4.2 BUILT SYSTEMS
CNdV africa 4-57 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.1 SETTLEMENTS
4.2.1.1 INTRODUCTION urban areas (DEADP, 2003). The percentage of South Africa’s population resident in urban areas has increased from 47% in 1980 to approximately Ɣ The most recent municipal demarcation restructured the Western 90% in 2004 (54% in 1996). Cape into "wall to wall" municipalities. This involved consolidation of numerous municipalities and divisional councils into five district 90% of the Western Cape’s population is urbanised compared to 40% in municipalities and the City of Cape Town as a metropolitan the Eastern Cape, 70% in the Northern Cape (DEADP, 2003). However, the municipality. A number of local municipalities (30 including the City of percentages of the people in rural areas vary in the various districts in the Cape Town), including some small ones already administered by the Province: 35% in the Overberg district, 33% in Eden, 35% on West Coast, district municipalities, manage the local areas (town and villages), see 19,9% in Cape Winelands district and 33% Central Karoo district (DEADP, Figure 4.2.1.1; 2003). Ɣ Environmental, economic, demographic and social features inform the physical characteristics of the settlements in the Province. The Settlement Pattern Settlement Framework for the Western Cape (DEADP, 2003) found that Most South African towns consist of a historically white core, containing the urban settlements experiencing the highest levels of urbanisation had economic centre and most social services, surrounded by a number of the most severe urban development pressure on natural resources. disparate, racially discrete, dormitory areas or locations often of They generally also had the highest environmental quality. This is seen considerable size. This raises particular problems in any program of most clearly in the case of the Garden Route and the City of Cape reconstruction (Dewar, 1995: 46). This challenge, of restructuring and Town; integrating apartheid-style urban settlements, is discussed further below. Ɣ Larger concentrations of settlements include the City of Cape Town, West Coast axis (Saldanha – Vredenburg) and South Coast (George- South African settlements, including those in the Western Cape, can be Knysna area; classified or understood in terms of their original reason for existence. A Ɣ There is a pattern of fairly well distributed settlements on the coastal number of them were missionary towns (e.g. Mamre, Wuppertal), some plain, namely, southern parts of the West Coast, Cape Winelands and administrative (e.g. Swellendam), and others served a transport (railway) the Overberg district municipalities. Settlements are sparsely distributed function (e.g. Touwsrirver). Many were agricultural service and religious in the Central Karoo and Klein Karoo – part of Eden district municipality; and social centres. and, Ɣ A separate parallel study commissioned by the Province is underway to The sizes of these settlements vary from hamlets and villages, small towns, evaluate the growth potential of 132 towns and villages in the mission towns, intermediate cities, secondary cities and the primary Province, excluding the City of Cape Town. A list of these towns and metropolitan area (Dewar, 1995). villages is included as Annexure 4.2.2.1, and the results of the study are discussed in Section 4.2.2. Growth and Urban Sprawl During the apartheid era, new residential developments occurred through 4.2.1.2 BACKGROUND extensions of the existing urban footprint outside of the previous urban edge. This pattern continued through the 1990s and is still prevalent today. The Rural-Urban Split and Urbanisation This pattern of growth has led to the perpetuation of the apartheid town More than 50% of South Africans already live and work in rapidly growing structure in which poorer residents are located further away from town centre. This continues to take place despite policies promoting the CNdV africa 4-58 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 opposite, as a result of other contradictory policies. For example, massive urban and rural contexts; and, transport subsidies encourage sprawl by reducing the cost effect of Ɣ Ensuring that urban and rural settlements are governed effectively and distance (DEADP, 2003). efficiently. Other strategies include: There is a continuing dynamic of deep-seated structural forces that in Ɣ Integration of the framework with national objectives and similar many instances reinforces decline of small towns. Research has shown that policies of other Provinces; smaller towns decline relative to larger cities due to factors such as Ɣ Rendering of support to the West Coast Investment Initiative as a consolidation of commercial farming and de-densification of the rural “desirable national developmental initiative”; periphery, increased accessibility to large towns, the emergence of Ɣ Creation of more racially and spatially integrated cities; marketing boards that prevented smaller manufacturers from buying local Ɣ Establishing balance between the various land demands; material directly, and transport tariff structures that favour agro-processing Ɣ Achieving development goals through public infrastructure investment close to the larger urban markets (Dewar, 1995). and ensuring that the provision of subsidised housing complements the provincial settlement policy; and, Most of the stagnating and declining settlements are located in the inland Ɣ Ensuring sustainability of settlements and their effective and efficient arid areas with the highest moisture loss (Central Karoo, northern Cape management. Winelands, and the northern parts of the West Coast). The continuing under-development of these areas will deepen poverty and inequality, If these strategies are implemented the following settlement pattern could (DEADP, 2003) reinforced by the trend for the more skilled and literate to emerge (DEADP, 2003): be the first to leave. Ɣ A dominant metropolitan area – already in place; Ɣ A strongly developed West Coast Corridor; Settlement Framework Policy Ɣ The adoption of a policy to encourage large scale settlement in other The Settlement Framework for the Western Cape (DEADP, 2003) aims to towns, but concentrating on their inherent potential and their roles in promote the approach of the primary concentration of settlement in the local rather than provincial context; and, City of Cape Town and to balance this with the promotion of secondary Ɣ The management of stagnant and declining towns. concentrations in a selected number of second order towns. By aligning their local roles with their respective development potentials the policy Urban Quality, Urban Design and Architecture aims to promote a sustainable urban settlement pattern in the Province. There is general agreement that the urban quality of the Western Cape's settlements has deteriorated considerably in most cases. Areas of greatest Its objectives are: urban quality remain in either historic settlements, or those parts of historic Ɣ Establishing a broad provincial framework that will serve as a guide to settlements that escaped demolition in the 20th century. Notable examples future settlement, taking due cognisance of bioregional planning include Church Street in Tulbagh; Dorp Street in Stellenbosch, parts of principles; Worcester around the town square, Mamre Church precinct, and in some Ɣ Creating urban settlements that are spatially integrated and compact cases entire settlements such as Wuppertal, Elim, and Genadendal. as well as proactive in absorbing growth; Ɣ Establishing cities and towns that are economically robust; The quality of these areas lies in the relationships between the buildings, Ɣ Ensuring that human settlements are environmentally sustainable; how they face onto the street, tree planting and landscaping, and the Ɣ Providing appropriate levels of services for all and making optimal use harmony of their appearance and construction (generally due to the use of existing and planned services; of locally available building materials). Ɣ Ensuring that subsidised housing is provided equitably and that it plays a meaningful role in the management of human settlement both in CNdV africa 4-59 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 It is important to note that these qualities are not important only as part of 4.2.1.2). Growth is generally outwards without integration occurring at the the heritage of important settler and emancipated slave culture (e.g. centre. Figure 4.2.1.3 shows the village of Darling with Nuwedorp as an mission villages) but can bring very real economic benefits because of example of this pattern. their attraction to tourists and their impact on property values.
It should be stressed that the attractiveness of these areas is not due to monotonous uniformity, such as is found in many RDP housing schemes, but was achieved through general consistencies in scale, shape of door and window openings and layout. Within this consistency there were many detailed variations in window and door sizes, height of roof pitches and eaves ends. There were five different architectural styles that characterised this period, namely rural long houses, Cape Dutch, Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian. However, although these styles had elements directly copied from other contexts, most notably the McFarlane's catalogue of wrought iron work "broekie lace", they were generally adapted to local climate building materials and colours.
After the 1940s this pattern began to change. The greater accessibility afforded by the motor car, coupled with non-existent policy on containing the outward growth of towns meant that land on the urban fringe was cheap and large plots greater than 600 metres affordable to the middle Figure 4.2.1.2 Typical Urban Settlement Structure classes.
North American and English illusions of rural living saw the placement of buildings moving to the middle of the plot back from the street, thereby destroying its function as social and pedestrian space. This principleof buildings located as isolated pavilions in the middle of their plots remains enshrined in many zoning schemes. This process was reinforced by the wide setbacks required by transport policy, particularly along the main street of many towns.
Zoning scheme conditions continue to reinforce this non-urban form and appearance.
Reinforcement of Apartheid Urban Settlement Structure Sadly, and to the concern of many observers from the President downwards, the pattern of development in the urban settlements since 1994 has been one of "business as usual". They remain apartheid settlements with low density central business districts and extravagant road Figure 4.2.1.3 Darling and Nuwedorp (source: Surveyor General) reserves and open spaces keeping the various suburbs apart (see Figure CNdV africa 4-60 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Murraysburg (see Figure 4.2.1.4) has recently completed housing projects Urban sprawl and out-of-town shopping centres have drawn much almost 4km from the original centre of town, reinforcing the apartheid criticism in recent years in South Africa and particularly overseas because urban structure. of the negative impacts they have on agricultural and scenic land, transport patterns and existing business areas. It is important that the Historic town New housing consequences of such projects are understood when they are approved.
A considerable body of research has been completed on the negative impacts of out-of-town shopping centres in the UK. This has resulted in it being almost impossible to gain approval for this kind of development project. Similar work is required in the Western Cape. Currently out-of-town shopping centres are being constructed in George, Worcester and Paarl, and one has been recently completed outside Stellenbosch.
Increasing affluence and mobility coupled with a desire for rural and secure lifestyles have led to another form of urban development outside the urban edge of towns, namely golf course and “eco”-estates. While some of these are low key, carefully conceived designed resorts fulfilling Simon Nicks Figure 4.2.1.4 Murraysburg strong agricultural and biodiversity aims, most are large mini-towns containing between 500 and1000 units. Figure 4.2.1.6 shows a golf course Figure 4.2.1.5a shows the footprints of all buildings in Stellenbosch. Figure proposed near Tulbagh. The area of the golf course is almost larger than 4.2.1.5b illustrates how the footprint of the town has been extended by the the current area of town. recently approved Jamestown shopping centre and De Zalze golf course estate. (a) before (b) by 2015
CONSERVANCY GOLF ESTATE ESTATE
De Zalze Golf Estate
Jamestown Shopping
N.T.S.
Figure 4.2.1.5 Stellenbosch Figure 4.2.1.6 Tulbagh Proposed Golf Course (source: Surveyor General)
CNdV africa 4-61 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Other "Growth Shapers"
There are other shapers of urban growth in the form of out-of-town shopping centres, major roads and bulk infrastructure (see Figure 4.2.1.7). Their location and development can create major pressure for new development and often have negative impacts on existing social, economic, and transport patterns. Policy is required for the location of this infrastructure.
(b) 1998
(source: Surveyor General) Figure 4.2.1.7 Other "Growth Shapers" (source: ….) Figure 4.2.1.8b Plettenberg Bay
In 1980 Plettenberg Bay was a relatively contained settlement (see Figure There is a similar pattern in Worcester. Outside of the old town of Worcester 4.2.1.8a). Nearly twenty years later New Horizons and Kwanokuthula have is Zweletemba, 4km away, i.e. 1 hour 20 minute walking distance. Thus, been developed out on the N2 Highway, 5 to 6km away from the main even though Worcester is a relatively small town, the distance of CBD area (see Figure 4.2.1.8b). Zweletemba's location means that a public transport system is necessary, see Figure 4.2.1.9.
(a) 1980
Figure 4.2.1.8a Plettenberg Bay (source: Surveyor General)
CNdV africa 4-62 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Zweletemba
1km 1km 20 min 20 min
4km 1 hr 20 min
4km 1 hr 20 min
(source: Surveyor General) (source: Surveyor General) Figure 4.2.1.9 Worcester Figure 4.2.10a Beaufort West
Beaufort West is an interesting contrast to the typical apartheid settlement pattern in certain respects, as it is more integrated than many other towns even though individual suburbs remain largely segregated. Mandlenkozi and Essopville are very much within walking distance of the centre of the town (see Figure 4.2.1.10). New housing is proposed in the Mooivlakte area, near the centre of town, unlike the pattern in most settlements in the Province where most public housing is located on the periphery.
In some instances this approach leads to new low income townships being located on the other side of high speed arterial routes such as the N2 and N1 Freeways. In almost all cases this pattern has led to a rapid increase in vehicle accidents and pedestrian fatalities and should be avoided at all costs.
CNdV africa 4-63 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.1.11 illustrates the low density sprawling urban form dissected by large road reserves and redundant open space of the Eastern Sector of the City of Cape Town. Most of this area was developed in the last 40 years. Kuilsriver Khayelitsha Mitchells Plain
R300
Figure 4.2.10b
N1 Simon Nicks Brackenfell Figure 4.2.10c Figure 4.2.1.11 Eastern Metro looking south towards False Bay
CNdV africa 4-64 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.1.12 shows the eastern urban edge of the City of Cape Town with Bloekombos and Wallacedene in the foreground. This is the urban edge of the city, and the area that is being demarcated for the next phase of this housing development is shown. Although the project will provide much needed housing its peripheral position illustrates well the impact of the current urban development inertia. Simon Nicks Figure 4.2.1.13 Stellenbosch and Environs
The Franschhoek Valley with the Anglo-American farms in the foreground is Wallacedene also shown in Figure 4.2.1.13. It is already intensely developed for a rural area. The development pressures in these rural areas highlight the need to ensure that the appropriate balance between economic development and the conservation of agricultural land and natural habitat is properly considered. Bloekombos The result of the general growth pattern of Western Cape settlements over the past 50 years has been a shift from contained urban cores, where most activities were accessible within walking distance and there was a Simon Nicks Figure 4.2.1.12 Extensions to Wallacedene relatively high level of socio-economic integration (in comparison to the current situation), to low density segregated urban sprawl (see Figures Rural areas near rapidly growing urban settlements are particularly 4.2.1.14 and 4.2.1.15 showing Cape Town and Stellenbosch). vulnerable. There is intense pressure for on-farm development in the Boland area around Stellenbosch (see Figure 4.2.1.13). All of these farming areas Although there has not been formalised socio-economic and racial near the metropolitan areas are under threat to the kind of development segregation in other countries to the same extent as in South African that in-filled the farms between Bellville and Durbanville. The same could settlements, other countries have also experienced urban sprawl and happen around Stellenbosch, especially in the area between the town decline in densities of their inner cities. The solution that has been proposed and the urban edge of the City of Cape Town. and successfully implemented in a few cases has been to restructure urban settlements to higher densities and integrate land-use and transport
CNdV africa 4-65 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 and infrastructure planning so that providing these services is more affordable and efficient. Source: Urban Dynamics Source: Barrie Gasson
1679 1900 2003
Figure 4.2.1.15 Apartheid Stellenbosch (source: Urban Dynamics et al, 2003)
Densification Targets Figure 4.2.1.16 indicates the impact of different urban densities. At low densities of only 50 people per hectare, large amounts of land are consumed and other urban services are not viable. As densities increase, more activities can be found within walking distance, and business and public transport services become more viable.
Figure 4.2.1.14 Apartheid Cape Town Figure 4.2.1.16 Impact of Urban Densities (source: Towards an Urban Renaissance)
CNdV africa 4-66 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Studies in South Africa and elsewhere have identified 100 people per hectare as the minimum threshold where good supportive neighbourhood facilities, public transport services and walking become convenient (Dewar, 1995: 50du/ha; TCPA, 2004: 35du/ha; Roger, 1999: 25du/ha). Urban quality also tends to be higher at these densities, although this also depends on urban design. An average density of 25 dwelling units per hectare or 100 people per hectare generally represents a doubling of current densities, and can be used as a benchmark to analyse the state of urban settlements in the Province.
Figure 4.2.1.17 indicates the densities for 132 settlements in the Province and the City of Cape Town within its urban edge. With the exception of high density informal settlements most of the formal settlements have low densities. The average formal settlement density is approximately 9- 12du/ha.
Average density of settlements in Province 400 Figure 4.2.1.18 Densities Threshold 350 300 The difference between the two density factors highlights the extent of 250 pcr structural change required in Western Cape settlements. Not surprisingly 200 the change required is probably of the same order as occurred with the 100pp/ha
people he er 150 ta e implementation of the Group Areas Act. However, it clearly cannot be 100 accomplished using the same or similar means. This transformation should
50 be achieved through an alignment with market forces that naturally
0 support concentration and agglomeration. It can also be seen as returning to the pre-apartheid development pattern where many settlements were Urban Settlements : Western Cape of far higher densities before densities were reduced by the Group Areas towns Act and the effects of Modernist town planning (see Figures 4.2.1.14 and 4.2.1.15). Figure 4.2.1.17 Densities, urban settlements, Western Cape (source: ….)
The difference between the minimum density threshold of 100pp/ha and Figure 4.2.1.19 illustrates the kind of built environment that will achieve a the current situation is summarised in Figure 4.2.1.18. At four people per density of 40du/ha based on two- to three-storey walk-ups. To achieve an dwelling unit 100pp/ha translates to 25du/ha. At 3.5 people per dwelling average density of 25du/ha some areas will have to have higher densities unit it increases to 28.5du/ha. and others can have lower densities. It is important to note that 20 storey tower blocks are entirely unnecessary and all that is required to achieve
CNdV africa 4-67 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 desired densities is two and three storey walk-ups, or terrace housing as a maximum.
source: (CapeNature, 2004)
Figure 4.2.1.20 Existing and Proposed Golf Course in the Southern Cape
Figure 4.2.1.21 illustrates the metaphor of the doughnut – a movement of development from the core to the periphery.
