributed soon to invite interested and the contribution of the Poznan School. He argued that members to participate in the 3rd Regional ISKO Confer­ since the study of thc diffe rencc between abstraction and ence in Russia, organized again by our Russian Coordinator, idealization involves several ofthe fundamental problems of Dr. Eduard SUKIASY AN, Deputy Director ofthe Russian scientific and philosophical knowledge, then the best gen­ State Librmy. eral framework for the exploration of these differences is that The topic ofthe conference will be: The Un iverse ofKilo wl­ of the convergence between philosophical analysis and edge Organization; the dates: May 20-22, 1997. scientificrescarch.Accordingly, we must endeavor to add an For further information please contact: Dr. E.Sukiasyan, element of the scientific to metaphysical research and an Russian State Library, Vozdvizhenka 3, RU-I 0 I 000 Moskva. element of the metaphysical to scientific research. Fax: +7 095 200 2255. Thc various speeches were followed by lively discllssions. This was proof, on the one hand, of the validity of their 5th German ISKO Conference, Berlin content and, on the other hand, of the interest which the Wissensorganisation'97 is to be held at the Humboldt problems discussed were capable ofarousing in an audience University, Berlin, Oct. 8-10, 1997. This time the German of our profession and of scholars with different cultural ISKO Chapter decided to relate the problems of knowledge backgrounds and experiences. organization to the topic of "Niu ltimedia Te chnologies. A On May 18, Pro£WILLE gave a practical course on Formal Call for Papel� will soon be released. Concept Analysis in which he outlincd the general princi­ The proceedings of its 1995 conference at Trier will be ples of the method, made practical applications of the available through INDEKS Verlag, entitled:Ana/ogie in der principles by examples and demonstrated implementations Wissensl'epl'iisclltation. Case-Based Reasoning alld using the TOSCANA and ANACONDA management sys­ Riillmliche Madelle. tems. For fillthcr information please contact Dr. Peter Jaenecke, The proceedings of the May 17 Seminar will be published An c1er Mauer 32, D-75334 Straubenhardt. Fax: +49-7082 soon. Giliola Negrini 50333.

112 Know!. Org. 23(1 996)No.2 ISKO News 24 VARET, Gilbert, VARET,Marie-Madeleine: Maitriser I'Information iITravers sa Tenninologie (Mastering Book Reviews information via its tenninology). Manuel-Dictionnaire.­ Almales Litteraires de I 'Universite deBesanyon, volume 559. Paris: les Belles Lettres, 709 p. IYER, Hemalata:Classificatory Structures: Concepts, Aims and limits of the book. In a copious introduction of26 Relations, and Representation. pages, the authors precisely describe the aims and limits of Frankfurt/Main: INDEKS Verlag 1995. II,232p., 62 their project: 1) Derived fi·om their university teaching, this "handbook-dictionaty" is chiefly dedicated to researchers figs. ISBN 3-88672-501-4 = Textbooks for Knowledge and advanced students. 2) It does not deal with the whole Organization, Vol.2 field of information, but only with scientific and technical Like the othcr book in this series (Fugmaml, R.: Subject information (in French 1ST), that is "the different functions Analysis and Indexing: Theoretical Foundation and Practi­ by which the scientificcommunity makes knowledge avail­ cal Advice, 1993) the author has filled a need for a text which able to scholars". 3) It deliberately excludes the problems of should cover an important subject taught in library and information retrieval processing (which are - according to information science schools. Texts by Foskett, Olding, and the authors -sufficiently covered) andfo cusses on a typology Langridge could never replace W.C.B. Sayers' Manual of of information tools. 4) It particularly focusses on the Classification (4th ed.,1967) or S. R. Ranganathan's Ele­ tel1ninology of information and computer sciences, so that a ments of Library Classification (19S9 now reprinted by lot of definitions, though integrated into the text, can be Advent in 1990), but Dr. Iyer has brought the work fOlward referred to separately. by concentrating on the fonnation of categories as repre­ Structure of the book: The tools ofscientific information are sented in current information handling tools such as classi­ divided into four parts, which go from the whole to the fication schemes, thesauri, indexingsystems, and Imowledg elements: bases with their semantic networks. She begins with discipli­ The main in/ormation sources (l 00 p.) This palt describes nary/interdisciplinalY approaches, covers c1assificatOlyprin­ 1. archives, museums, libraries, that is, the traditional sources ciples, faceted structures and ends with conceptual layers of information. and other universals. In between she covers and illustrates The computerized bases oj lolOwledge: metam011Jhoses of vocabulary development in thesauri and other authority 2. the te.xt(l30 p). This part, to which fo ur chapters are devoted, control tools, faceted and non-faceted classification struc­ deals with the new ways in whichlmowledge can be accessed tures like LCC, DDC, UDC, BC, and CC, with refcrcnccs through computers. (a) "New technological processing or and excrcises for the students which could keep them busy new objets?". reviews new technologies such as hypeltextor for more than the normal class time. electronic publishing. (b) "The universe ofdatabases" shows If I had one major criticism of the text it would be with the advantages of electronic info11113tion through the exam­ Chapter 9 (Computers and Bibliographic Classification ple of law data bases. (c) "The cycle of data" deepens the Schemes) and Chapter 10 (Altificial lntelligence and Clas­ concept ofdata, above and inside the computer. (d) "The data sification). These two chapters should have been integrated and the world" deals with servers, expelt systems and the into the other chapters. Also, the use of classification on man/machine dialog. Internel webpages, should have been covered. Research in In/ormation units (270p). This long palt reviews the this area is interesting, but the realityof the Internet'schaotic 3. different types of primary and secondmy documents. Like structure fo r organization and access serves as a shining the firstpmt, it is a thorough survey ofthese classic subjects. example of the continuing need for newcomers in the field The elementmy structures (ISOp). This last part and the oflibrary and information science to understand classificatory 4. conclusion ( Prospective information") deal with different structures. " subjects such as visual documents, ordering, book indexing, This book should fill a need for a time but the text will soon abstracting, coding. need revision to cover the fast-growing areas mentioned in The handbook itself is fo llowed by two indexes (one for Chapters 9 and 10. I will lead by example and report that I concepts and another for bibliographical sources). will use this as a text in a seminar on ClassificationSystems Attractive eatures:The most notewOlthy feature of this for the Organization of Knowledge at the University of F book is the amount of information it contains· it is a Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in the fa ll of 1996. comprehensive survey of all sources of scientific 100�wledge, Pauline Atherton Cochrane whether classic or modern, according to their location, document type , and technological processes. Prof. P .A. Cochrane, Visiting Professor, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, School of Library and Information Science. It's not an encyclopaedia, -the actual systems which are cited (libraries, dictionaries, data bases ...) are only used as illus­ trations ofthe text - but a typology which aims at explaining 10 depth the relationships and the characteristics ofthis wide range of tools. As stressed in the title, the questions of terminology are considered offirst importance, and everry'term is abundantly

Knowl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 113 Book Reviews definedand commented. The linb'1listic definition(which is In short the book can be read on three levels: a technical level generally bricf) is supplemented with comments on the (description of infonnation tools); a scientific level (typo­ specific use of the word, examples, and sometimes with logical and terminological analysis of these tools); a philo­ etymological and historical data. More than three hundred sophical level (reflection on their value for scientific re­ terms are incorporated into the texture of the book at their search). firstappeara nce. Thanks to the back-of-the book index, they Some Critical Remarks: As evelY rose has its thorns, this can also be referred to separately as in a dictionaty. But multilevel texture endangers the lmity of the work. And unlike systematic terminologies (e.g. UNESCO's 'Termi­ though the authors make sure that the general divisions as nology of documentation') the semantic relationships be­ well as the partial expositions are carefully justified in the tween terms are not indicated. introductOlY chapter, the reader experiences a feeling of Besides this large amount of infonnation, I think the most disparity between the detailed description of some technical original feature of the book consists in its philosophical tools and the subtly elaborated style of the philosophical insights on information sources and information science, comments. To name but one instance of the fonner, is it which lead us beyond the limits of a mere technical hand­ useful for the users of computer aided information retrieval book. This specificity gives the text some unity in the tone to know the list of the different 'object oriented' program­ and in the vocabulaty insofar as this perspective is appar­ ming languages? And, as an example of the latter, is it ently - along with terminology - the main motivation of the essential to definethe common concept of 'document type' authors. Gilbert Varet, whose cultural background includes through the pretentious apparatus of two theorems? philosophy, humanities and Greco-Roman thinkers, writes In fact it seems as if the book's composition has sufferedfrom as a scientist addressing other scientists, and what chiefly the [actit is the work of two different - though c10selyrelated affects him in the information tools - particularly in compu­ - sources: the lechues and seminars of Gilbert Varet (philo­ ter-aided information - is how much they can promote the sophical bibliography) and the lessons of Marie-Madeleine heuristic powers of researchers and the reliabilityof results Varet Pietri (who is an engineer in computer science). (the technical data, on the contrary, are generally given in The work is presented as a 'handbook-dictionary'. As a small cases). matter of fact it is somewhere between a handbook and a As it is difficultto review this set of philosophical remarks, philosophical dissertation. As for the claim of its being used we shall simply give an account of the recurrent themes: as a dictionary it seems somewhat exaggerated. It is true that (a) today, information and information tools are so inti- it has a lot of precise terminological data, but it is a pity that mately involved in scientific research that science at the end ofthe book the ' general index' groups together the practically creates by itself its own doctrine of infor­ acronyms (e.g. ADA), the common words (e.g. rainbow), mation. some famous proper names (e.g. Aristotle) and the specific (b) the intrusion of computers results in a qualitative terms ofinfOlmation science (abstract, analogical, etc.). mutation of scientific results. The main effects of A last criticism should be made regarding the title. In a computers are: bl) world-wide applications, b2) well-chosen phrase, Varet reminds the reader (p. 107) decompartmentalization of basic subjects and b3) that the title is subjected to 'un pacte de bonne fo i' (a bona evidencing of data. fidecontract) between the author and the reader, that is (c) information is never provided as a gift, it is always the relationship between the contents of the book and the half-built by the researcher himself. common meaning of the title should be as close as On the whole, Varet shows a youthful enthusiasm regarding possible. Paradoxically that is not exactly the case for the influence ofcomputer science. He thinks a new age has Varet's book. Clearly, the book deals with "the terminol­ arrived for scientific research bccause this digital machine is ogy of infonnation". But which kind of information is it? a universal machine, able to control all other machines. In Common information? Scientific information? Informa­ the fieldof information tools, he states that hypeltext creates tion science? Information technology? It is true that from a new concept, that of virhml documents, and he has great the first pages of the introduction, the aims of the authors confidencein the fu ture of auto indexing and autoabstracting. are precisely stated. But many a reader may feel frustrated Here is, for example, how he demonstrates the ability of the that the viewpoint they have chosen is so restrictive, and computer to help man explore the real world (p 262): man particularly for the readers specializing in knowledge reflects the world through his brain. And the computer organization. Probably this choice is not fortuitous. Varet reflects man's brain. It can therefore be concluded that the is neither unaware nor disdainful of semantic problems in computer reflects the world. information retrieval, but he is likely to think that any Of course, Varet's opinions on computers, research and researcher is able to solve better those pertaining to his information science arc subject to discussion, but it is fieldthan anybody else, and that he should - as a priority impossible to examine them within the framework of a short control the modern information tools ... through their review. Let us stress only his solid fa ith in the value of terminology. scientific research, qualifiedas "the quest for truth". Conclusion: As a conclusion, and in spite of the above A' last interesting point is the bibliographical data, which reservations, this handbook should be recommended to unforhmately are limited to the chapters related to tradi­ French-reading information specialists for the richness, tional information tools. relevance and up-to-dateness of its technical and tennino-

