Journal of Contemporary Research in Education

SPECIAL THEMED ISSUE | FALL 2017 VOLUME 6 | NUMBER 1

http://education.olemiss.edu/jcre All inquiries should be directed to [email protected] About the Cover

GREAT SEAL OF THE UNIVERSITY Dating from the earliest days of the university, the Great Seal is the university’s oldest institutional symbol. The design adopted by the Board of Trustees in January 1845 called for “the words ‘University of Mississippi,’ engraved around the margin, with an Eye in the centre.” University historian Allen Cabaniss noted that the eye, representing learning, is an obvious Masonic influence; three members of the committee that designed the seal were Masons. The eye is surrounded by a representation of the sun. Early versions of the seal sometimes included the word “Oxford,” but that was replaced in the 1930s by “1848,” the year the university opened. Since 1965, the Great Seal of the University has been reserved only for contracts, diplomas and other formal uses. Journal of Contemporary Research In Education

VOLUME 6 | NUMBER 1 | FALL 2017 CO-EDITORS

Lane Roy Gauthier Amy Wells Dolan University of Mississippi University of Mississippi

______EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD

Tawannah Allen Kerry Holmes High Point University University of Mississippi

RoSusan Bartee Susan McClelland University of Mississippi University of Mississippi

Cheryl Bolton K.B. Melear Staffordshire University (United Kingdom) University of Mississippi

Dennis Bunch Evan Ortlieb University of Mississippi St. Johns University

Earl H. Cheek, Jr. Mark Ortwein Louisiana State University, Emeritus University of Mississippi

Kathleen Cooter Rosemary Papa Bellarmine University University of Northern Arizona

Doug Davis Jim Payne University of Mississippi University of Mississippi

Lisa Ehrich Don Schillinger Queensland University (Australia) Louisiana Tech University

Jennifer Fillingim William Sumrall Austin Peay State University University of Mississippi

Tracy Kumar Conn Thomas Southern Louisiana University West Texas A&M University

Kimberly Hartman Frankie Williams St. Petersburg College Mississippi State University

Peter S. Hlebowitsh David B. Yaden, Jr. University of Alabama University of Arizona ______

Michelle Wallace (Word Processing and Formatting) University of Mississippi Journal of

Contemporary Research In Education

VOLUME 6 | NUMBER 1 | FALL 2017

The mission of JCRE is to disseminate original research, empirical or theoretical in nature, which involves the application of current philosophy, theory, and practice to address issues of social importance. While the journal will focus on research with the intent of improving the human condition, manuscripts addressing all aspects of the field of education, school- based and non school-based alike, will be considered. JCRE is strongly committed to making the research findings of its authors accessible to all constituencies in the field of education.

JCRE is a peer-reviewed publication sponsored by the School of Education at the University of Mississippi. Published 2 times annually (Fall, Spring). JCRE disseminates research, which is judged to be clear and purposeful, with significant implications for positive changes in the field of education.

Manuscript Preparation. Manuscripts should be prepared according to the guidelines set forth in the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), should be approximately 15-25 pages in length, and must be accompanied by an abstract no longer than 200 words. A short biography of 2-3 sentences per author is requested. Manuscripts should be formatted for 8 ½” x 11” paper with 1” margins on all sides, and double-spaced using 12-point type. Manuscript files, and any accompanying files, should be in MS Word format: PDFs will not be accepted.

Manuscript Submission. Email an electronic copy of your manuscript and a cover letter to [email protected]. Please do remove all names and other information from the manuscript which could potentially identify the author(s). The cover letter should contain the name(s) of the author(s), institutional affiliation(s), and contact information (email, phone number, address). The cover letter should also include a statement explicitly indicating that the manuscript has not been published, or is not under consideration, elsewhere.

Manuscript Review. Manuscripts submitted to JCRE for consideration are first reviewed internally by the editor. Those conforming to the initial review criteria and fulfilling the mission of JCRE will be submitted for external peer review. The criteria for judging the manuscripts include: (a) significance of research and/or theoretical contribution, (b) appropriateness of the research methodology, (c) clarity of the writing, (d) adherence to the guidelines set forth in the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA). Manuscripts meeting the criteria will be reviewed by at least two peers, a process that lasts from 6 -8 weeks.

Journal of

Contemporary Research In Education

VOLUME 6 | NUMBER 1 | FALL 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction:

Redefining Transformative Change in Higher Education Phillis George Amy Wells Dolan 1

Feature Essay:

Building Vibrant Lives and Communities Through Higher Education Jeffrey S. Vitter 5

Supporting Essays:

Quality Education as a Civil Right Jonathan Blake Bostick 9

Transforming Thinking Transforms Lives Amy K. Fisher 15

The Importance of Differentiated Leadership and Leading for Equity in Higher Education: How Higher Education Transformed My Life Denver J. Fowler 20

The Power of Differentiated Learning in Higher Education STEM Brenda Hutton-Prager 41

Discursive Leadership in Higher Education: The Case of Chancellor Jeffrey Vitter at Ole Miss Milorad M. Novicevic 50

A Lens With Multiple Perspectives: The Transformative Power of Higher Education in Health Promotion Alicia C. Stapp Melinda W. Valliant M. Allison Ford Kristen A. Swain 57

------Ideas and opinions expressed by the authors of the articles which appear in JCRE do not necessarily reflect the ideas and opinions of the Editors, Editorial Advisory Board, School of Education, or the University of Mississippi at-large.

********Call for Manuscripts********

The Journal of Contemporary Research in Education is soliciting manuscripts for future issues. Submissions should be prepared according to the guidelines set forth in the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) and should be submitted electronically to the attention of the Editor at [email protected]. Manuscripts across all areas of educational inquiry will be considered. Cross-disciplinary collaboration is encouraged. For more information, see the section at the beginning of this issue addressing manuscript preparation, submission, and review.

------>>>>>>>>Subscriptions to JCRE<<<<<<<<

The Journal of Contemporary Research in Education is published 2 times annually (Fall, Spring). Institutional/Library subscriptions are $75.00, individual subscriptions are $50.00, and individual copies are $40.00. All inquiries regarding subscriptions should be directed to the Editor at [email protected] or via traditional mail at:

Lane Roy Gauthier, Editor Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 316 Guyton Hall University of Mississippi P.O. Box 1848 University, MS 38677-1848

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Redefining Transformative Change Journal of Contemporary Research in Education in Higher Education Special Themed Issue 6(1) 1-4 Phillis George Amy Wells Dolan The University of Mississippi

This special issue of the Journal of Contemporary Research in Education is devoted I to—The Power of Higher Education to Transform Lives, Communities, and the World— the theme for the investiture of Dr. Jeffrey S. n Vitter as the 17th Chancellor of the University of Mississippi. With a core focus on transformational education and leadership, this issue seeks to inspire members of the campus t community to improve the socioeconomic trajectories, health, and well-being for all who are serviced by and seek knowledge within r institutions of higher learning. Building upon the institutional challenges and opportunities identified by Chancellor Vitter on November 16, o 2016, this edition demonstrates how those who listened to him made sense of his charge for higher education generally, and the University of d Mississippi, specifically. In the global era that has come to define the 21st century, such a charge for personal reflection, professional u accountability, and institutional action is transformational in and of itself—which is why this special issue is so very timely and important. c This issue is comprised of seven, original essays which examine the authors’ t experiences and understandings of the transformational aspects of higher education. On an individual level, the essays invite readers i to explore teaching, research, and service in different fields of study—Business; Education; Engineering; Health, Exercise Science, and o Recreation Management; Integrated Marketing and Communications; Journalism; and Social Work. As a collective, the essays provide analytical lenses for approaches to change n through higher education—suggesting strategies that will serve and promote the greater good by expanding opportunities for educational access and success.