What is required is for urban edges to be held fast for sufficient time to Figure 4.2.1.19 Density required for Structural Transformation allow new development to re-orientate itself inwards. This will create a situation in which opportunities for integration within the current area of The current pattern of urban settlement can be described as a "doughnut" urban development can be identified and encouraged. This leads to the – there is relatively little development in the centre of towns as most of it is metaphor of the cupcake. taking place on the periphery either as low and middle income suburbs or more far flung golf estates, office parks and industrial estates. Figure 4.2.1.20 shows this pattern in regard to existing and proposed golf courses in the Southern Cape.
Figure 4.2.1.21 "From Doughnut to Cupcake"
CNdV africa 4-68 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 The cup can be likened to the urban edge. Within this there is an intensity Ɣ Geographically disproportional investment pattern in infrastructure and and integration of activity illustrated by the icing and rainbow hundreds housing (DEADP 2003; and thousands! Ɣ Lack of conservation of cultural, historical and architectural assets that leads to the loss of sense of place and character and potentially to There are other built environment issues in addition to densities and the disinvestment; urban edge, such as major roads, bulk infrastructure and out-of-town Ɣ Need to manage development pressure according to the shopping centres, which also need to be thought about carefully and development potential on the coastline and particularly in the Garden which can support the process of transforming urban settlements from Route; and, doughnuts to cupcakes. These are addressed in Section 6 which sets out Ɣ Distorted settlement concentration in the mainly small wealthier areas the PSDF proposals. along the coast (DEADP 2003).
4.2.1.3 LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT 4.2.1.5 SUMMARY
The following acts and ordinances have relevance to settlements: Western Cape settlements are generally characterised by racially Ɣ Municipal Systems Act, 2000; separated areas and little success has been achieved in changing this Ɣ Development Facilitation Act; pattern in the new political dispensation. In most cases extensions to the Ɣ Physical Planning Act; existing areas, which often house the lower income groups, are located Ɣ Land Use Planning Ordinance; even further from the opportunities and services in the core of the Ɣ Land Use Management Bill; settlements. Ɣ Western Cape Planning and Development Act; Ɣ Less Formal Township Establishment Act; In addition, most settlements are continuing the low density urban sprawl Ɣ National Heritage Resources Act; pattern of development and do not appear to be taking the need for Ɣ Environmental Conservation Act; restructuring seriously. As a result little progress is being made towards the Ɣ National Environmental Management Act; PGWC's vision of settlements becoming "a home for all". Ɣ Extension of Security of Tenure Act; Ɣ Provision of Land And Assistance Act; The fact that most settlements are primarily designed around low densities Ɣ Restitution of Land Rights Act; and, and the need to accommodate private vehicles, has made these places Ɣ Transformation of Certain Rural Areas Act (TRANCA). dangerous, unfriendly and hostile environments for pedestrians and residents and has created non-responsive urban environments. The 4.2.1.4 KEY ISSUES densities in South African towns and villages are generally below 15du/ha (see Figure.4.2.1.1). This is far below the internationally researched average of 25 to 40 dwelling units per hectare that has been shown to be the ideal Ɣ Lack of integration of settlements and the need to restructure apartheid settlements; density for making services, including public transport, viable. Ɣ The negative effects of low densities and urban sprawl, especially in the City of Cape Town and the coastal resorts along the West Coast The majority of the population of the Province is located within urban areas and Garden Route (SoER 2004; and there is a desperate need to ensure that these urban areas become sustainable, efficient and a home for all – rich and poor. Ɣ Non-existing, unclearly defined or non-statutory urban edge lines in most cases;
CNdV africa 4-69 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, State of the Environment Overview Report, 2004; Ɣ Dept Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, A Settlement Framework for the Western Cape Province: Green Paper, Provincial Government Western Cape, 2003; Ɣ Dewar et al. South African Cities A Manifesto for Change, Urban Problems Research Unit, University of Cape Town, 1991; Ɣ Dewar, D. Small Towns in Development: Towards a South African Perspective, 1995; Ɣ Gasson, B. The Biophysical Environment of the Western Cape Province in relation to its economy and settlements, School of Architecture and Planning, University of Cape Town for the Department of Local Government and Housing (Directorate of Development Promotion) of the Province of the Western Cape, 1998; Ɣ Urban Task Force: Towards an Urban Renaissance, 1998; Ɣ Statistics South Africa, Census Counts (1996, 2001 and Midyear Estimates 2002); Ɣ Surveyor General : Surveys and Mapping, 2001; Ɣ CNdV africa. Towards a Growth Management Strategy for Stellenbosch Technical Report: Preliminary Draft: working document for discussion purposes only. Stellenbosch Municipality, 2003.
CNdV africa 4-70 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.1.1 Settlements
CNdV africa 4-71 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005
CNdV africa 4-72 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.2 GROWTH POTENTIAL AND HUMAN NEED
4.2.2.1 INTRODUCTION the period 1995 to 2003. Therefore, there was a twin and possibly contradictory challenge in that settlements needed both to provide The need to research the growth potential and human need of settlements opportunities for the tertiary sector to flourish, i.e. to provide high quality in the Western Cape emerged from the following factors: lifestyles that would attract tertiary sector workers and a high skills base (generally lacking), and to provide opportunities for those sectors that Ɣ A concern from the Provincial Government of the Western Cape about could generate low skilled jobs (PERO, 2003); and, the decline of a number of rural towns, associated increase in poverty, Ɣ The Migration Study in the Western Cape 2001 indicated that most and the role that changes in the agricultural and tourism areas may migrants were attracted firstly to the City of Cape Town, and secondly play in these settlements’ fortunes; to certain rural districts where there appeared to be a stronger Ɣ A recommendation in a Green Paper, A Settlement Framework for the probability of finding jobs than others. These rural districts included the Western Cape, which also identified the need for such a study (Dr Southern Cape, Saldanha-Vredenburg, parts of the Overberg and Bertie van Zyl, DEADP, 2003); Olifants River Valley, and the Boland part of the Cape Winelands Ɣ The requirement of the National Spatial Development Perspective that district. There is also a significant move outwards of wealthy residents public investment targeting must distinguish between fixed investment from the cities and towns to rural districts. This could also contribute to and social investment; increasing demand in these areas. (source: Lehan Fouche) Ɣ Fixed investment should be directed towards settlements that have the potential for sustainable economic growth. These settlements are also 4.2.2.2 BACKGROUND likely to attract the bulk of migrants as well have significant social needs, so government’s objectives of addressing both economic The study’s research methodology consisted of a variety of research tools growth and poverty alleviation can be achieved most efficiently; that were combined in the form of 82 variables that were measured for each of the 131 towns. In areas of low potential government should concentrate on social investment which should primarily directed at programs such as human These variables were aggregated into ten compound indices which in turn resource development, labour market intelligence and social transfers, were grouped into four composite indices as shown in Table 4.2.2.1. so as to provide people with the necessary resources to successfully move to areas with greater economic potential; Ɣ Understanding the growth potential of the towns would provide the basis for targeting the R38 billion rand in infrastructure development (to be spent nationally) that the President mentioned in his state of the nation address on 21 May 2004; Ɣ The Provincial Economic Review and Outlook (PERO) of 2003 noted that most economic growth was occurring in the tertiary sector which tended to be based in the main settlements. Agriculture (largely rural) and domestic workers (largely urban) provided the greatest number of jobs for unskilled workers. The PERO also noted that income inequality and levels of relative poverty appeared to be worsening although poor people had benefited considerably from the provision of services over
CNdV africa 4-72 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Table 4.2.2.1 Research Indicators Relationship (source: van der Merwe, 2005) Figure 4.2.2.1 Composite Development Potential Index (source: van der Merwe, 2005) These quantitative indicators were supplemented by an in-depth interview with key stakeholders in each town that was used to corroborate or By contrast Figure 4.2.2.2 indicates human need in ascending order. The contradict the statistical research as relevant. In most cases there was towns with high levels of human need tend to be located inland. found to be quite a good correlation between the quantitative and qualitative measures. A descriptive profile was also drawn up of each town to capture its “sense of place”.
The results of the study were collated into a set of tables and charts that illustrated the relationship between high and low growth potential and high and low human needs in various ways.
Figure 4.2.2.1 shows the towns in ascending order of development potential. The towns with high development potential are generally located on the coastal plain between the sea and the first range of mountains, with the exception of Worcester and Oudtshoorn.
CNdV africa 4-73 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 have the greatest possibility for social benefits. Many of the coastal towns, as well as the City of Cape Town, have both high levels of human need and the greatest potential for growth. Therefore, the benefits of spending tax rands are likely to be maximised in these towns.
Towns with high growth potential but low human need rank second, to give effect to the policy of prioritising fixed investment spending in settlements with the highest potential rather than those with low growth potential. It is at this point that there may be strong pressure for fixed investment to be directed to settlements with high human need without taking into consideration that fixed investment is unlikely to mobilise the kind of leverage that it may be able to effect if growth potential was high.
It is at the juncture of ranking towns with high growth potential and low human need above those with low growth potential and high human need that political will must stand firm. Such a policy could be accused of being anti-poor and displaying an unacceptable level of urban bias as it is the larger urban centres that are likely to display the highest growth potential. It is important to note that this priority ranking applies only to fixed investment, not to social investment. Social investment must be done in all towns and these towns will not be neglected by government. Figure 4.2.2.2 Human Needs Index (source: van der Merwe, 2005) The third category is low growth potential and high human need. Low For the purpose of the PSDF it is necessary to group the towns into a single growth potential is common to the third and fourth categories and it is only set of relationships as investment decisions and policy implementation differences in human need that distinguish them. Clearly the most cannot easily deal with multiple sets of overlapping variables. The following equitable choice will be to target those centres with high human need. groups of towns were defined, with an associated priority order for fixed The emphasis in these towns should be on social investment rather than infrastructure investment spending: fixed investment.
Priority for fixed investment Growth Potential Need The fourth level of priority is those settlements with both low growth potential and low human need. In this situation the choices speak for First High High themselves, see Table 4.2.2.2. Second High Low Third Low High Fourth Low Low
The reasons for this priority ranking for fixed investment are as follows:
Investing in towns with high growth potential and high need will ensure not only that that expenditure will have the highest leverage but also that it will CNdV africa 4-74 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Table 4.2.2.2 Proposed Investment Strategy (source: van der Merwe, 2005)
However, this grouping gives rise to some anomalies in that there are extremely small settlements such as Redlinghuys and Aurora which, when the balance of opportunities and issues confronting them is taken into Figure 4.2.2.3 Settlement Investment Priority account as isolated settlements on their own, appear as centres of great economic growth potential ranking far above some much larger towns. Applying this index creates a much more convincing investment pattern with the ranking altered so that towns with populations greater than 5 000 To address this anomaly the PSDF document applied a cut-off of a people with low growth potential but high human need ranking rate population of 5000 people to the town ranking. This figure took into above small towns with high growth potential. These very small towns with account the minimum number of people or households required to support high growth potential are unlikely to attract fixed investment anyway as major social infrastructure such as schools and the level at which a town their populations are too small to justify this unless there are exceptional was big enough to create the necessary critical mass for sustaining circumstances. businesses, etc. (see Figure 4.2.2.3). Leader towns The study revealed that there were a number of well resourced towns in the Province that were one or two levels of magnitude above the rest in terms of growth potential. These towns were described as leader towns and are shown in Figure 4.2.2.4.
CNdV africa 4-75 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Encouraging Urban Initiative While it is essential for the long-term economic sustainability of the country to be committed to following the investment strategy described by the NSDP this should not by default undermine innovative initiatives by settlements that may be classified as having low growth potential. In certain cases settlements may have innovative strategies that should receive public support in whatever way necessary, in an appropriate ratio.
4.2.2.2 LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY CONTEXT
Ɣ National Spatial Development Perspective Ɣ Green Paper, A Settlement Framework for the Western Cape Province Ɣ President Mbeki, State of the Nation Address, 21 May 2004 Ɣ W Cape Provincial Minister for Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Budget Speech, 21 June 2004. Ɣ Socio-economic Review 2003 of the Western Cape, Provincial Treasury, 2003 Ɣ iKapa Elihlumayo 2004 – 2007 (Department of the Premier, 2004)
4.2.2.3 KEY ISSUES
Figure 4.2.2.4 Leader Towns (source: van der Merwe, 2005) Aspatial Ɣ There are insufficient resources to meet the full fixed investment needs Social investment should occur in all settlements as necessary of all the settlements in the province, so prioritisation is necessary. The focus of this work has been on where fixed investments should be Ɣ While the intention to direct fixed investment towards towns with made. It should be clearly understood that this does not imply that there economic potential makes sound economic sense, it will be a great should not be any investment in those settlements with low growth challenge to convince municipalities about this, and to all potential or that are very small. Rather the kind of investment that should municipalities that appropriate social investment will receive the be made in these settlements should be of a programmatic rather than necessary attention at all towns / places. infrastructural nature. In other words, training and capacity building programmes, networking events, Adult Basic Education and Training Spatial (ABET), and business and technical training. There activities should be run Ɣ The study has clearly shown that movement of people from less well from existing or refurbished buildings wherever possible. Innovative thinking endowed areas to better endowed areas is still in progress. should also occur, for example, it may bemorepracticalto have a Ɣ This is manifesting itself as a move to the coastal plains and an building such as a school hitherto “owned” by one department opened up emptying out of the inland areas of the Province. for multiple use and possibly ownership by a wide range of government departments and possibly other users as well, than to invest in additional buildings. CNdV africa 4-76 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.2.4 SUMMARY
Towns with high growth potential and high human need are the top priority for investment in fixed infrastructure. Towns with high human need should be prioritized for social investment, whether or not they have high growth potential. A set of leader towns has been identified for the province. These towns have exceptionally high growth potential, and also tend to have high levels of human need. A responsibility rests on the shoulders of these towns to fulfil a critical role in their regions to support and uplift other surrounding towns and settlements in proximity to them.
REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. A Settlement Framework for the Western Cape Province : Green Paper, Provincial Government Western Cape, 2003; Ɣ President Mbeki, State of the Nation Address, 21 May 2004; Ɣ Van der Merwe, I.J. Growth Potential of Towns in the Western Cape, Centre for Geographical Analysis, University of Stellenbosch, 2005; Ɣ President Mbeki, State of the Nation Address, 21 May 2004; Ɣ Western Cape Provincial Minister for Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Budget Speech, 21 June 2004; Ɣ Provincial Treasury (Treasury) : Macro Economic Analysis Western Cape Socio-Economic Review, Provincial Government: Western Cape (PG:WC), Government Printers, RSA, 2003; Ɣ Provincial Treasury (Treasury): Provincial Economic Review and Outlook (PERO), Provincial Government: Western Cape (PG:WC), 2005; Ɣ Department of the Premier, iKapa Elihlumayo 2004 – 2007, Provincial Government Western Cape, 2004.