114 Know!. Org. 23(l996)No.2 Book Reviews logical data. It will bc a good rcferencc book pertaining to des tennes du lexique general. Le 9me chap. ,Langue the state of the art in information sources in the last years sp ecia/isee et traduction" est une suite logique des trois of our century. IJI·ccCdents. II s'agit evidemment des problemes ter­ Jacques MANIEZ minologiques des traducteurs et des difficultes eventuelles lorsque I'on consulte des dictiOlmaircs multilingues, On ne Dr. Jacques Manicz, 61, lUe de la Corvee, F-21000 Dijon. doitpas s' etonnel'que PieneLerat puise souventses exemples dans la languejuridiq ue, vu ses publications dans cedomaine, encore recemment sonDictionnairejuridiqu e(en collabora­ tion avec l-L. Sourioux). Notons 0 ce propos S. Nielsen, The LERAT, Pierre:Les Langues Specialisees. Linguistique Bilingual LSP Dicti01ia1J', Principles and Practice jar nouvelle. (Special languages. New Linguistics) Dir.par Language, Tiibingen (concernant un projet de dictionnaire Guy Serba!. Paris: P.u.P. 1995. 201p. bilingue) et un excellent dictionnaire juridique (danois, Une fo is de plus, Pierre Lerat (Univ.Paris XIII -Villetaneuse, fran,ais, anglais, allemand) de S. Hj elmblink, Retspleje Paris-Nord) a public une etude fouillee, dont Ie sommaire, Ordbog, Copenbague, 1991. avec 8es 17 chapitres et quelque 120 sous-divisions, donne Parlant de la docl/mentation (chap.!0) Piene Lerat insiste immediatement une idee de la fayon detail16e etsystematique sur Ie caractere plutOt logique que linguistique de cette dont a 6t6 trait6e cette matiere vaste. activite; i1 trace nettement la difference entre "thesaurus" et Essayons d'analyser les diff6rents chapitrcs. Dans Ie leI', "tenninologie", Un chap, tres important est celui sur la I'auteur souligne I'importance de la linguistique pour les normalisation) en particulier sur la normalisation nombreuses facettes des langues specialisees; un theme qui terminologique, avec toutce qu' elle peut amener: e,a, l'aspect sera plus d'nne fo is repris. En preferant "Iangue specialisee" juridique, l'harmonisation terminologique et evidemment it,,langue despecialite", il precise qu 'une "langue specialisec" les banques de donnees (0 ce propos les appreciations de n' est pas une sorte de langue et certainement pas une sous­ Pierre Lerat sur EURODICAUTOM), CD-ROM et langue, telle que Rostislav Kocourek I'appelle (La Langue TERMIUM meritent d'eh'e lues). fimu;aise de la Technique et de la Science), Wiesbaden, Dans Ie 12me chap, concemantl 'amenagement linguistique, 1982, 2me cd. 1991). Pierre Lerat explique cgalement I' auteur attire I' attention sur Ie fait que ce nom d' origine qu 'une langue specialisee est plus large qu 'une tenninoiogie, quebecoise nc parait pas eU'e invente pour eviter Ie calque de carelle contientegaiementdes denotations non-linguistiques, "language planning". A cc propos I'auteur signale que dans des abbreviations, des sigles, etc. la fi'ancophonie (avec Ie Quebec comme pionnier) on pOlie L 'importance de Ia linguistique est encore mise en evidence un grand inten�t a la neologie, dans Ie chapitre suivant, OlI I'on trouve e.a. une critique -non Lechap. suivantcomporte beaucoup d'informations pratiques depourvue d'hull10ur - sur la question de Ia feminisation des pour la redaction technique; en patticulier la mise en forme noms de fonctions. textuelle. Le 14me chap. traite d'un sujet d'actualite: Dans Ie 3me chapitre, on trouve c.a. une discussion sur Ie I 'ingenierie de la cOl1naissance (Ie plus souvent connu sous "triangle semiotique" (object, concept, signe), adopte par les son nom anglais), auquel plusieurs congres ant ete consacres: tenninologues de Vienne. les TKE, Terminology and Knowledge Engineering (Pierre Dans Ie chapitre sur les unites linguistiques, Pierre Lerat Lerat mentionne seulement celui de 1990.) Dans Ie chap. souligne lme verite indeniable: les noms des notions seraient suivant, I' autcurprend la place de 1 'utilisateur qui se demande transparents si les tennes etaient monosemiques et sans quel dictionnaire dc lanb'lle il doit consulter: un de langue synonymes et s'ils etaient strictement equivalents d'une generale, un de langue specialisee? Comparant les fayons de langue a une autre. definir un tenne il met en lumiere les qualites des trois Le Sme chapitre, qui traite de la langue specialisee comme meilleurs dictionnaires de 1a langue franyaise en plusieurs langue ecrite, donne des exemples remarquables a propos de volumes: TI"I?sor de la langue ji-anraise edite par Ie CNRS l'oralisation de I'ecrit specialise (au fa it, il y a plusieurs (Paul Imbs, puis Bemard Quemada), Le Grand Laral/sse fayons de lire des abreviations). L'auteurexamine egaiement (Louis Guilbert) et Le Grand Robert (Alain Rey). On aime Ia notion et Ie terme "terrninographie", qu'il caracterise connaiu'e I' opinion de nOll'C auteur a propos des dictionnaires comme "lexicographie terminologique" et comme electroniques. "tenninologie professionelle". II n'est pas surprenant que Ie chap. sur la terminographie (Ie Plus d'une fo is ce livre se profilecomme un cours precis de 1 6me) ait comme point de depart leDictioJ1naire 11lultilingue principes de linguistique, en particulier dans les chap. 6, 7 de la machine-outil d'Eugen Wiister, En insistant une fois et 8. II s'agit successivement de la morphologie, e,a, du de plus sur la difference entre la lexicographie et la caractere particulier des langues specialisees (avec de temps terminographie, notre auteur invite ses lecteurs a mediter la a autre une petite pointe contre Ie fhngIais), de la syntaxe (Oll phrase suivante: (p. !84): "On ne devrait pas avoir des estmentionne Ie danger des phrases assez lourdes qui ne sont responsabilit6s dans ce secteur (c.a.d. la telminographie) pas obscures, mais syntaxiquement denses), entin de la sans avoir fait ses preuves en lexicographie et on ne peut semantique: Pierre Lerat souligne, sur les traces de Louis acceder a une competence professionelle de lexicographe Guilbert, l'opposition entre 1a terminologie tec1mique qui qu'apres de solides eludes de langue et de linguistique". doit rechercher Ia monosemie, et la polysemie generalisee Le dernier chap, est consacre aux "langues specialisees et

Knowl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 I t5 Book Reviews enseignement". L'auteur evite de fa ire de cc chap. line In the present work, it is the description oflexical semantics esquisse de didactique, i1 Ie presente plut6t commc une in a structuralist view which stands in the foreground. The conclusion orientee vcrs la fo rmation. Ccs pages Bont a lire aim is to develop new methods of cognitive analysis and et ,} relire par tous ceux qui s'occupent de Iinguistique, de representation using computers and the techniques of artifi­ lexicologie et de lexicographie, de tcrminologie et de cial intelligence. In three main chapters, 1. semantic and terminographie.Ellespourrontegalcmentevcillerlacuriosites linguistic system, 2. lexical semantics, and 3. cognitive d'etudiants litteraires, de fO l1nateurs et de fo rmateurs de representation and lexical semantics, the reader will find formateurs. (Oublions quelques imperfections dans la much more ground covered than the chapter headings would bibliographie). Ce qui augmente la valeur de cet ouvrage, lead one to believe. c'est l'infon�ation constante des opinions d'autres auteurs The presentation is compact but lucid, despite the panoply of itpropos des matieres discutees. Les grands noms que lePraf. diverse schools of thought and theories which the author Lerat mentionne souvent sont ceux d'Eugen WUster ("Ie carefully describes in the first chapter. Occasionally, when pere" d'Infoterm), Ferdinand de Saussure, dont Ie Coul's de needed, he supplies in parentheses German languageequiva­ Linguistique garde toujours la saveur d'un "premier grand lents for the oftenarbitrmy terminology used by the authors " C111 , et d'autres dont l'eloge ne doit plus Nre fa it tels Alain he is reporting. In doing so, however, he avoids passing Rey, Juan Sager, Louis Guilbert. judgment on the quality of such terminology, even when

Ce livre ne serait-il pas un manuel de COllIS ideal: il est behind the neologisms expressions of Aristotle and the extremement systematique et structure de fa yon exemplaire; Alexandrian grammaticians can be recognized despite their on y trouve a chaque instant Ie souci pedagogique de son formulation in a bastard Latin rather than the original auteur. Ce qui se remarque d' ailleurs dans Ie dernier chapitre. classical Greek. Au fait, cc1ui-ci resume la matiere, presente un ensemble de In Chapter2, Dietze takes up again his long tested stratificatory theses et donne en meme temps des conseils a propos des model of lanb'1Iagc levels, to explain the shucture of natural differents aspects des "Ia11gues specialisees" et de leur languages from the smallest elements to the most complex enseignement. Il ne scrait pas etOlmant, gu' en terminant la constructions. Here he evokes, even in the non-expert reader, lecture de l'ouvrage de Lerat, plus d'un pensera qu'it aurait a solid and comprehensive understanding of the roles of dfl com111encer par Ie demier chapitre. semantic functions, variations and limits, building-up from Henri Leclercq the most basic elements. Knowledge representation is the keynote of Chapter 3. For Prof. Dr. H. Leclercq, Katholieke Univcrsiteit, Leuvcn, Belgium those interested in the organization of knowledge and in international classification systems, this is the section of greatest interest. Here the practical relevance of the preced­ ing linguistic discussions comes to the fore, as the author describes various applications for modernmethods of scien­ DIETZE, Joachim: Texterschlieflung: lexikalische tific infOlmation processing. To anyone interested in obtain­ ing an overview ofthe present state ofthe art in this area, this Semantik nnd Wisseusreprasentation.(Text analysis. book is a must. Lexical scmantics and knowledge representation). Serious publications in new areas ofunderstanding not only Miinchen: Saur 1994, I 02p., ISBN 3-598-11179-7 K.G. answer questions; they also, ofnecessity, raise new questions This book should be viewed in the context ofDietze's ea1�lier and open up new problems. Thus from the point of view of study of informational linguistics published in 1989. Never­ this reviewer, three such questions come to mind: and theless, the new book sets new accents takes account of 1. Can " knowledge" be definedas depending upon the ability recent research in the field. The subject areas treated are: of human memory to "correctly" order its tmth-content? linguistics, information science, and libraty science, whereby 2. Is "artificial intelligence" restricted to processing data to the processing of data and the handling of cognition are kept identify facts about mIes, or has it not instead the task of in view. In all ofthese fields,thc author has done theoretical generating mles from information about data? and practical work and ha� brought fo rth new insights in 3. Why is it, that structllralistic linguistics, which arose important publications. roughly contemporaneously with computer linguistics, has The principal area in which the author sets new accents is by and large failed till now to provide useful algorithms for that of semantics from a linguistic point of view, �n aspect the processing of linguistic data by computers, which in which, as ,pointed out in .the fo reword to this book, is of key essence are shucture-processing systems? importance especially for computerized text-analysis. In The Saur publishing house has produced this book with its earlier publications (1983 and 1989) Dietze had concen­ customaty carefulness. Despite the oft highly complex text, trated 011 the stratificationof the various linguistic levels, an only one minor misprint on page 6 came to my attention. aspect well-suited to computerized analysis: morphology Erich Mater and syntax, unlike semantics, can well be analyzed op. the structural plane in view of procedural programing. Prof.Dr. E.Mater, Jacgcrstr. 63B, #401,D-10 117 Berlin