George and Wells Dolan ______

The lead essay is written by Chancellor reminds readers of the landmark case of Brown Jeffrey S. Vitter and contains excerpts from his v. Board of Education (1954) that ostensibly investiture address. Chancellor Vitter’s essay ended legal segregation only to usher in a de serves as the nexus for contemplating the issue’s facto era of segregation also with devastating focus—in his words, “building vibrant lives and implications. Mr. Bostick’s essay explores (with communities through higher education.” Vitter great facility) the transformation and change that recounts examples of signature activities and can be advanced via careful and focused accomplishments of the University of attention to public policies and laws meant to Mississippi to demonstrate how the University eradicate educational disparities and and the Medical Center enliven the academic discrimination, thereby upholding the civil rights mission and even more importantly, respond to and liberties of all to a high-quality education. the considerable social responsibilities for the state, region, nation, and now, the world as a As a compliment to Mr. Bostick’s Carnegie R-1 university. To exemplify how essay, the third essay focuses intently on higher education changes lives, the Chancellor transformational thinking and ways of learning tells the story of an alumnus, the late Marion within the college classroom. Written by Dr. McManus, who used poverty as a formative Amy K. Fisher, Assistant Professor of Social experience to motivate himself to complete his Work at the University of Mississippi, the essay degree and succeed in business. In addition, offers critical linkages to Mr. Bostick’s essay Vitter previews new activities intended to tap and the special issue’s overall theme thought its into the power of interdisciplinary research and emphasis on developing cognitive complexity in creative collaborations among scholars and students, particularly graduate students, and the various partners, to promote economic and useful role of cognitive complexity in advancing community development, to expand engagement the quality of learning for all. Dr. Fisher posits and outreach, and to serve others. that cognitive complexity – as an educational imperative enables students to better engage and Building upon the ideals and examples navigate multifaceted challenges, opportunities, set forth in Chancellor Vitter’s essay, the and events within their personal and professional remaining essays offer nuanced perspectives on lives. Immediate and obvious outcomes include transformational thinking and change-making in enhanced critical thinking and analytic ability, society through higher education. References to greater cultural competency and display of higher education within each essay are broadly empathy, a heightened sense of discernment and defined and fully encompassing of the entire global awareness, more complex funds of educational spectrum and / or continuum (i.e., knowledge related to social agency and change, secondary, postsecondary, and higher and and more nuanced conceptualizations of reality. continuing education). There is great Each outcome is considered transformational intentionality in referencing higher education in because each promotes more socially this way because it conveys a greater sense of responsible, thoughtful, and holistic decision- purpose, gives a broader lens for assessing the making and acting among students. The end goal lasting value of the entire educational enterprise, is to foster, within graduates, a critical and reminds all stakeholders of the continuous awareness and mindfulness of their actions and holistic gains of education (in general) via along with their ability to serve as agents of the perennial and life-long pursuit of knowledge. positive and lasting, social change.

The second essay is written by Jonathan The fourth and fifth essays focus Blake Bostick, who serves as an Admissions intentionally on differentiated strategies of Counselor at the University of Mississippi’s leadership and instruction, along the continuum, DeSoto campus. His essay makes the case for which the authors believe lead to understanding education as a basic and transformational change and increased equity in necessary civil right; arguably, a human right higher education. The fourth essay is authored that enables and sustains life. Bostick briefly by Dr. Denver J. Fowler, Assistant Professor of

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at transformative, change strategies in higher California State University-Sacramento, and education and society at large. Dr. Milorad M. offers a personal analysis and reflection on the Novicevic, Associate Professor of Management role of higher education in transforming the lives at the University of Mississippi, examines of individuals from historically underrepresented retrospectively the recorded catalog of official and/or socioeconomically marginalized statements (both written and oral) and social backgrounds. In sharing his account as a low- media posts of Chancellor Vitter, asserting that income, first-generation collegian, Dr. Fowler he is a higher education leader whose offers a candid discussion of the many obstacles communication style and leadership abilities, students can and often do encounter when especially when advancing organizational and attempting to expand their horizons through institutional change strategies, are congruent higher education pursuits. Within his essay, Dr. with the core principles of discursive leadership Fowler uses the identified obstacles to help as advanced by Fairhurst (2007). Dr. Novicevic frame a broader discussion of the need as well as aptly defines the conceptual framework of the opportunities for more transformational and discursive leadership within his essay to make equity-based leadership within institutions of sense of and give meaning to the Chancellor’s higher learning. He offers differentiated communications. As a whole, the identified leadership as an effective change strategy to help practices are deemed exemplary by Novicevic— transform the educational experiences of all from a higher education stance—because they students and to ensure equitability regarding promote sustained, constituent engagement and student access and success. collaboration during organizational change- making processes. The fifth essay is authored by Dr. Brenda Hutton-Prager, Assistant Professor of As a follow-up to Dr. Novicevic’s essay, Chemical Engineering at the University of Drs. Alicia C. Stapp (Assistant Professor of Mississippi, and details the importance of Health and Physical Education), Melinda W. instructional innovation and differentiated Valliant (Associate Professor of teaching and learning within the college Nutrition), M. Allison Ford (Associate Professor classroom. Dr. Hutton-Prager uses the science, of Health Promotion), and Kristen A. Swain technology, engineering, and math (STEM) (Associate Professor of Journalism) provide a classroom as an analytic lens for examining concluding essay on the types of synergistic ways to improve the quality of higher education interaction and collaborative teaching, research, via personalized or differentiated learning – and service endeavors that can be advanced which seemingly allows for more expansive and institutionally to promote the general health and intentional thinking about broadening the well-being of Mississippi’s citizens. Their essay pathways of educational participation and examines unique programs, practices, and advancement for all students. In her essay, Dr. opportunities made available at the University of Hutton-Prager challenges readers to employ Mississippi to show how the institution can multi-disciplinary and student-centered, active channel its diverse resources (both human and learning approaches to improve learning in monetary) to help eradicate health disparities. STEM and broaden access and participation in higher education (across disciplines). This body of essays have been selected because of their attentiveness to and The final essays within this special appreciation for the subtleties of transformation edition offer more varied perspectives of made possible through higher education. We are transformational education and leadership— confident that this special issue of the Journal of perspectives which encourage readers to Contemporary Research in Education contemplate the roles of discursive and demonstrates the overarching need for institutional leadership in promoting imaginative thinking, innovative approaches,

George and Wells Dolan ______and inspired leadership that will make higher publications reflect these interests and have education institutions more vital and lives and appeared in the International Journal, Higher communities more vibrant. Just as the Education Teaching and Learning; Higher investiture of the University of Mississippi’s 17th Education: Handbook of Theory and Research; Chancellor summons both symbol and Today’s College Students: A Reader, and substance, this special issue seeks to do the same Expanding the Donor Base in Higher Education. and to remind us all of the greater and longer- Dr. Wells Dolan can be reached at lasting purpose of higher education—to be a [email protected]. beacon of hope that lights the way toward greater prosperity, equality, and enlightenment for all.

References

Fairhurst, G. T. (2007). Discursive leadership: In conversation with leadership psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing.

Dr. Phillis George is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Higher Education within the School of Education at The University of Mississippi. Her research concerns issues related to democratic engagement and social responsiveness among colleges and universities along with the promotion of social justice, equity, and ethics in college teaching and learning and higher education administration. She also conducts focused research on civic engagement and academic service-learning. Dr. George earned a doctorate in Educational Leadership & Policy Analysis (with an emphasis in Higher Education) from the University of Wisconsin-Madison and a master’s degree in Sociology from Oxford University (United Kingdom). Dr. George can be reached at [email protected].

Dr. Amy Wells Dolan is the Associate Dean of the School of Education and Associate Professor in Higher Education. Her background includes Student Affairs administration and fundraising and her research focuses on the history of higher education in the South. She is deeply involved with the development and implementation of the Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate (CPED) doctoral program with an emphasis in Higher Education as well as the larger CPED initiative in the School of Education at the University of Mississippi. Her recent

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Building Vibrant Lives and Communities Journal of Contemporary Research in Education Through Higher Education Special Themed Issue 6(1)5-8

Jeffrey S. Vitter The University of Mississippi

Abstract This essay examines the powerful impact that higher education has on changing lives, communities, and the world; how it creates opportun ities, inspires new ideas, spurs innovations, and is the great enabler that allows people to create better futures. The essay provides illustrative examples from the University of Mississippi across a broadcontinua spectruml drive of toareas. get ever First, greater the essay — to desire examines how higher education offers a range of opportunitiesmore, tofr omgive inspiring more, and and to challenging be more. the most prepared students to providing an accessible and affordable education to all qualifying students. The essay then describes how a modern university’s vision transcendsTo be thea great intellectual public international development of students and assumes the role of being an agent of changeresearch in the greater university, community. an institution This changemust excel in takes many forms including healthcare, economic development, education outreach, community service, and entrepreneurship. It also describes the key role that higher education plays in bettering communities through the nurturing of diversity. Finally, the essay emphasizes the importance of continually striving to make learning environments greater and educating students — tomorrow’s leaders — to prosper in a global society. It concludes that one of the greatest callings in life is to make the lives of others better and that higher education is uniquely positioned to transform lives and communities — from across the street to across the globe.

