Notes

1 From Grand Tour to Home Tour, 1760–1800

1. While the age profile of travellers may have varied somewhat, the relative youthfulness of many is noted by several critics. For example, James Buzzard quotes Lady Montague, who writes of ‘the folly of British boys . . . all over Italy’, while Barbara Korte suggests that ‘The intention of the Grand Tour was to add – after the traveller’s student years – the finishing touches to his education and the process of his socialization. Originally, it had also been a part of the courtier’s professional training, preparing him for a career in a political, or more commonly, diplomatic office.’ However, such a profile was less coherent as time passed; Katherine Turner notes the increasing numbers of travellers who were accompanied by ‘wives, families and colleagues’. J. Buzzard, ‘The Grand Tour and After (1660–1840)’, in P. Hulme and T. Youngs, eds, The Cambridge Companion to Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 42; B. Korte, English Travel Writing: From to Postcolonial Explorations (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), p. 42; K. Turner, British Travel Writers in 1750–1800 (Aldershot: Ashgate Press, 2001), p. 25. 2. Of course, this was to be severely questioned as the persistent self-indulgence of many came to light: ‘. . . the behaviour of Grand Tourists soon attracted sufficient criticism to call into question the aims of the entire enterprise’. J. Buzzard, ‘The Grand Tour and After’, in P. Hulme and T. Youngs, eds, The Cambridge Companion to Travel Writing, p. 42. 3. ‘Grand has its origins in the relationship of parvenu to aristocrat. Its development follows a shift in the focus of culture and of economic and political power. The wealthy and educated, of states whose position of dominance in the world is comparatively new, visit countries that have passed their peak of prestige and creativity but are still venerated for historic and cultural reasons. Thus Romans visited and the eastern Mediterra- nean; the English, from the sixteenth century onwards, visited Italy.’ L. Turner and J. Ash, The Golden Hordes: and the Pleasure Periphery (London: Constable, 1975), p. 29. 4. R. Hudson, ed., The Grand Tour, 1592–1796 (London: Folio, 1993), p. 14. 5. Korte provides a number of examples, including Fynes Moryson’s Itinerary (1617). B. Korte, English Travel Writing, pp. 66–70. 6. M. Andrews, The Search for the Picturesque: Landscape Aesthetics and Tourism in Britain, 1760–1800 (Aldershot: Scolar, 1989), p. 4. 7. L. Doyle, ‘The Racial ’, in A. Richardson and S. Hofkosh, eds, , Race, and Imperial Culture, 1780–1834 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), p. 16. 8. T. O. McLoughlin and J. Boulton, eds, The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke (Oxford: Clarendon, 1997), vol. I, p. 186. Burke’s theories, of course, were variously adapted. See F. MacDonald, ‘St Kilda and the Sublime’,

190 Notes 191

Ecumene, 8:2 (2001), who highlights the way in which Burkean aesthetics were intensified for many travellers by the publication of James Macpherson’s Fragments of Ancient Poetry, Collected in the Highlands of Scotland (1760). 9. T. O. McLoughlin and J. Boulton, eds, Edmund Burke, vol. I, p. 216. 10. Ibid., p. 230. 11. Ibid., p. 231. 12. Ibid., p. 243. 13. Ibid., p. 250. 14. For an investigation of the obvious political parallels, see N. Wood, ‘The Aesthetic Dimension of Burke’s Political Thought’, The Journal of British Studies, 4:1 (1964). 15. J. R. Gold and M. M. Gold, Imagining Scotland: Tradition, Representation and Promotion in Scottish Tourism since 1750 (Aldershot: Scolar, 1995), p. 39. 16. Ibid., pp. 39–40. 17. M. Beames, Peasants and Power: The Whiteboy Movements and Their Control in Pre-Famine Ireland (Brighton: Harvester, 1983), p. 24. 18. Ibid., pp. 26–8. 19. D. Dickson, New Foundations: Ireland 1660–1800 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000), p. 148. 20. The tour itself, however, was conducted only seven years after Burke’s famous publication, in 1764. 21. J. Bush, Hibernia Curiosa (London: Flexney, 1769), p. vi. 22. Ibid., p. viii. 23. I. Ousby, The Englishman’s : Taste, Travel and the Rise of Tourism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 9. 24. J. Bush, Hibernia, pp. ix–x. 25. Ibid., p. xi. 26. Ibid., p. xii. 27. Ibid., pp. 26–7. 28. Ibid., p. 26. 29. Ibid., p. 29. 30. Ibid., p. 30. 31. Ibid., pp. 30–2. 32. ‘Whiteboyism first appeared in the winter of 1761–2 in the counties of Tipperary, Cork, Limerick and Waterford. In spite of the repressive measures taken by the authorities, it was able to establish itself as an almost permanent feature of the Munster rural scene resurging in particular years with fresh momentum and intensity. Its peak years before 1800 were 1762, 1775 and 1786.’ M. Beames, Peasants and Power: The Whiteboy Movements and Their Control in Pre-Famine Ireland (Sussex: Harvester, 1983), pp. 25–6. 33. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 39. 34. J. Duncan and D. Gregory, ‘Introduction’, in J. Duncan and D. Gregory, eds, Writes of Passage: Reading Travel Writing (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 5. 35. J. Black, The British Abroad: The Grand Tour in the Eighteenth Century (Thrupp: Sandpiper, 1992), p. 5. 36. Ibid., p. 37. 37. T. Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), p. 12. 38. Ibid., p. 56. 39. Ibid., p. 31. 192 Notes

40. T. Furniss, Edmund Burke’s Aesthetic Ideology: Language, Gender, and Political Economy in Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 73. 41. M. Andrews, The Search, p. 44. 42. I. Ousby, The Englishman’s England, p. 65. 43. Although W. Nolan refers to (early nineteenth-century) Wicklow as ‘an escape, a place of seclusion where the natural world could be dramatized in a rural setting’, and as an ‘elusive entity’, he also notes how its proximity ‘to Dublin may have stunted [its...] urban growth’. W. Nolan, ‘Land and Landscape in County Wicklow c. 1840’, in K. Hannigan and W. Nolan, eds, Wicklow: History and Society (Dublin: Geography Publications, 1994), pp. 650, 652, 687. 44. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 72. 45. M. Andrews, The Picturesque: Literary Sources and Documents, vol. I (Mountfield: Helm, 1994), p. 9. 46. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 73. 47. Ibid., pp. 74–5. 48. Ibid., p. 74. 49. Ibid., pp. 75–8. 50. See K. Trumpener, Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1997) for further analysis of the bog, including its contribution to early nineteenth-century nationalist fiction (where ‘even the bog undergoes a complete rehabilitaton’, p. 46), pp. 37–66. 51. J. Bush, Hibernia, pp. 78–82. 52. Ibid., p. 84. 53. L. Withey, Grand Tours and Cook’s Tours: A History of Leisure Travel, 1750–1915 (London: Aurum, 1997), p. 46. For its time, however, Defoe’s account was a nevertheless thorough undertaking: ‘The preparations for this work have been suitable to the author’s earnest concern for its usefulness; seventeen very large circuits, or journeys have been taken thro’ divers parts separately, and three general tours over almost the whole English part of the Island.’ D. Defoe, A Tour Thro’ the Whole Island of Great Britain (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), The Author’s Preface. 54. J. Brown, ‘A Description of the Lake at Keswick’ (c. 1753), in M. Andrews, ed., The Picturesque: Literary Sources and Documents, vol. I (Robertsbridge: Helm, 1994), p. 76. 55. Cited in L. Fleming and A. Gore, The English Garden (London: Michael Joseph, 1979), p. 118. 56. M. Andrews, The Search, p. 86. 57. W. Gilpin, Observations on the River Wye (1782), in M. Andrews, ed., The Picturesque, vol. I, p. 245. 58. T. West, A Guide to the Lakes (1780), in M. Andrews, ed., The Picturesque, vol. I, p. 282. 59. M. Andrews, The Search, p. 86. 60. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 85. 61. J. Black, The Grand Tour, p. 300. 62. Ibid. 63. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 85. Notes 193

64. K. M. Davies, ‘For Health and Pleasure in the British Fashion: Bray, Co. Wicklow, as a Tourist , 1750–1914’, in B. O’Connor and M. Cronin, eds, Tourism in Ireland: A Critical Analysis (Cork: Cork University Press, 1993), p. 32. 65. J. Heuston, ‘Kilkee – the Origins and Development of a West Coast Resort’, in B. O’Connor and M. Cronin, eds, Tourism in Ireland, p. 14. 66. C. Aitchison, N. E. Macleod and S. J. Shaw, eds, Leisure and Tourism Landscape: Social and Cultural Geographies (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 34. 67. L. Withey, Grand Tours, p. 136. 68. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 90. 69. M. Andrews, The Search, p. 36. 70. R. Cardinal, ‘Romantic Travel’, in R. Porter, ed., Rewriting the Self: Histories from the to the Present (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 144. 71. J. Bush, Hibernia, pp. 90–2. 72. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 27. 73. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 90. 74. Ibid., pp. 129–30. 75. Ibid., pp. 91–2. 76. Ibid., pp. 93–4. 77. Ibid., p. 101. 78. Ibid., pp. 101, 118. 79. W. Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, ed., R. Paulson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 88. 80. T. Williamson, Polite Landscapes: Gardens and Society in Eighteenth-Century England (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 77. 81. M. Andrews, The Genius of the Place, pp. 290, 295. 82. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 103. 83. S. Mills, ‘Written on the Landscape: Mary Wollstonecraft’s Letters Written During a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark’, in A. Gilroy, ed., Romantic Geographies: Discourses of Travel 1775–1844 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), p. 27. 84. Ibid., p. 26. 85. Ibid. 86. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 120. 87. Ibid., pp. 93–4. 88. F. Nussbaum, Torrid Zones: Maternity, Sexuality, and Empire in Eighteenth-Century English Narratives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 95. 89. Ibid., p. 136. 90. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 99. 91. Chloe Chard makes the interesting observation that although seventeenth- century European travel emphasised ‘manly self-reliance’, later travellers developed a more varied repertoire of responses: ‘Late eighteenth-century travel writing [to Continental Europe], then, both incorporates expressions of responsiveness that are defined as feminized and presents some of the feminizing effects of travel as legitimate and desirable.’ C. Chard, Pleasure and Guilt on the Grand Tour: Travel Writing and Imaginative Geography 1600–1830 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), pp. 36–7. 92. J. Bush, Hibernia, p. 98. These lines may be usefully read against Chard’s notion that a ‘feminized loss of restraint’ in the face of sublime nature frequently trig- gered a transfer from ‘the sublime to the beautiful’ on the part of the narrator. 194 Notes