116 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Book Reviews K1nowleCige @rganization Lilliterature 23(� 996� Serial Nos, 0243-0524

Outline Please note, in this issue we begin with the continuation of the last issue 96-1 followed by the first groupings of this outline. o Form Divisions 123 01 Bibliographies 123 52 On Taxonomies in Area 2 02 Literature Reviews 53 On Taxonomies in Area 3 03 Dictionaries, Terminologies 54 On Taxonomies in Area 4 04 Classification Systems & Thesauri* 55 On Taxonomies in Area 5 05 Periodicals and Serials 56 On Taxonomies in Area 6 06 Conference Reports, Proceedings 123 57 On Taxonomies in Area 7 07 Textbooks (whole field)" 125 58 On Taxonomies in Area 8 08 Other monographs** 126 59 On Taxonomies in Area 9 09 Standards, guidelines 6 On Special Subjects CS & T* 118 1 Theoretical Foundations and General Problems 61 On CS & T in Area 1 (ICC) 11 Order and Knowledge Organization (KO) 62 On CS & T in Area 2 12 Conceptology in KO 63 On CS & T in Area 3 13 Mathematics in KO 64 On CS & T in Area 4 118 14 Systems Theory and KO 65 On CS & T in Area 5 118 15 Psychology and KO 66 On CS & T in Area 6 118 16 Science and Knowledge Organization 67 On CS & T in Area 7 17 Problems in KO 68 0nCS&Tin Area 8 118 18 Classification Research (CR) 69 0n CS &TinArea 9 118 19 History of KO 7 Knowledge Representation by Language and 2 Classification Systems and Thesauri (CS&T). Terminology 118 Structure and Construction 71 Gen. Problems of Natural Language in Relation to KO 118 21 General Questions of CS & T*** 72 Semantics 118 22 Structure and Elements of CS & T 73 Automatic Language Processing 119 23 Construction of CS & T 74 Grammar Problems 119 24 Relationships 75 Online Retrieval Systems and Technologies 119 25 Numerical Taxonomy 76 Lexicon/Dictionary problems 120 26 Notation. Codes 77 Problems of Terminology 120 27 Maintenance, Updating & Storage of CS & T 78 Subject-oriented Terminology Work (TW) 120 28 Compatibility & Concord, between Indexing Lang, 79 Problems of Multilingual Systems and Translation 121 29 Evaluation of CS & T 8 Applied ClassIng and Indexing (C & I)'" 121 3 Classing and Indexing (C & I) (Meth.) 81 General Problems, Catalogues, Guidelines 121 31 Theory' of Classing and Indexing 82 Data Classing and Indexing 32 Subject Analysis 83 Title Classing and Indexing 33 Classing and Indexing Techniques 84 Primary Literature C & I (except 85) 121 34 Automatic Classing and Indexing 85 Book Indexing 121 35 Manual and Automatic Ordering 86 Secondary Literature C & I 122 36 Coding 87 C & I of Non-book Materials 122 37 Reclassification 88 C & I in Subjects Fields (manual and computerized) 122 38 Index Generation and Programs 89 C & I in Certain Languages 39 Evaluation of Classing and Indexing

4 On Universal Classification Systems and Thesauri 9 Knowledge Organization Environment 122 41 On Universal Systems in General 91 Professional and Organizational Problems in 42 On the Universal Decimal Classification General and in Institutions 122 43 On the Dewey Decimal Classification 92 Persons and Institutions in KO 123 44 On the Library of Congress Classification 93 Organization of C & I on a National and Intern. level 123 45 On the Bliss Bibliographic Classification 94 free 46 On the Colon Classification 95 Education and Training in KO 123 47 On the Library Bibliographical Classification 96 Legal Questions 48 On Other Universal CS and T 97 Economic Aspects in KO 49 free 98 User Studies 123 99 Standardization in KO work 5 On Specfal Objects CS (Taxonomies), 51 On Taxonomies in Area 1 (ICC)

"SubdlvJslonsof04B-. 5,6. 78. 82. andaS accordingtothe lnformaUon Coding Classification (ICC)described and displayed in Int.Classlf.9(1982)No.2; p,87- 93 and in the International Classification and Indexing Bibliography, Vol.1, 1982.

A further division of the above scheme was published In Int.Classif. 12(1985)No.3, p.147-151, II has been amended In the meantime 8r:'d will be re·publi�hed soon,

." Monographs on special tapl,cs at special subdivisions.

0" CS & T stands for Classification Systems and Thesauri; C & I stands for Classing and Indexing

Know\. Drg. 23( I 996)No.2 Know\. Drg. Literature 23( 1996) 6 On Special Subjects CS & T. extant monitors and suggests others not found in the literature or in exisiting programming languages. The Semantics and performance of 64 On CS & T in the Bio Area 4. the various kinds of monitors suggested by the taxonomy are dis­ cussed as well as the programming techniques suitable to each.

0243 646 (Authors, abbr.) Edelblute, T.:A Pro-Cite authority file on a network. (Ori9. en). In: 0253 686 Techn.Serv.Quart. Vol.12 > No.3 1995, p.29-40, refs. Description of the creation of a subject authority file, using Pro-Cite Trebbe, D.: Entwicklung einer neuen Systematik fUr das bibliographic management software, for the US Department of Agri­ PresseausschniUsarchiv im ZDF-Landesstudio Hamburg. Zur culture Agricultural Research service and the agricultural Engineering Analyse und Optimierung eines mediendokumentarischen Faculty at the University of Missouri at Columbia. (Author, abbr.) Arbeitsinstruments. Development of a new classification system for the archive of press-cuttings in the Hamburg Office of the ZDF 65 On CS & T in the Human Area 5. (Second German Television Program). (Orig. de). Hamburg: FHS. FB Bibl.u.lnform. 1993, 71 +10p. Dipfomarbeit See also 0192.

0244 651/4 69 On CS & T in the Culture Area 9. Cimino, J.J.: Hripcsak, G., Johnson, S.B., Clayton, P.D.:Designing an introspective, multipurpose, controlled medical vocabulary. 0254 693 (Orig. en). ln: Proc.1 3th Ann.Symp. on Computer Applicat. in Medical Funtenberger, V .:Der Dino im Thesaurus. Book reviewofSchnei­ Care, Amer.Med.lnform.Assn., Washington, DC Washington, DC: der, K. (Ed.): Thesaurus Musikzur ErschlieBung von Musik nach IEEE Computer Soc. Press 1 9S9, p.513-51S, 41 refs. AnlaB, Zweck und Inhalt. 2. erw.u.Oberarb.Aufl. Berlin: Dt.Bibliotheksinstitut 1994. XIX, 160p .. Thesaurus for musicto subject 0245 651/4 index music according to event, purpose and contents. 2nd enlarged Li, Z.: Ogg, N., Sievert, M.E.:Onthe growth and trimming afthe L and revised ed.. (Orig. de). In: Buch u.BibliothekVol,47 , No.2 1995, Trees of MeSH. (Orig. en). ln: 17thAnn.Symp.on ComputerApplicat. p.197·198, 200 in Medical Care, Amer.Med. lnformatics Assn., Washington, DC 1993 New York: McGraw Hill 1994, p.S92, 5 refs. 0255 6944 Bovey, J.D.: Building a thesaurus for a collection of cartoon 0246 651/4,982 drawings. (Orig. en). ln: J.lnform.Sci. Vol.21 , No.2 1995, p.115�122, Payne, T.H.: Martin, D.R:How useful istheUMLSMetathesaurus 5 refs. in developing a controlled vocabularyforan automated problem Description of a thesaurus construction project based on 15,000 list? (Orig. en). In: Proc. 17th Ann.Symp. on Computer Applicat. in existing subject terms. A special-purpose graphical thesaurus editor Med. Care. AmeLMed. Informatics Assn., Washington, DC, 1993 was created to facilitate the elaboration. See also 0312 New York: McGraw-Hi!! 1994, p.705-709, 13 refs. 0256 6993 0247 65384, 758·5384 Passey, A.: Charity Commission Classification System. (Orig. Wilson, D. :Classification, assessment and treatment of pressure en). In: Assignation Vol.12 , No,4 1994, p.9-12 ulcers. (Orig. en). In: 17th Ann.Symp.on Computer Applicat. in A prototype of a new system was developed by the Aston Business Med.Care.Amer.Med. lnformaticsAssn., Washington, DC 1993. New School in 1 994 which differsfrom the currentone, developed over30 York: McGraw-Hili 1994, p.972 years ago which had grouped charities according to their stated objectives. The new system classifies according to 3 main classes: 0248 656 Beneficiaries, MethodofOperation, Field of Operation. Horn, K.-P.: Wigger, L.:Systematiken und Klassifikationen in den Erzieh ungswissenschaft. Classification schemes in the education 7 Knowledge Representation by sciences. (Orig. de). Weinheim: Dt.Studienverlag 1994, 394p.See also0234 Language andTerminology. 71 General Problems of Language in 66 On CS & T in the Socio Area 6. Relation to KO. 0249 6627 Chmielewska-Gorczyca, E.: The Thesaurus of International Or­ 257 713 ganizations. (Orig. pi). In: Zagadnienia Inform.Naukowej ,No.1-2 Arsky, YU.M.:The achievements of VINIT I in computational linguis­ 1994, p.39-46, refs. tics. (Orig. en). In: IntForum Inform. & Doc. Vo1.20 , No,4 1995, p.37-40 The scientists of the All-Russian Institute of Scientific and Technical

0250 6636 Information (VINITI) of the Russian Academy of Sciences have Matthews, G.: An investigation into improving access to the compiled a polythematicgrammatical machine dictionary of Russian Australian Securities Commission's library collection. (Orig. en). words of some 200,000 lexical units on the basis of a corpus of 80 In: Cataloguing Australia Vol.21 , No.1 1995, p.9-18, refs. million words. They compiled also a dictionary of keywords and word combinations on natural and engineering sciences, including more 68 On CS & T in the Science and that 200,000 terms in fifteen subject fields. The article reports on the procedural means to handle these words and terms and also on the Information area 8. principles which guided the development of thephraseological trans­ lation systems; According to these principles two systems of phraseo­ 0251 6821 logical machine translation of texts were constructed: RETRANS and Barlow, J.P.: A taxonomy of information. (Orig. en). In: ERTRANS. BuII.Amer.Soc.lnform.Sci. Vo1.20 , No.5 1994, p.13-17 The article is an excerpt from one which appeared in the Wired Magazine, March 1994. Information is looked at as an activity, a life 72 Semantics. form and a relationship. 0258 722,343 0252 6834 Rolland, M.Th.: Book review of Ruge, G.: Wortbedeutung und Buhr, P.A: Fortier, M., Coffin, M.H.: Monitor classification. (Orig. Termassoziation (Word meaning and term association). Methods en). In: ACM Computing Surveys Vol.27 , No.1 1995, p.6J..107, 35 refs. towards automatic semantic classification). Hildesheim, DE: Olms The paper presents a taxonomy of monitors that encompasses all the 1995, 244p.. (Orig. de). In: Knowl.Org. Vo1.22 , NO.3/4 1995, p.182·184

118 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Know!. Org. Literature 23(1996) 0259 723 Vo1.20 , No.4 1995, p.5-21, 20 refs. Dobbie, G.: Topor, R.:On the declarative and procedural seman­ As librarians increasingly try to use their online catalogs to do what tics of deductive object-oriented systems. (Orig. en). In: J.lntelligent used to be done with their card shelflists, they are realizing that some Inform.Syst. VolA , No.2 1995, p.193-219, 29 refs. catalog designers and vendors have not paid enough attention to online shelf-order classification access. This articlecompares the call 0260 724 numbersearching abilities of eight prominent, mature librarysystems: Nkwenti-Azeh, S.: The treatment of synonymy and cross-refer­ VTLS, Inlex, Innovative Interfaces, Inc., Data research associates ences in special-language dictionaries (SLOs). (Orig. en). In: (ORA), GeacAdvance, Dynix, SIRSI, and NOTIS. Using five criteria TerminologyVol.2 , No.2 1995, p.325-350,24 refs.ForSemanticNets that are important tocatalogers, the authors tested and rated each (725) see 0240 system for its suitability as an online shelflist.