The following essay contains excerpts many areas, and chief among them is academic from Chancellor Vitter’s November 10, excellence. In that regard, the University of Mississippi is flourishing. The value of a 2016 investiture address at the University of Mississippi in Oxford, Mississippi. University of Mississippi degree continues to increase, as demonstrated by the continued In a 2003 speech, Nelson Mandela succinctly growth of the student body, which has doubled captured the empowering nature of education in size over the last 20 years. UM is the largest when he called it “the most powerful weapon university in the state, with the largest freshman you can use to change the world.” Higher enrollment, the highest average entering ACT education creates opportunities, inspires new score and grade point average, as well as the ideas, and spurs innovations that drive our highest retention rate. On a national level, economy and society forward. Most importantly, UM's unique academic programs and learning higher education is the great enabler that allows experiences, such as the Sally McDonnell people to rise above their circumstances and Barksdale Honors College, the Barbour Center create a better future — there is nothing more for Manufacturing Excellence, the Lott important to the continued growth and success Leadership Institute, the Croft Institute for of our society than higher education. International Studies, and the McLean Institute for Public Service and Community Twenty years ago, Chancellor Robert Engagement, stand out among the nation's very Khayat envisioned that the University of best. Mississippi would become a great American public university. UM has achieved it and more, And for the first time in school history, having reached the status of a great public in February 2016, the University of Mississippi international research university. And while achieved the pinnacle of research all great institutions share many fantastic excellence: a designation of “R1 highest attributes, none is more primary than the research activity” by the Carnegie Classification

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

of Institutions of Higher Education — a stature and his siblings were expected to pick cotton afforded to a distinguished group of 115 after school to help make ends meet. McManus’ institutions representing the top 2.5% of colleges son noted that, “Growing up with that hardship and universities nationwide. The R1 gave him a lot of drive and ambition to make a designation strengthens the transformative better life for himself, and he realized that impact that universities such as UM have in a having an education was an important part of number of areas, including the vital that.” The business degree McManus earned economic role that a world-class research from UM in 1950 planted within him the seeds institution plays in the state and region. for success, and he nurtured that education to go from his very humble beginnings to become a Higher education offers a broad range highly successful businessman. of opportunities from inspiring and challenging our most prepared students to While academic excellence is at the providing an accessible and affordable education heart of the university’s mission, a modern to all qualifying Mississippi students. UM university’s vision transcends the intellectual has established programs that enable students to development of students and assumes the role of succeed and thrive. The Sally McDonnell being an agent of change in the greater Barksdale Honors College, created 20 years ago, community. The University of Mississippi attracts the highest-performing students. promotes economic and community The SMBHC provides a vibrant center of development through its many forms academic excellence to encourage students' of community-engaged scholarship, such transformation to citizen scholars, committed to as partnerships, collaborative projects, and the public good and driven to find solutions in entrepreneurship. A key part of a flagship their fields and for their communities and the institution’s mission is to build healthy and world. vibrant communities — a mandate that takes many forms. The University of Mississippi To ensure the intellectual and personal embraces its responsibility as a flagship, sea growth of students from all backgrounds, in grant, space grant, and Carnegie R-1 2010 UM implemented the Ole Miss university to address our country’s most Opportunity program — the first of its kind in pressing issues. Mississippi — to provide full need-based scholarships to all qualifying Mississippi Universities must make a commitment students for their entire education. UM is to keep our communities — and the people who live in them — healthy. As the state’s only committed to extending a quality education to the broadest range of deserving students, academic medical center, the University of regardless of circumstance, embodying the Mississippi Medical Center, is uniquely OMO program motto, “From here, it’s possible.” positioned to lead healthcare strategy for the Additionally, through the Mississippi Outreach state and the region. UMMC receives over one million patient visits each year and is a to Scholastic Talent mentoring program, UM matches incoming students and high school national leader in telemedicine. It is the seniors with upperclass mentors to help guide preeminent complement to local hospitals and and support them through the admission process sustainable community healthcare, providing the leading venue in the state for trauma, pediatrics, and first year at the university. transplants, and telehealth. And efforts to A wonderful example of the improve the health of Mississippians are transformative power of higher education upon continuing with the new Bower School of an individual life is the late Marion McManus, Population Health and its Department of Data who grew up on a small farm in Mississippi, one Science. Only the third of its kind in the country, of nine children. His parents’ home had no the Bower School will transform healthcare electricity or running water, and every day he practice and delivery in Mississippi and beyond.

Vitter ______

Aside from health, universities university’s largest community service project impact communities through educational with thousands of students participating in outreach. Consider for example that each year hundreds of services projects. UM graduates a new cadre of students from the School of Education’s Mississippi Excellence in The transformative power of higher Teaching Program. These students are among education can also be felt on the international the best and brightest anywhere, and they level. The UM campus Feed the Hunger Pack-a- commit to staying in Mississippi to teach Thon campaign was launched seven years ago to Mississippi children, impacting future provide meals for impoverished children in generations of Mississippians. Kenya, Haiti, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Jamaica, and rural Kentucky. UM was the first Every day, we see the positive impact university in the nation to partner with the universities can have on issues facing our state, nonprofit organization in conducting pack-a- nation, and world. Take, for example, the thon events. Over the course of the last seven McLean Institute for Public Service and years, the UM Pack-a-Thon has packed 1 Community Engagement. Through programs million meals. like the CEED (Catalyzing Entrepreneurship and Economic Development), the Institute works There are other instances of UM impact with communities across Mississippi to increase upon international communities, such as a group entrepreneurship and promote economic of UM student-athletes who have visited Haiti development in rural communities. for the last three years to help bring fresh water to a community in order to provide crop Institutions of higher education also irrigation for farmers, as well as digging wells to impact communities through economic provide locals with fresh water. And the UM development and contribute to new businesses Engineers without Borders work in Togo in and technology. At UM, FNC is our most recent Africa to build schools, develop wells, and clean and biggest success story. Co-founded 20 years water supplies, as well as bring clean water to a ago by four UM professors, FNC sold last year new children’s hospital. for more than $400M, creating 45 millionaires overnight. It represents the largest acquisition of Consider the impact of UM’s a technology company in Mississippi in recent community service programs. In the 2014-2015 history. But not all success has to be on such a academic year, the UM community served over large scale. UM also works with start-up 620,000 hours of community service, companies — currently 17 of them — that contributing $12 million to the state economy. license UM-created technologies across a broad All this service at the local and global levels is range of industries. These endeavors are key to keeping our communities vibrant. realizations of innovation and collaboration as well as the research-to-commercialization Another way UM will embrace our role continuum that drives economic development. in building healthy and vibrant communities is They also illustrate the important role that higher to channel the talents of the entire university and education plays in our state by providing access partner with towns and cities around the state — to unique talents and innovations that have the one at a time — to enhance every aspect of ability to transform the economic status and community life. The needs in Mississippi’s quality of life of all Mississippians. communities are great, and UM is committed to collaborating with them on joint projects Through community engagement and harnessing the full range of university expertise service, Ole Miss touches lives and communities — from medicine and population health to from across the street to across the globe. A policy and law, science and engineering, great example occurs each spring when Ole Miss business and entrepreneurship, education, arts, students volunteer all over Oxford and Lafayette and culture. County as part of The Big Event, the Going forward, UM will continue to

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

envision new ways to capitalize upon resources people, reward them, and appreciate them. and make an even bigger impact on the state of Nothing higher education seeks to accomplish Mississippi. One way will be to accelerate and will be possible without great people. As Jim inspire solutions to some of society’s grandest Collins, the author of Good to Great, observes, challenges through the establishment of “great vision without great people is irrelevant.” innovative, high-impact multidisciplinary At UM, our people are the comprehensive research and creative achievement clusters, as enabler for all that we might do in achieving part of a new program called the Flagship excellence and building healthy and vibrant Constellations Initiative. Flagship communities. Constellations will comprise clusters of faculty, staff, students, alumni, and partners to address All of us will ultimately be defined by compelling challenges for which no single what we leave behind. And I believe that our discipline has all the answers — where only greatest calling in life is to make the lives of collaboration and deep insights from multiple others better, which is why I so passionately points of view will provide solutions. Flagship believe in the power of higher education to Constellations will serve as an avenue to excel transform lives, communities, and the world. by attracting stellar personnel to UM to work Through 37 years in higher education, I have with the incredible talent already in place — seen that there is no better way to help people bringing together people and ideas in fresh and lift themselves up and create meaningful and unique ways to boost innovation, grant funding, rewarding lives. scholarly visibility, and international prominence. Jeffrey S. Vitter is the 17th chancellor of the University of Mississippi, as well as Another key role that higher education Distinguished Professor of Computer and plays in bettering our communities is through Information Science. He is a renowned the nurturing of diversity, which goes hand in computer scientist, and a passionate advocate for hand with academic excellence. Diversity — in higher education. His 37 years of experience at ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, noted universities Brown, Duke, Purdue, Texas culture, academic training, and scholarly A&M, and Kansas culminated in his “dream discipline — makes communities more vibrant. job” when he became chancellor of Diversity makes our ideas better, our approaches Mississippi’s flagship university in January more effective, our results stronger, and our 2016. A New Orleans native, Dr. Vitter holds relationships deeper. Embracing the unique degrees from Notre Dame, Stanford, and Duke. ideas and perspectives represented on our higher Chancellor Vitter can be reached at education campuses makes us more imaginative [email protected]. and innovative communities. Diversity in higher education prepares students to become engaged citizens, fosters mutual respect and teamwork, and helps build communities whose members are judged by their character and their contributions. We live in an increasingly complex world with many pressing problems. We must continually strive to make our learning environments greater, and we must educate our students – tomorrow’s leaders – to prosper in a global society. We will accomplish these goals through our people. People are our greatest asset. Universities must continue to invest in

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Quality Education as a Civil Right Journal of Contemporary Research in Education Special Themed Issue 6(1)9-14

Jonathan Blake Bostick The University of Mississippi

Abstract Despite the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision outlawing racial segregation of education, a de facto system of socioeconomic educational segregation still exists in America, correlating strongly along racial lines. Low-income minority students are often taught by

the least qualified teachers, perpetuating a demographic achievement gap, evidenced through poor rates of literacy and completion. To address the issue, education must be understood as a basic civil right instead of merely a commodity for the privileged. Because research suggests that quality education is a significant determining factor in fulfillment and success in life, the denial of access to quality education is the denial of constitutionally-guaranteed civil rights. For low-income demographics, access to quality public education can break the generational cycle of poverty and enable individuals to fight for additional rights and participate fully in society. Violations of the civil right to education must be confronted, and local, federal, and state governments should take responsibility for guaranteeing the right to education. The lack of equal educational opportunity is evidenced by socioeconomic and racial disparity in the American education system, but understanding education as a civil right continues the legacy of the Civil Rights Movement.