Bush, however, appears less concerned about the destabilising experiences noted of several of Chard’s narrators. C. Chard, Pleasure and Guilt, p. 122. 93. J. Towner, ‘The European Grand Tour’ (Birmingham: Birmingham University Centre for Urban & Regional Studies, Working Paper 79), pp. 9–10. 94. Ibid., p. 11. 95. Ibid., p. 12. 96. Ibid. 97. Towner’s third, and it has to be said extremely focussed, period of Grand Tour analysis (1814–1817) brings Alpine and Romantic travel to especial prominence. See Ibid., pp. 14–19. 98. For a useful discussion of Grant, see B. Hagglund, ‘ “Not absolutely a native, nor entirely a stranger”: The Journeys of Anne Grant’, in G. Hooper and T. Youngs, eds, Perspectives on Travel Writing (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004). 99. Richard Twiss (1747–1821) was born in Rotterdam, the son of an English merchant. Well-known traveller and miscellaneous writer, his Tour in Ireland in 1775 (1776) was considered controversial by many, exhorting a Mr. Lewis to pen A Defence of Ireland: A Poem in Answer to the Partial and Malicious Accounts Given of It by Mr. Twiss (Dublin: Kidd, 1776): ‘With half an Eye he saw Hibernia’s Isle, / Then wrote Remarks would make a Cynic smile: / No works of could charm, no Objects please, / Nor Nature’s Landscapes cure his Mind’s disease’, p. 14. 100. G. E. Mingay, ed., Arthur Young and His Times (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1975), p. 4. 101. Ibid. 102. Later editions include the abridged Arthur Young, Tour in Ireland, ed., C. Maxwell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1925, reprinted Belfast: Blackstaff, 1983), and a reprint of Wollaston Hutton’s edition, with a short introductory essay by J. B. Ruane (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1970). 103. A. Young, Tour in Ireland, 1776–1779, ed., A. Wollaston Hutton, vol. I (London: Bell, 1892), p. x. 104. Cited in B. Korte, English Travel Writing, p. 57. 105. Ibid., p. 58. 106. A. Young, Tour in Ireland, vol. I, p. 2. 107. G. E. Mingay, ed., Arthur Young, p. 29. 108. ‘I kept a private journal throughout the whole of this tour, in which I minuted many anecdotes and circumstances which occurred to me of a private nature, descriptive of the manners of the people, which, had it been preserved, would have assisted greatly in drawing up these papers; but, unfortunately, it was lost [. . .] On returning to England, I quitted my whisky [a light carriage built for rapid ] at Bath, and got into a stage, and sent a new London servant, the only one I had, thither to bring the horse and chaise to London, and the trunk containing these things. The fellow was a rascal, stole the trunk, and pretended that he had lost it on the road.’ A. Young, The Autobiography, ed., M. Betham-Edwards (London: Smith, 1898), pp. 68–9. 109. He also adds, ‘I had in 1775 determined on making the tour of Ireland, to which the Earl of Shelburne much instigated me, and I corresponded with several persons on the subject, who urged me much to that undertaking, but I was obliged to postpone it to the following year.’ The following is Notes 195

a note from Mr. Burke on the subject: ‘Mr. Burke sends the covers with his best compliments and wishes to Mr. Young. He would be very glad to give Mr. Young recommendations to Ireland, but his acquaintance there is almost worn out, Lord Charlemont and one or two more being all that he thinks care a farthing for him. Moreover, if letters to them would be of any service to Mr. Young, Mr. B. would with great pleasure write them.’ A. Young, The Autobiography, p. 67. 110. ‘This was the year [1767] of the first of Arthur Young’s tours of Great Britain, which combined sober attention to crops, prices, and farming methods with rhapsody over scenery: a most unlikely combination, but obviously fashionable or the young man would not have made it.’ G. B. Parks, ‘The Turn to the Romantic in the of the Eighteeenth Century’, Modern Language Quarterly, 25 (1964), p. 29. 111. A. Young, Tour in Ireland, p. 30. 112. Ibid., p. 32. 113. Ibid., p. 51. 114. Ibid., p. 115. 115. Ibid., p. 197. 116. Ibid., p. 277. 117. Ibid., p. 318. 118. Ibid., p. 392. 119. Ibid., p. 410. 120. E. Bohls, Women Travel Writers and the Language of Aesthetics 1716–1818 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 68. 121. Ibid., p. 92. 122. A. Young, Tour in Ireland, pp. 18–19. 123. Ibid., pp. 20–1. 124. Ibid., p. 18. 125. E. Bohls, Women Travel Writers, p. 92. 126. Ibid., p. 87. 127. A.Young, Tour in Ireland, p. 425. 128. Ibid., p. 468. 129. Ibid. 130. Ibid., p. 469. 131. Ibid., pp. 469–70. 132. P. Luckombe, A Tour through Ireland; Wherein the Present State of that Kingdom is Considered (London: Lowndes, 1783), p. 93. 133. Ibid., pp. 161–2. 134. ‘As contemporary critics pointed out, the landscape park was in many ways a stereotyped product, its essential features the same from Northum- berland to Surrey.’ T. Williamson, Polite Landscapes, p. 87. 135. ‘The picturesque was established by Uvedale Price as a third term to be set beside the others [the sublime and the beautiful], but it proved to be an unstable term.’ M. Price, ‘The Picturesque Moment’, in F. W. Hillis and H. Bloom, eds, From Sensibility to Romanticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 262. 136. J. Whale, ‘Romantics, Explorers and Picturesque Travellers’, in S. Copley and P. Garside, eds, The of the Picturesque: Literature, Landscape and Aesthetics since 1770 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 176. 196 Notes

137. Ibid., p. 177. 138. D. Punter, ‘The Picturesque and the Sublime: Two Worldscapes’, in S. Copley and P. Garside, eds, The Politics of the Picturesque, p. 226. 139. Price’s essay constitutes a direct attack on Brown and his followers, especially Repton: ‘. . . he [Repton] is the very emblem of serpentine walks, belts, and rivers, and all of Mr. Brown’s works; like him they are smooth, flowing, even, and distinct; and like him they wear one’s soul out’. U. Price, Essay on the Picturesque, vol. I (London: Robson, 1795), p. 382. Knight’s purpose is wider than this, offering a critique of certain aspects of landscape gardening but then broadening the focus out (‘Knight divided The Landscape into three “books”, not one of which ends by drawing conclusions about land- scape design. If, on the other hand, we read it as a poem about politics and religion . . . then it makes much more coherent sense.’ A. Ballantyne, Archi- tecture, Landscape and Liberty, p. 191.): ‘To Cherish, not mow down, the weeds that creep / Along the shore, or overhang the steep; / To break, not level, the slow-rising ground, / And guard, not cut, the fern that shades it round’ (Book II, Lines 196–9); ‘What heart so savage, but must now deplore / The tides of blood that flow on Gallia’s shore! / What eye, but drops the unavailing tear / On the mild monarch’s melancholy bier!’ (Book III, Lines 401–4). R. P. Knight, The Landscape: A Didactic Poem (London: Nicol, 1795). 140. A. Ballantyne, Architecture, Landscape and Liberty, p. 196. 141. M. Andrews, ed., The Picturesque, vol. I, p. 8. 142. D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels, The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Sym- bolic Representation, Design, and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 13. 143. Ibid. 144. G. E. Mingay, ed., Arthur Young, pp. 6, 22. 145. T. Fulford, Landscape, Liberty and Authority: Poetry, Criticism and Politics from Thomson to Wordsworth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 2–3. 146. A. Young, Tour in Ireland, p. 56. 147. Ibid., p. 67. 148. C. T. Bowden, A Tour through Ireland (Dublin: Corbet, 1791), pp. 192–3. 149. Ibid., pp. 158–60.

2 The post-Union traveller, 1800–1820

1. R. Foster, Modern Ireland (London: Penguin, 1987), p. 278. 2. M. Elliott, Partners in Revolution: The United Irishmen and (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), p. 124. 3. C. Batten, Pleasurable Instruction: Form and in Eighteenth-Century Travel Literature (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 40. 4. Ibid., p. 16. 5. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 74–5. 6. ‘It has often been to me a subject of some surprise, when I have heard Irish affairs so much the topic both of public and private discussion as they have Notes 197

been of late, that the country itself should have been so little visited by travellers from Great Britain . . . It seems to have been blotted out of the geographical outline of European tours.’ G. Cooper, Letters on the Irish Nation: Written during a Visit to that Kingdom, in the Autumn of the Year 1799 (London: Davis, 1800), pp. ix–x. 7. C. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race (London: RKP, 1971), p. 1. 8. R. Musgrave, Memoirs of the Different Rebellions in Ireland (Dublin: Marchbank, 1801), p. v. 9. R. Musgrave, Strictures upon an Historical Review of the State of Ireland (London: Rickaby, 1804), preface. 10. Despite the scurrilous attack on Plowden, with the charge of bias sharpening the argument, Musgrave’s own work is described by one source as ‘so steeped in anti-Catholic prejudice as to be almost worthless historically’. Dictionary of National Biography. 11. Although Spenser’s A View of the Present State of Ireland is less than favour- ably disposed towards Ireland, its post-Union republication nevertheless suggests a desire to maximise knowledge about the country. Moreover, the version edited by Ware endured selective cutting and sanitising of the original, thereby making its inclusion a less than awkward gesture. For a fuller discussion, see A. Hadfield, ‘Another Case of Censorship: The Riddle of Edmund Spenser’s A View of The Present State of Ireland’, History Ireland (Summer, 1996). 12. R. Colt Hoare, Journal of a Tour in Ireland (London: Miller, 1807), introduction. 13. Ibid., pp. i–ii. 14. Dictionary of National Biography. 15. Giraldus Cambrensis [Gerald of Wales], The History and Topography of Ireland, trans. J. O’Meara (London: Penguin, 1982), pp. 101–2. 16. R. Colt Hoare, Journal, p. xxi. 17. P. Hulme, Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1492–1797 (London: Methuen, 1986), p. 6. 18. S. Céitinn [Geoffrey Keating], Foras Feasa ar Éirinn [The General History of Ireland] (Newry: Wilkinson, 1817), vol. I, p. ix. 19. R. Colt Hoare, Journal, pp. ix–x. 20. S. Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 7. 21. R. Colt Hoare, Journal, p. vi. 22. Ibid., p. ii. 23. Ibid., pp. iv–v. 24. Ibid., pp. i–ii. 25. Ibid., pp. 273, 251. 26. Ibid., pp. 305–6. 27. Ibid., p. 137. 28. Ibid., pp. 274, 277. 29. J. C. Curwen, Observations on the State of Ireland (London: Baldwin, 1818), vol. I, p. 4. 30. Sir J. Jervis White, A Brief View of the Past and Present State of Ireland (Bath: Wood, 1813), p. 1. 31. Ibid., pp. 2–3. 32. Ibid., p. 33. 198 Notes