73 Automatic Language Processing. 0269 756 Lambert, N.:Ofthesaurj and computers: reflections on the need 0261 733 forthesauri. (Orig. en). In: Searcher Vol.3 , No.8 1995, p.18-22 Salton, G.: Allan, J., Singhal, A:Automatictext decomposition and Indexed databases now include their thesauri andlor coding in their structuring. (Orig. en). In: Inform.Process, & Management Vo1.32 , bibliographic files, searchable atthe databases' online connect rates. No.2 1996, p.127-138, 12 refs. The paper assesses the searchability of these on the different hosts. Sophisticated text similarity measurements are used to determine Also, thesauri and classifications are beingoffered as diskette or CD­ relationships between natural-language texts and text excerpts. The ROM products. A number of these are described. re sulting linked hypertext maps can be decomposed into text seg­ ments and text themes, and these decompositions are usable to 0270 756 identify different text types and textstructures, leading to improved text Weidemuller, H.U.:Schlagwortketten im OPAC. Chains of subject access and utilization. Examples of text decomposition are given for headings in the OPAC. (Orig. de). In: Dialog mit Bibliotheken Vol.8 , expository and non-expository texts. (Authors) No.1 1996, p. 28-38, 2 refs. The authors explains the different forms of subject head ing chains and 74 Grammar Problems. shows that they may be usefully applied in the OPAC.

0262 741 0271 756.179 Losee, R.M.: Learning syntactic rules and tags with genetic Milstead, J.l.: Invisible thesauri. The year 2000. (Orig. en). In: algorithms for information retrieval and filtering: An empirical Online & CD-ROM Review Vol. 19 , No.2 1995, p.93-94 basis for grammatical rules. (Orig. en). In: Inform. Process. & The author predicts that thesauri will still be in use in the year2000 and Management Vol. 32 , No.2 1996, p.185-197, 31 refs. electronic versions will be quite common, however, rather in an invisible way forthe user. 75 Online Retrieval Systems and 0272 757 Technologies. Gill, T.G.: Early expert systems: where are they now? (Orig. en). See also0003, 0247, 0299, 0324. In: Management lnforrn.Syst.Quart.Vol. 19 , No.1 1995, p.51-81 ,47 refs. The investigation into the development and use of expert systems � �n�� seems to show that the short-lived nature of many systems was not Lutes, B.: Using online databases for terminology searching. attributable to failure to meet technical performance or economic (Orig. en). In: TerminologyVol.2 , No2 1995, p.187-217, 16 refs. objectives, rather it was the lack of system acceptance by users.

0263 753 0273 757 Curl, M.W.:Enhancing subject and keyword access to periodical Pietzka, L. :Techniken und Methoden wissensbasierterSysteme: abstracts and indexes: Possibilities and problems. (Orig. en). In: Expertensysteme in Bibliothek, Information und Dokumentation. Cat. & Classif.Quart. Vol.20 , No.4 1995, pA5-55, 18 refs. Techniques and methods of knowledge-based systems: Expertsys­ tems in the library, in information and documentation. (Orig. de). In: 0265 753,758-51/4 Bibliothek. Forsch.u.Praxis Vol. 1 9, No.3 1995, p.371-385, 38 refs. Peng, P.: Aguirre, A., Johnson, S.B., Cimino, J.J.: Generating MEDLINE search strategies using a librarian knowledge-based 0274 757 system. (Orig. en). In: 17th Ann.Symp. on Computer Applicat. in Raggad, B.G.: Expert system quality control. (Orig. en). In: Med.Care. Amer.Medical lnformaticsAssn., Washington, DC, 1993. Inform.Process.& Management Vol.32 , No.2 1 996, p.171-183, 22 refs. New York: McGraw-Hili 1994, p.596-600 A consultation quality control model (CQCM) has been developed for an environmentofan expert system (ES), integrating both ES perform­ 0266 753 ance measures and end-user judgment values. The CaCM will Pirkola, A.: Jarvelin, K.:The effect of anaphor and ellipsis resolu­ continuously provide an assessment of ES resources. Unfavorable tion on proximity searching in a text database. (Olig. en). In: assessment information wi II trigger immediate correction of suspected Inform. Process. & ManagementVol.32 , No.2 1966, p.199-216, 32 refs. ES deficiencies. Simple decision theory concepts were employed to design the CQCM. (Author, abbr.) 0267 754,758-51/4 Harbourt,A.M.: Syed, E.J., Hole, W.T.:Therankingalgorithm of the 0275 757 Coach Browser for the UMLS Metathesaurus. (Orig. en). In: 17th Siemer, J.: Konzeption eines Expertensystems zur Unterstutzung Ann.Symp. on computer Applicat. in Med.Care. Amer.Med.lnformatics von Endnutzern bei derVorbereitungvon Recherchen. Conception Assn. Washington, DC 1993. New York: McGraw-Hili 1994, p.720- of an expertsystem to support end users in preparing a search in an online 724, 11 refs. database. (Olig. de). In: NachrDok. Vol.47 , No.1 1996, p.3-14, 40 refs. The paper presents the novel ranking algorithm of the Coach The optimal search preparation was analyzed by an empirical in­ Metathesaurus browser, which is a major module of the Coach expert vestigation into the interaction betwe�n professional database search­ search refinement program. An example shows how the ranking ers and theirclients with knowledge acquisition methods. Theconcep­ algorithm can assist in creating a list of candidate terms useful in tionwas implemented into the prototype of an expert system and subse­ augmenting a suboptimal Grateful Med search of MEDLINE. quentlyevaluated using software-ergonomic criteria. (Author, abbr.)

0268 756 0276 757.42 Kniesner, D.L.: Willman, C.:Butis it an onlineshelflist? Classifica­ Gowtham, M.S.: Kamat, S.K: An expert system as a tool to tion access in eight OPACs. (Orig. en). In: Cat.& Classif. Quart.

K110Wl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 119 Know!. Org. Literature 23(1996) classification. (Orig. en). ln: Libr.ScLSlant Doc.& !nf.Stud. Vol.199, programmes todevelop a terminology standard. A prototype system, NO.5 32: 2,p.57-63, refs. TS, was developed on a PC, running under Windows 3.1 using the Description of the development by the Defence Metallurgical Re­ bundled programme Microsoft Office Professional version 4.3. The search Laboratory, Hyderabad, India, of an expert system forclassi­ article summarizes the demonstration presented to TC 37 participants fication oftechnical documents using the UDC schedule for metallurgy at the Philadelpha general meeting in August 1995. as knowledge base and the UDC classification rules as rules base. Report on experiences made. For Expert Systems (757) see also 0 1 90 0285 771 Condamines, A.: Terminology: New needs, new perspectives. 0277 759 (Orig. en). In: Terminology Vol.2 , No.2 1995, p.21 9�238, 27 refs. Wilkes, A: Nelson, A.: Subjectsearching in two online catalogs: Authority control vs. non-authority control. (Orig. en). ln: Cat. & 0286 772 Classif.Quart. Vol.20 , No.4 1995, p.57 -79,41 refs. Kageura, K.:Toward the theoretical study of terms -A sketch from The study suggests that it would be very useful in the future, if links the linguistic viewpoint. (Orig. en). In: Terminology Vol.2 , No.2 could be provided between the terms chosen by users and the terms 1995, p.239-257, 41 refs. used by the system. As a preliminary to the theoretical study of terms, the treatment of terms is contrasted with the linguistic study of words.See also 0155 76 Lexicon. Dictionary Problems. See also 0016, 0260. 776 Terminological Databanks. See0264. 0278 761 Zobel, J.: Dart, P .:Finding approximate matches in large lexicons. 0287 776 (Orig. en). In: Software: Pract.& Experience Vo!.25, No.31995, p.331- Babik, W.:Modelfilesandterminological databanks. (Orig. pl). ln: 345, 22 refs. Zagadnienia Inform.Naukowej , No.1-2 1994, p.81 �85, refs. It is shown how to use string matching techniques in conjunction with lexicon indexes to find approximate matches in a large lexicon. 0288 776 (Authors, abbr.) Galinski, Ch. :Terminology: Databases for standardized terminol� ogy. (Orig. en). In: ISO Bull. Vol.27 , No.1 1996, p.3 0279 762 A terminology database refers to a terminology management system Abramson, H.:What is a hyperdictionary? (Orig. en). ln: TermNet and terminological data, while a terminology data bank, refers to the News , No.49 1995, p.7-13, 4 refs. same but includes an organization structure as well. This briefing demonstrates the advantages of a proper applicationof terminology 0280 762 and terminological data. Emorine, M.: Lexique controlE�. Modelisation et implementation. Controlled lexemes. Modeling and implementation. (Orig. fr). In: 0289 776 Terminology Vo1.2 , No.2 1995, p.293�323, 11 refs. G6pferich, S.: Von der Terminographie zur Textographie: ComputergfestUtzte Verwaltung textsortenspezifischer

0281 765 Textversatzstiicke. From Terminography to textography: Compu­ Ando,A: Ito, M., Kanno, Y., Kurachi,K., Tamura, N. etal.:Electronic ter-supported administration oftext�type-specific information. (Orig. dictionary system. (Orig. en). 1995 US Patent No. 5404299 de). In: Fachsprache Vol.17 , No.1�2 1995, p.17�32, 30 refs. The paper presents two different types of computer-based retrieval 77 General Problems of Terminology. systems for text-type specific information ranging from phrases to whole standardized passages. The first part describes the structure of See atso 0051 , 0104-01 25, 0161 , 0264. a full-textdatabaseforiext prototypes, the second part,ways of storing text�type specific phrases and passages in a combined terminological 0282 77.08 and textographicdatabase. The program used to illustrate this second Kocourek, R.: Book review of Gouadec,D.: Donnees & informa� kind of retrieval system is the terminology system CATS, which the tions terminologiques & terminographiques.(Data, terminologi� TerminologyCentre atthe Facultyof Applied Linguistics and Cultural cal information &terminography). Paris: La Maisondu Dictionnarie Studies of the University of Mainz in Germersheim uses for its 1994. 111+151 p .. (Orig. Ir). ln: TerminologyVol.2 , No.2 1 995, p.365-388 FASTERMdatabase.