Quality Education as a Civil Right on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial during Civil rights means having the the March on Washington. Defining same opportunities that other moments like these of the American Civil

people do...And in today’s world, Rights Movement during the 1950s and 1960s eventually led to the racial integration to have real opportunity, you must have a world-class education. If of American public life. Brown v. Board of you can ride at the front of the Education in 1954, “the fulcrum that bus, but you cannot read, you are changed race relations forever in the U.S.” not free. If your schooling limits (Jackson, 2007, p. 29), officially made racial you to poverty wages, you’re not segregation of education illegal, yet it took free. If you don't have the skills to years for educational integration to become make it in a global, knowledge- a reality. In fact, “It took many years before based economy, you’re not— a good many school districts in the south truly—free. (Duncan, 2013) even began attempting to dismantle their dual school systems” (Jackson, 2007, p. 28). For students in America born after Even today, though, a de facto system of WWII, the mention of “civil rights” educational segregation still exists in probably conjures up images of Rosa America, at least along socioeconomic lines, Parks’s refusal to give her bus seat to a which often correlate strongly along racial white person, James Meredith being lines. Studies on public K-12 education escorted onto the University of Mississippi reveal that whiter, higher-income students campus by U.S. Marshals as the school’s tend to get the top teacher talent, while the first African American student, or Martin low-income minority students often get the Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech worst teachers (Tilson, 2010). As a result,

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______statistically speaking, white 8th graders Children's Fund’s (UNICEF) 2007 perform at the same level as black and document entitled “A Human Rights- Latino 12th graders (Tilson, 2010). Based Approach to Education for All,” Furthermore, “Nearly 60 years after Brown “education is the primary vehicle by which v. Board of Education, 2 of 5 Black and economically and socially marginalized Latino students are in intensely segregated adults and children can lift themselves out schools, and both groups attend schools with of poverty and obtain the means to about twice the poverty concentration of the participate fully in their communities” (p. schools of Whites and Asians” (Orfield, xii). Indeed, for low-income 2014, p. 273). Because of this demographic demographics, access to public education achievement gap, education is often referred may be the only legitimate chance they to as “the civil rights issue of our time” have of pursuing a career that can break (Duncan, 2013). To better understand this the generational cycle of poverty. In critical issue, it is helpful to examine why addition to creating the opportunity for education should be considered a civil right, marginalized groups to alleviate poverty, what violations of the right to education education is “an indispensable means of look like, and the responsibilities of realizing other rights” (Understanding governments in guaranteeing the right to education as a right, 2013). In other words, education. education is a sort of prerequisite for individuals to be able to understand and If, as Tilson (2010) believes, fight for all of their rights. Consistent with quality education is the greatest this position, the International Covenant on determining factor in fulfillment and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights success in life, to deny people access to (1966) states that “education shall enable quality education is to deny those people all persons to participate effectively in a their constitutionally-guaranteed civil free society, promote understanding, rights. However, the right to education tolerance and friendship among all nations extends beyond the protection of and all racial, ethnic or religious groups.” Americans under the United States Thus, education could well be considered Constitution. The Universal Declaration of the most foundational civil right, since it is Human Rights, adopted by the United only through education that individuals can Nations in 1948, formally recognized be equipped to become informed education as a human right, stating participants in society. “Everyone has the right to education.” It also declares that primary education should To fully understand education as be free for all, higher education should be a civil right, it is beneficial to examine available to all based on merit, and it how violations of that right are extols the virtues of education as aiding manifested. According to the Right to international goals of freedom and peace Education Project, “Violations of the (Universal declaration of human rights, right to education may occur through 1948). Education should not merely be direct action of States parties (act of considered a commodity for the privileged, commission) or through their failure to but a basic right guaranteed to all to ensure take steps required by law (act of they have a genuine opportunity to succeed omission)” (Understanding education as in life. According to the United Nations a right, 2013). Denial of the right to

Bostick ______

education includes: discriminatory laws education is available for all children and or de facto educational discrimination; that positive measures are taken to enable the lack of a transparent and effective children to benefit from it;” “To respect the educational system; the lack of right to education by avoiding any action compulsory, free primary education for that would serve to prevent children all; the failure of intentional steps accessing education;” and “To protect the “towards the progressive realization of right to education by taking the necessary secondary, higher and fundamental measures to remove the barriers to education;” the prohibition of or lack of education” (A human rights-based regulation of private education; the approach to education for all, 2007). repression of academic freedom; and Essentially, then, states should do politically-motivated closure of everything in their power to ensure that educational institutions (General education is accessible, available, and comment no. 13: The right to education, affordable. Accordingly, the United States 1999). An obvious historic example of Department of Education has its own the violation of the right to education is Office for Civil Rights (OCR), whose the so-called “separate but equal” system mission is “to ensure equal access to of racial educational segregation that education and to promote educational existed in America in the first half of the excellence throughout the nation through twentieth century. However, the vigorous enforcement of civil rights” aforementioned current de facto system (About OCR, 2012). A large part of the of educational discrimination in America OCR’s role is resolving complaints of is certainly a denial of civil rights to discrimination. One current example low-income students, who are often involving potential OCR intervention in minority students. Perhaps the most educational civil rights is a complaint filed striking evidence of this troubling on behalf of students and parents in problem is the higher mortality rates of DeSoto County in north Mississippi on lesser educated groups. According to April 28, 2015, alleging DeSoto County Tilson (2010), the mortality rate for School District violated civil rights, those educated beyond high school is discriminating “against Black students on 0.21%; for those who only graduated the basis of race through its discipline high school, it is 0.48%; people who policies and practices fostering a school-to- drop out of high school have a 0.65% prison pipeline and fueling racial mortality rate. This means that the disparities” (Butrymowicz, 2015). In mortality rate triples for high school accordance with its role as the enforcer of dropouts. A lack of education is literally educational civil rights, the OCR will deadly (Tilson, 2010). Thus, denial of evaluate whether or not the complaint education not only violates civil rights; it meets its criteria, and then potentially impedes the most fundamental right of investigate the allegations, which may all: the right to life. ultimately mandate a change in district discipline policy (Butrymowicz, 2015). This investigation exemplifies the role the What is the role of government in government can and should take to ensure ensuring that citizens are guaranteed the that the civil right of education is civil right of quality education? UNICEF guaranteed to all. notes three specific obligations: “To fulfil the right to education by ensuring that

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

Access to quality education is reformation to the continuing legacy of foundational to the success and happiness of civil rights champions who have gone individuals as well as the collective before. flourishing of society. In remarks during his References investiture as the 17th chancellor of the University of Mississippi on November 10, A human rights-based approach to 2016, Chancellor Jeffrey Vitter said “There education for all (2007). United is nothing more important to the future of Nations Children’s Fund, United our society than higher education. It is the Nations Educational, Scientific great enabler that helps people lift and Cultural Organization. themselves up above their circumstances Retrieved from http://www.right- and disadvantages.” Quoting Nelson to-education.org/sites/right-to- Mandela, he expressed his agreement that education.org/files/resource- “education is the most powerful weapon you attachments/ can use to change the world” (Vitter, 2016). A%20Human%20Rights- Quality education should not be merely based%20Approach%20to%20Ed reserved for the privileged, but made ucation%20for%20All_0.pdf available to all demographics. Vitter (2016) also emphasized the inextricable link About OCR (2012). Office for Civil between quality education and diversity: “I Rights, U.S. Department of believe that excellence and diversity go Education. Retrieved from hand-in hand. Diversity...makes us stronger http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/li as a community.” st/ocr/aboutocr.html