33. S. Barlow, The History of Ireland, From the Earliest Period to the Present; Embracing also a Statistical and Geographical Account of that Kingdom (London: Sherwood, 1814), vol. I, p. v. 34. Ibid., p. 16. 35. Ibid. 36. Ibid., vol. II, p. 313. 37. Thomas Richards, The Imperial Archive: Knowledge and the Fantasy of Empire (London: Verso, 1993), p. 3 38. See M. Daly, The Spirit of Earnest Inquiry: The Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland 1847–1997 (Dublin: Institute of Public Administration, 1997). 39. D. Clarke, ‘Dublin Society’s Statistical Surveys’, Paper read before the Biblio- graphical Society of Ireland, 30th April, 1957 (Athlone: Athlone Printing, 1957), p. 3. 40. Sir J. Sinclair, The Statistical Account of Scotland, Drawn up from the Communi- cations of the Ministers of the Different Parishes (: Creech, 1792), vol. III, p. xi. 41. Ibid., p. xii. 42. Ibid., p. xvi. 43. Although the Irish surveys may be seen as part of a project which predates both the Act of Union and the insurrection of 1798, the timing of their production nevertheless says much about the demand for increased knowledge about Ireland: ‘Though the Dublin Society realised the necessity for statistical surveys almost twenty years before, several considerations prevented it from carrying out its plan. In 1799 in a general petition to the Irish Parliament the Dublin Society, praying for a larger parliamentary grant, enumerated among other tasks the need for carrying out a statistical survey similar to that undertaken in Scotland and England. Parliament almost at the end of its independence and as a last gesture passed an act early in 1800 conveying to the Society a grant of £15,000 to enable it to carry out its many activities, and specifying that £1,500 “shall be applied by the Society in procuring agricultural examinations into all or any of the counties of this kingdom”.’ D. Clark, ‘Dublin Society’s Statistical Surveys’, pp. 3–4. 44. Robert Fraser (1760–1831) was born in Perthshire, the son of a local clergyman. Educated at Glasgow University he moved to London where he was employed by the Government on various statistical projects (Devon & Cornwall, 1794; Wicklow, 1801). Involved in efforts to improve Scottish fisheries and mines, especially in the western Isles and Highlands, he was also associated with the construction of the harbour at Kingstown (Dún Laoghaire). 45. R. Fraser, General View of the Agriculture and Minerology, Present State and Circumstances of the County Wicklow (Dublin: Graisberry, 1801), introduction. 46. Although Fraser’s later survey of Wexford (1807) displays less enthusiasm than his survey of Wicklow, efforts to sell the region are nevertheless evident: ‘But, although metallic veins of ore have not hitherto been discov- ered to any great extent, it may not be unworthy to enquire, whether there is any such probability of the existence of such veins.’ R. Fraser, Statistical Survey of the County of Wexford (Dublin: Graisberry, 1807), p. 14. 47. R. Fraser, County Wicklow, introduction. Notes 199

48. Minerological treasure is a constant theme with Fraser: ‘Even in this outline, abundant opportunities are pointed out, of the application of vast sums, in the skilful pursuit of the treasures contained under the surface of the earth.’ R. Fraser, Gleanings in Ireland; Particularly Respecting Its Agriculture, Mines, and Fisheries (London: Bulmer, 1802), pp. v–vi. 49. Even statistical accounts used for the purpose of attacking the Union still considered the development of information about Ireland a necessity: ‘No inquiry, perhaps, can be considered more important, in the present very eventful period of the British Empire, than an honest and impartial Statistical Account of Ireland.’ G. Barnes, A Statistical Account of Ireland, Founded on Historical Facts (Dublin: Gilbert, 1811), p. 3. 50. For a discussion of Newenham and his contribution to Irish political life, see H. D. Gribbon, ‘Thomas Newenham, 1762–1831’, in J. M. Goldstrom and L. A. Clarkson, eds, Irish Population, Economy, and Society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1981). 51. T. Newenham, A Statistical and Historical Inquiry into the Progress and Magnitude of the Population of Ireland (London: Baldwin, 1805), p. i. 52. ‘A due consideration of the various facts which have been brought into view in the foregoing pages cannot, it is presumed, fail to impress every reader with the vast and increasing importance of Ireland in the political scale of the British empire: and to excite in every good, loyal, and patriotic man, the utmost solicitude for the continuance of internal tranquility in that country, manifestly qualified to furnish, in the greatest abundance, the means of sustaining the power of the amidst the momen- tous changes which Europe seems likely to undergo.’ T. Newenham, A Statis- tical and Historical Inquiry, p. 354. 53. T. Newenham, A Statistical and Historical Inquiry, p. ii. 54. Ibid., pp. iii–iv. 55. Ibid., p. 352. 56. Ibid., pp. 353–4. 57. T. Newenham, A View of the Natural, Political, and Commercial Circumstances of Ireland (London: Cadell, 1809), p. i. 58. Ibid., p. iii. 59. Ibid., p. vi. 60. Ibid., p. viii. 61. Ibid. 62. Charles Smith (1715–1762) was born in Waterford, took a medical degree at TCD, and practiced as an apothecary in Dungarvan. Smith devoted most of his time to historical and topographical research, and published histories of Waterford, Cork and Kerry in 1746, 1750 and 1756 respectively under the patronage of the Physico-Historical Society of Dublin (a forerunner of the Royal Irish Academy). 63. Daniel Augustus Beaufort (1739–1821) was educated at TCD, and ordained in 1763, succeeding his father, Daniel Cornelius, as Rector of Navan from 1765–1818. Publications include Memoir of a Map of Ireland (1792) and The Diocese of Meath (1797). One of the eighty-eight foundation members of the Royal Irish Academy, Beaufort was a reputedly lively contributor to Irish antiquarian studies. See C. C. Ellison, The Hopeful Traveller: The Life and Times of Daniel Augustus Beaufort (Kilkenny: Boethius, 1987), for a fond biography. 200 Notes

64. T. Newenham, A View of the Natural, p. xv. 65. Ibid., p. xvi. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid., p. xv. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid., p. 5. 70. C. Batten, Pleasurable Instruction, p. 7. 71. Although touching somewhat on Batten’s ideas, Pratt’s interest is largely in interpreting travel writing within the ‘overdetermined history of imperial meaning-making’, and not as a history of the form as such. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 4. 72. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 51. 73. J. Hall, Tour through Ireland; Particularly the Interior and Least Known Parts (London: Moore, 1813), vol. I, p. 1. 74. ‘Mr Park . . . with whom I have the honour to be acqainted.’ J. Hall, in Scotland, by an Unusual Route: With a Trip to the Orkneys and Hebrides. Containing Hints for Improvements in Agriculture and Commerce. With Characters and Anecdotes. Embellished with Views of Striking Objects, and a Map, Including the Caledonian Canal (London: Johnson, 1807), vol. I, p. 8. 75. M. Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa (London: Bulmer, 1799). 76. J. Hall, Tour, vol. I, p. 102. 77. Ibid., p. 56. 78. W. Sherman, ‘Stirrings and Searchings (1500–1720)’, in P. Hulme and T. Youngs, eds, The Cambridge Companion to Travel Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 31. 79. B. Korte, English Travel Writing, p. 8. 80. The Annual Register (1807), p. 1015. 81. J. Hall, Tour, vol. I, p. 132. 82. Ibid., pp. 56–7. 83. Ibid., p. 200. 84. Ibid., p. 274. 85. Ibid., p. 203. 86. Ibid., p. 204. 87. Ibid., vol. II, pp. 51, 107. 88. Ibid., pp. 119, 222. 89. Ibid., p. 108. 90. Ibid., p. 278. 91. Ibid., p. 56. 92. Ibid., p. 85. 93. J. Hall, The Blessings of Liberty and Peace; or, The Excellence of the British Constitution: A Sermon Preached at Ordeqhill on Thursday the 18th April 1793 (London: Cadell, 1793), p. 5. 94. Ibid., p. 13. 95. H. Lichtenstein, Travels in Southern Africa (London: Colburn, 1812), vol., I, preface. 96. Cora Kaplan, Sea Changes: Culture and Feminism (London, 1988), p. 77. 97. Mills’s assessment is worth some consideration in this regard: ‘However, as I have already noted, women writers are caught in a double-bind situation: if they tend towards the discourses of femininity in their work they are Notes 201

regarded as trivial, and if they draw on the more adventure hero type of narratives their work is questioned.’ S. Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women’s Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 118. 98. A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence in Ireland (London: Colburn, 1817), p. 9. 99. S. Foster, Across New Worlds: Nineteenth-Century Women Travellers and Their Writings (London: Harvester, 1990), p. 342. 100. A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence, preface. 101. ‘And yet it is a most beautifull and sweet countrey as any is under heaven, being stored throughout with many goodly rivers, replenished with all sorts of fish most abundantly, sprinkled with many very sweet islands and goodly lakes.’ A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence, title page. 102. A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence, preface. 103. S. Mills, Discourses of Difference, p. 95. 104. Ibid., p. 82. 105. A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence, p. 145. 106. Ibid., p. 146. 107. ‘I am not aware that any theory [...] I have never observed [...] I am inclined to think [. . .] I would now take a comparative view [. . .] the most familiar examples with which I am acquainted.’ A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence, pp. 146–7. 108. S. Foster, Across New Worlds, p. 24. 109. S. Mills, Discourses of Difference, p. 92. 110. A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence, p. 142. 111. Ibid., p. 44. 112. Ibid., pp. 337, 338. 113. Ibid., pp. 334–5. 114. Ibid., p. 336. 115. A. Blunt, Travel, Gender, and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (London: Guilford, 1994), p. 114. 116. A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence, pp. 310–12. 117. ‘Later friends included Anne Plumptre, Amelia Opie, the Wordsworths, and Lady Sydney Morgan, all known for their “Jacobinical” opinions at one time or another.’ N. Watson, Revolution and the Form of the British Novel 1790–1825 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 29. 118. The institutional amnesia concerning Plumptre is all the more unjust when we consider that the originally unpublished tour-notes by Plumptre’s brother, James, written in the 1790s as he travelled around Britain, have now been published: I. Ousby, ed., James Plumptre’s Britain: The Journals of a Tourist in the 1790s (London: Hutchinson, 1992). However, Plumptre’s writing undoubtedly provoked a varied response. Even allowing for a private animus, Dr. Barrett, a Fellow at Trinity College Dublin, whom she described as a ‘very remarkable character, in whom a passion for books and learning rises above another very prevailing feature, the love of money’ (Narrative of a Residence, p. 20) sought revenge in the most punishing, if obvious, of ways, but also raised doubts about the entirety of her project: ‘I put upon the library and witnessed in both catalogues the 4 volumes sent in by [?] last Saturday with the exception of Miss Anne Plumptre’s Narrative, which I hope the Board will order to be locked up as too silly and too 202 Notes

ill-mannered for a public library. Hospitably entertained by the good- natured blundering Irish and introduced (perhaps for the first time) into good company, she takes care to let the World know it by publishing all the little teatable talk they had indulged in to amuse her, and many of whom are now blushing at seeing it embodied in a pompous quarto illustrated with engravings. Travel in savage countries, Miss Anne, and publish their conversations if you care, but spare the feelings of those who are accus- tomed to the rules and decencies of civilized life.’ Extract from Dr. Barrett’s ‘Minutes of the Library’, September of 1817, attached to A. Plumptre, Narrative of a Residence, Trinity College Dublin, pp. ii, 29.