0283 77.924 0290 777 International Who's Who in Translation and Terminology. Tra­ Antia, B. E.:A general survey of institutional terminology work in duction etTerminologie. Repertoirebiographique international. Nigeria. (Orig. en). In: TermNet News , No.49 1995, p.1�7, 24 refs. (Orig. fr,en,es,d). Paris etc.: Union Latine 1995, XXXVIII,427p. ISBN: 0-9516572-5-9 This book is being published byfourpublishers, in addition tothe one 78 Subject-Oriented Terminology Work. named it is in England: Praetorius Ltd. at Nottingham, in Germany: See also 0151, 01 52, 01 56. International Where + How in Bonn, and in Vienna, AUstria it is Infoterm. The Who's Who has prefaces in English, French, Spanish 0291 78-284 and German as well as an introdUction in these languages and Launer, M.K:Asemanticanalysis of Russian terms and descriptors 'profiles' by the four publishers. Some 1500 translators and for civilian nuclear power plant fluid system valves. (Orig . en).ln: terminologists in alphabetical order of their last names are listed with Standardizing and Harmonizing Terminology: Theory and Practice. their following data: Name and title, Nationality, Birthday, Professional Philadelphia, PA: Amer.Soc.Testing Materials 1995, p.126�138,4 refs. Address, Business Telephone & Fax, Qualifications, Fields and Subject ofSpecialization, Current POSition, Other Positions, Publica­ 0292 78-382 tions. The entries are mostty in the languages of the persons. Diskette Strehlow, R.A.:NinetyyearsofterminologymanagementinASTM. added instead of index (Orig. en). In: TerminologyVol.2 , No.2 1995, p.259-272, 23 refs. The American Society forT esting and Materials has been engaged in 0284 77.99 management ofterminologyformore than nine decades across many Chan, N.: Terminology: The TS System � Bundled application subject disciplines. The methods developed and applied throughout programmes to produce a terminology standard. (Orig. en). In: this period forthe management of terminology are described in their ISO Bull. Vol.27 , No.2 1996, p.3-6 historical context. Problems of a mu!tidisciplinary set of independent Illustration ofthe benefits of using a relational database management standards-writing committees are also discussed with proposed system in conjunction with graphics and word processing application solutions. (Author, abbr.) t20 Know!. Org. 23( J996)No.2 Know!. Org. Literature 23(1996) 0293 78-495 adequately answered. However, in the interveningdecade there has Chapman, C.B.:Ecoepidemiology: Etymons, definitions,and usage. been some real progress towards a satisfactory resolution of the (Orig. en). In: TerminologyVol.2 , No.2 1995, p.273-291 , 38 refs. issue. (Author)

79 Problems of Multilingual Systems, 0302 818 Wysmulek, M.: The media flIe ofthe Polish Parliament Library. 0294 791 (Orlg. pl). ln:Zagadnienia Inform.Naukowej , No.1-2 1994, p.47-57 Ananiadou, S.: McNaught, J.:Terms are notalone: Term choice and choice ofterms. (Orig. en). In: Aslib Proc. VolA? , No.2 1995, pA7-60 0303 818,934 The effects of term variation, collocation and sublanguage phraseol­ Kotalska, B.:Subject classification in the Paris National Library. ogy present problems of term choice to the translator. Current term (Orig. pi). In: Przeglad BibliotecznyVol.62 , No.3/4 1994, p.237-245, refs. resources cannot help much with these problems, however, tools and Description of the BN OPALE online database at the Bibliotheque techniques are discussed which, in the nearfuture,will offertranslalors Nationale in Paris which contains files of authority headings, biblio­ the means to make appropriate choices of terminology. (Authors, graphic descriptions of monographs and serials, and locations of abbr.) physical documents. Outlines the development of the RAMEAU subject headings authority file based on the AMA (fichier d'Autorite 8 Applied Classing and Indexing, Mati8re) vocabulary. Subject headings are assigned to each newly acquired document in the last phase of the cataloguing process. Other French libraries also participate in updating RAMEAU. Subject head­ 81 General Problems, Catalogues, ing creation rules are collected in the Guide d'lndexation RAMEAU, Guidelines, published annually. RAMEAU is accessible through the SUNIST See a1500185, 0236, 0307. system and is used by many French libraries. (Author, abbr)

0295 811 84 Primary Literature C & I. Sukiasyan, E.R.: Systems analysis of quality management of information retrieval systems. (Orig. ru). ln: Nachn.-tekhn.biblioteki , 0304 846 No.3 1995, p.6-15 Lee-Smeltzer, J.: Hackleman, D.: Access to OSU theses and The quality of an information retrieval system is closely linked to the dissertations in Kerr Library: how they are used ... or are they? quality ofits indexing procedures. The necessary skills of indexers are (Orig. en). In: Techn.Serv. Quart. Vol.12 , No.4 1995, p.25-43, refs. described. Information systems will function well if their managers Report on the result of two surveys conducted at the Oregon State take care to eliminate those factors which have a negative influence University (OSU) Library to assess usage of OSU theses and on the work of indexers. dissertations and how they are accessed and to determine whether other methods of providing subject access would be advisable. The 0296 811.912 study concluded with stating that for an effective retrieval full subject Cohen, B.E.: Nickerson, A.: An offi ce outofthe house. (Orig. en). analysis would be a necessity. In: Key WordsVol.3 , No.1 1995, p.11-15

0305 847 0297 812,193 Dale, T.: Selecting an indexing scheme. (Orig. en). In: Records Zmigrodki, Z.:Der Schlagwortkatalog in Polen: Neue vorschlage. Management Bull. , No.69 1995, p.3-5 The subject catalogue in Poland. New proposals. (Orig. de). In: 22. Discussion of problems concerning the indexing for records manage­ ABDOS Tagung, Den Haag, 7.-10. Juni 1993. Berlin, DE: ment. Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin 1994, p.22-24, 14 refs. Survey on practice and theory ofcataloguing in Poland since the 1 9th 0306 847,198-62163 century. The most important research work is reported, which has Dwyer, C.M.: Newkirk, J.G.: Trapped in time: changing percep­ been accomplished systematically at the National Library in Warsaw tions as reflected in the subject indexing ofpre-1960 US Federal but also at other libraries and Universities. Government publications related to homelessness. (Orig. en). In: Government Inform. Vol.22 , No.2 1995, p.131-141, refs. 0298 814.09 J. Report on a project on 'Homelessness' conducted at the university RSWKwMitteilung No.9 - Entwurf. RSWK Information NO.9 - Draft libraries of the State University of New York atAlbany. EXamination of (Rules for the Subject Catalogue). (Orig. de). In: Bibliotheksdienst the difficulties encountered and the possible solution of searching the Vol.29 , No.1 0 1995, p.1645-1647 Public Affairs Information Service. Proposalforthetreatmentof'Russia' in the rules, aswell as fortheway some military concepts are to be handled. 0307 848-63, 814 Harnier, H.v.: RSWK� und SWD-Anwendung in Pari aments- und 0299 814,752.06 Behordenbibliotheken. Application of RSWK and SWD in parlia­ Gei�elmann, F.: RSWK fUr den Online-Katalog, Kooloquium der mentand officelibraries. (Orig. de). In: Mitt.AG Parlaments-u.Beh6rdbib , Expertengruppe RSWK in Weimer. RSWK forthe online catalogue. No.78 1995, p.3-7 Colloquyofthe expertgroup in Weimar. (Orig. de).ln: Bibliotheksdienst Vol.29 , No.6 1995, p.917-925, 7 refs. 0308 848-63,06 Harnier, H.v.: Fortbildung: SacherschlieBung/RSWK in 0300 814.752 Behordenbibliotheken. Further education: Subject cataloguingl Stumpf, G.: RSWK: wirklich ein Relikt? Zum Thema RSWK in Office Libraries. (Orig. de). In: Bibliotheksdienst Vol.29 , 'SacherschlieBung in Online-Katalogen' undzurStellungnahme No.2 1995, p.350-352 von Klaus Lepsky. RSWK really a relic? On the topic 'Subject Report on a seminar held by Dr.B. Lorenz, University Library of cataloguing in online catalogues' and the comments of Klaus Lepsky. Regensburg for office librarians from municipal libraries and the like in (Ong. de).ln: BibiiotheksdienstVol.29 , No.4/5 1995, p.670-682, 22 notes the application of the Rules for Subject Cataloguing RSWK.

0301 814 Studwell, W.E.: Ten years after the question: Has there been an 85 Book Indexing, answer? (Orig. en). ln: Cat.&Classif.Quart.Vo1.20 , No.3 1 995, p.95- 0309 98, 16 refs. 857 In an 1985 article the question was asked 'Why not an AACR for Lathrop, L.:lndexingwith Doc-To-Help. An overview. (Orig. en). In: KeyWords Vo1.3 , No.1 1995, p.1, 27, 30 Subject Headings?' Overthe following decade there were a number of direct and indirect responses, yet the question really has not been Review of a Word for Windows utility that converts index entries and

Knowl. Org. 23(1996)No.2 121 Know!. Org. Literature 23( 1996) table-of-contents entries in printed documents to hypertext links in 88-6 C & I in the Socio Area 6, online help files. It is a product by WexTechSystems, an add-on See also 0306, 0316. product for Microsoft Word. 0318 88·66 86 Secondary Literature C & I. Wirth, L.:Cataloging in the law firm. (Orig. en). ln: In: Kehoe,P.E. et al Law Librarianship. Ahandbookforthe electronic age Littleton, CO: 861 0310 Amer.Assoc.ofLaw Libraries 1995, p.396-411 Huser, C.: Reichenberger, K., Rostek, L., Streitz, N.: Knowledge­ based editing and visualization for hypermedia encyclopedias. 88-9 C & I in the Culture Area 9, (Orig. en). In: Comm.ACM Vol.38 , No.4 1995, p.49-51, 3 refs. Seealso0193.

0311 864 0319 88-92 Snyder, H.: Cronin, B., Davenport, E.: What's the use of citation? Copeland, J.H.: Accessing French fiction in academe: a case (Orig. en). In: J. lnform.Sci. Vol.21 , No.2 1995, p.75-85, 20 refs. study in 'bibliocide'. (Orig. en). In: Current Studies in Librnship Analysis of data from a ten-year sample of transdisciplinary social Vo1.19 1/2: 1995, p.24-9, refs. sciences literature suggests thattwo application areas predominate: the validity ofcitation as an evaluation tool, and impact or performance 0320 88-92 studies of authors, journals and institutions. (Author, abbr.) Roth, Ch.: Konzepte zur InhaltserschlieBung Schoner Literatur 87 C & I of Non-Book Materials. und ihre Benutzerbilder. Concepts for contents analysis of Belles Lettres and its users. (Orig. de). Hamburg, DE: FHS, FB Bibliothek u.lnformation 1994, 92p. DiplomarbeitfThesis 0312 871 Lohse, G.I.: Biolsi, K., Walker, N., Rueter, H.H.: A classification of 0321 88-93,398-93 visual representations. (Orig. en). In: Comm. ACM Vo!.37 , No.12 Downie, J.S.:The MusiFind Music Information Retrieval Project, 1994, p.36-49, 24 refs. Phase III: Evaluation of indexing options. (Orig. en). In: In: Olson, Ward, D.B. Connectedness; Information, Systems, People, 0313 872,874 HA Organizations. Proc. CAIS/ACSI'95. Proc.23rd Ann.Conf.Canadian Torre, D.S.: KSR: Keywording for subject retrieval. (Orig. en). ln: Assoc.lnform.Sci. University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta: School of Art Documentation Vo!.14 , No.2 1995, p.29-35, refs. Libr.& Inform.Stud.,University 1995, p.135-146, refs. Description of a projectdealing with the problem of subject retrieval in visual resources collections. Applicable components of available 0322 88-936,88·963 systems were adapted and combined with other needed elements in Ginouves, V.:L'indexation duson inedit, oucommentconstituerune orderto establish an efficient system. The devolopment of the system baseethnographique. (Orig. fr). ln: Archimag , No.851995, p.57-59 has been based on cataloguing procedures at Yale's slide and photograph collections. 0323 88-99 88 Classing and Indexing in Subject Weisweiler, H.: ZeitschriftenerschlieBung: Der Tilbinger 'Zeitschrifteninhaltsdienst Theologie' in neuer Form. Journal Fields. Cataloguing. The Tubingen Documentation Service Theology in a new form. (Orig. de). In: Bibliotheksdienst Vol.29 , No.2 1995, p.353- 88-2 C & I in Matter and Energy Area 2. 354 Reports on the Current-Contents-Service of the University Library in 0314 88·265 Tubingen devoted toTheologywhich has changed its look since 1 995

Hendrickson, J.B.: Sander, T.:COGNOS: A Beilstein-type system and its substance including also its indexes. It has also grown in size, for organizing organic reactions. (Orig. en). In: J.Chem.lnform.& including also retrospective data. Thedatabase will be available soon Comupt.Sci. Vol.35 , No.2 1995, p.251-260, 11 refs. in electronicform. Collaboration exists with the American Theological Description of a logical system to organize and index organic reac­ Library Association. tions, implemented in the COGNOS program to search reaction databases for literature precedents. (Author, abbr.) 9 Knowledge Organization

88-3 C & I in the Cosmos and Geo Area 3. Environment.