CNdV africa 4-77 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.3 TRANSPORT
4.2.3.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2.3.2 BACKGROUND
Transport is a supportive sector which plays a key role in meeting objectives Private Motor Vehicle Ownership, Usage and Congestion such as economic growth, improved access to employment opportunities According to City of Cape Town (April, 2003), 54% of households in Cape and increased social integration. Town had access to a private motor vehicle in 1999. Car ownership in the City of Cape Town has increased, especially in the middle and low income Transport, both public and private, is a primary spatial structuring element groups, with total vehicle ownership increasing by 45% from 1990 to 2000, providing access and mobility to both urban and rural communities. and the number of motor cars doubling in the last 25 years. These figures Internationally, successful urban settlements rely heavily on advanced translate to a current ratio of 178 cars per 1000 people in Cape Town. This public transport networks incorporating high, medium and low mobility increase is evident in congestion on freeways, especially during peak routes within regional development frameworks allowing for an integrated hours. According to the City of Cape Town's Transport Department, private development approach. According to the Western Cape SoER (2004) motor vehicle volumes on the N1 Freeway and the M3 route increased by transport infrastructure remains the largest single investment in the Western 63% and 67% respectively during the last 13 years. This increase has led to Cape, with both the public and private sectors playing key roles in the problems relating to increased fuel consumption, pollution (65% of CO2 maintenance and development of infrastructure and services. emissions are from motor vehicle traffic) and congestion. For example, tailbacks of several kilometres are a daily occurrence on the N1, N2, M3, The Western Cape has a relatively well-developed road and rail network M5 and Koeberg routes into Cape Town CBD. Tailbacks and severe and high quality sea and airports, which have enabled the Province, and congestion are also experienced on the N1 Freeway, on the Willie van especially Cape Town, to grow rapidly in importance as a leading Schoor - Durban Road couplet, and in the Rondebosch and Claremont gateway to South Africa and recently to West Africa. The Province has two areas, especially during the school term. major international gateways, Cape Town International Airport and the Port of Cape Town. Most visitors to the Western Cape arrive through Cape Morning peak congestion is also increasingly being experienced in Paarl, Town International Airport while most freight moves through the Port of Stellenbosch and George. Traffic congestion also occurs at other times. Cape Town. Secondary international gateways include the Port of During the weekend and on Friday afternoons and Mondays severe Saldanha and to a lesser extent Mossel Bay harbour and George Airport. congestion is experienced on the N2 Freeway descending from Sir Lowry's Pass and on both directions into Knysna. Severe congestion is also One of the underlying success factors of any regional economy relates to experienced on a daily basis on Louis Fourie Road in Mossel Bay and on the movement of goods, people and services. It is important that the role the Hawston to Hermanus Road. and functioning of the different modes of transport and the impact on the infrastructure are clearly understood in order to focus different investment It should be noted that merely widening the affected roads will have little on the areas of opportunity and need. long- or even medium-term benefits. Experience has shown that adding road capacity to a network tends to attract usage over and above normal Without strategic investment in transport infrastructure and especially traffic volumes. More imaginative solutions that will have to embrace public transport, the Western Cape will struggle to compete effectively public transport in integrated approaches will be required. nationally and internationally, attract international and domestic investment and ensure the future economic growth and socio-economic development of the Province’s inhabitants. CNdV africa 4-78 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Road Infrastructure road network continuing to deteriorate and suggesting that in future The provincial road network for which the Provincial Department is routine maintenance expenditure will have to grow to the detriment of responsible comprises 6 354km of surfaced roads, 10 424km unsurfaced capital spending (SoER, 2004). An ever-increasing component of available roads and approximately 21 000km of unsurfaced minor roads (SoER, 2004). funds will have to be allocated for routine maintenance, drawing funds away from preventative maintenance, rehabilitation and reconstruction. The overall condition of the surfaced network has dropped from 71% in 2001 to 67% in 2004 (100% equals perfect condition). Roughly 11% of the One of the major factors in deteriorating road condition is the overloading surfaced roads are in a poor or very poor condition, 36% in a fair condition, of heavy vehicles, which is estimated to cost the taxpayer between R120m while 92% of the pavements are 16 years and older. Deterioration models and R150m per annum in road maintenance. The Province currently has indicate that the percentage of roads in a poor condition will grow to nine weighbridges in operation, see Figure 4.2.3.1 and a doubling of shifts approximately 40% of the network by 2012/13. The gravel road network has at five weighbridge stations has seen an increase in the hours of operation 5 885km (57%) in poor or very poor condition. The average gravel thickness from eight hours to 16 hours per day. Improvements have been made to decreased from 63mm over 5 years to only 31mm in 2002. Currently 73% of the infrastructure required at these facilities to improve effectiveness and the gravel network has potential passability problems requiring R680 million efficiency. This has resulted in a reduction in the number of overloaded to regravel (Department of Transport & Public Works, 2004). vehicles from 10,8% in 2001 to 7,7% in 2002 (Department of Transport & Public Works, 2003 – (T&PW)). Table 4.2.3.1 indicates the category of road in kilometres and the percentage distribution between district municipalities for the 2003/04 SANRAL has been considering the tolling of the N1, N2 and R300 freeways financial year. to be able to afford the cost of maintenance and necessary upgrades of those routes. The provincial government is considering a fuel levy as a 2003/04 per district municipality means to increase maintenance funding. The impact of tolling within City of urban catchment areas and the effect of both proposals on the provincial Category of road West Cape Central TOTAL Cape Overberg Eden % distribution Coast Winelands Karoo economy needs to be investigated to ensure that the preferred measures Town are implemented in a way that supports economic growth and Trunk Roads (km) 3 299 166 798 413 467 833 622 % 100 5 24 13 14 25 19 development. Main Roads (km) 5 071 752 1 265 964 489 910 690 % 100 15 24 19 10 18 14 The Impact of By-pass Routes Divisional Roads (km) 9 512 278 1 901 1 494 1 362 2 774 1 703 % 100 3 20 16 14 29 18 During the 1960s and 1970s a number of by-passes were affected around Minor Roads (km) 21 116 89 6 976 2 288 1 804 3 845 6 114 many rural towns. This precipitated a three stage process of diminishing % 100 0.5 33 11 8.5 18 29 mainly retail opportunities. First, passing trade was rerouted around rather TOTAL 38 999 1 284 10 940 5 160 4 122 8 364 9 129 % 100 3 28 13 11 22 23 than through the town. Second, new large filling stations were allowed to Source (Department of Transport and Public Works, 2004) have direct access to the national route thereby impacting on fuel stations Table 4.2.3.1 Percentage distribution of roads between District Municipalities in the towns. Third, retail and restaurant activities were permitted on the Note: Percentages have been rounded off service station forecourts thereby undermining these activities in the towns. A fourth impact on Local Economic Development was that these new The maintenance backlog of road infrastructure based on a 2002 survey service stations and retail operations were part of national chains rather was estimated at R2 142 billion, which translates into an average 5-year than being owned by local business people. While larger towns, e.g. capital fund allocation of R976 million per annum, required to meet current George and Worcester, were able to withstand the drop in passing trade, standards. The present capital budget for maintenance and rehabilitation a number of smaller towns have not. Mitigating measures to restore some is an average of R383 million per annum, resulting in the condition of the
CNdV africa 4-79 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 of the attractiveness of these to the passing travellers should be studied, commute long distances to employment centres. This discrepancy has see Figure 4.2.3.2. resulted in an inefficient and heavily subsidised public transport system and the need for investment in road infrastructure due to the reliance on private vehicle ownership, as well as high maintenance costs of road infrastructure. Graph 4.2.3.1 shows that township residents, comprising 67% of urban residents, have to travel an average of 18kms in one direction to get to work. Informal settlements, on the other hand tend to be better located than even the suburbs and especially townships, although their average trip distance is still high at approximately 15km.
In rural areas, where services are less frequent and accessible, and car ownership lower than in the City of Cape Town, many people are virtually stranded. In farming communities, workers often depend on occasional lifts from their employers, even for essential travel requirements. In these rural areas, communities are forced to walk long distances to reach basic amenities and services, simply because no form of transport is available or the available public transport is unaffordable (PLTF, 2004).
A major issue with public transport, whether it be rail or road services in the City of Cape Town or rural school bus services, is their excess capacity in off-peak hours. This is directly related to the spatial structure of settlements which has created morning and evening long distance "tidal flows" between home and school and home and work. The pattern is not integrated in most cases, with notable exceptions such as the Southern Suburbs railway line in the City of Cape Town, and distances are too far for Figure 4.2.3.2 Uniondale people to walk or cycle.
Public Transport Modes of transport used for the provision of public transport services in the Public transport is a basic need for a large proportion of the population of Province are commuter trains, buses, minibus taxis and metered taxis. the Western Cape in both urban and rural areas. In the City of Cape Town, Commuter rail is the most utilised mode of passenger travel in public where 67% of the population of the Province resides, the relatively low car transport. However, personal safety is a major issue. Minibus-taxis provide ownership rate combined with the need to use other means of transport the largest road based service in the City, and in the case of rural areas for work trips mean that 56% of people depend on public transport use. It is they provide the largest of all public transport services. The fleet of some imperative that public facilities and non-motorised transport be made an 10 000 minibus-taxis in the Province, generates approximately 15 000 jobs. overall transport priority : the vision in developing the Western Cape Formal bus transport employs approximately 5 000 people, metered-taxis Transport Policy, as set out in the White Paper of 1997 was "Public Transport 1 000, and Metrorail more than 2 000. The number of people gainfully First" and this remains valid. employed in carrying out public transport duties in the Province totals Historic settlement patterns and the separation of work and residence some 23 000 (Department of Transport & Public Works, 2004). have resulted in an urban transport system where the urban poor have to
CNdV africa 4-80 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 route (T&PW, 2004). In the areas outside the City of Cape Town, other 30 km mobility strategies are being developed, for example for Central Karoo and for George. Ex-homeland 9%
20 km Rail Network Township 67% There are three long distance passenger rail lines that connect the Western Cape to the rest of South Africa. The north-eastern line, which is most frequently used, links the Province to Gauteng and other Southern African 16 km Suburb 7% countries, while the eastern and northern lines serve the south and west coasts respectively. Twenty-two rail stations serve the long distance rail lines. In some instances, e.g. between Cape Town and Wellington,the Inform al A rea 12% 15 km stations are shared with the commuter rail services. During the off-peak season, the number of passengers making use of the long distance services Inner City 5% 10 km is in the order of 400 per train per day, while this number doubles to 800 passengers per train per day during peak seasons (PLTF, 2004). Figure 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 4.2.3.1 shows the rail network in the Province.
DistanceDistance fromfrom Source: MSA Analysis, CSS 1995 October Household Survey CBDCBD or or Other Other The commuter rail network in the Western Cape services mainly the City of Work Location Work Location Cape Town and some towns along the national lines in the Cape Winelands and West Coast districts. A total of 118 stations are used for
Graph 4.2.3.1 Travel Distances - Western Cape - Metrorail Source: DOT, 1997 commuter purposes. Cape Town station forms the focus of the rail network and therefore has the highest utilisation, with 600 trains and 147 500 Although communities are dependent on subsidised bus and rail services, passenger trips per day. During the peak morning and evening periods, the the escalation of subsidies for both road and rail based public transport Khayelitsha, Kapteinsklip, Eerste Rivier, Kraaifontein and Southern Suburbs has cast doubts on their sustainability. This is partly due to inefficient public lines carry the majority of commuters (PLTF, 2004). Issues faced by transport operations and also to the sprawling low density nature of the commuters include crime, the punctuality of the service, the reduction of urban settlements. Bus service subsidies in the City of Cape Town the services, fare increases, and massive, unutilised off-peak capacity. amounted to R317 million in the 2003/04 financial year (SoER, 2004). No subsidies have been allocated for commuter services in the rural areas or The freight rail network includes a total length of track of 4 944km. Most the minibus industry. tracks are shared with long distance and commuter rail services, the exceptions being the line serving Cape Town Harbour, the westbound line The Provincial Department’s focus is currently on the development of a from Cape Town via Kalbaskraal to Saldanha Bay, the northbound line to mobility strategy to revitalise the public transport system and address some Atlantis and the Saldanha-Sishen line. These lines are currently for the of the problems created by the existing infrastructure. In the City of Cape exclusive use of freight services. Freight transport services mainly service Town the first phase of this extensive project, which will include eight long established equipment, motor manufacturing and distribution integrated land use-transportation corridors, is the development of a bus companies. There are currently 80 daily rail trips within the Province and 12 rapid transit (BRT) system along the Klipfontein corridor. The Klipfontein daily trips to other Provinces using 1 190 train sets (PLTF, 2004). The Orex line Road project will enhance the mobility and integration of the diverse between Sishen and Saldanha is the sole conveyer of South Africa’s export communities along this route and will unlock economic and other benefits iron-ore. The throughput capacity of the Orex line currently amounts to to the communities, businesses and public transport operators along the over 25 million tons a year. CNdV africa 4-81 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 The current state of rail transport is of grave concern. As the Province's corridors in urban areas. Affordable and sustainable mobility in rural areas economic growth continues and hopefully accelerates there will be can be further enhanced through the roll out of non-motorised transport increasing passenger and freight movement between Saldanha- initiatives, including the provision of safer pedestrian pathways and Vredenburg, the City of Cape Town, Winelands and the Southern Cape, as facilities and the expansion of the Shova Kalula bicycle programme. well as with Gauteng. Rail has the potential to carry large volumes of traffic without requiring extensions, increasing hazards, and contributing to Shova Kalula is a National Department of Transport project aimed at pollution. However, the current state of affairs is resulting in increasing promoting cycling among schoolchildren and workers who walk long traffic on the road network contributing to road maintenance needs, distances every day in disadvantaged rural and urban areas. Later, the traffic hazards, congestion and related problems. project will refocus and encourage cycling among a much broader user community. The initiative aims to provide sustainable and affordable mobility to communities through access to bicycles and the establishment of a self-sustaining bicycle micro-business in the community (T&PW, 2004).
Bicycle transport has the potential to make a major contribution to transport on the Province, especially in flatter areas, but it requires dedicated safe ways.
Airports Cape Town International Airport (CTIA) is the most important national and international gateway in the Western Cape. The current passenger total of 5.6 million is predicted to increase to 14 million by 2015. Of the current total, 1.2 million are international passengers (Johannesburg currently has 6 million international passengers per annum and Durban 50 000). The existing airport is accessibly located and there is land available for future airside and landside developments. The relocation of the airport is out of the question as it has a R1.3 billion replacement value meaning that the Figure 4.2.3.3 Road Trains depreciation of capital will be more than CTIA’s current profit (interview Vracar and Wood). Hazardous and Toxic Waste Operations such as nuclear power stations, hospitals and clinics, and the An important land use planning issue concerning airports is the alignment Provincial Waste Management Strategy which is centralising especially of noise contours and land use restrictions within them. There are hazardous and toxic waste to three hazardous waste sites in the Province, international conventions on what land uses should be permitted. These are creating a demand for the transport of these materials. Safe methods contours should be proclaimed well in advance of urban development of transporting such waste must be investigated. and protected accordingly.
Non-Motorised Transport (NMT) Even during peak season there is capacity at the airport and the proposed The movement of people through non-motorised transport has not enjoyed second runway will provide sufficient capacity for the next 50 years. The high priority until recently, but there is a growing focus on bicycle and main restrictions on the number of flights to CTIA include factors such as pedestrianisation projects in both rural and urban areas, as part of the route regulation, landing rights agreements and airline operation strategies development of mobility strategies for rural areas and along development (e.g. hub and spoke, etc.) rather than physical constraints. It is in the CNdV africa 4-82 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 interest of the Western Cape (City of Cape Town) to get more direct flights Ports to CTIA as this will help to reduce the seasonality of airport volumes, extend The Port of Cape Town is a full service, general cargo port, operating 24 the tourism season and have general up- and downstream economic hours a day, seven days a week and is equipped to handle all types of benefits. general break bulk and containerised cargo via its specialised terminals. The port is world renowned for its deciduous fruit, perishable and frozen Cargo demand is in a similar position to passenger demand, in that Airports product exports. The fishing industry at the Port of Cape Town is of major Company South Africa (ACSA) can provide more space and capacity proportions. Conventional cargo is shipped through Duncan Dock and a should demand increase. At present the cargo demand at CTIA is low as container terminal is situated at the Ben Schoeman Dock. The rail/road 90% of cargo is destined for Johannesburg and 80% of all cargo is carried transport network contributes towards the total logistical chain for in passenger aircraft. Cargo movement is also mainly one-way from South containerised as well as conventional cargo. Africa to export destinations, with relatively little cargo arriving by air. ACSA has a proposal to develop a Freight City in order to accommodate the The Port also has significant potential as a passenger liner terminal and a needs of freight agents situated at CTIA with facilities to store fish, fruit and number of cruise ships visit every year. However, the facilities for these vegetables. operations are poor and this is believed to be constraining the realisation of this potential. ACSA works on a just-in-time principle to reduce risk and cost of new development. Additional apron and aircraft parking space is being The Port serves as a hub for cargoes between Europe and the Americas constructed, while two multi-storey car parkades for an additional 2 000 and Africa, Asia and Oceania. It is generally regarded as a gateway for vehicles, a new domestic terminal and a further extension to the African countries, and should become a hub port for the West African international terminal are planned (interview Vracar and Wood). The coast. The Container Terminal has the advantage that, in respect of United Soccer World Cup is likely to bring these projects forward and increase Kingdom, European and American bound time-sensitive cargoes, a five their scope to provide sufficient capacity in 2010. There is a need to day saving in transit time on containers to and from the Gauteng area can improve access to the airport, both road and rail-based. A rail corridor to be achieved. This is made possible by the direct railage of containers the airport is currently being investigated but greater provision of road- which eliminates the sailing time to other ports. Throughput capacity at the based public transport and enhanced facilities within the airport precinct container terminal stands at 420 000 TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units) a to accommodate those modes needs investigation as well. year, but will be increased by a further 50 000 in the near future (National Ports Authority). However, it should be noted that the Port is vulnerable to George Airport has experienced an increase in air traffic but is still mainly competition from Walvis Bay due to the recently completed Trans-Kalahari seasonal. The current runway system has enough capacity to highway connecting this port directly to Gauteng via Botswana. accommodate a substantial increase. The current domestic passenger throughput is 400 000 – 500 000 passengers/annum. Cargo traffic includes Periodically, serious bottlenecks occur at the container terminal, especially flowers, fish, oysters, herbs and ferns. The increasing popularity of the at the end of summer and during April with its many public holidays, during Garden Route as a tourist destination is expected to boost passenger which period there is a rush to export fruit. Some problems have been growth at George Airport even further. blamed on operational efficiency rather than infrastructure capacity. The Port Plan indicates that the container terminal will be too small within the Plettenberg Bay Airport has recently been privatised and is expected to next five years and thereafter extensions will be needed. play an important role in the town's future development. The Port of Saldanha is the deepest and largest natural port in Southern Africa. The port is the only iron ore handling port in South Africa and also serves base metal mines, the heavy minerals smelter as well as the crude CNdV africa 4-83 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 oil storage facility near the port. A R650 million upgrade to the iron ore export plant has recently been implemented.