While governmental self-interest Butrymowicz, S. (2015, April 28). Half of may contribute to its support for public DeSoto's suspensions are black education, education should be students. The Clarion-Ledger. considered a right belonging to citizens Retrieved from who can demand it of the government. http://www.clarionledger.com/story According to Supreme Court Justice Earl /news/2015/04/28/half-desotos- Warren in the 1954 Brown v. Board of suspensions-black- Education decision, “It is doubtful that students/26507309 any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the Duncan, A. (2013). Arne Duncan remarks at opportunity of an education. Such an school without walls on anniversary opportunity, where the state has of March on Washington. U.S. undertaken to provide it, is a right which Department of Education. Retrieved must be made available to all on equal from terms” (Wilkins, 2005, p. 275). Current http://www.ed.gov/news/speeches/a socioeconomic and racial disparity in the rne-duncan-remarks-school- American education system proves that without-walls-anniversar y-march- the struggle for equal educational Washington opportunity is far from over. However, considering education as an intrinsic civil right will connect educational

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General comment no. 13: The right to Productions. Retrieved from education (1999). UN Committee https://vimeo.com/45331195 on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR). Retrieved from Understanding education as a right (2013). http://www.refworld.org/docid/453 Right to Education Project. 8838c22.html Retrieved from http://www.right-to- education.org/node/3 Hebel, S. (2009). Arne Duncan says spending money on education is Universal declaration of human rights best cure for economy. The (1948). United Nations. Retrieved Chronicle of Higher Education. from Retrieved from http://0- http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.h chronicle.com.umiss.lib.olemiss.e tml du/article/Arne-Duncan-Says- Spending/42347/ Vitter, J. (2016, November 10). Investiture of Dr. Vitter as the 17th chancellor International covenant on economic, social of the University of Mississippi. and cultural rights (1966). Office University of Mississippi. Retrieved of the High Commissioner for from Human Rights, United Nations. http://chancellor.olemiss.edu/keynot Retrieved from e-address/ http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Professi onalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx Wilkins, B. (2005). Should public education be a federal fundamental right? Jackson, C. (2007). The Brown decision in Brigham Young University retrospect: Commemoration or Education & Law Journal, (2), 261- celebration. Western Journal of 290. Retrieved from http://0- Black Studies, 31(2), 28-33. search.ebscohost.com.umiss.lib.olem Retrieved from iss.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&Auth http://0- Type=i search.ebscohost.com.umiss.lib.ole p,url,uid&db=aph&AN=18751338& miss.edu/login.aspx?direct=true& site=eds-live&scope=site AuthType=i p,url,uid&db=sih&AN=43183793 Jonathan Blake Bostick completed a &site=eds-live&scope=site Bachelor of Arts degree in Music at The University of Mississippi in 2010 and a Orfield, G. (2014). Tenth annual Brown Master of Arts in Higher Education/Student lecture in education research: A new Personnel in 2016. He is a full-time staff civil rights agenda for American member for the University of Mississippi, education. Educational Researcher, working one year on the Oxford campus 43(6), 273-292. before transferring to the DeSoto campus doi:10.3102/0013189X14547874 where he serves as an Admissions Counselor since summer 2013. He serves as Tilson, W. (2010). A right denied: The the Worship Pastor for Vintage Church in critical need for genuine education Horn Lake, MS and lives in Walls, reform [Video file]. Broken Pencil Mississippi with his wife and three children.

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Transforming Thinking Transforms Lives Journal of Contemporary Research in Education Special Themed Issue 6(1)15-19 Amy K. Fisher The University of Mississippi

Abstract One way that higher education transforms lives is by fostering the development of cognitive complexity in students. This development is demonstrated in many ways in the classroom, and can be explained using the Perry Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development. Cognitive complexity is imperative for the helping professions, and students who develop complexity will be better able to facilitate complex changes in clients. Additionally, this kind of development can result in dramatic changes in the students’ own

lives, which can lead to transformation at all levels of society.

Rarely do we find men who willingly binary thinking to a more complex, engage in hard, solid thinking. There is an flexible ability to understand, analyze, and almost universal quest for easy answers integrate multiple perspectives. Higher and half-baked solutions. Nothing pains education involves a “difficult journey some people more than having to think. toward more complex forms of thought about the world, one’s area of study, and Martin Luther King, Jr., A Martin one’s self” (Moore, 2002, “Review of Luther King Treasury, 1964 Model”). I see the results of this cognitive shift in every aspect of my professional We are losing the ability to understand experience: teaching, research, practice, anything that's even vaguely complex. and service. Each aspect involves a --Chuck Klosterman, Sex, Drugs, different motivator and manifestation of and Cocoa Puffs: A Low Culture the shift, but each paves the way for Manifesto, 2014 transformation. Higher education transforms lives I teach in the masters of social in too many ways to count. work program at my institution, where Transformation may occur at the students are learning to provide clinical community level through service projects mental health services. It is common for taken on by enthusiastic student students to go straight to the worst-case volunteers. It may come from new scenario—what do I do if my client is inventions that change the world. It can suicidal? What do I do if my client is using also happen on an individual level, not drugs? The students who are early in the only in the lives and communities touched program want The Right Answer: this is by the fruits of education, but also in the what you do in that situation. They are learners themselves. One of the most frustrated by any response that includes “it profound transformations I have witnessed depends.” As students’ progress through comes from radical changes in students’ the program, they become more worldviews as they move from rigid, comfortable with the idea that we do not have a definitive, foolproof intervention to

Fisher ______use with suicidal and/or drug using clients. source of knowledge, and the role of the The Answer is not known. We, as a instructor is to provide the right answer. In profession, simply do the best we can to later stages of dualism, students move to a respond to each unique situation with the view that the role of the instructor is to tools that research and practice wisdom show them how to find the right answers show have the best chance of success. My (Perry, 1970, 1999). When confronted task is to support and challenge students in with disagreement among authorities, all stages of development so that they may students in dualism look to instructors to move toward comfort and skill in spaces tell them which is right, and can become where uncertainty and ambiguity reign. frustrated when the answer is not forthcoming. If the transformation is successfully made, creative solutions Multiplicity also has two stages: become more likely. Social work is a early and late (Perry, 1970, 1999). profession grounded in problem-solving. Students in early multiplicity come to Freed from the rigid application of right accept that diversity of opinions can be and wrong, problem-solving flourishes. I legitimate, but see the divergence as see this growth reflected in the contrasting temporary. They believe that if one tries ways that beginning and advanced hard enough, the right answers can be students approach case studies. Beginning found. Instead of merely having two students will immediately launch into categories of knowledge, right and wrong, trying to find an answer when presented there are now three: right, wrong, and not with a one paragraph client scenario. yet known (Moore, 2001). Instructors Advanced students want more should help them find the answers, and if information. They have become more they refuse to name one correct right adept at negotiating the subtleties of a answer to a dilemma, it is merely because situation and thus realize that problem- the instructor is using some sort of a solving is context-specific. technique to help the student learn how to find the right answer. Epistemological theory helps to explain these anecdotal observations. The transition to late multiplicity William Perry developed a seminal model involves an essential separation from of how students develop cognitively as Authority—students in this position they progress through higher education understand that Authority may never find (Perry, 1970, 1999). In general, the model the right answers (Perry, 1970, 1999). The describes how students move from very third category of knowledge now includes basic to more complex thinking. The first “we’ll never know for sure;” therefore, two categories of Perry’s model, dualism how one thinks about something becomes and multiplicity, are most relevant to this paramount (Moore, 2001, “Multiplicity: paper, as studies show that students rarely Positions 3-4”). Although the instructor move beyond multiplicity before can be the source for the process of graduation (Granello, 2002; Simmons & thinking, she can also be completely Fisher, 2016). According to the model, discounted (Perry, 1970, 1999). Students dualistic students have an absolutist view in late multiplicity believe that their role is of knowledge. There are right and wrong to learn to think for oneself and learn to answers to all problems, Authority use supportive evidence. (capitalization in original) is a trusted

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______One multi-layered example of this In the field of clinical social work, development happened during a course this transformation in social work students designed to teach students to be clinical provides the foundation for helping future supervisors. Clinical supervision is an clients transform their own lives in turn. interactive, reflective process that Facilitating the process of therapy and promotes the professional development of counseling requires cognitive complexity supervisees, while ensuring that agency (see, Kindsvatter & Desmond, 2013). If needs are met. Over the course of the the clinical social worker is not semester, a student who was already cognitively complex herself, she will be providing supervision in her agency unable to provide effective services. realized that she was providing solutions Critical therapeutic skills include empathy, for her supervisees’ problems, rather than the ability to maintain a non-judgmental helping them learn to find their own attitude, and the ability to develop solutions. Her understanding of her own complex conceptualizations of clients and role shifted from providing answers their issues. Research has linked cognitive (dualism) to helping the students learn to complexity to these essential qualities. think (multiplicity) as she herself developed along these lines. Furthermore, many of the most widely used therapies today help clients to Use of the Perry Scheme to study identify, deconstruct, and then reconstruct student development has quantified this their ways of knowing. Cognitive therapy, change. In the field of social work, the at its most basic, helps clients by field experience, or internship, is the identifying harmful automatic thoughts signature pedagogy (CSWE, 2015). and replacing those thoughts (Beck, 2011). During the field experience, students This requires clients to examine and experience a transformation in which they challenge their sources of knowledge—as move from trying to figure out The Right in multiplicity, they must learn to think for Answer for a hypothetical client in a themselves and use supportive evidence to sterile classroom environment to develop their way of thinking. For understanding how to use their knowledge example, an automatic thought might be, and skills to help an actual client find his “I am terrible at this job.” The process of or her own right answer in the real world. cognitive therapy is to identify the An investigation into the mechanism of thought, examine the evidence for it, then this change using the Perry Scheme create a new thought based a more positive revealed that at the end of their internship, view of the evidence. Similarly, modalities students are transitioning between early such as narrative therapy and solution- and late multiplicity (Simmons & Fisher, focused therapy are based on constructivist 2016). They are making the critical theories—the client must first question the transition to the ability to trust themselves source of her harmful beliefs, then work to to think through extremely complex create a more positive story. Because dilemmas with their clients and arrive at higher education has introduced the solutions. Perry’s analysis of the therapist to an analogous form of cognitive development of cognitive complexity complexity, she will be adept at helping suggests that higher education has others negotiate this process. transformed them from receptacles of information to adept independent users of Cognitively complexity not only that information. opens the door to helping others, but also 17