3 Trekking to downfall, 1820–1850

1. J. Buzzard, The Beaten Track: European Tourism, Literature, and the Ways to Culture 1800–1918 (Oxford: Clarendon, 2001), pp. 19, 83–4. 2. I. Ousby, ed., James Plumptre’s Britain: The Journals of a Tourist in the 1790s (London: Hutchinson, 1992), p. 13. 3. N. Nicholson, The Lakers: The Adventures of the First Tourists (London: Hale, 1955), p. 109. Nicholson also quotes from Plumptre’s satire, mentioned above: ‘I have made the church an old abbey, the house a castle, and the battery a hermitage. I have broken the smooth surface of the water with water-lillies, flags, flowering rushes, water-docks, and other aquatics, making it more of a plashy inundation than a basin of water . . . I think . . . an orange sky, yellow water, a blue bank, a green castle, and brown trees, will give it a very fine aspect.’ Nicholson concludes, ‘It is not surprising that such heavy-handed dialogue was rejected by both Covent Garden and the Haymarket, but it is interesting, nevertheless, to find so many aspects of the fashion satirized at so early a date.’ N. Nicholson, The Lakers, p. 111. 4. N. Nicholson, The Lakers, p. 76. 5. T. Kitson Cromwell, The Irish Tourist, or through Ireland: Historical and Descriptive Sketch of the Past and Present State of Ireland (London: Longman, 1820), vol. II, p. 145. 6. Ibid., pp. 147–8. 7. Several travellers reported a sense of difference similar to the one evoked by Kitson Cromwell. See, for example, ‘An English Protestant’, Three Months in Ireland (1827), pp. 44–5. 8. J. Glasford, Notes of Three Tours in Ireland, in 1824 and 1826 (Bristol: Strong, 1832), p. 313. 9. Ibid., p. 322. 10. Ibid., p. 323. 11. J. E. Bicheno, Ireland and Its Economy; Being the Result of Observations Made in a Tour through the Country in the Autumn of 1829 (London: Murray, 1830), p. 7. 12. Ibid., pp. viii–ix. 13. G. Ó Tuathaigh, Ireland before the Famine 1798–1848 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 2003), pp. 58–9. 14. Ibid., p. 60. 15. J. E. Bicheno, Ireland and Its Economy, p. 1. Notes 203

16. J. Vaughan, The English , c1780–1870 (London: David & Charles, 1974), pp. 62–4. 17. B. Korte, English Travel Writing: From Pilgrimages to Postcolonial Explorations (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), p. 79. 18. Sir J. Fox Burgoyne, Ireland in 1831: Letters on the State of Ireland (London: Bain, 1831), p. 3. 19. Ibid., p. 4. 20. ‘The Act of Union was, like much other legislation, an act of miscalcula- tions. Born of fears – of French invasion, of revolution, of social leveling, and of what a frightened peasantry or an embattled and hysterical ruling class might undertake in terror – it appeared to offer a release on every side from current pressures.’ O. MacDonagh, Ireland: The Union and Its Aftermath (London: Allen, 1977), p. 16. 21. Sir J. Fox Burgoyne, Ireland in 1831, p. 3. 22. Ibid., p. 5. 23. N. Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing 1770–1840 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 23. 24. Ibid., p. 44. 25. Ibid. 26. C. Chard, Pleasure and Guilt on the Grand Tour: Travel Writing and Imagina- tive Geography 1600–1830 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), p. 4. 27. Sir J. Fox Burgoyne, Ireland in 1831, p. 9. 28. Ibid., p. 13. 29. Ibid., p. 22. 30. J. Glasford, Notes of Three Tours in Ireland, p. 313. 31. Ibid., p. 325. 32. C. Chard, Pleasure and Guilt, p. 11. 33. H. D. Inglis, A Journey throughout Ireland, during the Spring, Summer and Autumn of 1834 (London: Whittaker, 1834), vol. I, p. 2. 34. Ibid., dedication. 35. Ibid., pp. 6–7. 36. Ibid., p. 396. 37. J. Barrow, A Tour round Ireland, through the Sea-Coast Counties, in the Autumn of 1835 (London: Murray, 1836), pp. 135, 178. 38. Ibid., pp. 303–4. 39. Ibid., pp. 121, 248. 40. Ibid., p. 152. 41. Ibid., p. 168. 42. The perspective offered, however, may also reflect a simply less censorious attitude on the part of (the Irish) Maclise himself. 43. The Edinburgh Review (April, 1833), pp. 248–9. 44. Baptist W. Noel, Notes of a Short Tour through the Midland Counties of Ireland, in the Summer of 1836 (London: Nisbet, 1837), p. 1. 45. Ibid., p. 3. 46. Ibid., p. 247. 47. Ibid., p. 248. 48. J. Barrell, The Dark Side of the Landscape: The Rural Poor in English 1730–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 92. 204 Notes

49. R. Shannan Peckham, ‘The Exoticism of the Familiar and the Familiarity of the Exotic: Fin-de-siècle Travellers to Greece’, in J. Duncan and D. Gregory, eds, Writes of Passage: Reading Travel Writing (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 173. 50. M. Morgan, National Identities and Travel in Victorian Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), p. 196. 51. Ibid., pp. 208–9. 52. Ibid., p. 209. 53. Ibid., p. 14. 54. L. Ritchie, Ireland Picturesque and Romantic (London: Longman, 1837), vol. I, p. 3. 55. Ibid., p. 5. 56. Sir G. Head, A Home Tour through Various Parts of the United Kingdom (London: Murray, 1837), advertisement to the reader. 57. Ibid., p. 203. 58. L. Ritchie, Ireland Picturesque, vol. I, pp. 5–6. 59. M. Beames, Peasants and Power: The Whiteboy Movements and Their Control in Pre-Famine Ireland (Brighton: Harvester, 1983), p. 161. 60. Ibid., p. 162. 61. J. Binns, The Miseries and Beauties of Ireland (London: Longman, 1837), vol. II, pp. 413–16. 62. Ibid., vol. I, pp. 293–4. 63. Ibid., p. 142. 64. Ibid., p. 3. 65. R. Williams, The Country and the City (London: Chatto & Windus, 1973), p. 154. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid., p. 155. 68. ‘Very few of those whom I addressed could speak English; but some of the men about, seeing the disadvantages under which I laboured, very oblig- ingly stepped forward, and offered assistance as interpreters.’ J. Binns, The Miseries and Beauties, vol. I, p. 374. 69. ‘The Bog of Allen, nearly in the centre of which I was standing, is one vast and level expanse . . . The sun was setting in a sky of cloudless and golden beauty . . . This gorgeous illumination was one of those things which are more frequently met with in the records of poetry, than in the experiences of actual life.’ J. Binns, The Miseries and Beauties, vol. II, p. 33. 70. J. Binns, The Miseries and Beauties, vol. I, p. 207. 71. Ibid., p. 261. 72. Ibid., p. 339.

73. Ibid., vol. II, p. 61. 74. W. Makepeace Thackeray, The Sketch Book; the Irish Sketch Book; and Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo (London: Smith, 1883), p. 558. 75. Ibid., p. 547. 76. A. Bourke, The Visitation of God? The Potato and the Great Irish Famine (Dublin: Lilliput, 1993), p. 129. 77. Ibid., p. 143. 78. ‘The epidemic broke out at an awkward time for the learned societies. Some, like the Société Royale et Centrale d’Agriculture of Paris, were summoned back by ministerial demand from their summer holidays to urgent special Notes 205

sessions; the remainder made up for lost time when they reassembled in the autumn . . . But it was the pamphleteers who had the real field day. An eruption of brochures broke out all over Europe, written by physicians, surgeons, botanists, noblemen, pharmaceutical and other chemists, geologists, excisemen, gardeners and accountants.’ A. Bourke, The Visitation, pp. 140–1. 79. A. Bourke, The Visitation, pp. 143–4, 146. 80. Ibid., p. 144. 81. W. Bennett, Narrative of a Recent Journey of Six Weeks in Ireland (London: Gilpin, 1847), p. v. 82. For very useful commentary on Bennett, see M. Fegan, Literature and the Irish Famine 1845–1919 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002). 83. W. Bennett, Narrative of a Recent Journey, p. vii. 84. Ibid., pp. v–vi, vi–vii. 85. Ibid., p. vii. 86. A. Nicholson, Annals of the Famine in Ireland, ed., M. Murphy (Dublin: Lilliput, 1998), p. 13. 87. Ibid., pp. 54–5. 88. W. Bennett, Narrative of a Recent Journey, pp. 25–7. 89. R. B. Goodbody, Quaker Relief Work in Ireland’s Great Hunger (Kendal: Quaker Tapestry Booklets, 1995), p. 7. See also R. B. Goodbody, A Suitable Channel: Quaker Relief in the Great Famine (Bray: Pale Publishing, 1995), and Transac- tions of the Central Relief Committee of the Society of Friends during the Famine in Ireland in 1846 and 1847 [exact facsimile reprint of the first edition, 1852] (Dublin: Burke, 1996). 90. The order of personnel involved is as follows. The first letter, titled ‘A Letter from Joseph Crosfield, Containing a Narrative of the First Week of William Forster’s Visit to Some of the Distressed Districts in Ireland’, describes the first week of Forster’s journey. The second, by James Hack Tuke, deals with weeks two to four, Tuke meeting up with Forster at the workhouse in Carrick-on-Shannon. The third letter, by Sims, covers weeks five and six, while the fourth letter, by Forster junior, who joined the party at Westport, is dated 18–26 January 1847. 91. J. Crosfield, Narrative of the First Week of William Forster’s Visit to Some of the Distressed Districts of Ireland (London: Newman, 1847), p. 2. 92. Ibid., p. 3. 93. J. Hack Tuke, Narrative of the Second, Third, and Fourth Weeks of William Forster’s Visit to Some of the Distressed Districts in Ireland (London: Newman, 1847), p. 3. 94. Rev. J. East, Glimpses of Ireland in 1847 (London: Hamilton, 1847), pp. 17–18. 95. Ibid., p. 22. 96. Ibid., pp. 33–4. 97. Ibid., p. 51. 98. Ibid., p. 57. 99. Ibid., p. 109. 100. Ibid., p. 94. 101. Ibid., p. 124. 102. A. Somerville, Letters from Ireland during the Famine of 1847, ed., K. D. M. Snell (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1994), pp. 28–9. 206 Notes

103. Ibid., p. 31. Although the 1848 insurrection ended in dismal failure at Widow McCormack’s garden, these were nevertheless years of growing nationalist awareness. 104. J. Hack Tuke, A Visit to Connaught in the Autumn of 1847 (London: Gilpin, 1847), p. 8. 105. Ibid., p. 28. 106. T. N. Corns and D. Loewenstein, ‘Introduction: The Emergence of Quaker Writing’, in T. N. Corns and D. Loewenstein, eds, The Emergence of Quaker Writing: Dissenting Literature in Seventeenth-Century England (London: Cass, 1995), p. 1. 107. N. Smith, ‘Hidden Things Brought to Light: Enthusiasm and Quaker Discourse’, in T. N. Corns and D. Loewenstein, eds, The Emergence of Quaker Writing, p. 57. 108. N. H. Keeble, ‘The Politic and the Polite in Quaker Prose: The Case of William Penn’, in T. N. Corns and D. Loewenstein, eds, The Emergence of Quaker Writing, p. 114. 109. Ibid. 110. H. E. Hatton, The Largest Amount of Good: Quaker Relief in Ireland, 1654– 1921 (Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1993), pp. 96–7. 111. The Quarterly Review (September, 1849), p. 562. 112. S. T. Hall, Life and Death in Ireland, as Witnessed in 1849 (Manchester: Parkes, 1850), p. 1. 113. Ibid., p. 120. 114. S. Godolphin Osborne, Gleanings in the West of Ireland (London: Boone, 1850), p. 16. For fuller discussion of Osborne, see M. Kelleher, The Feminiza- tion of Famine: Expressions of the Inexpressible? (Cork: Cork University Press, 1997). 115. S. T. Hall, Life and Death in Ireland, p. 90. 116. S. Godolphin Osborne, Gleanings in the West of Ireland, p. 79.