Apart from serving the manufacturing industry, investigation is underway to establish Saldanha as a focus for the piping of oil and gas. The port has substantial spare capacity.
Mossel Bay has always been a fishing port of substance with limited commercial cargo activity, but the development of Mossgas and PetroSA has played a major role in the development of the port. The port also serves the oil industry as an oil rig supply boat base and is the only South African port that operates two off-shore mooring points within port limits. However, the harbour has a relatively limited capacity due to its entrance depth of only 8m.
Institutional Issues A major problem facing the delivery of effective and convenient public transport services in the Western Cape has been the lack of a central, co- ordinated transport planning authority with effective management control over the various services making up public transport. This is a particular problem for the City of Cape Town. The operational and commuter service divisions of the suburban rail system, SARCC and Metrorail, are controlled from a head office in Pretoria. The various bus companies, of which Golden Arrow in the City of Cape Town is the largest, are private companies although they receive public subsidies in many instances. The mini-bus taxi industry comprises many different operators loosely combined into a number of associations. The industry does not receive government subsidies and there is intense competition for routes which becomes violent and sometimes deadly from time to time.
CNdV africa 4-84 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.3.1 Transport
CNdV africa 4-85 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.3.3 KEY ISSUES restore some of the attractiveness of these towns to the passing travellers; Ɣ Urban planning has impacted on the viability of public transport in the Ɣ The City’s future economic growth prospects depend significantly on its metropolitan area due to the low densities and dispersed nature of logistics efficiency, and will be negatively affected by efficiency- land uses, creating morning and evening one-way tidal flow reducing factors such as congestion; movement patterns; Ɣ Levels of service in rail freight are a problem. Due to its pricing, cost Ɣ The large number of roleplayers in the transport sector, as well and the and efficiency, rail cannot currently compete with road freight separation of planning, management and operations, creates transport; challenges in terms of service delivery, co-ordination, efficiency and Ɣ Underutilisation of rail infrastructure is evident as there is spare capacity responsibility; on all routes; the lack of train sets and shortcomings of the signalling Ɣ In the City of Cape Town there is great need for a transport authority to also hampers the quality of services; ensure accountability; Ɣ There is a need for a hub within the CBD, integrated with key Ɣ The public transport system in the Province is inadequate, especially in infrastructure such as the Cape Town Station from where long distance the rural areas; coaches can operate. Attention to facilities along primary routes to Ɣ The public transport sector with the exception of mini-bus taxis is heavily accommodate the long distance coaches is needed; reliant on subsidies; Ɣ In the interest of road safety, rest stops along primary routes to cater for Ɣ The regulation and integration of the taxi industry into the public trucks and private motorcars are also needed; transport sector is urgently required; Ɣ Cape Town Port is at capacity while Saldanha Port has substantial Ɣ There is a lack of investment in the maintenance and provision of capacity available; public transport infrastructure, especially the rail network. The Ɣ Cape Town International Airport can accommodate additional maintenance backlog also impacts on service delivery and economic growth, but opportunities should be explored to divert general and development will be constrained without strategic investment. The business aviation to an alternative airport such as Fisantekraal or deterioration of the network has been outstripping the rate at which Ysterplaat in the longer term. The feasibility of other national airport maintenance and rehabilitation can be done; locations within the Province is unlikely; Ɣ Unless transport infrastructure, especially rail, is efficient to overcome Ɣ The importance of Cape Town as a hub port for cargoes from West the problem of the Western Cape being located far away from key Africa is increasing, while there is also growth in the number of markets, the Province will lose its competitive edge with other transhipments between the Far East and West African ports; Provinces, SADC and development areas such as the Gauteng-Durban Ɣ There are environmental issues surrounding the expansion of the ports corridor; regarding coastline equilibrium that need to be effectively addressed; Ɣ Overloading of heavy vehicles directly impacts on the functional Ɣ Environmental legislation has increased the planning timeframes lifespan and cost of road infrastructure; needed before new transport infrastructure can be implemented (i.e. Ɣ The growth areas in the City of Cape Town, namely the Milnerton, the lag between planning and implementation has increased); Table View and Durbanville, areas are not served by rail, nor are bus Ɣ There is a need to expand the key air and seaports strategically to and mini-bus taxi services adequate. This makes these areas meet the growing demand for the movement of passengers and dependent on private transport which is leading to the metropolitan cargo; area experiencing an increase in congestion, especially during peak Ɣ Noise contours w.r.t. airports and their associated land use controls hours when the road network capacity is exceeded in some areas; should be designated well in advance of future urban development; Ɣ The impact of by-passes on the economy of small rural towns requires and, investigation and possible identification of mitigating measures to
CNdV africa 4-86 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Ɣ Tolling the N1, N2 and R300 freeways within urban areas may have an o a relatively good spatial match between its main public transport impact on the economy and travel costs, especially for low and middle corridors and the main concentrations of jobs and people income people. (especially public transport users); o a fairly high proportion of jobs within its inner city; 4.2.3.4 SPATIAL SUMMARY o a CBD/harbour area (i.e. V&A Waterfront) which is regaining its attractiveness to tourists, shoppers and investors (bucking the Ɣ Land use densification: Densification is key to the efficiency and urban general trend of urban decay, increasing crime and disinvestment restructuring of public transport, especially the rail service within the being experienced in most other South African cities), and Metro. Therefore policy should focus on the intensification of land uses o a fairly frequent and extensive network of rail passenger services within walking distance from stations and public transport corridors. (PLTF, 2004). Trends internationally focus on the identification of Transport Development Areas. There is also a need to understand the difference Ɣ Provincial gateways: The Province has two major international in the relationship between land use and road transport and land use gateways, namely Cape Town International Airport and the Port of and rail transport. The contact points of rail and land use are at and Cape Town. Most visitors to the Western Cape arrive through Cape around stations. It is within these zones that high intensity urban Town International Airport while the majority of freight is handled at the development will create the thresholds that will make the rail service port. Other significant gateways are the Port of Saldanha, to a lesser successful. An investigation should be made as to what level of extent Mossel Bay harbour and George Airport, which serves mainly population density will be necessary within walking distance of rail visitors to the Southern Cape area. Priority should be given to the main stations and bus stops to make these services viable. gateways, but the capacity of the other facilities, such as Saldanha Port, should be utilised to facilitate economic opportunity. Giving Ɣ Urban restructuring should occur: George Airport international status could improve tourism and o firstly, at a local scale, where there is a vast need for improved and import/export possibilities. safer pedestrian circulation, cycling and other means of non- motorised transport, as well for general aesthetic and other Ɣ Transport networks: Rural transport improvements can increase market qualitative improvements (i.e. creating dignified urban spaces); access and thereby lower agricultural production costs and also and, facilitate the development of the non-agricultural rural economy. o secondly, by developing a cost-effective, integrated, yet Urban transport improvements can increase labour market efficiency pragmatic bundle of land use and transport investment and and access to amenities. Inter-urban transport improvements can management strategies to contain and redress the increasing level facilitate domestic and international trade by speeding up the of automobile dependence that is caused by crime, overcrowding movement of freight and people. Conversely, in many developing on public transport, dispersal of job opportunities and the countries, the inadequacy of transport infrastructure and the dominance of “car culture” (PLTF, 2004). inefficiency of transport services are recognised as being amongst the main bottlenecks to socio-economic development and social Ɣ Travel patterns: There is a significant difference between the urban integration. structure and travel patterns of Cape Town and those of most other South African cities. Despite the legacy of apartheid, and the effects of Ɣ Potential key public transport links ongoing urban sprawl and commercial decentralisation, Cape Town o Cape Town CBD to Cape Town International Airport; still has: o extension of Khayelitsha rail network to its eastern extremity;
CNdV africa 4-87 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 o a possible connection between City of Cape Town and Saldanha operators are relatively expensive over longer distances. Options to which could include Atlantis and service areas such as Table View provide local mobility to rural population through alternatives such as and Milnerton; NMT initiatives (bicycles, etc) are being further investigated. The school o False Bay Coast: Muizenberg to Gordon’s Bay; bus service, currently under review, is an example of these unviable o more direct links into the adjacent Winelands towns; and, rural, public transport services. This, integrated with public transport o an improved rail service between City of Cape Town and the options along key routes, could assist in expanding the economic and Southern Cape and Gauteng that will bring regional development social opportunities of the rural population. advantages to many of those towns situated on these routes. REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ɣ Needs of the tourism sector: Investment in tourism related infrastructure Ɣ Airports Company South Africa (ACSA) Goran Vracar, Assistant Group should focus on Executive Airport Planning and David Wood Manager Property Cape o access to the Province: CTIA, Cruise Liner Terminal at Cape Town Town International (pers com); Port, encouragement of more direct flights to the Province; Ɣ Ben Veldman: Assistant Executive Manager: Roads Infrastructure, o movement within CBD: public transport such as priority buses, etc; PG:WC (pers com); o movement within the City of Cape Town: public transport links to Ɣ Cape Regional Chamber: Jeannie Taljaard, Business Information key sites; and, Manager (pers com); o movement within the Province: road and public transport links to Ɣ Department of Transport & Public Works, Annual Report, 2003; and between Tourism Development Areas. Ɣ Department of Transport & Public Works, Annual Report, 2004; Ɣ Department of Transport, Annual Report, 1997; Ɣ Rural/agricultural perspective: The rural-urban divide in the Western Ɣ SARCC: Peter Hahn, General Manager, Network Planning and Cape, although clearly present, is not as pronounced as in many other Development (pers com); parts of the country. In addition, the Southern Cape benefits from Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, SRK tourism, a diversified agricultural sector and the Mossgas PetroSA Consulting. Western Cape State of the Environment Overview Report project as important growth forces. The West Coast Investment (SoER), 2004; Initiative, which incorporates the Saldanha Steel project, is bringing Ɣ MSA Analysis, CSS 1995 October Household Survey, 1995; new jobs and investment opportunities to the relatively Ɣ Wesgro: Ismail Dockrat, Chief Executive (pers com). underdeveloped north-west area of the Province. The Cape Winelands area is taking advantage of the new and expanded opportunities for tourism and agri-processing. Other remote sub-regions are taking advantage of increased opportunities for tourism, and a number of small towns have benefited from the expansion of services (from garages and "ultra-cities" to guest houses) to meet the demands of the increasing road traffic on the N1, N2 and N7, as well as on new tourist routes such as the R62 through the Little Karoo and the Mission Stations and Bird routes. The deterioration of provincial roads does however have an impact on agriculture, tourism (West Coast and Southern Cape) and other non-metropolitan economic activities.
Ɣ Rural mobility: Due to the dispersed population distribution in most of the rural areas, public transport systems are not viable and taxi CNdV africa 4-88 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005
CNdV africa 4-89 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.4 WATER SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE (DEMAND & SUPPLY)
4.2.4.1 INTRODUCTION Water demand
The importance and scarcity of water resources has been discussed in WMA Irrigation Urban Rural Mining & Bulk Afforestation Section 4.1.4.1, and the fact that South Africa is a water-scarce country. Industrial The Western Cape's freshwater ecosystems are under great pressure. In this Berg 43% 55% 2% section the demand for water, and water supply infrastructure will be Breede 91% 6% 2% 1% addressed. The challenge that South Africa and the Western Cape face is Gouritz 75% 15% 3% 2% 5% to manage water demand so that South Africa and the Western Cape Olifants/Doring 95% 2% 2% 1% can achieve a sustainable development path. Table 4.2.4.1 Catchment water requirements per WMA in 2000
The availability of affordable water can be a limiting factor for economic growth and social development, especially in South Africa where water is a relatively scarce resource that is distributed unevenly – geographically, seasonally and socio-politically. The Western Cape’s annual rainfall is substantially lower than the South African average of 452 mm/year. The Province’s high evaporation rates almost always exceed rainfall, meaning that little water finds its way into the region’s rivers, dams and wetlands. Rainfall is also highly seasonal and erratic, resulting in unpredictable periods of drought. Furthermore, droughts may become more frequent as a result of climate change. These challenges, along with the high influx of people from other Provinces into the Western Cape, put increasing pressure on the Province’s already stressed water resources (DEADP, 2004).
4.2.4.2 BACKGROUND
The demand and supply of water is summarised here according to the four Water Management Areas (WMAs) in the Western Cape: the Berg, Breede, Gouritz and Olifants Doring. The Breede WMA is the only one that has a surplus based on existing infrastructure. This surplus is small and is mainly in privately owned dams (Karen Shippey, pers com). Figure 4.2.4.1 Water Management Areas and Population Distribution
Berg WMA Ɣ Geographically 56% of total requirements for water occurs within the Greater Cape Town and 31% in the Upper Berg sub-area;
CNdV africa 4-89 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Ɣ Irrigated agriculture mainly produces high value table grapes, fruit and Ɣ Options also exists for additional afforestation in some of the high wine for the export market and vegetables for local consumption; rainfall areas as well as possible irrigation development in the Ɣ More than 45% of water used in urban areas becomes available as catchments west of the Gouritz River; and, effluent, part of which could potentially be re-used (in Cape Town Ɣ Water resources currently developed are already fully utilised, some approximately 6% of return flows are used, compared to 15% in inland towns experience insufficient reliability of supply, while serious Durban, and close to 100% in Johannesburg); deficits may result from the implementation of the Reserve in the Ɣ Future growth expected as a result of tourism and other developments Coastal sub-area. along the west coast; and, Ɣ Continued concentration of economic development in Greater Cape Olifants/Doring Town (with strong growth in water requirements) and additional water Ɣ Most of the water use in the management area is in the Olifants sub- needs for irrigation. area, representing over 65% of the total requirements for water in the area. Close to 20% is used in the Koue Bokkeveld, about 10% in the Breede WMA Sandveld and smaller quantities in the Doring and Knersvlakte sub- Ɣ Nearly 75% of the water use in the area is in the Upper Breede sub- areas; area, followed by the Overberg West, the Riversonderend and the Ɣ Although mining requires only 3 million m3 per year, it represents nearly Lower Breede sub-areas, with irrigation by far the largest water use 50% of the total water availability in the Knersvlakte sub-area; and, sector in all these areas; Ɣ Strong economic growth, could be reflected in increased water Ɣ Large quantities of water already needed for transfer to Berg WMA, demand in tourism and other development along the West Coast and mainly for urban use; in the Olifants River valley. Ɣ Coastal developments expected in the Overberg West sub-area, possible growth in the Upper Breede sub-area, as well as additional Water Availability irrigation development; and, Water availability is a fundamental determinant of population carrying Ɣ Additional transfers to Berg WMA likely to be required. capacity. Table 4.2.4.2 summarises the population carrying capacity of the Province according to how much water is left after addressing ecological Gouritz WMA requirements. It can be seen that in 1986 the Berg River catchment was Ɣ Most important land use impacts on surface water runoff are the approaching capacity while there was still considerable capacity in other reduction in runoff due to alien infestation and afforestation; catchments. However, these figures did not take into account high Ɣ Water use by irrigation highly variable from year to year, much of land seasonal demand, for instance, at coastal resorts over December where lies fallow and is only irrigated in years of high runoff when sufficient local supplies are often exceeded over the short term. water is available; Ɣ Substantial proportion of water used for urban and industrial purposes is used non-consumptively, and becomes available as effluent; Ɣ General expectations are for future economic and population growth to be concentrated in the coastal belt, mainly from Mossel Bay to Plettenberg Bay (Coastal sub-area); Ɣ Growth expected in the Gamka and Olifants sub-areas, associated with increased economic activity at Beaufort –West and Oudtshoorn respectively;
CNdV africa 4-90 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Estimated Mean Estimated Estimated Bulk water supply infrastructure in the Berg WMA is mostly owned and Annual Total Mean Annual Water for Env Utilisable Water (= Water Crude operated by the City of Cape Town, via the Western Cape Water Supply Primary Managemen until MAR + Est available for Population Approx 1996 Drainage t(= Nature System (WCWSS). Water is diverted from the upper tributaries of the Berg Return Flow + Est Agric-Forestry Carrying Population Region Cons + Ground Water & Urban - Capacity River via the Riviersonderend-Berg River scheme during the high flow Estuaries) Abstraction) Industr Use season, for storage in the Theewaterskloof Dam in the Breede WMA, for 106 m3/yr 106 m3/yr 106 m3/yr transfer back to the Berg WMA during the low flow summer season. The Olifants- 726 77 649 1 750 000 71 026 Berg Water Project, comprising the Berg River Dam (formerly known as Doring Skuifraam Dam) and Supplement Scheme, is currently underway, and will Berg 1 343 143 1 200 3 430 000 3 195 223 be completed by 2007. It will increase the yield of the WCWSS by 81 million Breeede - 1 385 149 1 236 3 530 000 347 981 3 3 Sonderend m (18%) to 523 million m per year by 2007. Even with significant water Gouritz 336 40 296 845 000 165 872 conservation and demand management measures, the existing supplies to S Cape 841 70 771 2 200 000 282 832 the region are likely to come under pressure of restrictions until the Berg Gamtoos 361 37 324 925 000 86 838 Water Project is completed, and additional interventions to augment the TOTAL 4 492 516 4 476 12 680 000 4 153 758 supply may be required soon after 2010. Potential for further development Table 4.2.4.2 Estimated Mean Annual Water Available and Crude Population of surface water exists in all four WMAs, subject to formal quantification of Carrying Capacity of the WCP (source: DWAF, 1986) the requirements with respect to the ecological component of the Reserve. Potentially feasible options include raising of the Clanwilliam Dam Surface water and a possible new dam on the lower Doring River.
