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Tourism and Ghana's Development Process: Problems of And TOURISM AND GHANA'S DEVELOPMENT PROCESS: PROBLEMS OF AND PROSPECTS FOR CREATING A VIABLE "POST-INDUSTRIAL" SERVICE INDUSTRY IN A NON-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY by FRANCIS ADU-FEBIRI B.A. (Hons) Sociology, University of Ghana, Ghana, 1984 M.A. Sociology, Simon Fraser University, Canada, 1989 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA January 1994 © Francis Adu-Febiri In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at The University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of Anthropology and Sociology The University of British Columbia 2075 Wesbrook Place Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5 Date: January 1994 ABSTRACT The thesis questions the underlying rationale and appropriateness of adopting conventional tourism as a strategy for development in a Third World country such as Ghana which lacks the necessary capital, Western-type skilled tourism personnel and entrepreneurs, and the political stability conducive to this form of tourism. In examining Ghana's tourist industry the thesis concludes that Ghana's tourism has failed to develop and generate development even though 1) Ghana's tourism development strategy has favoured conventional tourism since the late 1950s, 2) the industry is not foreign dominated, 3) the country possesses enormous tourism resources, and 4) successive governments have made consistent efforts to develop the industry. The main reason for this paradox is the incongruence between Ghana's conventional tourism orientation and the existing indigenous economic resources, cultural values and political conditions. Based upon these findings, the thesis suggests a new tourism policy for Ghana, a policy that places greater emphasis on alternative forms of tourism which are a) more congruent with minimal tourism infrastructure, facilities and services, and b) more sensitive to issues of social justice, and to protecting local cultures and the natural environment. The main contribution of the thesis lies in its focus on a critical dimension of Third World tourism--the contradiction between the form of tourism adopted and local resources and conditions-which has been neglected by the emerging theoretical approaches in the sociology of tourism and in empirical research on tourism in Third World countries. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Table of Contents iii List of Tables vi Acknowledgement viii Dedication ix Chapter One: Tourism and Development 1 1.1: Introduction: 1 1.2: The Statement of the Research Problem 5 1.3: Conceptual Framework: The Emerging Theoretical Approaches in the Sociology of Tourism Relating to Development 10 1.4: Literature Review: Tourism in Africa 38 1.5: The Three Emerging Theoretical Approaches in the Sociology of Tourism and Ghana's Tourism Development 40 1.6: Methodology 47 1.7: Conclusion 56 Notes 57 Chapter Two: Development and Tourism in Ghana 60 2.1: Introduction 60 2.2: The Socio-Demographic Profile of Ghana 60 2.3: Ghana's Development Agenda and Tourism 67 2.4: Conclusion 97 Note 99 iii Chapter Three: A Descriptive Overview of Travel and Tourism in Ghana: Past and Present 100 3.1: Introduction 100 3.2: Travel and Tourism in Pre-Colonial Ghana 101 3.3: Travel and Tourism in Colonial Ghana 105 3.4: Travel and Tourism in Post-Colonial Ghana 110 3.5: Conclusion 131 Notes 132 Chapter Four: Ghana's Tourism Resources 133 4.1: Introduction 133 4.2: Ghana's Tourism Natural Resources 134 4.3: Cultural Resources of Ghana's Tourism 141 4.4: Ghana's Historical Attractions 148 4.5: Conclusion 151 Chapter Five: The Problems of Tourism Development in Ghana 153 5.1: Introduction 153 5.2: Foreign Ownership and Control 154 5.3: The Conventional Tourism Orientation of Ghana 157 5.4: The State as Entrepreneur 159 5.5: Pertinent Factors Frustrating the Development of Ghana's Tourism..161 5.6: Conclusion 190 Note 192 iv Chapter Six: Summary and Conclusion: Making Tourism a Catalyst for Ghana's Development 193 6.1: Introduction 193 6.2: Policy Suggestion: Alternative Forms of Tourism as a Strategy for Developing Ghana's Tourism 195 6.3: Conclusions, Findings and Recommendations 205 6.4: Limitations of the Thesis 208 Notes 210 Bibliography 211 Appendix 1: Ghana: Roads, Railways and Major Towns 239 Appendix 2: Ghana: Administrative Regions, Administrative Capitals/Headquarters, Major Attractions 240 Appendix 3: The Peoples of Ghana 241 Appendix 4: Distribution of Natural Resources in Ghana 242 Appendix 5: Tourist Map of Ghana 243 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Tourist Arrivals and Receipts in Ghana and Kenya: 1955-1991 9 Table 2: Average Annual Economic Growth Rate: 1960-1988 41 Table 3: Selected Tourist Destinations for Observations 