4 Travelling to write, 1850–1860

1. A. Blunt, Travel, Gender and Imperialism (London: Guilford, 1994), p. 17. 2. T. Carlyle, Reminiscences of My Irish Journey, ed., J. A. Froude (London: Sampson Low, 1882), p. vi. 3. Ibid., p. 127. 4. W. Bulloch Webster, Ireland Considered as a Field for Investment or Residence (Dublin: Hodges, 1852), preface. 5. Ibid., pp. 45–6. 6. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 208. 7. W. Bulloch Webster, Ireland Considered, p. 5. 8. Ibid., pp. iii–iv. 9. Ibid., p. 36. 10. Ibid., p. 5. 11. G. Preston White, Three Suggestions for the Investment of Capital (London: Trelawney, 1851), p. 3. 12. Ibid., A Tour in Connemara with Remarks on Its Great Physical Abilities (Dublin: McGlashan, 1851), p. xiii. Notes 207

13. Ibid., p. xii. 14. A. Blunt, Travel, Gender, and Imperialism, p. 32. 15. W. Bulloch Webster, Ireland Considered, pp. i, viii. 16. Ibid., p. 39. 17. Ibid., p. 42. 18. Ibid., p. 40. 19. S. Jackman, Galloping Head: The Life of the Right Honourable Sir Francis Bond Head, Bart, P.C., 1793–1875 Late Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada (London: Phoenix, 1958), p. 50. 20. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 154. 21. Ibid., p. 153. 22. F. Bond Head, A Fortnight in Ireland (London: Murray, 1852), p. 5. 23. S. Jackman, Galloping Head, p. 51. 24. F. Bond Head, A Fortnight in Ireland, p. 227. 25. Ibid., pp. 187–97. 26. Ibid., p. 175. 27. Ibid., pp. 212–13. 28. Ibid., pp. 142–3. 29. Ibid., pp. 129, 134, 208, 229. 30. H. Coulter, The West of Ireland: Its Existing Condition and Prospects (London: Hurst, 1862), notice to the reader, p. 2. 31. Sir D. Neave, Four Days in Connemara (London: Murray, 1852), p. 51. 32. F. Bond Head, A Fortnight in Ireland, p. 100. 33. Ibid., p. 108. 34. C. R. Weld, in Ireland (London: Longmans, 1857), p. 357. 35. F. Bond Head, A Fortnight in Ireland, p. 36. 36. Ibid., p. 169. 37. Ibid., p. 33. 38. Although more concerned with the modern connections between journalism and travel writing, a lively discussion is nevertheless offered by P. Holland and G. Huggan in Tourists with Typewriters: Critical Reflections on Contemporary Travel Writing (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998), especially pp. 1–27. See, also, D. Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing and Imperial Administration (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994). 39. John Forbes, Memorandums Made in Ireland in the Autumn of 1852 (London: Smith, 1853), vol. I, pp. 259–60. 40. H. Martineau, Letters from Ireland, ed., G. Hooper (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2001), pp. 90–1. 41. Martineau, especially, was very clear about just how improved Ireland could be, and what potential existed, but was also never less than outspoken as to its limitations: ‘The western coast of Ireland is very beautiful . . . But a few days are enough. A few days of observation of how the people live, merely by our going to see them, are sad enough to incline one to turn away, and never come again.’ H. Martineau, Letters, p. 115. 42. The concept of ‘home’ is, of course, a notoriously complex category, not just because our sense of what it implies is rarely shared by others, or because it can be frustrated or overridden by attachments to region or community, but because in the case of a place such as Ireland the category presents more 208 Notes

than the usual number of challenges, especially to British narrators. For a fuller, more sustained discussion, see R. Marangoly George, The Politics of Home: Postcolonial Relocations and Twentieth-Century Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). See, also, J. Childers, ‘At Home in the Empire’, in M. Baumgarten and H. M. Daleski, eds, Homes and Homelessness in the Victorian Imagination (New York: AMS, 1998), pp. 215–27. 43. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon in Ireland; or, The Rambles of an Englishman in Search of a Settlement in the West of Ireland (London: Murray, 1852), preface. 44. The oak tree acts as a quintessentially ‘English’ motif, and within the context of Ashworth’s text reinforces the appropriate national and gender priorities. William Shenstone, for example, refers to the oak as ‘the perfect image of the manly character: in former times I should have said, and in present times I think I am authorised to say, the British one’. T. Williamson, Polite Landscapes: Gardens and Society in Eighteenth-Century England (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 128. 45. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon in Ireland, pp. 4–6. 46. Ibid., p. 104. 47. J. Hack Tuke, A Visit to Connaught in the Autumn of 1847 (London: Gilpin, 1847), p. 196. 48. Quarterly Review (December, 1851), p. 196. 49. Ibid. 50. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon, p. 6. 51. Ibid., p. 7. 52. Ibid., p. 8. 53. Ibid., preface. 54. Ibid., p. 12. 55. Ibid., p. 17. 56. Ibid., pp. 18–19. Dublin always featured as part of any traveller’s itinerary, not just because most people arrived at Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire), a few miles away, and because it was the instinct among many to compare Dublin with London, but Dublin was also used as a cultural marker to set against the Irish countryside, which was regarded as potentially dangerous, if topographically rich. Although Ashworth’s hasty departure for the western seaboard, and his focus on a very particular region in the west is a little unusual, it does give his text an immediacy of purpose that not all travellers convey. 57. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon, p. 52 58. T. Miller, The Agricultural and Social State of Ireland in 1858, Being the Experience of Englishmen and Scotchmen Who Have Settled in Ireland . . . With an Appendix, Consisting of Letters from Scotch and English Proprietors and Farmers Resident in Ireland (Dublin: Thom, 1858), p. 10. 59. T. Miller, The Agricultural and Social State, pp. 10–11. 60. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon, p. 115. 61. Ibid., p. 61. 62. Ibid., p. 53. 63. Ibid., pp. 114–15. 64. See W. A. McCutcheon, ‘The Transport Revolution: Canals and River Navigations’, in K. B. Nowlan, ed., Travel and Transport in Ireland (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1973). Notes 209

65. ‘In 1842 there was a total of only 31 1/4 miles of railway in Ireland. By 1850 a total of 700 miles of railway was open or under construction . . . A railway map of the year 1852 shows that the basic structure of the Irish railways system had been created by then except for the routes to the north west of Connaught and to Wexford.’ K. B. Nowlan, ‘The Transport Revolution: The Coming of the Railways’, in K. B. Nowlan, ed., Travel and Transport, pp. 98, 101–2. 66. J. B. Harley, ‘Maps, Knowledge and Power’, in S. Daniels and D. Cosgrove, eds, The Iconography of Landscape (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 278. 67. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon, p. 155. 68. Ibid., p. 140. 69. Ibid., pp. 140–1. 70. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 104. 71. Ibid., pp. 202, 205. 72. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon, p. 46. 73. Ibid., p. 39. 74. Ibid., pp. 98–102. 75. Ibid., p. 34. 76. Fraser’s Magazine (August, 1851), p. 223. 77. Ibid. 78. Ibid., p. 224. 79. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon, pp. 71–2. 80. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 217. 81. Ibid., p. 150. 82. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon, p. 97. 83. Ainsworth’s Magazine (25, 1854), p. 395. 84. Ibid., p. 409. 85. J. Hervey Ashworth, The Saxon, p. 250. 86. Ibid., p. 104. 87. Ibid., p. 106. 88. Ibid., p. 108. 89. Ibid., pp. 260–1. 90. Ibid., pp. 230–1 91. H. Martineau, Letters, p. 149. 92. Ibid., Autobiography (London: Smith, 1877), vol. I, p. 160. 93. Ibid., Ireland: A Tale, ed., R. L. Wolff (New York: Garland, 1979), pp. vi–vii. 94. Ibid., Autobiography (London: Virago, 1983), vol. I, p. 171. 95. ‘Miss Martineau has, we are most willing to acknowledge, talents which might make her a useful and an agreeable writer. But the best advice we can give her is, to burn all the little books she has as yet written, with one or two exceptions.’ Quarterly Review (49, 1833), p. 151. 96. H. Martineau, Autobiography, vol. II, p. 406. 97. Ibid., Selected Letters, ed., V. Sanders (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 125. 98. Texts discussed are Society in America (1837), Retrospect of Western Travel (1838), and Eastern Life, Present and Past (1848). 99. See D. David, Intellectual Women and Victorian Patriarchy: Harriet Martineau, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, George Eliot (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987), and S. Hunter, Harriet Martineau: The Poetics of Moralism (Aldershot: Scolar, 1995). 210 Notes

100. H. Martineau, Autobiography (London: Smith, 1877), vol. II, p. 407. 101. Westminster Review (3, 1853), p. 35. 102. A. Blunt, Travel, Gender, and Imperialism, p. 19. 103. Quarterly Review (76, 1845), pp. 98–9. 104. S. Foster, Across New Worlds, p. 8. 105. See the very useful J. McAuliffe, ‘Women’s Travel Writing in Mid-Nine- teenth Century Ireland’, in M. Kelleher and J. H. Murphy, eds, Gender Per- spectives in 19th Century Ireland: Public and Private Spheres (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1997). 106. H. Martineau, Autobiography, ed., G. Weiner (London: Virago, 1983), vol. I, p. xv. 107. Ibid., Society in America (London: Saunders, 1837), vol. I, p. 199. 108. Ibid., Letters, pp. 65, 67. 109. Ibid., pp. 67, 68. 110. Ibid., p. 103. 111. V. Sanders, Reason over Passion: Harriet Martineau and the Victorian Novel (Sussex: Harvester, 1986), p. 168. 112. Ibid., p. xiii. 113. H. Martineau, Letters, p. 108. 114. In an article for The Westminster Review (April, 1854), Martineau declares her admiration for the census along similar lines. However, an important aspect of the article is the manner in which she looks at census figures, indeed the accumulation of statistical information generally, as inherently beneficial, a classificatory gesture that was to be replayed throughout much of the nineteenth century. 115. Thomas Drummond (1797–1840) was a Scots engineer who invented the limelight as well as an improved version of the heliostat. He was appointed Under-Secretary at Dublin Castle (1835), and is mainly remembered for helping to reform the Irish police, and opposing the excesses of the Orange Order. For further discussion, see M. A. G. Ó Tuathaigh, Thomas Drummond and the Government of Ireland 1835–41 (Dublin: National University of Ireland, 1977). 116. John Frederick Hodges (1823–1899) was Professor of Agriculture at Queen’s College (now University), Belfast, Director of the Chemico- Agricultural Society of Ulster, and taught medical jurisprudence in a career spanning 50 years. Among his publications is What Science Can Do for the Irish Farmer: Being an Introductory Lecture on Agricultural Chemistry (Dublin: Curry, 1844). 117. H. Martineau, Letters, pp. 33–4. 118. Ibid., p. 30. 119. ‘Ultimately, Martineau’s “solutions” to the situations in Ireland and India centered on education and entrepreneurial capitalism, which she thought the British had a responsibility to promote in both countries. It was the rationalist argument that science, knowledge and disciplined economic behaviour would save inhabitants in both cases from the crises and conflicts generated, she thought, by traditional culture.’ S. Hoecker-Drysdale, Harriet Martineau: First Woman Sociologist (New York: Berg, 1992), p. 122. 120. H. Martineau, Letters, p. 26. Notes 211