Fisher ______creates possibilities for self- Council of Social Work Education. (2015). transformation. Although I have not Educational policy and personally taught incarcerated students, I accrediation standards. Alexandria, am privileged to provide support and VA: Author. service to colleagues who do so. One such course was the Ice House Davis, L. M., Bozick, R., Steele, J. L., Entrepreneurship Program, taught at a Saunders, J., Miles, J. N. V. maximum-security prison in our state (2013). Evaluating the (Keena & Simmons, 2015). That program effectiveness of correctional produced changes in the worldview of its education: A meta-analysis of participants that helped the participants programs that provide education to move from dualistic thinking to more incarcerated adults. Retrieved flexible ways of viewing their post-release from www.rand.org. employment options. I hear similar stories doi:10.7249/j.ctt4cgdz5 of transformation from colleagues who teach in a program called the Prison-to- Granello, D. H. (2002). Assessing the College-Pipeline Project, which provides cognitive development of courses for college credit at the same counseling students: Changes in maximum-security prison. The men are epistemological assumptions. able to see new possibilities for their lives Counselor Education and through the program (Smith, 2015). Supervision, 41(4), 279-293. Indeed, studies show that higher education transforms the lives of people who are Keena, L., & Simmons, C. (2015) Rethink, incarcerated by reducing recidivism and reform, reenter: An entrepreneurial increasing chances of employment upon approach to prison programming. release (Davis et al. 2013), results that can International Journal of Offender be linked to a change in worldview and Therapy and Comparative movement into more complex thinking Criminology, 59(8) 837–854. doi: (Keena & Simmons, 2015). 10.1177/0306624X14523077

So often, an apparent lack of Kindsvatter, A., & Desmond, K.J. (2013). options is a barrier to transformation. A problem-based approach to skill People who are more cognitively complex acquisition and cognitive are empowered to find or create options complexity with pre-practicum because they have moved beyond the supervisees. The Clinical confines of binary thinking. Higher Supervisor, 32, 212–223. doi: education helps facilitate this 10.1080/07325223.2013.846759 empowerment in students. Once achieved, the state of cognitive complexity is in Moore, W.S. (2002). “Understanding itself transformational, enabling students learning in a postmodern world: to help transform others, our communities, reconsidering the Perry Scheme of and the world. Intellectual and Ethical References Development.” In B. Hofer & P. Pintrich (eds.), Personal Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive Behavior epistemology: the psychology of Therapy: Basics and beyond. 2nd beliefs about knowledge and Ed. New York: Guildford. knowing. Retrieved from

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______http://web.b.ebscohost.com.umiss.i dm.oclc.org/ehost/ebookviewer/

Perry, W. G. (1970, 1999). Forms of

intellectual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Simmons, C., & Fisher, A. (2016). Promoting cognitive development through field education. Journal of Social Work Education, 52(4), pp. 462-472. doi: 10.1080/10437797.2016.1198290 Smith, E. (2015, September 18). UM program transforms incarcerated men into college students: New initiative giving Parchman penitentiary residents a fresh start in life. University of Mississippi News. Retrieved from news.olemiss.edu

Amy K. Fisher is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Social Work at The University of Mississippi. Her research interests include student development, teaching interventions, and issues involving race. Dr. Fisher can be reached at [email protected].

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The Importance of Differentiated Leadership Journal of Contemporary Research in Education and Leading for Equity in Higher Education: Special Themed Issue How Higher Education Transformed My Life 6(1) 20-40

Denver J. Fowler The University of Mississippi

Abstract

Statistically speaking, I should have become a lot of things I am not. I grew up homeless (low socio-economic status), lived in battered women shelters (witness to domestic abuse), fatherless

(single-parent household), was a father at 16 years old (teen pregnancy), attended six different elementary schools in four different states (California, Texas, Ohio, and Tennessee) by the time I was in fifth grade (student mobility), and was the first in my family to graduate from college (first- generation college student). A quick search on research with regards to any one of these demographics or characteristics will yield statistics on who I should have become. However, the aim of my essay is to share how my experiences in higher education truly transformed my life. Through a whole lot of grit, a loving and hardworking mother, caring professors, and sometimes, what I call “tough love”, I was able to overcome such impediments. shareIt is my the hope same by or sharing similar my backgrounds story in this as essay, that others, with similar backgrounds, will find hopethe for individuals a better future, in which either theythrough lead higher and education, or by other means that directly align with their deepest passion and upmost long-term serve. It may take what I call goals. In addition, and perhaps just importantly, I hope by sharing my story that individuals serving in higher education understand the importance of their leadership and how it can affect the students and/or staff in which they lead and serve.

Introduction “differentiated leadership1.” That is, much like a teacher implements differentiated As individuals serving in higher instruction in a given classroom with their education, it is vital to fully understand the students, we as leaders in higher implications of our leadership and its education, must be able to offer impact as it applies to both the students differentiated leadership to the students and staff in which we serve. Perhaps most and staff in which we serve. This type of importantly, as it applies to students and staff who have backgrounds and experience much different than our own. 1 Differentiated leadership, much like differentiated As such, we must lead for equity and instruction, is the ability to lead in such a way that ensure every student and staff member you meet the needs of every individual you lead, regardless of the differences of each individual have what they need to succeed, regardless under your leadership. Much like students in a of their demographics (i.e., ethnicity, classroom, all individuals in an organization vary gender, age, etc.) or characteristics (i.e., in culture, socio-economic status, language, first-generation college student, low socio- gender, motivation, ability/disability, personal economic student, parents’ education, interests, background, experiences, and more. As leaders, we must be cognizant of these differences, etc.). Leading for equity can be difficult, and lead accordingly. By building relationships especially when individuals in leadership and considering the varying needs of the roles, rather it be an adjunct instructor, individuals we lead, only then can we tailor and assistant/associate/full/emeritus professor, develop personalized leadership that meets the members of the university leadership team needs of each individual. Thus, leading in such a way that allows each individual to thrive and reach or university president/chancellor, may not their full potential.

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______leadership takes an attentive effort in He received the Purple Heart and was sent getting to know the individuals we serve, home. He suffered from narrow vision again, rather it be students or faculty and migraines the rest of his life. When he members. In doing so, our aim can be to returned home, he was never the same. build meaningful and lasting relationships What I am getting at here is that, although that allow us to have an ongoing positive I might try to conceive what it was like for impact on the individuals we lead as well my grandpa Moran in World War II, the as help us better understand their truth is, I probably could never fully background and experiences so that we understand or relate to what he saw or can ensure students and faculty members what he experienced. Thus, we must fully reach their full potential. Furthermore, we understand this before we “try to relate” to must be cognizant that, although a strong others with different backgrounds and effort to relate to such individuals is experiences than our own. In fact, as necessary, we must also fully understand someone who has a background of much that the degree to which we can relate to hardships, it can almost be offensive when any given individual will not be the same someone intends to fully understand what as experiencing such hardships (or lack you have experienced. Much like the case thereof) in “their shoes.” For example, my with my grandpa Moran, although his war late grandpa Moran served in World War experience was long before they started II. In many ways, he never came back diagnosing soldiers with posttraumatic from the war. In fact, my grandma Moran stress disorder (PTSD), if they had, I could used to say that the last time she grandpa envision him saying to his counselor (that was when he left for the war. He was a he might meet with after returning from tank commander and fought in two major World War II and being diagnosed with campaigns including the Battle of the PTSD) “you weren’t there, you don't Bulge and Normandy. Towards the end of understand.” To some extent, this is true. the war, in a lesser known battle, a However, we must not allow this barrier to reconnaissance mission in Northern divert our efforts to empathize with Germany, a tank in his platoon was hit and individuals with experiences and exploded. He happened to be outside the backgrounds much different than ours. It top of his tank holding binoculars when is also worth mentioning here that shrapnel hit him in the back of his head. hardships come in all shapes and sizes. He vaguely remembers crawling out of the That is, for example, let’s look at socio- tank and sitting up against the tracks of his economic status (SES). I know M4 Sherman tank. He then pulled out a individuals who had all the money in the leather booklet he kept in his uniform world growing up, and really, all they ever chest pocket. On the left side was a wanted was to feel loved by their parents, picture of my grandpa and grandma, on and furthermore, they wish that their the right side was a picture of all of their parents had spent more time with them. In children including my father. Thinking he contrast, I know individuals who were was going to die, he prayed (and bled) extremely poor growing up, but they had over the leather booklet (we still have the all of the love in the world from their blood stained leather booklet) and lost parents, and likewise, spent quality time consciousness. When he awoke in a with their parents. It is like that quote by hospital, he had a metal plate in his head. Abigail Van Buren, “If you want your