48 Table 4: Popular Hotels Selected by the Inspectorate Division of the Ghana Tourist Board, June 1992 50 Table 5: Ethnic Distribution of Ghana's Population in Percentages 62 Table 6: Turnover of Governments in Ghana: 1957-1993 64 Table 7: Governments and Tourism Development in Ghana 73 Table 8: Hotels Operated by the SHC: 1966 84 Table 9: The State of Ghana's Economy 1970-79 89 Table 10: Gross National Product 1975-1982 89 Table 11: Ethnic Voting Patterns in Ghana: 1969-1992 95 Table 12: Ethnicity and Political Instability in Ghana: 1957-1981 96 Table 13: Ethnic Distribution of the Leadership of Ghana Army 97 Table 14: Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit (000): 1955-1991 113 Table 15: Tourist Arrivals and Revenue: A Comparison of Ghana and Some African Countries, 1991 114 Table 16: Occupational Distribution of Ghanaian Clientele of Some Popular Ghanaian Hotels: January-June 1992 117 Table 17: Estimates of Occupational Distribution of the Clientele of a Sample of Popular Hotels in Ghana 118 Table 18: Gender Distribution of the Clientele of Some Popular Ghanaian Hotels 119 Table 19: Estimates of Gender Distribution of the Clientele of a Sample of Popular Hotels in Ghana 120 Table 20: Ghanaian-Foreigner Distribution of Clients of Some Popular Hotels in Ghana: January-June 1992 121 Table 21: Estimates of Ghanaian-Foreigner Composition of the Clientele of a Sample of Popular Hotels in Ghana 122 VI Table 22: Organized Groups Visiting Cape Coast and Elmina Castles: January-May 1992 124 Table 23: Occupational Distribution of Hotel Proprietors in Ghana 126 Table 24: Gender Distribution of Owners of Hotel Accommodation in Ghana 126 Table 25: Ethnic Distribution of Hotel Owners in Ghana: Southern-Northern Ratio 128 Table 26: Ethnic Distribution of Hotel Owners in Ghana: A Break-down 129 Table 27: Forest Reserves in Ghana 138 Table 28: Savanna Reserves in Ghana 139 Table 29: Popular Festivals in Ghana 142 Table 30: Prominent Bazaars in Ghana 144 Table 31: Places of Handicraft Production in Ghana 145 Table 32: Famous Shrines in Ghana 146 Table 33: Existing Forts and Slave Castles in Ghana 149 Table 34: Share of Foreign Ownership in African Hotels 155 Table 35: Distribution of Hotel Accommodation in Ghana 164 Table 36: Qualifications/Backgrounds of Hotel Managers/Proprietors in Ghana....167 Table 37: Studies on Ghana's Tourism 169 Table 38: Tourism Projects, Cost Estimates and Available Funding 172 Table 39: Types of Hotel Accommodation in Ghana (Rooms/Beds): 1991 173 Table 40: Room Rates of Selected Top Hotels in Ghana 174 Table 41: Distribution of Types of Hotel Guests of the Three Top Hotels in Ghana 175 Table 42: Portions of Income Spent on Extended Relatives 179 Table 43: Portions of Income of Tourist Board Staff Members Spent on Extended Relatives and Funerals 181 Table 44: Employment of Relatives in Selected Ghanaian Hotels 182 Table 45: Changes in the National Tourism Organization (N.T.O.) of Ghana Since its Inception in 1959 187 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My greatest indebtedness in this accomplishment is to the Lord Almighty who is my ultimate fountain of knowledge and wisdom. It is by His grace that I have climbed this academic height. I wish to express my profound gratitude to the chairman of my thesis committee, Professor Tissa Fernando, whose guidance and support inspired me to complete this thesis. I really appreciate Professors Gillian Creese and Yunshik Chang who, in addition to providing me with the financial assistance for my field work in Ghana, were very active members of my thesis committee. Their constructive criticisms and suggestions have greatly contributed to the quality of this thesis. I would also like to give special thanks to Dr. Andra Thakur of Malaspina College, Nanaimo, for playing the role of an unofficial member of my thesis committee. I am also deeply indebted to my parents, Yaw Okrah and Amma Korkor, for taking the initiative to send me to school. Their support for my elementary school and college education is greatly appreciated. Most of all I must record my unqualified gratitude to my wife, Ernestina, and my children for subsidising my intellectual labour through their financial and emotional sacrifices. My sincere thanks go to the Ghana Tourist Board, the State Hotels Corporation, and private hoteliers of Ghana for allowing me to use their facilities for the research. I would also like to thank Westminster Seventh-Day Adventist Church, Burnaby, and the African Evangelical Christian Fellowship, Vancouver, for their spiritual support. Among those relatives and friends who I would like to thank for their many and diverse contributions to my success in completing the Ph.D programme are: Isaac and Rebecca Takyi, George and Isabelle Misek, Dr.
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