0315 88·327, 147 91 Professional and Organizational Miller, D.M : Kaminsky, E.J., Rana, S.: Neural network classifica­ Problems in General and in tion of remote-sensing data. (Orig. en). In: Computers and Institutions. Geosciences , p.377-386, 18 refs. See also 0200, 0201 , 0296. N eu ra! nets offerthe potentia I to classify databases upon a rapid match to overall patterns using previously calculated weighting factors, rather than point-by-point comparisons involving algorithmic logic 917 Internet. applied to individual data values. The paperdescribes an example of Seea[so0015. the use of artificial neural networks to classify remotely sensed data, determining that the networks can provide a useful leve! of categori­ 0324 917,753 zation. (Authors, abbr.) Potter, L.A.:A systematic approach to finding answers over the Internet. (Orig. en). In: BuII.Med.Libr.Assoc. Vol.83 , NO.3 1995, 0316 88-39, 88·69 p.280-285, 8 refs. Salzberg, B.:On indexing spatial and temporal data. (Orig. en). ln: New users often are surprised at how chaotic the Internet appears. Inform.Systems VoJ.19 , No.6 1994, p. 447-465 2, 2 refs. They have heard so much about it and then find that it is a jumble of menus and resources. Even so, it is possible to find answers to 88-5 C & I in the Humano Area 5. reference questions on the Internet. This paper outlines a method for doing so. The method involvesfive steps: gather information and tools, 0317 88-51/4 learn the terminology, assemble a manual, write a strategy, and make Neuvonen, U.:Supportingtop research or a national health bee: bookmarks. The paper offers medical reference scenarios that illus­ contents description in medicine for different target groups. trate howto search a database, find a program, find a document, and (Orig. fi). ln: Signum Vol.28 , No.6 1995, p.137-138 telnet to another site on the Internet.

122 Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 Know!. Org, Literature 23(1996) 92 Persons and Institutions in KO. o Form Divisions. See also 0283. 06 Conference Reports, Proceedings. 0325 926, 06.95-08 Williamson, N.: IFLA Section on Classification and Indexing in 0331 06.92·05·23 Istanbul. (Orig. en). In: Knowl.Org. VoJ.22 , No.3/4 199S, p.176-177 Atkin, S.: Book review of Managing large indexing projects: Report on the activities ofthe Group and on the papers presented at Papers from the 24th Annual Meeting of the American Society the Section Meetings during the IFLA Conference at Istanbul, end of of Indexers, San Antonio, TX, May 23,1992. (Ori9. en). In: Indexer August 1 995. Vol..19 , No.4 1995, p.3-4

0326 926/7,933 0332 06_92·08-17/19 Dahlberg, 1.:Book review of Union of International Associations: Draskau, J.K.: Picht, H. (Eds.): International Conference on Actions, Strategies, Solutions. Vol.3 of the Encyclopedia of Terminology Science and Terminology Planning.. In Com­ World Problems and Human Potential. MOnchen, etc.: K.G.Saur memoration of E. Drezen (1892-1 992), Riga, 17-19 Aug.1 992. Verlag 1995. 974p.. (Orig. en). In: Knowl.Org. Vo1.22 . No.3/4 1995, (Orig. en). Wien: TermNet 1994, I.V,282p. I.I.TF Series 4 I.SBN: 3- p.184-185 901010-09-2 The volume contains also the papers of the IITF Workshop: 0327 927 Theoreticallssu6S of Terminology Science, Riga, 19-21 Aug.1992. Infoterm in Danger. (Orig. en).ln: KnowJ.Org. Vol.22 ,No.3/4 1995, It is arranged in 6 chapters as follows: 1. Terminology and Philoso­ p.168-170 phy of Science. Terminological Theories and their development. 3. The International Information Centre for Terminology, for some 25 Terminology Planning and Internationalization of terminology. 4. years having had the support of the Austrian Government, has now Comparative Studies in Terminology. 5. Terminography. 6. Thea­ lost this and its further work is endangered. The communication cites retical lssues of Terminology Science. Together with the 6 papers the UNESCO Resolutions acknowledging the necessity ofthis Cen� of the IITF Workshop here follow the 31 papers: Ire. Twofurthercommunications (p.168� 170) inform on ils significance 0333 Beaugrande, R. de: International Terminology: Prospects and tasks, the history, the results, the planning and thenewchal1enges for a new agenda. - 0334 Oeser, E.: Terminology and philoso­

and cooperating centres on the international level. phy of science. - 0335 Slodzian, M.: Terminology theory and

philosophy of science. - 0336 Felber, H.: East-West coopera­ 93 Organization of C & I on a National tion in the International terminology work in the 1930s: and International Level. Orezen and Wilster. - 0337 Auksoriuts, A: Medisauskiens, R., Gaivenis, K., Keinys, S.: The terminology work of S. Salkauskls. See also 0303, 0326. - 0338 Skujina, V.: The foundation of Latvian terminology. - 0339 Grinev, S.V.: Terminological research in the former USSR. 95 Education and Training in - 0340 Wright, S.E.: The impact of neuro·psychological re­

Knowledge Organization. search in the translator's view of concept theory. - 0341 Budin, G.: Language planning and terminology planning - theories

0328 955, 333,88-46 and practical strategies. - 0342 Dzhincharadze, AK.: Problems

Irving, H.: cait: Computer-assisted indexing tutor, implemented of scientific and technical terminology harmonization. - 0343 for training at NAL. (Orig. en). In: Agric.Libr.& Inform Noles Vol .21 , Lejchik, V.M.: Modern trends in the Internationalization of

NoA-6 1995, p.1-5 terms. - 0344 Linina, S.: The terminology of library science:

A computer assisted training programme in subject indexing was Facotrs influencing it and proplems. - 0345 Pommers, J.: How

developed by the Indexing Branch of the US National Agricultural to achieve a permanent technological Latvian terminology. - Library(NAL) forthe AGRICOLA bibliographic database. The contri* 0346 Prokhorov, V.N.: Improvement of methodical and infor­ bution describes its possibilities for a high quality training and use of mation support In the field of scientific and technical Infor­

the system to reduce the time needed for experienced indexers to train mation. - 0347 Rytsar, B.E.: The history and prospects of

novices. Novice indexers are guided to existing information sources Ukrainian terminology. - 0348 Kocourek, R.: Terminological

and the selection and application of the CAB Thesaurus terms, comparisons: Assessing synonymic groups. - 0349 Anjushkin, AGRICOLA subject CategoryCodes, etc. J.: The system of unified terms and notions in the status of the standards of national terms. - 0350 Blinkena, A: The 98 User Studies. terml.nology and phraseology of heraldry. - 0351 Bushs, M.: Forestry terminology in Latvian. - 0352 Ikere, Z.: Polysemy

0329 986 within philosophical terminology, from the point of view of translation. - 0353 Kalme, V.: International words In gymnas­ Borgman, C.L.: Children's searching behavior on browsing and keyword online catalogs: the Science Library catalog Project. tics terminology. - 0354 Kaulakiens, A: The relationship (Orig. en). ln: J.Amer.Soc.lnform.Sci. Vol.46 , No.9 1995, p.663-684, between native and international terms In the Lithuanian refs. terminology of physics. - 0355 Novodranova, V.F.: The system Presented are results of 4 experiments conducted on 4 versions of the of nominal word-building in Latin as compared with the - 0356 Science LibraryCatalog (SLC), a Dewey Decimal based hierarch '!cal system of word·buildlng In medical. termInology_ browsing system implemented in Hypercardwithouta keyboard. The Cevere, R.: Greltane, I., Spektors, A: The problems of word experiments were conducted over a 3 year period at 3sites, with 4 classification in the formation of thematic word stock In databases, and with comparisons to 2 different keyword online automated terminological dictionaries. - 0357 Marchuk, YU.N.: catalogues. Subjects were ethnically and culturally diverse children Polyllngual termlnography I.n a developing country. - 0358 aged 9-12, with 32-34 children participatring in each experiment. Budl.n, G.: Do we need an object theory? - 0359 FeLber, H.: A Reports and the methodology and the results. relational model: Objects, concepts�terms. - 0360 Nuopponen, A.: On causallty and concept rel.ationshl.ps. - 0361 Picht, H.: 0330 984.43 On object and concept representation with focus on non­ Sweeney, R.:The International use of the Oewey Oecimal Classi­ verbal forms of representation. - 0362 Skujina, V.: On national fication. (Orig. en). In: Int.Ca\.& Bibliogr. Control Vol.24 , No.4 1995, and International terminology in a national language. - 0363 p.61-64. 30 refs. Toft, S.: Conceptual relations in terminology and knowledge Summarizes the use of the DOC throughout the world, the translations engineering. available, the responses of those responsible for the maintenance of the Classification to the need to internationalize the English-language 0364 06.93·10-27/29 Pitto, D.: Book review of Meder N., Jaenecke, P., Schmitz- editions and further activities and relations. ,