121. Little psychoanalytic effort is necessary, I believe, to follow the trajectory in Martineau’s mind between the colour green, slime and an unfettered Irish peasantry. 122. H. Martineau, Letters, p. 31. 123. Ibid., p. 42. 124. Ibid., p. 56. 125. Ibid., p. 69. 126. Ibid., p. 74. 127. Ibid., p. 75. 128. Ibid., pp. 39, 100, 107. Select Bibliography

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accessibilty, 142, 147, 151, 161 assimilation, 84 Achill, 166, 176, 188 Athlone, 82 Act of Union, 4, 5, 9, 59, 61, 64, attitudes to Ireland, British, 142 75, 100 Australia, 105, 169 advancement, 75, 183 authority, 55, 68, 73, 168 economic, 75 imperial, 154 scientific, 183 interpretive, 146 aesthetic(s), 55 of the map, 151, 166 of distance, 111, 112 availability of Ireland, 75, 77, and ideology, 167 169, 170 picturesque, 54 sensationist, 26 Baedeker, 107, 108 of time, 112 Bagenal, Sir Henry, 27 Africa, 105 Ballinasloe, 187 agriculturalists, scientific, 184 Ballycanvan, 48 agriculture, 16, 17, 43, 47, Ballycroy mountain, 166 114, 130 Ballyshannon, 117 Ainsworth’s Magazine, 170 Bantry Bay, 59 Aitchison, Cara et al, 32 Barlow, Stephen, 70–2 alienation, 89 The History of Ireland ..., 70 Andrews, Malcolm, 12, 13, 25, 26, Barrell, John, 120 30, 31, 33, 54 Barrow, John, 116–19 Anglo-Irish relations, 60, 61, 84, A Tour round Ireland ..., 116 86, 109 Batten, Charles, 60, 61, 82 Anglo-Irish relationship, 4, 61, Beames, Michael, 16, 124 102, 184 Beaufort, Daniel Augustus, 80 Annual Register, 85 beauty, 53, 124, 167 antiquarian studies, 62 Bective, Lord, 48 antiquarianism, 99 Belfast, 82, 176, 185, 186, 187 antiquities, 69 Belfast Social Inquiry Society, 183 Antrim, 91, 185 Belleisle, 48 appropriation, 65, 69, 84 Belmullet, 133, 140–1 Aran islands, 187 Bennett, William, 131–2, 133, 137, archaeological sites, 121 139, 143 architecture, 55, 57, 91 Narrative of a Recent Journey of Armagh, 16 Six Weeks in Ireland, 131 art(s), 55, 57 Betham, Matilda, 92 Ashworth, John Hervey, 3, 8–9, Biographical Dictionary of the 157–62, 164, 165, 166–8, Celebrated Women of Every 170–2, 173, 185 Age and Country, 92 The Saxon in Ireland, 8, 157, Betham, Sir William, 92 168, 169 Bicheno, J. E., 104–7 Asia, 121 Ireland and Its Economy, 104

219 220 Index

Big House, the, 25 canals, 150, 165, 183 Bigelow, Andrew, 102, 107 capital, 80, 149, 152, 156, 159, Leaves from a Journal, 101 167, 183 Binns, Jonathan, 124–8 speculative, 75, 146 The Miseries and Beauties of Ireland, capitalism, European, 81 124, 125 Cardinal, Roger, 33 Black, Jeremy, 23, 31, 57 Carlyle, Thomas, 145 Blunt, Alison, 98, 144, 149, 177 Reminiscences of My Irish Journey, 145 bog(s), 27–9, 157, 162, 185 Carr, John, 94 of Allen, 187 Carrick-on-Shannon, 135 Bohls, Elizabeth, 49, 50–1 Carrickfergus, 172 Bolt, Christine, 61 Carrigugulla, 125 Victorian Attitudes to Race, 61 Castlebar, 154, 188 border crossings, 121 Castleconnell, 32 Bourke, Austin, 129, 130 Catholic Defenders society, 16 Bowden, Charles Topham, 57 Catholic emancipation, 6, 102, 107, Boyne Castle, 88 114, 115 Bray, 32 Catholicism, English, 62 Brighton, 32 Céitinn, Seathrun, 66–7 Britain, Ireland’s relationship to, 58, Foras Feasa ar Eirinn, 66 76, 77, 78 The General History of Ireland, 66 British Association for the Celtic fringe, 88, 112 Advancement of Science, 183 Celtic Ireland, 69 British Empire, 7, 81 census figures, 145, 183, 185 British Museum, 72 Central Relief Committee, 134 ‘Briton’, 121 Chard, Chloe, 113, 115 Brown, Capability, 37, 53, 54 Charlemont, Lord, 49 Brown, John, 30, 37, 53–4 Chatterton, Henrietta, 178 A Description of the Lake at Rambles in the South of Ireland, 178 Keswick, 30 Chemico-Agricultural Society of Burgoyne, Sir John Fox, 6, 109–11, Ulster, 183 113, 114 Claddagh, 154, 155, 185, 187 Ireland in 1831: Letters on the State of Clancarty, Lord, 187 Ireland, 109 Clare, 142 Burke, Edmund, 3, 13, 18, 25, 26, Clifden, 8, 154, 156, 168 42, 54 Clonmel, 88 A Philosophical Enquiry into the Clothworker’s estates, 186 Origin of Our Ideas of the Co. Armagh, 76 Sublime and Beautiful, 13, 18 Co. Clare, 157, 185 Burney, Fanny, 92 Co. Cork, 48, 59 Bush, John, 3, 4, 17–19, 20, 21–3, Co. Donegal, 76, 158, 184 24, 25–9, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, Co. Down, 76, 91 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 48, 51, Co. Dublin, 47, 76 53, 58, 143 Co. Galway, 48, 155, 161, 170, 172, Hibernia Curiosa, 17, 18 176, 185, 187 Bush’s editor, 19–20 Co. Kildare, 76, 82, 83, 187 Buzzard, James, 100 Co. Kilkenny, 76 Byron, Lord Co. Laois, 51 Don Juan, 108 Co. Leitrim, 76 Index 221

Co. Londonderry, 9, 76, 183 curiosity, 18 Co. Mayo, 59, 76, 118, 155, 158, Curragh of Kildare, 69 166, 185 Curwen, J. C. Co. Meath, 76 Observations on the State of Ireland, 69 Co. Roscommon, 76 customs of the Irish, 17, 57 Co. Sligo, 76 Co. Tipperary, 48, 51 Daily News, 174, 175 Co. Tyrone, 76 danger, 86, 115 Co. Waterford, 48, 82 Daniels, Stephen, 55 Co. Wexford, 76, 82, 83 David, Deirdre Co. Wicklow, 4, 25, 27, 74, 76, 91, 111 Intellectual Women, 175 Coleraine, 184, 186, 188 Dawson Court, 52 Coleridge, 101 de Montalt, Lord, 48 Diary of a Tour to the Lake De Quincey, 101 District, 101 Defoe, Daniel Colley, Linda, 122 A Tour Thro’ the Whole Island of Great colonial endeavour, 169 Britain, 29 colonial enterprise, 93 Denholm, James colonialism, 93 A Tour to the Principal Scotch and colonies, 158, 160, 164 English Lakes, 101 commodification of Ireland, 93 depopulation, 145, 147, 149 communications, 147, 164, 165, 171 Derry, 185, 187, 189 Cong, 165 destitution, 127, 137 Connaught, 8, 20, 27, 118, 140 development, industrial, 156 Connemara, 118, 176 Devonshire, Duke of, 125 constabulary, see policing Dickens, Charles, 126, 127, 174 contamination, 138 Dickson, David, 17 context, 53 disappointment, 110, 172 control, 8, 15, 38, 39, 40, 54, 65, 68, discourse(s) 72, 124, 155 colonial, 82 Cook, Thomas, 32, 108 epistemological, 61 Cork, 33, 51, 137 masculinist, of mastery, 38 Corns and Loewenstein, 141 of femininity, 94, 95, 96 Cosgrove, Denis, 55 patriarchal, 91 cottier farming, 47 picturesque and tourist, 116 Coulter, Henry, 154 Quaker, 133 The West of Ireland, 154 settler, 157 country house, the, 25 sexualised, 40 county survey, 5 disguise, 87, 88 Cox, Richard, 65, 66 Doyle, Laura, 12 crisis, political, 108, 109, 124 Drummond, Alexander, 183 Cromwell, Kitson, 6 Dublin, 16, 20, 25, 43, 49, 50, 51, Crookhaven, 137 69, 82, 91, 92, 116, 122, 125–6, Crosfield, Joseph, 135 127, 134, 137, 140, 142, 158, Culloden, 14, 15 161, 165, 173, 175, 186, 187 culture Dublin Society, 5, 73–6, 77, 78, 80 high, 55 Dubliner(s), 49 Irish, 119, 152 Duncan and Gregory, 22 of Europe, 121 Dundalk, 48 222 Index