Fowler ______

children to turn out well, spend twice as case of the figure below, to provide much time with them, and half as much enough crates for each of our students and money.” Unfortunately, we must not faculty members to see the game. As you stereotype in this process of working with look at the image created by Kuttner students and faculty members. We must (2016), might you reflect on the understand that, as shared in this example, following…equality is equal (i.e., a crate students with a higher-SES background for all), equal does not always mean fair, does not always mean they had it any and equity is providing what each better than a student with a low-SES individual needs (i.e., enough crates to see background. This is just one example of the game). In addition, might the lower many I could provide. Nonetheless, the ground be historical oppression, the higher focus must remain the same. In order to fence be systems of oppression, while the lead for equity in higher education, we hole in the fence might represent must implement differentiated leadership, persistence (Kuttner, 2016). As leaders in and we can only do this effectively by higher education, it is my contention, that getting to know our students and faculty it is our job to lead for equity with a long- members in such a way that we fully term goal of removing the fence for all understand their needs and try to would be game watchers. empathize with regards to who they are, what their needs are, and how we can meet those needs, with the sole focus of ensuring they have the resources they need to succeed and reach their full potential. In higher education, this is vital. After all, it is the one setting where so many walks of life converge with regards to SES, ethnicity, nationality, gender, and the like. It is a setting in which we can lead for equity, and differentiate our leadership to positively impact the students and staff we work with, in order to positively impact the world. In a world where inequities in wealth distribution, resource allocation, and quality of life are increasing (American Psychological Association, 2017), leaders in higher education can lead in such a way that it fosters a climate and culture amongst students and faculty to lead for equity, essentially making higher education the great equalizer in which lives will surely be transformed. Below I have provided an image of equality versus equity (See Figure 1). As you read through this article, think about what it means to lead for equity in the higher education setting. That is, in the

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

was able to overcome such impediments. Below I have broken down each of the demographics and characteristics2 of my background as it relates to who and what I should have become, at least, statistically speaking.

Socio-economic status. The socioeconomic status (SES) of a student, particularly as it applies to higher education is often determined by a students’ parental information such as income levels and level of education (Wyatt & Mattern, 2011). The statistics associated with the SES of students in higher education is staggering. Overall, students with low-SES backgrounds enroll at colleges at a much lower rate (Wyatt & Mattern, 2011). In fact, the United States Figure 1. Equality versus Equity (Kuttner, Department of Education reported that 2016). students who came from households that earned $20,000 or less only accounted for Statistically Speaking 8.7 percent of the freshmen student body Since this essay is focused on sharing my nationally in colleges and universities story as it relates to my personal (Provasnik & Planty, 2008). In addition, experiences in higher education, and students from low-SES backgrounds often furthermore, how higher education need more remedial education than their transformed my life, it would be a high-SES peers (Wirt, Choy, Rooney, disservice of me not to be transparent Provasnik, Sen, & Tobin, 2004). In about and/or report my own background another article, it was reported that low- and experiences. I grew up homeless (low SES students were less likely to obtain a socio-economic status), lived in battered bachelor’s degree or higher than students women shelters (witness to domestic even from middle-SES backgrounds. The abuse), fatherless (single-parent percentage further widened in comparison household), was a father at 16 years old to students from higher-SES backgrounds (teen pregnancy), attended six different (“Postsecondary Attainment: Differences elementary schools in four different states (California, Texas, Ohio, and Tennessee) 2 Due to the overwhelming amount of research by the time I was in fifth grade (student focused in each demographical area, I will only mobility), and was the first in my family to briefly highlight each for the purposes of this graduate from college (first-generation essay, that is, to shine light on these demographics college student). However, through a and characteristics, especially as it applies to the whole lot of grit, a loving and higher education setting, and expected outcomes hardworking mother, caring professors, for such individuals, in general terms. and sometimes, what I call “tough love”, I

Fowler ______by Socioeconomic Status,” 2015). adulthood. The Child Witness to Violence Additionally, this same article reported Project (2017) reports that children who that students from low-SES backgrounds are exposed to domestic violence have a are less likely to attend college and/or hard time focusing and concentrating in graduate from college, compared to school, are easily distracted, have a hard students from middle-SES and high-SES time establishing good peer relationships, families. and tend to be more aggressive and fight more often. As it applies to this essay, and perhaps more specifically, leading for Single-parent household. When it comes equity, it was reported in an article by the to single-parent household statistics, they American Psychological Association can be troubling, not only to the children (2017) that the detrimental affects of low- living in such settings, but also to our SES are far-reaching and revealed society as a whole. It appears that single inequities in access to and distribution of motherhood is becoming the new norm resources. In this article, low-SES was across our nation (Dawn, 2017). It is associated with lower education, poverty, reported that four out of 10 children are and poor health. Another article by born to unwed mothers (Databank Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier and Maczuga Indicator, 2017; Dawn, 2017), and that one (2009) reports that students of low-SES in four children under the age of 18 are backgrounds develop academic skills being raised without a father, and nearly slower than students from high-SES half of them (45%) live below the poverty groups. Aikens and Barbarin’s (2008) line (United States Census Bureau, 2014). article further supported what we know, In an article by the Lino (2013), it is that often a child’s SES determines their reported that single mothers have little zip code, which is correlated with the type means to contribute to education expenses of education they receive. These children (I can certainly relate to this one as I had often attend schools that are to take out student loans to pay for my underresourced, affecting a low-SES undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral child’s education negatively from the start. degrees). Krein and Beller (1988) reported that the longer a child lives in a Witness to domestic abuse. In an article single-parent family, the more negative the by the Childhood Domestic Violence affect it has on the child with regards to Association (2014), it was reported that educational attainment. Furthermore, they children who have experienced and/or are found that this negative affect is greater from homes of violence are more likely to for boys than girls (Krein & Beller, 1988). experience significant psychological McLanahan and Sandefur (1994), found problems (both short and long-term), often that children in single-parent households meet the diagnostic criteria for PTSD are twice as likely to drop out of high (suggesting that the effects on their brains school and twice as likely to become are similar to that of a combat veteran), are single parents themselves than children more likely to age prematurely (7-10 who live in a two-parent homes. years), are six times more likely to commit suicide, 50 percent more likely to use Teen pregnancy. According to the drugs and alcohol, 74 percent likely to Centers for Disease Control and commit a violent crime, and three times Prevention (2016), a total of 249,078 more likely to repeat the cycle in babies were born in 2014 to women who

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______were aged 15-19 years old, a birth rate of misbehavior and youth violence, as well as 24.2 per 1,000 women in this age group. hurting students academically In an article by the National Campaign to (Rumberger, 2003). Studies on students of Prevent Teen Pregnancy (2002), it is mobility that take into account background reported that teen pregnancy often “short differences have found that “mobility may circuit the education process and prevent be more of a symptom than a cause of young men and women from preparing poor school performance” (Rumberger, themselves for good jobs and becoming 2003, p. 9). established in the labor market” (p. 11). In addition, the article reports that teen First generation college student. The parents are less likely to graduate high barrage of problems arising from being a school and the detrimental effects of teen first-generation college student are hardly pregnancy, “when children have children, encapsulated in statistics as so many other their opportunities are diminished right factors are often not revealed by the from the start, and the future is often one numbers. For example, the lack of support of poverty” (p. 11). In an article by from family members who do not fully Runzel (2017), it reported that teen fathers understand why you are going to college are more likely to get involved with versus entering the workforce can be a criminal activity (i.e., alcohol, drug abuse, barrier (Gibbons, Rhinehart, & Hardin, and drug dealing), less likely to graduate 2016). Wyatt and Mattern (2011) reported high school, earn less annually (than men that students whose parents did not obtain who wait to have children in adulthood), a college degree were less likely to enroll and face a lack of teen programs focused in a postsecondary institution. Of those on teenage fathers. who do enroll, three out of five will leave college within six years (The Council of Student mobility. In an article by Sparks Independent Colleges, 2016). In an article (2017), it was reported that student by Falcon (2015), it was reported that mobility may be a key indicator to identify “first generation college students confront vulnerable students. In addition, it is many distinctive challenges including lack reported that student mobility is correlated of college readiness, financial stability, with lower school engagement, poorer familial support, and self-esteem” (p. 1). grades in reading and math, and a higher risk of dropping out of high school As you can see, having a (Sparks, 2017). A study reported in the background that includes all of the above, article (Sparks, 2015) that was conducted including being a student of low-SES, a by New York University in 2015, found witness to domestic abuse, growing up in a that the more students moved, the lower single-parent household, becoming a teen they scored on state assessments and on parent, experiencing high levels of student teacher observations of the students’ mobility, and being a first-generation critical thinking skills. An article by college student were all challenges I had to Rumberger (2003) reported the overcome along the path of my journey. consequences of student mobility as In reviewing the snapshot of research and suffering psychologically, socially, and statistics reported above, one might academically. Furthermore, student suspect where I should have ended up or mobility was found to be associated with who I might have become. In fact, you might find it somewhat surprising where I