Know!. Org. 23(1996)No.2 123 Know!. Org. Literature 23( 1996) Esser, W. (Eds.): Konstruktion und Retrieval von Wlssen. 3. 0390 06.95·06·21 Tagung d. Deutschen ISKO Sektlon. einschl.d. Vortrage des ZukunH der SacherschlleBung 1m OPAC. 2. DOsseldorfer Workshops ''Thesauri als terminologische Lexika". Weilburg, 27-29 OPAC·Kolloquium. (The future of subject analysis in the OPAC. 2nd Oct. 1993. (Construction and Retrieval of Knowledge. 3rd Conference DOsseldortOPAC Colloquy. Program)(Orig. de). ln: Bibliotheksdienst of German ISKO Chapter.) Frankfurt: INDEKS Veriag 1995. 269p .. Vol.29 , No.4/5 1995, p.781 (Orig. it). In: Boll. AlB Vol.35 , No.4 1995, p. 516·518 Lists the papers given in German: Lepsky, K.: Results of the DFG­ Project MILOS. - Niggemann, E.: Chances for MILOS in .libraries. 0365 06.93·1 I ·4/5 - Zimmermann, H.H.: Automatic indexing and electronic thesauri. Lopez-Huertas, M.J.: Book review of Garcia Marco, J.: - Schulz, U.: Subject analysis and user guidance in the OPAC. - Organlzaci6n del Conoclmiento en Sistemas de Informacl6n WeidemOller, H.U.: Sense and nonsense of chains in the OPAC .. y Documentacl6n. Proc. 1 st ISKO-Espagna Meeting, Madrid,. G6dert, W.: From the card catalogue to hypertext. - Koopman, R.: 4-5 Nov.1993. Zaragoza: Min de Educacion y Ciencia. Universidad An OPAC prototype with weighting algorithms. de Zaragoza, Cap. Esp. de ISKO 1995. (Orig. es). In: Knowl.Org. Vol.22 ,No.1 1996, p.47·48 0391 06.95·1 0·08 Schwartz, R.P.: Beghtol,C., Jacob,E., Kwasnik,B.H., Smith.Ph.J.: 0366 06.94·06·20/24 Proceedings of the 6th ASIS Classification Research Work­ Aitchison, J.: Book review of Albrechtsen, H., Oernager, S. shop, Oct.S, 1995, Chicago, IL. (Or1g. en). Silver Spring, MD: (Eds.): Knowledge organization and quality managment. Amer.Soc.lnform.Sci. 1995, p.VI,243p. Proc. 3rd tnl. ISKO ConI., Copenhagen, 20-4 June 94. Frank· The proceedings contain the following 15 papers as well as personal furt: INDEKS Verlag 1994. 457p. (Adv.in Knowl.Org. Vol.4). (Orig. statements by C. Beghtol, L.S. Connaway, K. Mahesh, S. Nirenburg en). In: J.Doc. Vol.52 , No.2 1996, p. 206·208 and D. Tudhope. The papers are arranged in alphabetical se­ quence, as follows: 0367 06.94·09·14/16 0392 Beghtol, C.: Mapping sentences and classification sched­ Aitchison, J.: Book review of Stancikova, P., Dahlberg, 1.(Eds.): ules as melhods 01 displaying lacels. - 0393 Dubin, D.: The Environmental Knowledge Organization and Information search for structure and the search for meaning. - 0394 Management. Proc. 1 st European ISKO Conf.. 14·16 sept.1994. Faucher, C.: Gonzalez-Gomez, M., Chouraqui, E.: Semantic Bratislava. Frankfurt: INDEKS Verlag 1994/95, 2 vols. 216+88p .. classification of Instances in a frame-based representation. (Orig. en). In: J.Doc. Vol.52 , No.2 1996, p.208·209 - 0395 Furtado-Vasco, J.J.P.: Faucher, C., Chouraqui, E.: Con­ struction of frame hierarchies using machine learning. - 0396 0368 06,94·09·14/16 Godin, R.: Kerherve, B., Turner, J.: Classification and automatic Zeng, L.M.: Book review 01 Slanclkova, P., Dahlberg, l. (Eds.): indexing In a perSistent object environment. - 0397 J6rgensen, Environmental knowledge organization and information man­ C.: Classifying images: Criteria for grouping as revealed in a agement. Proc. lsI European ISKO ConI.. 14·16 Sept.1994. sorting task. - 0398 Mahesh, K.: Nirenburg, S.: Semantic Bratislava. Frankfurt: INDEKS Veri. 1994/5, 2 vols. 21 6+88 p .. (Orig. classification for practical natural language processing. - en). In: Knowl.Org. Vol.23 , No. I 1996, p.46·47 0399 Pejtersen, A.M.: Albrechtsen,H., Sandelin,R., Lundgren,L. et al.: The Scandinavian Book House: Indexing methods and 0369 06.94·11 ·24/25 OPAC development for subject access to Scandinavian fic­ TAMA'94. Terminology In Advanced Microcompuler Appllca· lion IIleralure. - 0400 McCloskey. J.C.: Bulechek. G.M.: Nursing tlons. Proc. 3rd TermNet Symposium. Recent Advances and Internventions Classification (NIC): Development and use. - User Reports. (Orig. en). Wien: TermNet 1995, p.VI,319 p. ISBN: 0401 Soergel, D.: Framework for data element standardization. 3·901010·12·2 - 0402 Triplett, J.E.: Kennet, D.M., Jarmon, R., Gollop, F.M.: Do The 3rd TermNet Symposium, TAMA'94, took place atthe Vienna Industrial classifications need re-Inventlng? An analysis of International Centre, Nov.24-25, 1994. It was accompanied by a the relevance of the U.S. SIC System for productivity research. software exhibition. The volume contains an introduction by_ R. -0403 Tudhope, D.: Taylor, C., Beynon-Davies, P.: Classification Schwarz and a Foreword by G Engle and M. Schaar. The 20 Papers: and hypermedia. - 0404 Ungern-Sternberg, S.v.: Knowledge 0370 Ahmad, K.: Terminology workbenches and the engineer­ organization and a macro language for indexing in biotech­

Ing 01 special languages (Keynole address). - 0371 nology. - 0405 Vossen,P.: The linguistic versus cognitive role

Dreckschmidt, G.: IBM TranslationManager. A family of tra'ns­ of classifying nouns. - 0406 Williamson, N.: The development lallon programs. - 0372 Paul, S.: Application ofTM12 by Abbott of a notational system for a restructured UDC. GmbH. - 0373 Heyn, M.: Key lechnologles. Impacls 01 neurat network technology ' on computer-aided translation. - 0374 0407 WeBel, R.: Trados: MultiTerm for Windows. User report. -0375 Williamson, N.: ASIS Annual Meeting, Oct.9-12, 1995. SIGICR Melby, A: Organization-wide terminology ' management us­ Workshop on Classification Research. (Orig. en). In: Knowl.Org. Ing MTXlTermex. - 0376 Berteloot: Termex user report. - 0377 Vol.23 , No.1 1996, p.41 ·44 Engel, G.: DANlermBASE. - 0378 Budin, G.: The Terminology Extensive report on the results of these events. , Inlerchange Formal (TIF) • A stale-ol·the-art report. - 0379 Quist, Ch.: Integrated computer environment for translators 0408 06.95·11·16/17 and termlnologlsts. A terminology workstation. -0380 ,Ahmad, Garcia Marco, J.: Second Spanish ISKO Chapter Conference. K.: Holmes·Higgin, P.: Syslem Quirk: A unified approach 10 lext (Orig. en). In: Knowl.Org. Vol.23 , No.1 1996, p.37·38 and lerminology. - 0381 Wimpllnger, D.: METAlJTerm. - 0382 Report on the conference EOCONSID'95 (Encuentro sobre Skorepa, Ch.: METAL user report. - 0383 Zimmermann, H.: Organizaci6n del Conocimiento en Sistemas de Informaci6n y Value-added coding 01 electronic dictionaries lor Ihe LOGOS Documentaci6n), Madrid, 16-17 Nov. 1995. Machine Translation System. - 0384 Jaekel, g.: User's report. LOGOS Ericsson Language Service$ AB. . - 0385 0409 06.95·1 0·23/26 Waldh6r, K.: Hummel, D.: G'lobeDlsk - Electronic Dictionaries. Hela!, A.H.: Weiss, J.W. (Eds.): Electronic documents and Translation tools a'nd terminology management systems. - information: From preservation to access.. (Orig. en). Essen, 0386 Burdet, C.·A.: TERMIS appllcallons. · - 0387 Day, W.T.: Germany: Universitatsbibliothek 1996, XLV,217p. Publ.Essen Application 01 TERMIS to the Defence Terminology Manage­ Univ.Library v.20 ment System and related text management ,activities. - 0388 Contains the 18 papers and a summary by Graham Waters. Also Carlson, L.: ValTer - Multilingual term bank system for termi­ is included a preface by the editors, honouring Ms. Patricia Battin nology work. - 0389 Schmitz, K.·D.: Evaluallng lermlnology (to whom this publication Is dedicated as a Festschrift), the program, management programs. the addresses of the 102 participants and of the 18 participating vendors.

124 Know!. Org. 23( I 996)No.2 Knowl.Org. Literalure 23(1996) 0410 06.96·01-26/27 retrieval. - 0434 JOrgensen, C.: The applicability 01 selected Explanation and Understanding. ErnslSchrOderColloqulum classification systems to image attributes. - 0435 Steyer, H.C.: and Seminar, Darmstadt, Jan. 26-27, 1996. (Ori9. en). In: Fonseca,A.F" Hopkins,D,D" Nodell,M., Travis,!.: The World

Knowl.Org. Vol.23 • No.1 1996, p.38-39 Bank's Information Management Architecture: A blueprint

for building Institutional Information services. - 0436 Murray, 041 1 06.96-02-28/1 Ph.C.: Business productivity and organization of knowledge.

International Conference on Conceptual Knowledge Process­ A look at the emerging requirements. - 0437 Shreinemakers, Ing. (Orig. en). In: Knowl.Org. Vol.23 , No.1 1996, p.39 J.F.: Essers, J.P.J.M,: Critical notes on the use of knowledge Report on this conference organized by the Forschungsgruppe in knowledge management. - 0438 Foss, M.M.: Facilitating the Begriffsanalyse at the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt in coop­ interaction of user and public knowledge organization with

eration with the Ernst-Schroder-Zentrum fOr Begriffllche Wissans­ user profiles, user views, and user education plans. - 0439 verarbeitung and with ISKO. livonen, M.: Selection of search terms as a meeting place of differentdlscourses.-0440Pollitt, ASt.: Treglown, M" Smith,M.P" 0412 06.96·05-16/18 Braekevelt, P.A.J. et al: Empowering users for Improved data­ Flourishing Assets: Indexers today. 28th Annual Meeting of base access and analysis through the application of knowl­ ASI. (Orig. en). In: Knowl.Org. Vol.23 , No.1 1996, p.35 edge structure views,. progressive refinement techniques and a Preview of program of the 1 996 Annual Conference of the American design approach driven by usability. -0441 Green, A.: Description

Society of Indexers. in the electronic environment. - 0442 Vizine-Goetz, D.: Online classification: Implications for classifying and document(-lie

0413 06.96-07-15/18 object) retrieval. - 0443 McKiernan, G,: Parallel universe: The Green, A. (Ed.): Knowledge Organization and Change. Pro· organization of Information elements and access In a World ceedlngs of the Fourth International ISKO Conference, 15-18 July Wide Web (WWW) virtuai librery. - 0444 Iwazume, M.: Takeda, 1996, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. (Orig. en). FrankfurV H., Nishida, T.: Ontology-based information capturing from

Main: INDEKS Verlag 1996, 431p. Adv.in KnowI.Org., VoI.5 ISBN: the Internet. - 0445 Howarth, L.: An exploratory study into 3-88672-024-1 requirements for an interdisciplinary metathesaurus. - 0446 The volume contains 48 papers preceded by the keynote address Negrini, G.: Adamo, G.: The evolution of a concept system: of R. Hjerppe. The papers are arranged according to the following Reflections on case studies of Scientific Research, Italian

12 topics: Library of Congress Classification. · Knowledge Organi­ Literature, and Humanities Computing. - 0447 Ragucci, M.: An zation (KO) in Cross-Cultural and Cross-Linguistic Settings, . The inductive approach towards the integration of general infor­ Role of Relationships in KO. - KO in the Online Environment (I and mation systems for agriculture: The case of CERETHES, with

II). - Management of Change in KO Schemes. • Thesauri and particular examples. - 0448 Huber, J.T.: Gillaspy, M.L.: Control­

Metathesauri (I and II) .• KO and Images, • KO in the Business and led vocabulary lor HIVIAIDS, An evolving nosological record Economic Environment. - User Focus in KO ..Interd isciplinary of a diseased body of knowledge. - 0449 Olson, H.: Dewey Approaches to KO. - Interplay of Epistemology and KO. - Natural thinks therefore he is: The eplstemic stance of Dewey and