Table 4.2.4.3 and Figure 4.2.4.1 shows the WMAs and major dams in the From WMA To WMA Volume Description Western Cape Province. (million m3/year) Water Management Area Main storage dams Breede Berg 162 Riviersonderend/Berg Scheme Berg Wemmershoek, Voëlvlei, Misverstand, Steenbras Breede Berg 23 (max Palmiet River Upper and Lower, Kleinplaas. Urban supplies (75% of total surface runoff 50) from Berg River catchment) include five small dams in the Cape Peninsula, the two Idas Valley dams in Stellenbosch, and Breede Berg 9 Smaller transfers two small dams on Paarl Mountain. Breede Olifants/Doring 2,5 InverDoring Canal (for irrigation) Breede Lakenvallei, Koekedouw, Stettynskloof, Roode Gouritz Breede 0,7 (max Duivenhoks River (rural supply (75% of total surface runoff Elsberg, Poortjieskloof, Keerom, Theewaterskloof, 2) purposes) from Breede River and Elandskloof, Buffelsjags, Eikenhof and Kogelberg *Construction of any large new water infrastructure in the Breede WMA that may impact on future transfers tributaries) to the Berg WMA, will be subject to national approval, to ensure options for future transfer from Breede to Berg are not inadvertently jeopardised. Gouritz Gamkapoort, Leeu-Gamka, Floriskraal, Table 4.2.4.4 Inter-Water Management Area Transfers in 2000 (41% of total surface runoff Stompdrift, Kammanassie, Wolwedans, Korente- from Gouritz River & 46% from vet and Duivenhoks River From Tables 4.2.4.4 and 4.2.4.5 it is clear that large quantities of water are Coastal sub-area) already transferred (30% of the total water use) from the Breede WMA into Olifants Doring Clanwilliam, Bulshoek Barrage and Oudekraal the Berg WMA to augment local resources. (flow in Olifants River-50% from catchment of Olifants River and 50% Doring River) Table 4.2.4.3 Major Dams in the Western Cape Province CNdV africa 4-91 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 WMA Surface water Ground water Usable Return Transfers in Ɣ The Oudtshoorn geological fault may discharge large quantities of flows water to the ocean. This could be abstracted for inland utilisation; and, Berg 56% 8% 7% 29% Ɣ There is little (if any) potential for further exploitation of groundwater Breede 79% 13% 8% resources without impacting on surface water. Gouritz 70% 23% 7% Olifants/Doring 79% 13% 7% 1% Olifants/Doring * Usable return flows includes irrigation, urban and mining and bulk Ɣ Groundwater is an important component of water supply to towns and Table 4.2.4.5 Available water in year 2000 extensively used for irrigation in Sandveld sub-area, in drier parts, often the main or only source of water; Groundwater Ɣ It is an already highly utilised source, and there is little potential for further development in most areas; Berg WMA Ɣ There is some localised over-exploitation of groundwater in the About 8% of the total requirements for water in the area is estimated to Ɣ Sandveld with the potato farming, and there are strong links between be supplied from groundwater mainly for irrigation in the Cape Flats surface and ground water; and, area and in the upper parts of the Berg River catchment; Ɣ It is particularly important that the groundwater table at abstraction The largest urban use of groundwater is at Atlantis, where artificial Ɣ points along the coast needs is carefully managed to prevent intrusion recharge of groundwater is practised; of seawater, in particular, the groundwater table at Verlorenvlei should Close inter-dependence exists between groundwater and surface Ɣ not be lowered. water in certain areas. Further exploitation of these resources may directly reflect in reduced surface water flow; and, Significant quantities of water is believed to be abstractable from deep Ɣ Groundwater levels at the coast should be carefully managed to fractured rock aquifers of the Table Mountain Group geological prevent the intrusion of seawater into acquifers formations- further investigations required. (This is an opportunity in all four WMAs) Breede WMA Ɣ Groundwater is an important component of water resources, with close links between surface and groundwater especially in parts of the 4.2.4.3 LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT Breede River Catchment, De Hoop and Kars River Vlei; Ɣ Most groundwater abstraction is in the Warmbokkeveld and Upper Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) is responsible for water Breede River Valley and Hex Valley – used for irrigation; resource development and management in terms of the National Water Ɣ There is little potential for increasing abstraction of groundwater in Act, 1998, and within the broader framework of other environmental these areas (increased abstraction will cause corresponding reduction legislation. in surface water flow); and, Ɣ National Water Act, 1998 (NWA) – the principle legal instrument relating Ɣ Groundwater is also used for some towns (inland and coastal) as well to water resource management in South Africa. The NWA is currently as in rural areas and for livestock watering. being incrementally implemented, introducing concepts such as the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS); Gouritz WMA Ɣ National Water Resource Strategy, 2004 (NWRS) – provides the Ɣ Groundwater is of major importance, particularly in drier inland regions framework within which the water resources of South Africa will be where it is mostly used for irrigation; managed in the future. The NWRS sets out policies, strategies, Ɣ It is a primary source of water for rural domestic supplies and stock objectives, plans, guidelines, procedures and institutional watering, as well as for several towns in WMA; arrangements for the protection, use, development, conservation,
CNdV africa 4-92 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 management and control of the country’s water resources. Objectives Ɣ Rainwater harvesting, grey water recycling and other demand for the strategy include to achieve equitable access to water, management strategies must be implemented; sustainable use of water and efficient and effective water use; Ɣ The ecological reserve needs to be comprehensively determined and Ɣ Water Services Act, 1997 – provides for the rights of access to basic implemented for rivers in the Western Cape, and will impact on the water supply and basic sanitation, a regulatory framework for water current water balances as well as the potential for future development; services institutions and water services intermediaries, etc.; Ɣ Climate change is expected to have a major impact on future water Ɣ Catchment Management Strategies (CMS) – the country has been availability as well as requirements for water (including impacts on divided into 19 Water Management Areas (WMAs), with four being recharge of groundwater); located in the Western Cape. The delegation of water resource Ɣ Shortfalls in water supply are currently experienced at some coastal management from central government to catchment level will be towns – mostly seasonal, projections shows increased growth in these achieved by the establishment of Catchment Management Agencies areas, with associated water requirements; (CMAs) at WMA level. Each CMA will develop a Catchment Ɣ Water quality – special attention need to be given to the management Management Strategy (CMS) for the protection, use, development, of the quality of water especially in the Berg River. Poor water quality conservation, management and control of water resources within its impacts on high water quality standards for export purposes, causes WMA. DWAF’s aim is to eventually hand over certain water resource health risks etc.; management functions to CMAs, but until such time as the CMAs are Ɣ Co-operative governance, planning and implementation in the established and fully operational, the regional offices of DWAF will management of water resources – good co-ordination between the continue to manage the water resource in their areas of jurisdiction; various role players required for an integrated approach to managing Ɣ Internal Strategic Perspectives (ISPs) – the objective of the ISPs is to water resources; provide a framework for DWAF’s management of the water resources Ɣ There are strong links/interdependence between surface and in each WMA, until such time as the regional offices can hand over groundwater – further exploitation of groundwater resources could their management functions to an established CMA; impact negatively on surface water availability; and, Ɣ National Environmental Management Act, 1998; and, Ɣ Exploitation of the Table Mountain Group aquifers is possible and Ɣ Environment Conservation Act, 1989. requires investigation.
4.2.4.4 KEY ISSUES 4.2.4.5 SUMMARY
Ɣ Given current patterns of water demand, future growth in water The Western Cape is clearly heading for a water demand and supply crisis. requirements in Cape Town will exceed the remaining undeveloped The City of Cape Town has once again had water restrictions imposed on it resource potential in WMA. There is an urgent need to develop and for the 2004 summer season, and such restrictions are regular on some implement water demand management strategies in Cape Town and small coastal towns over the Christmas period. other urban areas; Ɣ Irrigation for agriculture is a major use of water in the Province. There is It is clear that water demand management, beyond crisis water use a need to explore ways to grow the agricultural economy in the most restrictions, is required for a long-term sustainable solution. Many water-efficient way possible; technologies for reducing water demand are already available, but their Ɣ There is a need to prioritise water requirements between urban use has not become part of mainstream policy. Implementing water development and agriculture. Large quantities of water are already demand management strategies and technologies, in urban areas and transferred from Breede WMA for high value (urban, industrial) uses in the agricultural sector, is undoubtedly one of the most important elements Berg WMA; of achieving sustainable development in the Western Cape. Water demand management involves maintaining and upgrading existing water CNdV africa 4-93 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 supply infrastructure, for example to deal with leaks, and changing domestic, agricultural and industrial water consumption patterns.
REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning; Ɣ du Plessis H, Provincial Department of Local Government, 2004; Ɣ Enright W, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Cape Town Regional Office (pers com); Ɣ Gasson, B. The Biophysical Environment of the Western Cape Province in Relation to its Economy and Settlements, University of Cape Town, 1998; Ɣ Mouski F, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Cape Town Regional Office (pers com); Ɣ Shippey, K Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Cape Town (pers com); Ɣ van Zyl G, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Cape Town Regional Office (pers com); Ɣ Department of Water Affairs (DWA), Annual Report,1986.
CNdV africa 4-94 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.4.2 Rivers, Dams and Water Supply
CNdV africa 4-95 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005
CNdV africa 4-96 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.5 SEWERAGE
4.2.5.1 INTRODUCTION Percentage Local Municipality Failing sewerage systems are creating major health hazards and 1 –10% Beaufort West, Lainsburg, Prince Albert, Langeberg, Overstrand damaging river ecosystems throughout the Western Cape (Cape Argus, 11 –20% Stellenbosch, Kannaland, Oudshoorn, Plettenberg Bay, Swellendam, City of October 2004). This is the sad reality for many areas in the Western Cape Cape Town (17%) where the necessary funding is not being allocated to deal with the 21 – 30% Breede Valley, Breede River / Winelands, Witzenberg, Knysna, Cape Agulhas, disposal and treatment of sewage. Cederberg, Matzikama 31 – 40% Theewaterskloof, Saldanha Bay 41 – 50% Drakenstein, Mossel Bay, Bergriver On the one hand, sewerage in the Western Cape is not seen as a priority 51 – 60% George from a national perspective, as there are other Provinces seen to be more 61 – 70% Swartland (61%) needy, while on the other hand municipalities often don’t see the need to Table 4.2.5.1 Percentage of Consolidated Municipal Infrastructure Programme (CMIP) spend significant amounts of their budgets on sewerage. Funding spent on sewerage infrastructure by each Local Municipality, 1997- 2003 (Source: CMIP Municipal Status Report) According to the Constitution, municipalities have executive authority over removal, management and disposal of waste, whereas Provinces have the The City of Cape Town has 19 Waste Water Treatment Works and three exclusive legislative competence to establish, monitor, support and Marine Outfalls. Only 20% of the WWTWs in the City of Cape Town comply capacitate municipalities in this respect. At present the City of Cape Town with the quality requirements specified in their permits. Further problems and the Local Municipalities in the Province have direct responsibility for experienced at the WWTWs are sludge disposal, plant maintenance and sewage treatment and management in their respective areas. the bacteriological quality of effluent. The City needs approximately R1.1 billion (2004 estimate) to bring the WWTWs up to the required standard 4.2.5.2 BACKGROUND and to cope with increasing demands. According to DWAF, there is an unacceptably high number of pump-station failures resulting in raw Sewerage works or Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTWs) are managed sewage flowing into rivers. Furthermore, the ocean at marine outfalls is not by municipalities. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry is being monitored due to budget constraints. The City of Cape Town has responsible for the issuing of permits for sewerage works and for monitoring allocated R50 million for upgrading of treatment works in the current the compliance of these permits. Although there are many WWTWs in the financial year, 2004/05. This amount is not sufficient for the upgrading and Province in need of upgrading, most municipalities have chosen to focus extension of WWTWs that is needed. their spending on other elements of infrastructure provision, as indicated in Table 4.2.5.1 below. Figure 4.2.5.1 shows the various WWTWs in the Province in need of upgrading.
The findings of a recent study undertaken by the City of Cape Town showed that the biggest cause of contamination of rivers in the metropole is as a result of WWTWs producing sub-standard effluent, together with pump-stations which overflow into rivers. For example, during the period April to June 2004 six major spillages from pump-stations were reported.