Dundrum, 48 Fishmonger’s Company, 186 Dungarvan, 125 Court, 116 Dunkettle, 48 Forbes, John, 156, 157 Durrow, 51 Memorandums Made in Ireland, 156 ‘foreign’, 114, 115 Eagleton, Terry, 24, 25 Forster, William, 134–5, 140, 141 The Ideology of the Aesthetic, 24 Forster, William Edward, 135 East, Rev. John, 136–9, 143 Foster, Shirley, 95, 96, 178 Glimpses of Ireland in 1847, 136 Fox, Charles, 174 Eastlake, Lady, 178 France, 89, 91, 92, 93 economy Ireland’s relationship to, 59 global, 80 Fraser, Robert, 74, 76, 81 world, 81 Fraser’s Magazine, 168 Edgeworthstown, 82 Froude, James, 145 Edinburgh Review, 119 Fulford, Tim, 55 education, 186 Furniss, Tom, 24, 25 emigration, 104, 145, 147, 159, 164, 176, 182, 183, 188 Gamble, John empathy, 128 A View of Society, 69 empire, 61, 62, 77, 79, 84, 85, 122, gaze 147, 148, 155, 157, 179 male, 39 British, 69, 70, 72, 73, 81, 104, subject-controlling, 38 110, 125 German philosophical tradition, 24 employment, female, 180 Giant’s Causeway, 95, 96 enclosure(s), 16, 50 Gilpin, William, 30, 31, 35, 42, 104 enfranchisement of Catholics, 76 Observations on Several Parts of the England, 121 Counties of Cambridge ..., 42 English Ethnological Society, 61 Observations on the River Wye, 30, Englishness, 128 31, 42 Enniskillen, 82, 88 Observations Relative Chiefly to Enniskillen, Earl of, 116 Picturesque Beauty, Made in the Ennistymon, 188 Year 1772, on Several Parts of entertainment, 31 England, 42 Erris, 159, 188 Observations, Relative Chiefly to Established Church, 180 Picturesque Beauty, Made in the estate improvement(s), 47, 49, Year 1776, on Several Parts of 53, 55 Great Britain, Particularly the estate management, 184, 186 High-Lands of Scotland, 42 Europe, continental, 100, 112, Tour of Scotland, 12 116, 123 Tour of the Wye Valley, 12 exploitation, 7, 9 Giraldus Cambrensis, 5, 63, 64, exploration, 54, 149 65, 68 Expugnatio Hibernica, 65 fact-gathering, 71, 81 Topographia Hiberniae, 65 fantasy, 157, 169 Glasford, James, 104, 114 farmers, English, 183 Notes of Three Tours in Ireland, in farming methods, 4, 55, 184 1824 and 1826, 103 fiction, 66, 106, 110, 116, 126, Glendalough, 122 143, 181 gold, 75, 148 Index 223

Gold and Gold, 14, 15 Tour in Ireland, 63, 64, 65 Grand Tour, 11–12, 13, 18, 40–2, Tour through the Isle of Elbe, 64 57, 115, 121 Hodges, John Frederick, 183 Grant, Anne Hogarth, William, 36, 37 Letters from the Mountains, 42 Holinshed, Raphael, 65 Gray, Thomas, 30 Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Journal in the Lakes, 30 Ireland, 63 Great Famine, 3, 6, 7, 9, 110, 129–43, ‘home’, 98, 144, 150, 157 144, 145, 162, 165, 167, 172, 177, Home Tour, 3, 12, 14, 17, 42, 44, 57, 179, 180, 183, 185, 188 104, 108, 112, 113, 115, 157 Greece, 120–1 Housman, John Greenboys, 16 A Descriptive Tour and Guide to the guidebook(s), 107–8, 122 Lakes, 101 hunger, 124, 138 hagiography, 66 Hunt, Frederick Knight, 174 Hall, Reverend James, 3, 5, 82–90, Hunter, Shelagh 91, 97, 106, 152 Harriet Martineau: The Poetics of Tour through Ireland, Particularly the Moralism, 175 Interior and Least Known Parts, Hutton, Arthur Wollaston, 45, 46 82, 84 Travels in Scotland, 83 identity, British, 121 Hall, Spencer T., 142–3 ideology, unionist, 88 Life and Death in Ireland, as ignorance of Ireland, 61, 69, 77, 81 Witnessed in 1849, 142 imperial incorporation, 149 hardship, 131, 133 imperial intervention, 150 Harley, J. B., 166 improvement(s), Irish, 57, 77, 78, 89, Hatton, Helen, 135 109, 156, 162, 173, 176, 179, Head, Francis Bond, 7, 123, 150–4, 183, 184, 186, 187 155, 156, 157 Inchbald, Elizabeth, 92 Fortnight in Ireland, 151 incompetence, 66 Rough Notes Taken during Some Rapid India Survey, 73 Journeys across the Pampas, 151 industry, 186 Head, Sir George, 123–4 information, 61, 63, 68, 69, 71, 72, A Home Tour through Various Parts 73, 74, 76, 83, 88, 118, 132, 135, of the United Kingdom, 123 149, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, Forest Scenes and Incidents in the 158, 161 Wilds of North America, 123 Inglis, Henry David, 115–16 Headfort, 48 A Journey throughout Ireland, 115 Heuston, John, 32 Narrative of a Journey through Norway, historians, 66 Sweden and the Islands of history, writing of, 66, 80 Denmark, 115 history/ies of Ireland, 62, 67, 71, 72 Tales of the Ardennes, 115 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt, 5, 64, 65, 66, , 23 67–9, 70, 82, 94, 105, 121 insecurity, 70 A Classical Tour through Italy and institutionalisation, 154, 155 , 64 insurgents, 124 Recollections Abroad, 64 insurrection, 59, 75, 88, 125 The Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin integration, 70 through Wales ..., 64 interpretation, 87, 152 224 Index invasions, medieval, 65 Korte, Barbara, 12, 46, 84, 108 investment, 145, 147, 148, 149, Kotzebue, Augustus von, 91, 92, 99 152, 155, 156, 162, 167, 184, 186 labour investor(s), 3, 146, 150, 157, 158, cheap, 147, 164 162, 165 low-cost, 7 Irish, the, 97, 102, 110, 119, 122, masculine and feminine, 180 148, 152, 171, 186 labourer(s), the Irish, 102, 148, 150 ancient, 121 Lake District, English, 12, 29, 30, native, 65, 87, 96, 114, 118, 120, 101, 104, 125 127, 145, 164 lakes peasant, 133 of Ireland, 30, 31 Irish Emancipation movement, 182 of Killarney, 33, 36, 38, 109, 112 Irish Poor Inquiry, 127 land Italy, 123 available, 147 cheap, 145 Jackman, Sydney, 151 owning, 55 jails, 156 landholder, 58 Johnson, Samuel, 104 landlordism, 21 Tour of Scotland, 12 landlords, 22, 176 Johnstown, 51 absentee, 21, 89 journalists, 7 settled, 21 landowners, 48, 50 Kaplan, Cora, 91 landscape, 55, 121, 157, 165 Keating, Geoffrey, see Céitinn, aestheticisation, 101 Seathrun appreciation, 41, 53, 167, 187 Keeble, N. H., 141 English, 74 Kilkee, 32 Irish, 103, 150, 152, 166 Kilkenny, 57 language, 68, 69, 78, 89, 96, 97, Killala, 59 133–4, 135 Killaloe, 120 painting, 50 Killarney, 4, 33, 82, 117, 120, 129, 176 people as part of, 120 Kilmoe, 137 picturesque aestheticisation, 50 Kilrush, 188 proto-anthropological, 102 Kingsley, Mary, 93, 149 reinvention, 169 Travels in West Africa, 93 Lansdowne, First Marquis, 47 Kingstown, 110, 122, 127 Larne, 186 Kitson Cromwell, Thomas, 102–3, 104, lawlessness, 124 105, 107 Leask, Nigel, 112, 113 Excursions through Britain, 102 Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel The Irish Tourist, 101 Writing, 1770–1840, 111 Knight, Richard Payne, 53 Leinster, 20, 187 The Landscape: A Didactic Poem, 54 Leinster, Duke of, 47 knowledge, 65, 68, 72, 73, 76, 77, 79, Lichtenstein, Henry, 90 81, 93, 152, 154, 156, 188 Travels in Southern Africa, 90 of Ireland, 63, 64 Limavady, 186 and power, 150 Limerick, 16, 142 for power paradigm, 70 Line of Beauty, 36 statistical, 74 Linné, Carl, 18, 34 Index 225

Linnean Society, 104 Miller, Thomas, 162–4, 185 Lisburn, 187 The Agricultural and Social State of Lismore Castle, 122 Ireland, 162 London, 126, 127, 134, 147, 170 Mills, Sara, 38, 93, 94, 95, 96 London Anthropological Society, 61 mineral wealth, 76, 148 Londonderry Companies, 185, mineralogy, 91, 145 186, 187 Mingay, George, 43, 46, 47 Lough Corrib, 161, 168 mission civilisatrice, 155 Lough Erne, 33, 48 missionaries, 7, 107 Lough Foyle, 176 Monstereven, 52 Lough Neagh, 31, 38 monuments, 69 Lucan, 32 Morgan, Marjorie, 121–2 Lucan, Lord, 47 mortality, Famine-related, Luckombe, Philip, 53, 58 145, 183 A Tour Through Ireland, 42 mountain views, 167 Moycullen barracks, 154 MacDonagh, O., 110 Muirhead, 108 Maclise, D., 119 Mullingar, 161, 170 Mallow, 32 Munster, 16, 20 maps, 15, 23, 151, 153, 157, Murillo, 116 163, 165–7 Murphy, Maureen, 132 Marino, 49 Murray, John, 107, 108, 152 market forces, 16 Musgrave, Richard, 63, 70 marketability, 147 Memoirs of the Different Rebellions in markets, 158 Ireland, 62 British, 165 Strictures upon an Historical Review of expanding, 147 the State of Ireland, 62 international, 147 Martineau, Harriet, 9, 156–7, Napoleonic wars, 12 172–89 narratives, colonial, 166 Autobiography, 173, 174, 175, 176, natives, 21, 96, 127, 156, 179 159, 180 Illustrations of Political Economy, 173, natural history, 34, 35 174, 175 nature, sublime force of, 13 Ireland: A Tale, 173, 175 Neave, Sir Digby, 154–5, 156 Letters from Ireland, 175, 176, 177, Four Days in Connemara, 154 179, 180, 181, 182, 188; Letter I, New Ross, battle of, 83 186; Letter II, 183, 186; Letter III, Newenham, Thomas, 76–81 186; Letter IV, 186; Letter IX, A View of the Natural, Political, and 180; Letter XI, 187; Letter XVI, Commercial Circumstances of 180 Ireland, 78, 80 Society in America, 179 Statistical and Historical Inquiry Mason, William Shaw into the Progress and Magnitude A Statistical Account of Ireland, 69 of the Population of Ireland, mastery, 40, 51, 166 77, 80 Maynooth, 48 Newport, 166 melancholy, 26, 41 Nicholson, Asenath, 132 military might, 84 Annals, 132 military preparedness, 88, 140 Nicholson, Norman, 101 226 Index