Language Processing - Dewey Decimal Classification, . List of DDC. - 0450 Poli, A.: Ontology lor knowledge organization. - Contributors .•Name and Subject Index. 0451 Walker, Th.D.: L'apparltion du computer: Epistemology

0414 Hjerppe, A.: Go with the flow, or abide by the side, or and the impact of networked computers on SOCiety. - 0452 watch the waves? Challenges of change for Knowledge Prasad, AA.D.: PROMETHEUS: An automatic Indexing sys­ Organization. - 041 5 Guenther, A.S.: Bringing the Library of tem. - 0453 Matsuo, T.: Nishida, T.: Intelligent support lor Congress Into the computer age: Converting LCC to ma­ construction and exploration of advanced technological

chine-readable lorm. - 0416 Goldberg, J.: Library 01 Congress Information space. - 0454 Mustafa Elhadi, W.: Jouis, Ch.: Classification: Shelving device for collections or organiza­ Evaluating natural language processing systems as a tool for

tion 01 knowledge fields? - 0417 Shoham, S.: Yltzhaki, M.: The building terminological databases. - 0455 Citkina, F.: Termi­ Impact of cultural and technological changes on titles con­ nology organization and change. - 0456 Hudon, M.: Preparing

tent and their use In the process of information retrieval. - terminological definitions for indexing and retrieval thesauri: 0418 Zeng, L.M.: Towards a unified medical language in a a model. - 0457 Williamson, N.: Deriving a thesaurus from a

diverse cultural envlronement. - 0419 He, Shaoyi: Concept­ restructured UDC. - 0458 Mitchell, J.S.: The Dewey Decimal

based vs word-based measures of medical Information trans­ Classification at 120: Edition 21 and beyond. - 0459 New, G.A.: fer via English-Chinese and Chinese-English translation of Revision and stability in Dewey 21: The life sciences catch up. medical titl.s. - 0420 Molholt, P.: Standardization 01 Inter­ - 0460 Beall, J.: Dewey lor Windows. -0461 Miksa, F.: The DOC, concept links and their usage. - 0421 Green, R.: Development the Universe of Knowledge, and the Post-Modern Library. of a relational thesaurus. - 0422 Bean, C.: Analysis of non­ hierarchical associative relationships among Medical Sub­ 07 Textbooks. ject Headings (MeSH): anatomical and related terminology. - 0423 Garcia Marco, J.: Hypertext and indexing languages: 0462 07.1 Common challenges and perspectives. -0424 Cochrane, P .A.: Brunt, R,: Book review of Marcella, R., Newton, R.: A new Johnson, E.H.: Visual Dewey: DDC in a hypertextual browser manual of classification. Aldershot: Gower 1994. XII,287p.. lor the library user. - 0425 Drabenstott, K.M.: Classilication to (Orig. en). In: J.Doc. Vol.51 ,No.4 1995, p.437-439 the rescue - Handling the problems of too many and too few retrievals. - 0426 Sukiasyan, E.: Change as a problem of 0463 07.1 classification system development. - 0427 Mcllwaine, I.C.: Satija, M.P.: Book review of Husain, Sh.: Library classification: New Wine In Old Bottles: Problems 01 maintaining classifica­ Facets and analysis. New Deihl: Tala McGraw-Hili 1993. 367 tion schemes. - 0428 Davies, R.: Thesaurus-aided searching p.. (Orlg. en). In: Knowl.Org. Vol.23 , No.1 1996, p.48-49 In search and retrieval protocols. - 0429 Francu, V.: Building a multilingual thesaurus based on UDC, - 0430 Dahlberg, I.: 0464 07.1 Library catalogs In the Internet: Switching lor luture subject Thomas, A,A.: Book review of Langridge, D.W.: Classification: access. - 0431, Soerger, D,: SemWeb: Proposal for an open; its kinds, systems, elements and applications. London: multifunctional, multilingual system for Integrated access to Bowker-Saur 1992.84p .. ,tOng. en). In: Cat.& Classff.Quart. VoI.21 , knowledge about concepts and terminology. - 0432 Jacob, No.1 1995, p.97-99 E.K.: Shaw, D.: Is a picture worth a thousand words? Classi­ fication and graphic symbol systems. - 0433 0465 07.1 Frost, C.O.: The University 01 Michigan School ollnlormatlon Thomas, A.R.: Book review of Srivastava, A.P.: Theory of Art Image Browser: Designing and testing . model for Image knowledge classification for librarians. rev.& enl.ed. New

Know/. Org. 23(1996)No.2 125 Know/. Org. Literature 23(1996) Deihl: Learning Laboratory 1992.. (Orig. en). In: Cat.& of periodicals and nonprint material, the 2nd edition cites the newest Classif.Ouart. VoL21 , No.1 1995, p.99-100 standards in the field, treats new topics like automatic indexing and the indexing of legal and medical texts, and - upates many other 0466 07_3 sections, including the extensive bibliography. Williamson, N.J.: Book review of Fugmann, R.: Subject analysis and Indexing: Theoretical foundations and practical advice. 0475 08_31 08_85 Frankfurt: INDEKS Verlag 1993_, Te>ctbooks for Knowl.Org .. Bonura, L.S.: The art of Indexing. (Orig. en). New York, Chich­ Vol.1. (Orig. en). In: Can.J.lnform.& Ubr.Science VoI.20 , No.2 1995, esler: Wiley 1994, XXII,233p. ISBN: 0-471-01449-4 p.45-7 0477 08_32 08 Other Monographs. Moran, G.: Book review of Daniel, H.�D.: Guardians of Science: Fairness and reliability of peer review. Weinheim, DE: VCH Verlagsges. 1993. 118p .. (Orig. en). In: Ubr.& Inform.Sci.Research 0467 08_1 VoL 17 , No.1 1995, p.90-92 Heiner-Freiling, M.: Book review of Thomas, A.R.: Classifica­ tion: Options and opportunities. New York,London: Haworth 0478 08_34 Press 1995.VII,242p__ (Orig. en). In: Int.Cat.& Bibliogr.Control Nohr, H.: Book review of Lepsky, K.: Maschinelle Indexierung VoL25 , No.1 1996, p.22 von Titelaufnahmen zur Verbesserung der sachllchen ErschlieBung in Onllne-Publikumskatalogen. Keln: Greven 0468 08.1 Verlag 1994. V,121p.. (Machine indexing of bibliographic data to Satija, M.P.: Book review of Thomas, A.R.: Clssslficatlon: improve subject analysis in OPACs) (Orig. de). In: Mitt.bI.Verb.NRW , Options and opportunities. New York, London: Haworth NO.1 1995, p.98-100 Press 1995, XII,242 p,. (Orig. en). In: KnowLOrg. VoL23 , No.1 1 996, p.49-50 0479 08_34 Schnelling, H.: Book review of Lepsky, K.: MaschlneUe 0469 08_12 Indexlerung von Titelaufnahmen zur Verbesserung der Ganter, B.: Wille, R.: Formale Begriffsanalyse. Mathematische sachlichen ErschlieBung in Onllne-Publikumskatalogen. Keln: Grundlagen. (Formal Concept Analysis. Mathematical Founda­ Greven 1994. V,121p.. (Machine indexing of bibliographic data to tions.) (Orig. de). Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer Verlag 1996, X,286p., improve subject analysis in OPACs) (Orig. en). In: Knowl.Org. 221 refs. ISBN: 3-540-60868-0 VoL23 , No.1 1996, p.50-52, 3 refs. This first textbook in the field of formal concept analysis provides a systematic presentatin of the mathematical foundations and their 04BO 08.415 relation to applications in informatics, especially data analysis and Andrews, J.S.: Book review of Mi.iller�Dreier, A.: knowledge processing. The chapters: Order theoretical founda· Einheitsklassifikation: die Geschichte einer fortwlrkenden lions. Concept lattices of contexts. Determination and presentation. Idee. Wlesbaden: Harrassowitz 1994. VII,225p. (Uniform clas­ Parts and factors. Analysis, construction and properties of of sification. The history of a ceaselessly fecund idea) (Orlg. en), In: concept lattices. Context comparison and conceptual measurabil­ J.Doc. Vol.51 , No.4 1995, p.434-437 ity. Index.

0481 08_448 0470 08_17 Chan, l.M.: Library of Congress Subject Headings. Principles Capurro, R.: Leben im Informationszeitalter. (Life in the infor­ and Application. 3rd ed .. (Orig. en). Englewood, CO: Libraries mation age) (Orig. de). Berlin: Akademie Verlag 1995, 134p., 255 Unlimited 1995, 550p. ISBN: 1-5630B-195-4 refs. ISBN: 3-05-002716-9 The 7 chapters are concerned with the following topics: From 04B2 08_46 technocraty to a living world - Practices of forming the self - Thomas, AR.: Book review of Satija, M.P. (Ed.): Colon Classi� Information society and technologies of the self in conflict with itself fication, 7th Edition: Some perspectives. New Delhi: Sterling - Homo informaticus - Information as a capital - Spiritual mythology 1993. 220p•. (Orig. en). In: Cat.& Classif.Ouart. Vol.21 , No.1 1995, in a technical robe - Genealogy of information. - Subject and name p.98-99 index. List of Greek and Latin terms. 0483 08_692 0471 08_2 Carpenter, M.: Book review of Beghtol, C.: The classification Teodoru, V.: Bezele Metodologice ale Documentarii. Suportde of fiction: The development of a system based on theoretical curs. (The methodological basis of information science) (Orig. ro). principles. Metuchen, NJ: ScareClwo Press 1994. X,366p .. (Orig. Sucuresti: Editury Pro Humanitas 1994, 141p. A collection of en). In: Cat. & Classif.Quart. Vol.21 ,No.1 1995, p.101-102, 1 ref. lessons for students. Includes documentation languages and thesaurus utilization. 0484 OB,692 livonen. M.: Book review of Beghtol, C.: The classification of 0472 08_237 fiction: The development of a system based on theoretical Grefenstette, G.: Explorations In automatic thesaurus discov� principles. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press 1994. 376p .. (Orig. ery_ (Orig. en). Boston, London: Kluwer Academic 1994, XII,305p. en). In: J.Doc. VoL51 , No.1 1995, p.89-90 ISBN: 0-7923-9468-2 0485 08_75 Review of various approaches to automatic thesaurus formation Frohmann, B,: Book review of Lancaster, F.W., Warner, A.J.: and presentation of the SEXTANT system to analyse text and to Information retrieval today. Arlington, VA: Information Re­ determine the basic syntactic contexts for words. sources Press 1993_ XVIII,341p .. (Orlg. en). In: J.Doc. Vol.51 , No.1 1995, p.76-77, 3 refs. 0473 08_237 Sparck Jones, K.: Book review of 0472 above. (Orig. en). In: 0486 08_75 J.Doc. VoL51 , No.4 1995, p.447-448 Partridge, D.: Hussain, K.M.: Knowledge-based Information systems. (Orig. en). London, New' York: McGraw-Hili 1994, 0474 08.31, OS_85 XVII,450p. ISBN: 0-07-707624-9 Wellisch, HH.: Indexing from A to Z. 2nd ed., rev.& enl .. (Orig. en). New York, Dublin: HW.Wilson 1995, XXIX,569p. ISBN: 0-8242- 0487 OB_75 OB82-X Vickery, B.C.: Book review of title under 0486. (Orig. en). In: Covering not only back-of-the-book indexing but also the indexing J.Doc. Vol.51 , No.2 1995, p.179-1BO

126 Know! . Org. 23(1996)No.2 Know!. Org. Literature 23( 1996)