CNdV africa 4-96 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Monwabesi Pump-station was out of action for five days, with the result when raw sewage flows into the storm water system, ending up in the that 30-50 million litres of raw sewage flowed into the sea (McConkey, ocean; 2004). Ɣ All the pump stations in the City of Cape Town have telemetry systems, According to DWAF, which monitors WWTWs, the towns in need of which detect when there is pump station failure. These telemetry upgrading include Plettenberg Bay, George, Paarl, Wellington, Robertson, systems are connected to a central point, from which they are Ashton. The most needy towns are Ladismith, where the system has monitored. However, not all these telemetry systems are operational; collapsed (i.e. there is no effluent coming out of the sewerage works as Ɣ In areas where rapid development is taking place, this development is there is no effluent going in), Citrusdal and Clanwilliam. outpacing infrastructure provision. In the City of Cape Town for example, this is happening up the West Coast (Melkbos, Parklands etc), 4.2.5.3 LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT as well as in the Durbanville, Helderberg and Botleray areas. The WWTWs responsible for servicing these areas are as follows: o The National Water Act (36 of 1988) informs management issues pertaining West Coast – Potsdam (Kilarney), Melkbos & Atlantis; o to sewerage i.e. it provides standards and guidelines. This Act requires that Durbanville: Kraaifontein, Scottsdene & Bellville; o all WWTWs are licensed, and there are effluent quality standards and Helderberg: Khayelitsha & Macassar; o management conditions attached to each licence. Non-compliance with Botleray: Bellville, Macassar & Khayelitsha; these standards and conditions is a criminal offence (McConkey, 2004). Ɣ Once a site for a new WWTW has been identified, it takes between four The conditions attached to each licence may vary from one WWTW to and five years before it becomes operational. This has implications another. For example, WWTWs that discharge into the ocean would have when planning any new large housing development; a condition requiring the monitoring of the marine environment. Local Ɣ Opportunities exist for the re-use of effluent from WWTW; authorities are responsible for the quality of effluent that they discharge Ɣ DWAF has found that sewage discharges often far exceed the and the control of diffuse pollution arising within their areas of jurisdiction. standards and conditions demanded by licenses (Berg ISP, 2004); Ɣ In the larger urban centres (e.g. Oudtshoorn) vandalism of the sewerage reticulation and pump-station infrastructure occasionally 4.2.5.4 KEY ISSUES leads to sewage spills from the system (Gouritz ISP, March 2004, DWAF); Ɣ Many of the WWTWs in the City of Cape Town discharge into already Ɣ Local authorities are under-funded, with the result that systems are not severely modified rivers e.g. the Salt River and the Black River. The maintained or upgraded. There is a concern that funding for question needs to be asked whether or not the further degradation of maintenance and upgrading is not being given sufficient priority in the these rivers should be allowed; IDPs; Ɣ WWTWs discharging in close proximity to estuaries should pump their Ɣ In the past expenditure has focused on capital costs, with little or no effluent to an upstream discharge point to facilitate dilution before money earmarked for operational budgets; entering the estuary itself. The financial constraints on the part of local Ɣ Pollution and the threat of disease as a result of inadequate sewage authorities to implement such measures will need to be addressed; disposal is an issue affecting all informal settlements; Ɣ Informal settlements are often situated close to rivers or streams, which Ɣ A further problem with informal settlements is that they are often end up being polluted by raw sewage; located over sewerage infrastructure, which makes the servicing of this Ɣ Diffuse pollution from poorly serviced informal settlements and the use infrastructure impossible. One such an example is in Khayelitsha, where of soak-aways on the banks of the Lower Breede River as well as other informal dwellings have been located over the interceptors (large, large rivers in the Province are a cause for concern. This pollution into council sewer pipes), thus these cannot be serviced; rivers not only has negative ecological and social (health) implications, Ɣ All pump stations have the ability for any overflow of sewage to be but it also has negative economic implications. The latter is particularly directed into the storm water system. Consequently there are times
CNdV africa 4-97 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 the case where farms downstream from polluted rivers are making use Ɣ Polluted runoff from inadequately serviced dense settlements and of this water for their crops; and, industrial point discharges poses a risk of pollution to the water Ɣ In relatively small quantities, dried sewerage sludge can be used as resource. This is a problem with regard to the informal settlements at fertiliser for agricultural purposes. The use of even minimal amounts of Grabouw and the surrounding industries. The local municipality sewerage sludge may limit access to certain markets, which insist that ((Theewaterskloof) is planning an additional 1500 RDP houses despite sewerage sludge is not used in food production. (Note: EuropGAP, the the fact that there are already insufficient services to cater for the European Good Agricultural Practise, does not support the use of existing population, with raw sewage spilling from the reticulation human waste as fertiliser.) network into the Klip River on a fairly regular basis; Ɣ The industrial expansion taking place in the Oudtshoorn area will 4.2.5.5 SPATIAL SUMMARY introduce an additional load on the WWTW and the upgrading of the works will be necessary to avoid spills (Gouritz ISP, DWAF); Ɣ There is a particular problem with high density informal settlements in Ɣ At Riversdale the WWTW sludge dams are situated in close proximity to Stanford which do not have adequate sanitation facilities. This poses a the Goukou River. The WWTW has reached its design capacity, posing pollution problem for the water resources in the area; a risk of spills during the peak season whilst seepage into the river from Ɣ Waste Water Treatment Works that need to be upgraded or the pond remains an ongoing risk (Gouritz ISP, DWAF); rehabilitated are those in the following towns: Rawsonville, Robertson, Ɣ The effluent from the WWTW at George does not meet the standards Greyton, Montagu, Ashton, Gansbaai, Kleinmond and Bredasdorp, required by DWAF. The pump station was upgraded three years ago Plettenberg Bay, George, Paarl, Wellington, Ladismith, Citrusdal and but the effluent quality seems to have worsened. Pump station Clanwilliam; overflows also occur, which impact on the water quality of the Gwaing Ɣ The capacity of WWTWs at Pearly Beach, Onrus and Kleinmond, and River; often all other coastal towns in the Breede River Water Management Ɣ The Knysna WWTW discharges effluent directly into the Knysna Lagoon, Area (from Witsand in the east to Pringle Bay in the West), are rather than diverting it to a preferred upstream point on the river, to exceeded during the peak season; facilitate some dilution before reaching the lagoon; Ɣ The existing WWTWs at the towns of Paarl and Wellington are under Ɣ At Great Brak seepage from soak-away facilities poses a threat to the pressure due to the increased load being placed on them as a result of estuary; industrial and urban growth. The existing facilities at both towns consist Ɣ Inadequately serviced dense settlements at George, Plettenberg Bay of closed systems (evaporation ponds) and these pose a risk of spillage and at Knoetzie (Knysna) result in diffuse pollution into nearby streams into the Berg River, particularly during the winter months. The ponds at and rivers; Wellington are unlined and seepage occurs from them (Berg ISP, Ɣ The lack of adequate sanitation for farm workers in the Koue Bokkeveld DWAF); area has given rise to water quality concerns in the area. The situation Ɣ The Tulbagh WWTW is designed for domestic effluent, however traces is exacerbated by the influx of seasonal workers during harvesting. of fruit waste are common. Vandalism and pipe blockages in the (Olifants Doring ISP, DWAF); and, reticulation system cause spills from manholes into the stormwater Ɣ The WWTWs at Graafwater, Citrusdal and Clanwilliam do not meet the system (Berg ISP, DWAF); legislated standards (Olifants Doring ISP, DWAF). Ɣ Diffuse pollution takes place along the Klein Berg River from nearby informal settlements and as a result of agricultural activities; It is clear that sewage treatment infrastructure throughout the Province is in Ɣ The Onrus River (in the Overberg District) is regularly polluted as a result a state of crisis. Alternative technologies ranging from septic tanks and of sewage spills occurring in the peak season, due to a reticulation French drains as well as dry systems such as Enviro-loos and Urine Diversion system that is incapable of accommodating peak loads (Breede ISP, toilets should be urgently investigated. Oct 2004); CNdV africa 4-98 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ɣ Berg Internal Strategic Perspective, January, DWAF, 2004; Ɣ Breede Internal Strategic Perspective, Draft 5, October, DWAF, 2004; Ɣ Cape Argus, October 2004; Ɣ CMIP Municipal Status Report; Ɣ Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996; Ɣ Gouritz Internal Strategic Perspective, DWAF, 2004; Ɣ Olifants Doring Internal Strategic Perspective, Version 2, DWAF, 2004; Ɣ Presentation given by Gareth McConkey of DWAF, to Trading Services Portfolio Committee of the City of Cape Town, 2004.
CNdV africa 4-99 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.5.1 Sewerage
CNdV africa 4-100 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005
CNdV africa 4-101 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.6 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
4.2.6.1 INTRODUCTION According to the Constitution, municipalities have executive authority over removal, management and disposal of waste, whereas Provinces have the There are many different definitions for commonly used terms such as exclusive legislative competence to establish, monitor, support and pollution, waste and hazardous waste. The Environmental Conservation capacitate municipalities in this respect. At present the City of Cape Town Act (73 of 1989) (ECA) defines waste as “… any matter whether gaseous, and the Local Municipalities in the Province have direct responsibility for liquid or solid or any combination thereof, originating from any residential, refuse removal and management in their respective areas. commercial, industrial or agricultural area identified by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism as an undesirable or superfluous by- 4.2.6.2 BACKGROUND product, emission, residue or remainder of any process or activity”. It is estimated that about 90% of the total waste generated in South Africa is Waste Generation disposed of on land (Provincial SoER Overview, 2004). Waste production/generation is driven by a number of factors, primarily the increasing production of goods, an ever expanding population and a Waste is grouped into two classes, general waste and hazardous waste. growing economy (DEAT, 2002 / Provincial SoER Overview, 2004). General waste (indicated by the letter G) is all waste that does not fall into the definition of hazardous waste, and includes domestic, commercial and In South Africa, average unit generation rates e.g. tons of waste per some industrial waste, and builder’s rubble. General waste may be household per year, are used to calculate waste quantities due to a lack disposed of on any permitted landfill. Hazardous waste includes inorganic of a more reliable method. The information derived from this method is waste (e.g. heavy metal sludges and solutions, organic waste, putrescible potentially unreliable because average unit generation varies amongst organic waste e.g. waste that contains small quantities of highly dispersed different communities. In addition, the census data regarding population hazardous substances); and miscellaneous waste (e.g. infectious waste figures is not always reliable. Calculations used in local waste services such as diseased human or animal tissue, soiled bandages and syringes). planning are dependent on two variables, namely, a) population and Hazardous waste is rated 1 to 4 according to its toxicity and has to be dwelling density and, b) income level and living standard. treated and disposed of in facilities appropriate for its rating (Provincial SoER Overview, 2004). Extremely hazardous waste (hazard rating of 1 or 2) The Western Cape generates about 8 827 000m3 of waste per year is disposed of in stringently designed and operated landfills, designated (excluding mining waste) making it the Province with the second highest H:H, whereas low to moderately hazardous waste (hazard rating 3 or 4) is average waste production in the country (Stats SA 2002). (Note that 1m3 is disposed of in H:h landfill sites. not equal to 1 ton, hence the discrepancy between the figure given here and the figure of waste received at landfill sites in the Western Cape given In addition to the challenges of managing increasing waste volumes and below). This is apart from the tons of effluent and gaseous waste produced decreasing land available for waste disposal, the Western Cape, along by the Province each year (Provincial SoER Overview, 2004). The City of with other Provinces, has to deal with waste management problems Cape Town generates 5000 to 6000 tons of solid waste per day (2003/04). caused by inequitable development and inadequate service delivery. Waste issues are often closely associated with poverty, environmental A total of 1 446 450 tons of waste were received at landfill sites in the health and social justice issues. It is generally acknowledged that the poor Western Cape during 2001. Table 4.2.6.1 indicates the waste received by and previously disenfranchised bear much of the social cost of pollution each District Municipality in 2001. and poor waste management (Albertyn, 1998).
CNdV africa 4-101 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 District Total Total Waste Per capita waste District Municipalities and Metro % Not Receiving Waste Collection Municipalities Population (tons/annum) generation Cape Winelands 2.0% & Metro Central Karoo 0.3% West Coast 140632 49235 0.35 City of Cape Town 1.4% City of Cape Town 2940628 1079014 0.36 Eden 1.7% Cape Winelands 364088 159585 0.43 Overberg 1.1% Overberg 156492 43619 0.28 West Coast 0.6% Eden 459326 108853 0.23 Average 1.18% Central Karoo 33332 6194 0.18 Table 4.2.6.2 Percentage of Population within District Municipalities and the Metro without Combined Total 4094498 1446500 0.35 Waste Collection Services (Stats SA, 2002) (source: Provincial SoER Overview, 2004) Table 4.2.6.1 Annual Waste Received per District Waste Disposal As landfills across the Western Cape continue to fill, acceptable sites for The Koeberg nuclear power plant produces low to medium level new landfills become more difficult to find. There are currently 74 landfill hazardous, radioactive waste which is currently disposed of outside of the sites in the Western Cape. By 2005 all landfill sites are intended to be Province, at Vaalputs in the Northern Cape. In addition it produces high registered or permitted. Of the 74 sites, only three are hazardous waste level hazardous, radioactive waste which is stored on-site at Koeberg. landfills, two of which are commercially used and located at Visserhok in Cape Town (one of these is privately owned). The third hazardous waste Waste Collection landfill is located at PetroSA, and serves the PetroSA facility (Mosgas) in In relation to South Africa as a whole, the Western Cape has relatively high Mossel Bay. levels of refuse removal, with 88% of the households in the Province receiving refuse removal at least once a week. The average figure for Hazardous waste from other areas in the Province is transported by road or South Africa is 55 % (Census 2001, Stats SA) rail to the Vissershok Hazardous Waste Management Facilities managed by the City of Cape Town and Enviroserv / Wasteman. Currently, 7% of households do not receive waste collection services in the Western Cape. In addition, many of the informal areas and rural areas do Landfills are classified in terms of waste class i.e. general or hazardous, the not have weekly waste collection services but rather rely on skips or their size of the operation, and the potential for significant leachate (which is own informal waste dumps, see Table 4.2.6.2. The cost of cleaning up determined by rainfall minus evaporation in combination with site specific dumped waste and litter is roughly eight times that of containerised waste factors). (Wesgro, 2002). There are 15 waste incineration facilities in the Western Cape and one private electro thermal deactivation plant for the treatment of Health Care Waste. This was closed down in January 2005. Three of these waste incineration facilities are situated in the City of Cape Town. Of the 15 incinerators, of which two are decommissioned. Three of these are privately owned (two in the City of Cape Town and one in the Eden District).
CNdV africa 4-102 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 A large number of local authorities, NGOs and private companies are DEADP has instructed district municipalities to draft Integrated Waste involved in the managing and recycling of waste in the Western Cape. The Management Plans as one of the sectoral plans of municipal IDPs. City of Cape Town has seen a 62% increase in the number of recycling operations since 1999 (Provincial SoER, 2004). The National Waste Management Strategy requires that Provinces develop Hazardous Waste Management Plans. In these plans, Provinces need to There has been a dramatic increase in the cost of waste disposal in South identify priority issues and put forward solutions as to how to address them. Africa since the early 1990s. This can be attributed largely to local waste DEADP has begun with the process of drafting such a plan for the Province. management being brought in line with DWAF’s minimum requirements, resulting in improved public health and environmental standards. In terms of the Environmental Conservation Act (73 of 1989) (ECA) permits for waste disposal sites are authorised by the Department of Water Affairs In terms of the existing waste disposal facilities in the City of Cape Town, and Forestry (DWAF). In addition, DWAF has the mandate to regulate there are only between seven and ten years of airspace remaining. This waste disposal sites of national importance. It is foreseen that the ECA will situation has come about in part because of the increase in the total be replaced by new provisions in the National Environmental amount of waste generated and disposed of in the City of Cape Town, Management Act and authorisations have been transferred from DWAF to which has far exceeded the expected increase. It was predicted that the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) (1 October there would be a 3% increase per annum in the total amount of waste 2005), which will in turn assign them to their provincial counterparts, i.e. generated and disposed of, and the actual increase was 6% per annum. DEADP in the case of the Western Cape (1 April 2006).
The development of a new waste disposal site (depending on the size), The National Water Act (36 of 1998) also empowers DWAF to impose takes approximately five years, and costs approximately R20 million. In restrictions on all manner of waste production activities that could threaten addition a transport network to service the site, i.e. a rail or road network, the country’s water resources. has to be developed. As part of the national strategy to deal with the problem of waste, national Integrated Solid Waste Management government has adopted an integrated pollution and waste For solid waste management to be effective an integrated approach that management approach. The National White Paper on Integrated Pollution involves cleaner production, waste minimization and recycling is required. and Waste Management for South Africa emphasises the shift from control This concept should underpin all activities in the Province from the to prevention. It adopts a holistic approach to waste and pollution issues, householder to the factory floor. prioritising the avoidance of waste rather than the management of existing waste (Provincial SoER Overview, 2004). 4.2.6.3 LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT Other relevant legislation includes: The National Waste Management Strategy, October 1999 x Municipal Systems Act; and, This strategy requires that Local Municipalities draft Integrated Waste x Municipal Structures Act. Management Plans (IWMP). These plans form one of the required sectoral plans of Municipal Integrated Development Plans and require that the 4.2.6.4 KEY ISSUES entire cycle of waste is addressed i.e. “from cradle to grave”. These plans are indicative of a change in policy focus away from waste management Ɣ A key constraint that hinders more widespread adoption of waste by impact management and remediation, towards a focus on waste minimisation and recycling, at the domestic, commercial and industrial prevention and minimisation. levels, is the lack of sufficient incentives due to an inappropriate
CNdV africa 4-103 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 regulatory and financial policy framework (City of Cape Town Ɣ There is a problem with solid waste management in that capacity Integrated Waste Management Plan, Final Status Quo Report, March constraints are not being considered when urban developments are 2004). There is currently no legislation in South Africa which explicitly approved; requires “Waste Minimisation” measures as part of day-to-day waste Ɣ The full costs of developments, in terms of waste collection and management; disposal, are not factored into Environmental Impact Assessments, with Ɣ Nationally there is more than one department responsible for issues the result that municipalities are burdened with the cost of increased pertaining to solid waste, which causes confusion; infrastructural provision; Ɣ There is a need for government to work in a more co-operative manner Ɣ New developments should follow service provision rather than the when identifying the location of new waste disposal sites. This is other way around; important both at the district and the local level; Ɣ DEADP runs a programme, the Western Cape Clean Up Operation, Ɣ The Local and District Municipalities roles and responsibilities in the solid which provides funds through municipalities for various community waste management chain are defined in the Municipal Structures Act; based projects dealing with waste recycling, clean up operations, the Ɣ Municipalities need to work together on the issue of recycling; greening of the environment and generally improving the quality of life Ɣ In 1998, after a long public participation process, DWAF introduced the in poorer communities. Currently R5.25 million is allocated to 28 second version of their minimum requirements for waste disposal by municipalities, with more than 1500 jobs being created; landfill. Many local authorities then realized that their budgets would Ɣ Another programme initiated by DEADP is the Cleaner Production and not support the required management standard and began looking at Waste Minimisation Programme, which looks at pollution prevention the option of regionalisation of waste disposal sites. In this way funds and waste minimisation. It has been tested at three pilot sites in the could be maximised through developing partnerships. However, there Western Cape. Through this programme the Breede River Winelands has been a problem in identifying these sites, particularly because no Winery managed to save R1.6 million, seven SMMEs at Sacks Circle one wants a waste disposal site in their area; Industrial area in the City of Cape Town saved R3.3 million, and R250 Ɣ A challenge is to minimise waste at source, thereby reducing the need 000 was saved at the Eben Donges Hospital. During the 2004/05 for waste disposal facilities. Presently the opposite appears to be financial year, this programme will be rolled out in the Hospitality and happening e.g. in the City of Cape Town waste generation grew Tourism sector, targeting SMMEs; double the forecasted rate; Ɣ This cleaner production approach is to be marketed to all sectors of Ɣ There is a need for a greater number of transfer stations i.e. places the economy, in partnership with DEAT and the DTI; where solid waste is taken to be compacted before being taken to Ɣ The Waste Minimisation Programme in particular, and to a lesser extent waste disposal sites, as these stations reduce the rate at which the the Western Cape Clean Up Operation, provide an opportunity for waste disposal facilities are filled; extending the lifecycle of waste disposal sites through waste Ɣ DWAF favours the provision of a regional solid waste disposal site rather minimisation; than many small sites, which are not as easily monitored (Gouritz ISP, Ɣ The disposal of health care (medical) waste remains problematic, due DWAF); to the illegal dumping of this waste; Ɣ In order to reduce high transportation costs, waste disposal sites should Ɣ Waste disposal facilities reduce air quality, primarily because they are a be located close to urban areas; source of atmospheric emissions, and a source of odours if not Ɣ Inappropriate waste storage as a result of no waste removal or managed properly; inadequate waste removal is an issue which pertains particularly to Ɣ Informal pickers found at waste disposal sites are exposing themselves informal areas; to severe health risk; Ɣ Expansion of urban areas within close proximity to landfill sites; Ɣ The practice of illegally dumping hazardous waste at general waste Ɣ Thorough waste management information is needed to better disposal facilities has meant that many municipalities have had to dig manage waste; CNdV africa 4-104 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 trenches around their general waste sites, to stop vehicles from REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS entering; and, Ɣ Albertyn. Environmental Justice: An NGO Perspective. Environmental Ɣ The control of solid waste on farms can be problematic as farmers Justice and Legal Process Conference Proceedings, University of Cape often dump solid waste near river courses resulting in pollution (Olifants Town and Macquarie, 1998; Doring ISP, DWAF). Ɣ City of Cape Town, Integrated Waste Management Plan, Final Status Quo Report, March 2004; 4.2.6.5 SPATIAL SUMMARY Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning, Provincial State of Environment Overview Report (SoER), 2004; Ɣ As can be seen from Figure 4.2.6.1 the issue of waste disposal facilities Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2002; must be addressed in the very near future as there are many towns in Ɣ Gouritz Internal Strategic Perspective, Department of Water Affairs and the Province where the existing waste disposal facilities have remaining Forestry, 2004; life spans of between one and five years; Ɣ Kamaseelan Chetty, Western Cape Provincial Department of Ɣ In the Eden District for example, the waste generated in the towns Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (pers com); along the coast from George to Natures Valley is being transferred to Ɣ Mr Gottlieb Arendse, Western Cape Provincial Department of the PetroSA site at Mosgas. This site is meant for hazardous waste, but is Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (pers com); now being used for co-disposal (both hazardous and general waste), Ɣ Olifants Doring Internal Strategic Perspective Version 2, Department of which will shorten its lifespan by half, from seven to three and a half Water Affairs and Forestry, 2004; years. Considering that the site serves most of the towns on the coast Ɣ Stats SA (Statistics South Africa). Census 2001 and 2002. between Mossel Bay and the Eastern Cape, this has serious implications for the area; Ɣ According to DWAF, those towns with the most serious waste disposal problems are Clanwilliam, Citrusdal and Graafwater. In addition, although the Vredendal site is well operated, it is positioned badly as it is on a hill, with runoff flowing directly into a river at the bottom of the hill. The Onrus, Struisbaai, Greyton, McGregor, Arniston and De Dorings Solid Waste Disposal sites need upgrading or rehabilitation; Ɣ Many towns operate their own small solid waste disposal sites, some of which are situated close to rivers, e.g. the McGregor solid waste disposal site lies adjacent to the Korings River. The site is no longer in use, but has yet to be rehabilitated. The solid waste disposal site at Calitzdorp, adjacent to the Nels River, is an example of a site which is inappropriately located as it poses a pollution threat to the river (Gouritz ISP, DWAF); Ɣ The disposal of fruit waste at Ceres and Wolseley poses a threat to the local groundwater resource. The solid waste disposal site at Ceres is due to be closed; and, Ɣ New waste disposal sites should be identified years in advance to ensure that communities are not located too close to future sites.