Nile explorers, 167 Pennant, Thomas, 42 Noel, Baptist Wriothesley, 119–20 A Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the Notes of a Short Tour through Hebrides, 42 the Midland Counties of A Tour in Wales, 42 Ireland, 119 Pennant, William, 104 Nussbaum, Felicity, 39 Tour of the Scottish Highlands, 12 philanthropists, 7 Oakboys, 16 Phoenix Park, 140 obedience of the people, 78 Phytophthora infestans, 129 observation(s) picturesque, 54, 55, 57, 101, 124, personal, 152, 154, 161 155, 184 social, 104 pleasure, 31, 33, 41, 176 O’Connell, Daniel, 182 Pliny, 105 O’Connor, Dermod, 66 Plowden, Francis, 63, 70 Ogden, Frances, 175 An Historical Letter from Francis ‘Old England’, 70 Plowden to Sir Richard Omagh, 88, 128 Musgrave, 62 ophthalmia, 180, 188 An Historical Review of the State of opportunity, 64, 106, 152 Ireland, 62 economic, 78, 145 Plumptre, Anne, 5–6, 60, 90–5, 96–7, political, 139 98, 99, 106 Orange Boys, 16 Narrative of a Residence in Ireland, Orange factions, 104 91, 98 order, 8, 38, 155, 156 Narrative of a Three Years’ Residence Osborne, Sidney Godolphin, in France, 90, 93, 177 142, 143 Plumptre, James, 101 Gleanings in the West The Lakers, 101 of Ireland, 142 Pococke, Richard, 94 Ó Tuathaigh, 107 policing, 124, 125, 139–40, 148, Ousby, Ian, 18–19, 25, 101 151, 155, 157 ownership, 98 political change, 60 political commentary, 21 pacification, political, 49, 155 political life, Irish, 103, 129 Park, Mungo, 83 political stability, 79, 106, 188 Travels in the Interior Districts of politics Africa, 60 and economics, 184 Parks, Fanny, 94 Anglo-Irish, 86 Paterson, William, 82 colonial, 93 Patterson, William dominance, 55 Observations of Ireland, 69 imperial, 169 peasantry, 57, 114, 120, 131, 132, issues, 140 133, 140, 180 revolutionary, 92, 99 Peckham, Robert Shannan, poor-house(s), 134, 135, 120–1 140, 188 Peep O’Day Boys, 16 poor, the Pendleton, Henrietta English, 127 Gleanings from the Islands and Coast Irish, 127 of Ireland, 178 possession, 69, 98, 166 Penn, William, 141 potato blight, 129–30, 136 Index 227 potential resettlement, 7, 147, 154, 155, agricultural, 146, 162 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163, economic, 4, 7, 80, 161, 162, 168, 165, 168, 169, 180, 183 172, 174 resistance, political, 4 extractive, 162 resources, 4, 5, 80 settler, 146 mineral, 7, 38–9 poverty, 89, 96, 114, 116, 117, 120, Richards, Thomas, 72–3 122, 124, 125, 155, 160 rioting, 16 power, 50, 55–6, 73, 77, 96, 179 Ritchie, Leith, 122–3, 124, 125 Powerscourt, 25, 27 Ireland Picturesque and Powerscourt Waterfall, 122 Romantic, 122 Pratt, Mary Louise, 34, 35, 60, 61, river Bann, 186 82, 90, 147, 151, 166, 169 roads, 15, 23, 150 prejudice, 67, 132, 158, 164, 168 Rock of Cashel, 69, 98–9 Price, Uvedale, 53 Roman Catholicism, 7, 136 Essay on the Picturesque, 54 romantic sensibility, 60 priest(s), 107, 182, 185 Ross, Lord, 48 dependence on, 6 Rostrevor, 120 power of, 104 Royal Geographical Society, role of, 21, 136, 182 61, 72 promotionalism, 151 Royal Irish Academy, 80 literature, 162 Royal Society, 69 rhetoric, 156, 157 ruin(s), 37, 54, 99 texts, 144 propertied classes, 55 Sanders, Valerie, 181 prospect-view, 55, 166 Saxon(s), 8, 155 prosperity, 78, 79 school(s), 155, 156, 186 proximity, of Ireland to Britain, 158, science, 184 162, 165, 172 of agriculture, 183, 185 Punter, David, 54 scientific spirit, 61 scientists, 7 Quaker writing, 127, 135, Scotland, 12, 14, 58, 64, 68, 70, 73, 138, 141 103, 120, 121, 122 Quakers, 7, 131, 132–6, 139, 140, Scottish Highlands, 12, 15, 101, 141, 143, 175 104, 125 Quarterly Review, 142, 159, 178 sea-bathing, 32, 33 Queen’s College(s), 185, 187 seaside , 32 Queen’s County, 187 secret societies, 4, 16, 107, 125 security, 149, 152, 165 ragwort, 9, 184 self-improvement, 41 railways, 150, 156, 164, 165, 171, settlement, 147, 155 176, 183, 187 settler(s), 3, 9, 150, 151, 152, readership, British, 69, 86, 103, 154, 158, 159, 162, 165, 180 105, 122, 135, 147, 161, 167 British, 114 rebellion, 59, 61 elite, 148, 170 Rebellion of 1798, 76, 83, 110 English, 8, 156, 172 regulation, 8 Scottish, 172 relief efforts, 131, 133 shame, 6 renewal, 60, 61, 64, 98, 158 Shelburne, Earl, 47 228 Index

Shenstone, William Taylor, Emily ‘Unconnected Thoughts on The Irish Tourist, 178 Gardening’, 37 Templemoyle agricultural training The Works in Verse and Prose, 37 college, 9, 183–4, 185, 186 Sherman, William, 84 tenants, 180 Sims, William Dillwyn, 135 territoriality, 166 Sinclair, Sir John, 73–4, 75 testimonial writing, 132 ‘Sister Isle’, 4, 58, 97, 106, 112, 114, Thackeray, William Makepeace, 130 131, 139, 158 The Irish Sketch Book of 1842, 129 Sligo, Lord, 116, 180 Thomas, Gillian, 175 Smith, Adam, 11 threat(s), 15, 27, 59, 89 Smith, Charles, 80 Tipperary, 53, 57, 98 Smith, Nigel, 141 Tone, Theobald Wolfe, 59 Smollett, Tobias, 11 tour(s) social life, Irish, 102 scenic, 165 Society of Antiquaries, 69, 102 water, 33 Somerville, Alexander, 139–40 tourism, 100, 107, 111, 177 Southey, 101 as an industry, 117 Spain, 89 as escape, 31 Sparrman, Anders, 82, 83 as , 31 spas, 32 development of, 15, 40 spatio-temporal codes, 112 Irish, 111 speculation, 163 mass, 108 Spenser, Edmund, 63, 94 picturesque, 12, 30 A View of the Present State of tourist(s), 131 Ireland, 93 destabilised, 137 Staple, Sir Robert, 52 English, 103 Statistical Account of Scotland, 5, 73 picturesque, 50, 52 Statistical and Social Inquiry scenic, 49 Society, 73 Towner, John, 40, 41, 42 statistical institutions and societies, 72 trade statistical surveys, 62, 73, 76, 80 international, 81 statistics, 73–4 Ireland’s, 80 Steelboy disturbances, 17 Tralee, 82 Sterne, Lawrence, 11 transport system, Irish, 111, 164 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 126 travel, 84, 92, 104, 115, 140, 177 Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, 126 and escape, 178 ‘story’ of Ireland, 62 and imperialism, 149 subletting, 188 British, 144 sublime, 13–14, 21, 22–3, 24, 25, 26, experience of, 108 27, 33, 37, 40, 53, 54, 57, 101 picturesque, 55 female responses, 38 romantic, 115 male responses, 38 travel books, 82, 108 theories of, 3, 18 travel narrative, 34 suffering, 132, 133, 135, 138 travel writers, 111, 116 surveillance, 87, 88 British, 121, 130 early nineteenth-century, 112 Talbot, Peter, 66 late eighteenth-century, 112 taste, 54 women, 94 Index 229 travel writing, 22, 42, 61, 84, 109, 130, Ulster, 16, 17, 20 139, 140, 144, 149, 152, 176 underdevelopment, 150, 162 British, 127 unease, 22, 29, 50, 70, 84, 88, 99, development of, 179 143, 157 early modern, 84 unrest, 16, 49, 55, 63, 83, 107, early nineteenth-century, 90 151, 170 eighteenth-century, 90, 111 Union with Britain, 60, 87, 89, 94, forms of self-representation in, 60 105, 109, 110, 112, 114, 115, from the 1830s, 111, 115 121, 125, 143 humour in, 93 benefits of, 65, 76, 81, 107 and journalism, 156 Unionism, 81, 97 ‘letters from a friend’ format, 94 upper classes, 127 male, 99 Urlingford, 51, 52 mid to late eighteenth-century, 82 narrative coherence, 65 Valentia, 176 narrative form, 45, 90, 92, 118 Vaughan, John, 108 narrative style(s), 60, 82, 94 violence, 114, 150 narrative voice, 82 ‘visitation’, 136 nineteenth-century, 111 votaries, 33 objectivity, 60 personal response, 86 Wakefield, Edward political selectivity, 188 An Account of Ireland, Statistical and purpose, 90 Political, 69 realism, 118 Wales, 12, 64, 68, 103, 109, 121, 122 subjectivity, 45, 83, 118 Ware, 65 visibility of writer, 82 The Works of Spencer, Campion, women’s, 92, 93, 95, 177–8 Hanmer and Marleborough, 63 traveller(s) Warner, Richard British, 17, 84, 86, 100, 103, 105, A Tour through the Northern Counties 108, 109, 113, 143, 144 of England and the Borders of curious, 27, 29 Scotland, 101 eighteenth-century, 82 water, 29–36, 37 Famine, 139, 174 water scenery, 31, 33 nineteenth-century, 167 Watt, Gregory, 95 post-Famine, 3 weariness of Ireland, 177 Quaker, 131 Webster, William Bulloch, 7, 145–50, romantic, 33 151, 152, 156, 185 types of, 18 geological map, 146–7, 151 women, 2–3, 91–9, 178 Ireland Considered as a Field for travelogue, definition, 3 Investment or Residence, 145 Trench, Frederick, 48 Weiner, Gaby, 179 Tuke, James Hack, 135, 136, 137, Weld, Charles Richard, 155 138, 143, 159 Vacations in Ireland, 155 A Visit to Connaught in the Autumn of Weld, Isaac, 76 1847, 140, 159 west of Ireland, 167–8, 185, 187 Tumultous Risings Act, 16 West, Thomas, 30, 31 Turc mountain, 39, 40 Westminster, 64, 142 Twiss, Richard, 44, 46, 58 Westminster Review, 100, 177 A Tour in Ireland in 1775, 42, 43 Westport, 116, 161, 168 230 Index

Whale, John, 54 women, 179–80 Whately, Thomas, 30 Woodlawn, 48 Observations on Modern Gardening, 30 Wordsworth, 101 White, George Preston, 148–9 A Description of the Scenery of the A Tour in Connemara ..., 149 Lakes, 101 Three Suggestions for the Investment of A Guide through the District of the Capital, 148 Lakes, 101, 108 White, Sir John Jervis, 72 workhouse(s), 154, 155, A Brief View of the Past and Present 156, 188 State of Ireland, 70 Whiteboys, 16, 17, 21, 125 Yellowford, 27 Wide Streets Commission, 16 Youghal, 32, 125 Williams, Helen Maria, 92 Young, Arthur, 3, 4, 43–58 Williams, Mary/Maria, 93 A Six Months’ Tour through the North A Tour of , 93, 177 of England, 44 Williams, Raymond, 126–7, 139 A Six Weeks Tour through the Southern The Country and the City, 126 Counties of England and Wales, Withey, Lynne, 29, 30 43–4 witness narration, 162 Autobiography, 47 Wolff, Robert Lee, 173 The Farmer’s Tour through the East of Wollstonecraft, Mary, 92 England, 44 Letters Written during a Short Tour in Ireland, 42, 44 Residence in Sweden, Norway and Travels [through] the Kingdom of France, Denmark, 38, 92, 177 44, 45