CNdV africa 4-105 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.6.1 Solid Waste
CNdV africa 4-106 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.7 ENERGY
4.2.7.1 INTRODUCTION power source and an export product and is promoting the construction of such a plant very strongly. The South African energy economy is heavily reliant on coal as source of energy, with more than 95% of electricity generated coming from coal- The electricity sector is regarded as performing a key role in economic fired powerstations. This is to be expected as coal is the major indigenous growth and employment creation. (Provincial SoER, 2004) energy resource and is extractable at an internationally competitive cost. South Africa has 5.6% of the estimated total world reserves. In 2001, South 4.2.7.2 BACKGROUND Africa was the world’s fourth largest exporter of coal. South Africa has a small gas industry. However, with the availability of natural gas in The Western Cape is one of the largest growing electricity markets in South neighbouring countries, such as Mozambique and Namibia and the Africa and in 2001, consumed 10.6 % of total production (Provincial SoER, discovery of off-shore gas reserves in South Africa, the gas industry in this 2004) country is undergoing rapid expansion. Electricity Wood fuel is used for non-commercial uses, including household use. In relation to the other Provinces, the Western Cape has a high level of Wood fuel will continue to be an important source of energy for many electrification, with more than 95% of the Province electrified. Kliprand impoverished communities. (which lies close to the border with the Northern Cape), the last rural settlement in the Western Cape to receive electricity was electrified during South Africa relies heavily on imported crude oil for its liquid fuel demands. 2004. The vast majority of the people in the Province without access to Petrol and diesel are the two major fuels used and in 2000 accounted for electricity reside in the City of Cape Town (Metro). Approximately 45 000 about 52% of the domestic supply of petroleum products. The transport informal dwellings in the Metro are situated on unproclaimed land i.e. land sector accounts for about 80% of the consumption of petroleum products. either in private ownership or located in areas not suitable for housing e.g. in floodplains, within electrical servitudes etc. Land has to be proclaimed The Western Cape is being promoted through an initiative called Oil Africa in order for electricity to be provided to it. 2004 as a servicing hub for Western Africa and the international offshore oil exploration and production industry. (Provincial SoER, 2004) In the Western Cape there are no areas that receive electricity from non- grid sources (Interview with DME, July 2004) South Africa is well positioned to produce nuclear energy because it has extensive Uranium sources. However, strong negative perceptions about Sources of Energy - "Supply Side" operational safety and wide environmental concern about the disposal of Currently power in the Western Cape is received from Koeberg Power nuclear waste, particularly high level waste, curb its development in South Station, MOSGAS, predominantly coal fired energy brought in from the Africa. South Africa’s only nuclear power station is at Koeberg. The latter North, via De Aar (this includes hydro sources at Gariep and Van der Kloof power station is owned and managed by Eskom. Low and intermediate dams), the Palmiet pumped storage facility and the Steenbras pumped level waste from Koeberg is transported by road to the disposal site at storage facility. (Electrical energy is also generated on demand using gas Vaalputs in the Northern Cape. High level waste is stored on site at turbines at the Acacia Gas fired power station. This energy is used solely to Koeberg in special pools. (Provincial SoER, 2004) supply Koeberg, which as a nuclear power station, is required to have an off site power supply). Eskom has been researching the possibility of a Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) just north of the existing Koeberg site, since 1993, as a CNdV africa 4-107 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Options for energy provision to the Western Cape that are currently being electricity between 1996 and 2001, these statistics seem to support the investigated are the Saldanha Combined Cycle Gas Power Station, with notion of a lag between electricity being made available and its actual gas brought in from the iBubezi Gas Field which lies north of Saldanha, the use. Pebble Bed Modular Reactor at Koeberg, Kudu Gas at Oranjemund, a Combined Cycle Gas Power Station at COEGA in Port Elizabeth, bringing in Year Energy source for Energy source for Energy source for hydro electrically generated power from the Democratic Republic of cooking heating lighting Congo through Angola and Namibia. A solar powered supply station may 1996 Electricity = 76% Electricity= 71.3% Electricity = 84.9% be developed in Upington, but this remains a long term concept. At this Paraffin = 13.4% Paraffin = 13.8% Paraffin = 8.2% stage the most advanced of all these concepts is the provision of energy 2001 Electricity = 78.8% Electricity = 73.4% Electricity = 88% from Kudu Gas at Oranjemund. Paraffin = 14% Paraffin = 14.8% Paraffin = 7% (source of information, Stats SA, Census 1996 and 2001) There has been talk of the construction of a pipeline from the IBubezi Gas Table 4.2.7.1 Electricity Demand Field to supply energy to MOSGAS. This could involve piping gas from Saldanha via Cape Town or via the Breede River Valley. The decision as to Renewable Energy whether or not this pipeline is to go ahead is still awaited. Currently a Although various forms of renewable energy such as wind and wave feasibility study is being undertaken to see if it would be viable to pipe gas energy are being monitored by Eskom, it does not consider them to Mossel Bay – based on existing servitudes (road, rail or Eskom servitudes). financially viable at present. However, it is clear that renewable sources of The pipeline would not be viable should large amounts of privately owned energy could become more viable if a number of aspects are changed. land have to be bought. A study has also commenced on the feasibility For example, if renewable energy sources become mainstream and were of wind power in the Province. produced at scale then unit costs would significantly reduce. Furthermore, long term lifecycle costs and bulk infrastructure costs are often left out to Electricity Use - "Demand Side" the equation making costs of conventional infrastructure appear lower To try and make electricity more affordable and accessible to all, national than they really are, thus obscuring the costs advantages of alternatives. government has introduced a poverty tariff, whereby the first 50 kilowatt– (Both the Klipheuwel Wind Farm and the proposed Darling Wind Farm are hours (50 units) of electricity per month are provided free of charge to subsidised by the Department of Minerals and Energy). However, the each household, after that normal rates apply. proponents of renewable energy believe that its potential for job creation, the possibility of trading debt for renewable energy, technology Research has shown that even when electricity is provided to those investment and technology transfer, provide enough motivation for households where previously there was none, it is not simply a question of pursuing renewable energy initiatives. (Provincial SoER, 2004). Furthermore, affordability but also a cultural choice as to whether or not it is used. it is pointed out that although Eskom claims to have one of the lowest unit (According to studies undertaken, it takes on average, approximately 5 prices for electricity in the world, this does not take into account external years before households who have received electricity begin to use it costs such as pollution. It is interesting to note that less than 40% of the above other energy sources, such as paraffin). energy in coal is converted into electricity, the remainder of the energy goes to waste. The table below shows the percentages of people using electricity vs paraffin (the top two energy sources), for three different types of uses i.e. In South Africa, renewable energy plays a limited yet significant role. cooking, heating and lighting, in 1996 and then again in 2001. It is Given the potential role of renewable energy as an alternative generation interesting to note that the percentage of people using electricity did not option, Eskom has established the South African Bulk Renewable Electricity increase significantly between 1996 and 2001, particularly when it came to Generation project (SABRE-Gen). The project’s ultimate aim is to determine electricity as a source of heating. If one considers that there must have whether utility scale, renewable electricity generation (primarily solar, been a significant increase in the number of households with access to CNdV africa 4-108 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 thermal, wind, biomass, wave energy and ocean currents), is a viable 4.2.7.3 LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT supply option for Eskom and South Africa. Ɣ White Paper on Renewable Energy, November 2003, DME; Currently, the most important form of renewable energy is hydro-electric Ɣ Approximately 4% of projected energy demand by 2013 should be power generation. However, potential for hydro-electric power is severely derived from renewable energy sources; restricted due to the limited surface water resources. The most significant Ɣ Greater levels of competition in the electricity market; hydro-electric power scheme in the Western Cape is the Palmiet Pumped Ɣ Human capacity building programmes; and, Storage Scheme, located in the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve. Ɣ Integrated Energy Centres – brining energy services to the disadvantaged communities. Link energy needs with other needs, As mentioned above, another form of renewable energy is wind. Eskom health, job creation, environment and tourism. has developed a demonstration facility at Klipheuwel in the Western Cape. The three year experiment is designed to test the effectiveness of three Currently government policy is to diversify energy sources - security of types of turbines and the viability of wind power for large scale grid supply through diversity. applications. (Provincial SoER, 2004). Ɣ Draft Energy Efficiency Strategy of the Republic of South Africa, April The DEADP has since 2004 investigated locational criteria for wind farms 2004, DME; and has produced a draft manual composed of the Regional Guiding Ɣ Electricity Distribution Restructuring Bill; Criteria and the Landscape Assessment Methodology in this regard. Ɣ The Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, Act No.28 of Further investigations by the department which will culminate in a 2002; comparative analysis of the two methods are underway (November 2005). Ɣ National Gas Infrastructure Development Plan (explains how This will lead to a method for assessment to be used at a regional site government sees gas infrastructure development); specific scale. Ɣ White Paper on Energy Policy (DME, 1998); Ɣ Universal household access to electricity by 2013. The priority for Pollution and Air Quality government remains those areas that were disadvantaged in the past. Fossil fuels, particularly coal and oil, have major implications for pollution, (Access to electricity is taken to include grid supplies, solar home especially air quality in their production and use. For example, South Africa systems, generators, hybrid systems, battery systems or any other supply produces over 50% of Africa's emissions, due, in part, to its extensive use of solution which provides an appropriate and affordable electricity coal of which less than 40% is converted into energy. The remainder goes supply) to waste. (Cowan, 2003) o Stimulate the development of new and renewable energy Problems with air quality generally occur from three sources: sources. Renewable energy should lead to the empowerment of the deprived so that development and job creation can take Ɣ Domestic burning of fossil and wood fuels, mainly over low income townships; place; o Establish regulations which promote a cost-of-supply approach to Ɣ Motor vehicle emissions, mainly in the City of Cape Town but likely to become an issue in other rapidly growing towns such as George, electricity pricing for non-domestic consumers; o Stellenbosch, Paarl; and Investigate an environmental levy on energy sales to fund development of renewable energy, energy efficiency and Ɣ Industrial smoke stacks, mainly over the City of Cape Town and Saldanha's industrial areas. sustainable energy activities; and, o Adjust electricity market structures to achieve effective forms of competition. (Provincial SoER, 2004).
CNdV africa 4-109 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.7.4 KEY ISSUES Ɣ Through modelling exercises done by the National Electricity Regulator, Eskom and large energy – intensive industries, the conclusion was Ɣ Wood fuels are most plentiful in the higher rainfall regions of the reached that electricity demand will exceed supply in South Africa in Western Cape which in turn largely coincide with higher population 2008, resulting in routine blackouts unless new electricity policy and densities and levels of forestation; investment decisions are formulated and implemented in this year. Ɣ Access to affordable energy services (Just electrifying households is not (Business Day Report , 29 July 2004) enough. Multiple fuel use persists as electrification is often not financially viable for the poor.) When households do not have access 4.2.7.5 SPATIAL SUMMARY to affordable electricity they are then cut off from the benefits of modern appliances and telecommunications; Ɣ A reason for concern is the extent to which Eskom may have installed Ɣ Education for energy users - many people in poor households do not electricity grids into poverty stricken areas which cannot afford either have information on the costs associated with different energy sources running or capital costs. In these cases renewable energy may be of and therefore cannot make informed decisions about the best options greater importance; for different uses e.g. heating, cooking, lighting. In addition, people Ɣ Cape Town is suffering from pollution due to its concentrated use and need to be provided with information so that they can understand the dependence on fossil fuels, particularly diesel and petrol used in the connection between energy and development, or different energy private motor vehicle, bus and mini-bus taxi fleets; options and the health and safety aspects; Ɣ Rail's use of electricity is probably a major advantage in this regard; Ɣ Energy use has resulted in significant air pollution problems, particularly and, in the metropolitan area of Cape Town. In 1997 for example, the Brown Ɣ There has not been extensive Province wide monitoring of air quality Haze Study (Wicking – Baird M.C. et al) showed that vehicle emissions i.e. outside of Cape Town, but indications are that the major industrial contributed significantly to the air quality problem in the Cape Town areas of concern are the Saldanha region (metal and steel industry); region. Petrol and diesel used in motor vehicles were responsible for Robertson and Riebeeck Wes (cement and raw materials processing), 65% of the air emissions, industry for 22%, while the burning of wood as Mossel Bay (refinery), Knysna (wood milling activities), Oudtshoorn an energy source was responsible for 11% of the air emissions; (brick works) and George (numerous industrial activities). Ɣ The extensive use of fossil fuels, in informal communities in urban areas is responsible for the deterioration of air quality around these REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS communities, as well as downwind of these communities. Air pollution Ɣ SRK Consulting. Department of Environmental Affairs & Development from domestic burning is exacerbated during the cold winter months Planning. State of the Environment Overview Report. Provincial when meteorological conditions prevent adequate dispersion of the Government of the Western Cape, Cape Town, 2004; pollutants and an increase in heating requirements is needed. Ɣ Statistics SA, Census 1996 and 2001; (Wicking – Baird M.C. et al, 1997); Ɣ Interview with Department of Minerals and Energy, July 2004; Ɣ Lack of integration, between suppliers of energy and other services; Ɣ Business Day Report, 29 July 2004; Ɣ Poor socio-economic conditions of household and communities results Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, in people not being able to afford to pay for energy sources, thus a Provincial Renewable Energy Policy (forthcoming), 2005. crucial challenge is the alleviation of poverty. Due to the link between poverty and energy problems, poverty stricken households in urban and rural areas experience similar energy problems; Ɣ Energy is required for productive activity, which in turn allows for job creation; and,
CNdV africa 4-110 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.7.1 Energy CNdV africa 4-111 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 CNdV africa 4-112 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.8 TELECOMMUNICATIONS
4.2.8.1 INTRODUCTION 3.9 million in 2007. The low ownership of personal computers will remain a major constraint to the expansion of Internet access, see Figure 4.2.8.1. On the whole, South Africa has better telecommunication infrastructure (Western Cape Socio- Economic Review, 2003 - Provincial Treasury). and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) access than the rest of the continent, but is far behind Europe and other developed One of the cellular network providers, Vodacom has met its obligation to nations. According to the International Telecommunications Union, in 2001 provide 22 000 lines to the disadvantaged by setting up small businesses South Africa had 11.35 fixed lines per 100 people and 21 mobile phones running subsidized “phone shops” in areas where there is limited or no per 100 people. In contrast the United Kingdom had 57.78 fixed lines per access to fixed line services. There are approximately 2 335 Vodacom 100 people, and 78.28 mobile phones per 100 people, while Africa as a phone shops in South Africa, 23 of which are situated in the Western Cape. whole had 2.62 fixed line phones per 100 people and 2.93 mobile phones (City of Cape Town, 2002) per 100 people. (City of Cape Town, 2002) Access to ICT is limited by the same kinds of socio-cultural factors that have In 1998, 87% of South Africans had access to a telephone within a 60 lead to other social and economic inequalities. Around the world, minute walk (± 4km). In 2002, nearly 98% of South Africans lived within two discrimination based on age, race and gender has discouraged old kilometers of a telephone. Personal computer (PC) density shows a similar people, minorities, and women from participating in the information age. figure to teledensity figures. It is estimated that there are 6.85 PC’s per 100 (City of Cape Town, 2002) inhabitants in South Africa, versus 1.06 per 100 inhabitants in Africa and 36.62 per 100 people in the United Kingdom. It is estimated that 7% of the 4.2.8.2 BACKGROUND South African population had Internet access in 2001. (City of Cape Town, 2002) The table below shows the percentage of households in the Province that have access to telephone facilities (both mobile and fixed line). Between 1996 and 2001 Telkom connected 2.8 million fixed lines nationally, however rates of disconnection are as high as 50 -70%, with most lines Telephone Facilities Percentage of total number of being disconnected within a few months. (This process of connection and households in the Province * then disconnection is referred to as “churn”). Telkom cites the reasons for Telephone in dwelling and cellphone 28.7 % the disconnections as being 1) non-payment due to the poor economic Telephone in dwelling only 21.7 % climate and 2) an apparent public shift from fixed to mobile telephone Cellphone only 12.6 % services. Since 60 % of disconnections countrywide were due to non- At a neighbour nearby 7.0 % payment, it can be concluded that the disconnections are At a public telephone nearby 25.2 % disproportionately affecting the poor sectors of the population. (City of At another location nearby 1.9 % Cape Town, 2002) At another location not nearby 1.0 % No access to a telephone 1.6 % According to the Western Cape Socio – Economic Review of 2003 in South Africa, there were 10 million cellphone subscribers in 2003 and this was Information taken from Census in brief – Second edition, Census 2001 expected to grow to 15 million subscribers by 2007. The number of Internet Table 4.2.8.1 Levels of Telephone (Mobile and Fixed Line) Access users nationally is expected to rise from 2,6 million in 2002 to an estimated
CNdV africa 4-112 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 From the above table it is clear that 63% of households in the Western 4.2.8.4 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES Cape have a fixed line telephone or a cellular telephone in the dwelling. This is the highest figure out of all the Provinces, with Gauteng at the Ɣ International practice suggests that high costs of basic ICT services second highest at 56.1%. The average percentage for South Africa is 42.4 such as telephones can be reduced by making use of value added %. (Census 2001). network facilities such as Voice Over Internet Protocol, which is currently controlled and effectively banned except in rural areas with Libraries low telecommunications access, by Telkom (City of Cape Town, 2002); Of the City of Cape Towns 105 libraries, 33 had computers open to the Ɣ The majority of people below the poverty line do not have fixed or public in 2002. mobile telephones, nor do they have access to computer, email or internet (City of Cape Town, 2002); and, Post Offices Ɣ Schools in the Western Cape and Gauteng are more likely to have At national level there have been numerous attempts at using post office Internet Access (49% of schools in Gauteng and 38% in the Western infrastructure to supply public access to ICT. The Public Information Cape). (City of Cape Town, 2002). Terminals for Post Offices (PIT’s) kiosks provide various ICT services including an online business directory, public email communication facility a CV creator service etc. Eleven PIT’s were installed in the Western Cape during 4.2.8.5 SPATIAL SUMMARY 2001, namely in Beaufort West, Caledon, Cape Town, Ceres, De Doorns, Gugulethu, Khayelitsha, Stellenbosch, Oudshoorn, Vredendal and Ɣ Access to telecommunications is a major contributor to economic Worcester. development with cellphone access having taken over from fixed lines; Ɣ MTN has more extensive coverage in the West Coast whereas Internet Access Vodacom has slightly better coverage in the Klein Karoo part of Eden; There appears to be widespread dissatisfaction with the lack of availability Ɣ Low cost high speed network services should be made available in the and high costs to high speed internet access systems such as Broadband. main centres in the Province; This is believed to considerably increase the costs of doing business in South Ɣ Internet access into strategic locations such as schools in marginalized Africa and with overseas. parts of the urban settlements should be accelerated; and, Ɣ Vodacom has provided 23 "phone shops" in the Western Cape in areas The main urban centres in the Western Cape could take a lead in this. with limited or no access to fixed line services. Knysna and City of Cape Town considering cabling for free internet access. REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, SRK 4.2.8.3 LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT Consulting. State of the Environment Overview Report. Provincial Government of the Western Cape, Cape Town, 2002; Ɣ Provincial Treasury (Treasury) : Macro Economic Analysis Western Cape Socio-Economic Review, Provincial Government: Western Cape (PG:WC), Government Printers, RSA, 2003. Ɣ Statistics SA Census 2001.
CNdV africa 4-113 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.8.2 Telecommunications
CNdV africa 4-114 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005
CNdV africa 4-115 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 4.2.9 HOUSING
4.2.9.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2.9.2 BACKGROUND
Ɣ The main concentrations of settlements are located around the Housing Need and Demand Metropolitan Area (City of Cape Town), west coast axis (Saldanha – Note: "Need" refers to the overall requirement for housing and does not Vredenburg) and south coast (George Knysna area) (DEADP 2003); take affordability into account. "Demand" refers to the ability of those Ɣ The Province is 90% urbanised; needing housing to pay for it, i.e. affordability, which is a function of Ɣ The provision of housing is one of the most visible forms of growth and people’s income. investment (DEADP 2003). Comprising up to 70% of the land use in some urban settlements; The largest housing backlog is in the City of Cape Town and was estimated Ɣ Making housing more affordable to all is a national policy. Therefore, at 245 000 houses in 2001 (SoER 2004) whereas the Provincial Housing Plan housing should be promoted in those areas that have good access to suggests this to be 219000, see Table 4.2.9.1. employment, educational, recreational and commercial opportunities (DEADP 2003); 2001 Census Housing Plan Ɣ Recent housing development, especially subsidy housing, has had a negative impact on the urban environment mainly due to the one house one plot housing models (including form, township layout and Cape Town 157 711 73% 219 000 73,9% type) applied and their location, in most cases outside or on the periphery of the existing urban settlements. This has resulted in poorly Boland District 21 172 10% 30 968 10,4% integrated development and towns with no access to existing Overberg District 9 371 4% 13 829 4,7% economic, transport and service related infrastructure (SoER 2004); Ɣ More than 300 000 households in the lower income groups in the Central Karoo District 589 0% 2 001 0,7% Province are inadequately housed and more than half of them live in Eden District 19 701 9% 23 368 7,9% informal dwellings. (DEADP 2003); Ɣ One of the objectives of the Settlement Framework Policy (DEADP West Coast District 6 847 3% 7 334 2,5% 2003) is to provide appropriate levels of housing and services for all and 215 391 100% 296 500 100% to make optimal use of existing and planned services. Another is to ensure that subsidised housing is provided equitably and that it plays a Table 4.2.9.1 Housing Backlog (Housing Dept. 2004) (source: Housing Backlog by meaningful role in the management of human settlement in both Municipal Area (PGWC: Housing Dept. 2004) (excluding overcrowding) urban and rural contexts; and, Table 4.2.9.2 compares the share of housing projects approved from April Ɣ Population growth, particularly high birth rates, in-migration, and poor 1994 to February 2002 with population by district. access to predictable sources of income to newly-arrived residents have led to bottlenecks in the delivery of housing to coloured and black communities in the lower income groups (DEADP 2003).
CNdV africa 4-115 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Housing Units Comparative District Built or under Blacks Coloureds Approved 1996 Provincial Municipality Construction Food 30,8% 24,7% Number % Population Housing and Electricity 13,3% 23,7% Cape Town 97 366 57,0 65 Transport 6,4% 7,2% Cape Winelands 17 156 10,0 14 Fuel and Light 0,8% 0,3% Eden 27 654 16,2 10 Education 3,3% 2,4% West Coast 15 717 9,2 6 Other 45,4% 41,7% Overberg 10 101 5,9 4 Table 4.2.9.3 Housing affordability (Security of tenure vs ownership) Household Central Karoo 2 742 1,6 1 Expenditure patterns (1998) TOTAL 170 735 100 127 108 100 Table 4.2.9.2 State Housing Projects (1994 to 2002) (DEADP 2004) The Palmer Development Group during October 1999 found that households in the R0 to R1500 income bracket in the CMS (65% of Generally, non-metropolitan infrastructural and housing provision by the households) generally could not afford current service charges. State is proportional to the population distribution. 48% of the housing and related infrastructure in the Province took place in the City of Cape Town Not all poor households are able to afford home-ownership as required by mainly as part of the iSLP (Integrated Serviced Land Project). (DEADP 2004) the current state subsidy scheme and may need rental accommodation instead. The current backlog of housing for the poor is 296 500 households. To this should be added a projected 27 000 households per annum population Provincial Housing Plan increase through to 2010. An important element of demand is the capacity of specific places to accommodate low income people. That capacity may be expressed in Figure 4.2.9.1 shows the relationship between the housing need of each terms of the ability of such places to sustain low income development with town compared to the housing units that have been funded. Only 38% of economic opportunities. This ought to be done town-by-town. This would the need is being addressed by current housing projects. then assist in determining the "low income development potential contours". The Growth Potential Study has gone some way in addressing Formal vs Informal Housing Split: Status Quo this requirement (Van der Merwe, 2003) In the City of Cape Town it appears that the relationship between formal and informal housing is stabilising and improving slowly (DEADP 2004). Housing form (golf course estates, security estates!) A study into the environmental sustainability of golf and polo field estates In the Overberg District Municipality the ratio of formal to informal housing has been commissioned by the DEADP. Although these provide housing it is 75:10. In the Eden District Municipality 14% of the population resides in is evident that this type of housing is more of a recreational than informal housing whilst 28% of the households in George and Mossel Bay permanent type. (along the migration route from the Eastern Cape) live in informal housing.
CNdV africa 4-116 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Ɣ Subsidy structure perpetuates inefficient urban forms of development; Farm Worker Housing/ Rural Housing Ɣ Subsidy does not make provision for those who cannot afford rates and Farm workers traditionally lived in housing on farms. This left them services charges, repayments and other costs associated with housing; vulnerable to shelter needs particularly if they lost their jobs or retired. In Ɣ The Provincial Housing Plan only focuses on low income housing. It is some instances a benevolent farmer may have allowed a retiree to necessary to understand the entire housing spectrum including related remain, but generally they had to leave. The establishment of Security of activities such as industrial, commercial, open space requirements, i.e. Tenure for Farm Labourers Act intended to address this situation by integrated and sustainable human settlements. providing for tenure either on farms or the nearest appropriate settlement. Ɣ There is a need to make special provision for the middle income One of the unintended consequences of this Act has been to precipitate a housing market that, due to difficulties in obtaining finance or wave of farm workers to the nearest urban settlement, or in some arid unaffordable high income development, is being crowded out areas with few villages or towns to squat by the side of the road. especially in rapidly growing parts of the metro and major towns. This then results in people who should not be there moving down into the 4.2.9.3 LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT low income / subsidy housing market; Ɣ Housing is to be seen as an asset, a commodity that can be traded and used to improve the financial standing of the owners opposed to it Ɣ Development Facilitation Act; just being a social benefit. Therefore, it should be located in ways and Ɣ Land Use Planning Ordinance; places so as to generate direct income, should be able to be used as Ɣ Land Use Management Bill; collateral against loans and be bequeathed as inheritance; Ɣ Western Cape Planning and Development Act; The requirement to produce R2479 to obtain a subsidy house Ɣ Less Formal Township Establishment Act; Ɣ prevented transfers and forced families to remain in informal Ɣ National Heritage Resources Act; settlements, but is no longer applicable; Ɣ Environmental Conservation Act; The slow pace of delivery due to a lack of capacity, limited resources Ɣ National Environmental Management Act; Ɣ and migration resulted in only 38% of the backlog to be funded; Ɣ Extension of Security of Tenure Act; The one-house-fits-all scenario does not recognise that there are Ɣ National Building Standards and Building Regulations; Ɣ households with different needs; Ɣ Prevention of Illegal Eviction from Unlawful Occupation of Land Act; Low residential densities that leads to inefficient and unsustainable Ɣ Removal of Restrictions Act; Ɣ settlements; Ɣ Restitution of Land Rights Act; and, Infrastructure and service provision is a major factor in housing and Ɣ Housing Act. Ɣ settlements. This should ideally be linked to integrated planning and Province is currently in a law reform process to consolidate it land use delivery processed as well as budgets; and, planning, environmental and heritage laws into one single piece of Ɣ A variety of building forms, tenure and delivery systems of housing are legislation. See note under Settlements obviously needed and need to be investigated. However, the constraints to affordability need to be noted.
4.2.9.4 KEY ISSUES Spatial Ɣ Outwardly sprawling residential development leads to inefficient Aspatial settlements; Lack of character and sense of place of newer developments and the Ɣ Ɣ The negative impact of low densities and urban sprawl particularly in lack of appreciation of historical and architectural character which the City of Cape Town and coastal resorts along the West Coast and leads to monotonous environments;
CNdV africa 4-117 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Garden Route and mainly for medium and high income housing (SoER REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2004); Ɣ Chittenden Nicks de Villiers. Towards a New Housing Policy for Ɣ Non-existing (not clearly defined) or non-statutory urban edge lines (in Stellenbosch Municipality, 2001; most cases); Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. A Ɣ Need to place housing close to facilities – within walking distances and Settlement Framework for the Western Cape Province : Green Paper, the spatial planning need to provide for this to allow for the optimum Provincial Government Western Cape, 2003; and efficient utilisation of resources; Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning, Ɣ Housing provision in appropriate locations needs to be linked to the Integrated Serviced Land Project, 2004; "banking" of suitably located land. SDF’s and other spatial planning Ɣ Van der Merwe, I. Growth Potential and Human Need of Towns in the tools need to make provision for housing in appropriate locations; and, Western Cape, University of Stellenbosch, 2003; Ɣ Thus, the location of land to address housing need should be strongly Ɣ Western Cape Housing Consortium. City Housing Plan Business Plan, linked to the urban structure and the SDF to guide the form, nature and Volume 3, Draft 1, 2003a; direction of urban growth. This is also important for the protection of Ɣ Western Cape Housing Consortium. City Housing Plan, Volume 2, Draft the environment and optimising economic opportunity. 2, 2000b; Ɣ Currently, housing subsidy is only granted once per individual who may Ɣ Western Cape Housing Consortium. Provincial Housing Plan Western already have exercised it in the rural areas. Such a beneficiary may no Cape : Updating of the 2001 Five Year Housing Plan & Three Year longer have work or family or other future and moves to the towns or Business Plan : Task 4, 2004; cities. This person doesn't qualify for another subsidy (while their house Ɣ Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, SRK in the rural area may stand empty). This situation suggests that housing Consulting. Western Cape State of the Environment Overview Report, represents an economic infrastructure investment that should be 2004. prioritised in areas where there is economic opportunity. Rental opportunities, provided by either public or private landlords should also be possible for temporary urban residents.
4.2.9.5 SUMMARY
The population of the Western Cape is growing at a rate of 14,3% pa (1996 vs 2001 Census). This together with the approximately 300 000 housing backlog, 1% in-migration and the reduction of households sizes from approximately 4 persons per household to 3,8 persons per household leads to increased housing need and demand.
Currently the housing supply does not match the demand or the backlog and lags at a rate of 38%.
The greatest housing need is found within the City of Cape Town, Boland and Eden Districts. This correlates with the greatest concentrations of the populations over the Province.
CNdV africa 4-118 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005 Figure 4.2.9.1 Housing CNdV africa 4-119 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005
CNdV africa 4-120 PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 7 NOVEMBER 2005