Fowler ______

ended up. However, statistics do not do with my life, I stood up, shook his account for the spectacular, and remember, hand, and started to walk out, he said, people like surprises. “Denver, you know, people like surprises…surprise us Denver.” I am not People like Surprises sure I really grasped what he meant until much later in my life. However, I thought I was once called into the office in high a lot about it, and at some point, it became school by our athletic director, Don Thorp. my motivation. To shed the statistics Coach Thorp is probably one of the most associated with me, and thrive anyway. decorated high school baseball coaches in One does not have to look far for such the nation. This was right around the time stories. There is Ole Miss alum Michael I had found out that my high school Oher, or Oprah Winfrey, Andy Andrews, girlfriend was pregnant. Being a three and Mine That Bird. The point is, Coach sport star (i.e., football, basketball, & Thorp was right, we all like a good baseball) in high school, he was curious as surprise; the underdog winning or a to my plans to continue playing sports (as success story no one saw coming. Let’s I was a junior at the time and just wrapped look at how a horse shocked the world on up football season), and of course, he a rainy day in 2009, a day I just so happen wanted to give me some words of wisdom. to be at the Kentucky Derby, right there at Now, I hardly listened to anyone at that the finish line in the grandstands. age, but when Coach Thorp called you to the office to speak with you, you sat up Now, I have often heard folks say straight and listened intently. We talked they like numbers. I myself am a mixed- about a lot of things, about my potential methods researcher, and although I enjoy for an athletic scholarship if I was able to the numbers (i.e., quantitative), I also improve my grades, about my girlfriend enjoy the stories that accompany them being pregnant, about how life isn’t fair, (i.e., qualitative). That is, statistics are and many other things. But perhaps most certainly helpful, but they do not account importantly, we discussed what I was for everything, and they certainly don’t going to do with my life. I remember not always account for the spectacular (i.e., really knowing at the time. In fact, my the outliers). I love the quote by Albert answer was “I don’t know” followed by a Einstein, “Not everything that counts can lot of silence and Coach Thorp staring at be counted, and not everything that can be me waiting for more. I did not say “I counted counts.” For example, my wife don’t know” because I could not think of and I attended the 2009 Kentucky Derby at anything else to say, but because I really Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky. did not know. Up to that point, I do not It was a grand race indeed, and certainly believe anyone had really asked me that one I thoroughly enjoyed as I myself question. College seemed like the natural always relish “the spectacular” or a good next step, but that was only because I had surprise. As you may know, this was the begun to receive athletic recruiting letters Kentucky Derby when a horse named my sophomore year. Before that, I had Mine That Bird won the Derby. See, what honestly never thought about it. However, is spectacular about this particular Derby there was one thing towards the end of our is that, Mine That Bird was a 50-to-1 odds. conversation that rang in my head for To put that in layman’s terms, the years after. As we wrapped up the undersized thoroughbred racehorse was conversation focused on what I wanted to not supposed to win the race. Now, the

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

fact that he did win it, is considered faculty need exceptional leaders who perhaps the most monumental upset in believe in them as well, and fully Derby history. At the beginning of the understand their needs, despite the odds race, it did not look good for Mine That (i.e., statistics). That is, the great leaders Bird. In fact, he was so far in last place see greatness in others, regardless of their that NBC announcer, Tom Durkin failed to backgrounds and experiences, and expect mention him several times as he ran great things from them. It is not enough to through the line-up of horses and their ignore those backgrounds and experiences, places (Kentucky Derby, 2009). However, however, it is important to understand out of nowhere, Mine That Bird ridden by them, embrace them, relate to them (as Calvin Borel blew past the group of horses best we can), and help others move on the inside rail and pulled away to win forward from them. As leaders in higher the race by the longest margin of victory education, we must lead in such a way that in over 60 years. If you have not seen the fully understands the experiences and race, it is worth taking a look at it. See: backgrounds that shape the students and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hv8x faculty members we lead and work with. 9x5A49s You see, as someone like In doing so, we must also being cognizant myself who the statistics were stacked of how we can help such individuals move against, I had to learn to ignore them or past possible barriers, while ensuring we accept them, and quite frankly, I was not provide the necessary resources for them going to accept them. However, I was to thrive. I believe if we can lead in this smart enough to know that I could not do manner, many more surprises will be had, it alone. Just as jockey Calvin Borel knew both with our students and staff. he needed the expertise of Mine That Bird’s trainer Chip Wooley3 to win the Turning Points Derby, Mine That Bird needed an Much like the odds given to Mine That exceptional jockey like Borel, someone Bird, the statistics associated with my that, despite the horse being a 50-to-1 odd, background and experiences are daunting still took the time to watch hours of film to say the least. In the previous section, I on him from previous races, believed in shared the strategies used to help Mine him, and fully understood what he needed That Bird overcome his odds, as well as (i.e., race strategy), our students and events leading up to his victory. In this

3 section, I will report what strategies or Calvin Borel was not supposed to ride Mine That events happened along my journey as well Bird in the Derby. He later reported (Soileau, 2009) that he was asked just three weeks before the as the turning points. Now, I assume the Derby to ride Mine That Bird. Furthermore, he obvious question, for you the reader, may was the only jockey willing to listen to Mine That be two-fold; (1) how did I overcome such Bird’s trainer, Chip Wooley. Upon studying film great odds to go on to obtain my doctorate from previous races, along with the trainer, Calvin degree, become a successful teacher and immediately realized the horse wasn’t finishing as Chip had suggested. Furthermore, for the Derby, school administrator, and now, professor Chip told Calvin to hold the horse back, and focus (and as it should be included, husband and on a come from behind win, which is exactly what father); and (2) in what ways can you the he did. Again, Calvin was the only jockey Chip reader help others overcome such odds approached that was willing to ride Mine That Bird (shared in the discussion section). With and implement his plan, which gave the horse exactly what it needed to win the race. that in mind, it would be extremely hard 27

Fowler ______for me to attempt to highlight one exact times, I can still hear her singing the words moment or personal characteristic that to the song Ooh Child by the band The contributed to my ability to overcome such Five Stairsteps to my brother and I. She odds. Nonetheless, in thinking of one such always focused on what we had, not on item or personal characteristic, I tend to what we did not have. Even when we had think of grit. However, I don’t like to rely so little, she always made it seem like so on grit as I feel it somehow implies I did it much. Thus, like her, I am an optimist in on my own, and quite frankly, that is not all situations, regardless of the odds. That true for me, nor for anyone. Nevertheless, being said, and perhaps worth mentioning and perhaps worth mentioning, I do here, I am also a realist, making calculated believe some relentless, consistent, decisions while always being mindful of persistence never hurt anyone when it the long-term implications of such came to dream chasing in any way, shape, decisions. For example, based on my or form. Again, for this section, I will background, I am sure you could assume attempt to highlight a few of the things I some of the friends I ran around with believe contributed to the process as a growing up. However, I always knew whole, at least for me. In addition, I will when to say no, and sadly, some of my attempt to highlight some of the turning childhood friends did not. points along my journey. That is, stark moments and events throughout my life Fatherhood. Becoming a father at such a that contributed to my “overcoming the young age certainly made me grow up odds.” much faster than my peers. In this regard, it was a blessing. That is, for someone Upbringing. First and foremost, I must like myself who at the time, needed more say I learned the importance of hard-work structure, needed to start focusing on my from my mother. My mother worked education, and needed to begin to think several jobs to raise my brother and I by more long-term about my goals for myself herself. At the same time, we had a (and now for my family), it was certainly a mother we knew loved us, and her first blessing in disguise. In some respects, priority was always our well-being. That having a child is something you can never alone is a solid foundation for any child fully explain to someone who has never regardless of the other factors such as low- had a child. Essentially, there is a laser SES, student mobility, etc. I knew I had a pinpoint time (i.e., birth) in your life that champion, that is, someone who cared everything becomes so much more or less about me, believed in me, and had my about you, and so much more about your well-being at the forefront of their every child. This for me allowed me to thought and action. I believe this is vital relentlessly work 40-50 hours a week for any child to thrive, but perhaps more throughout my undergraduate degree, so, for a child with the demographics and graduate degree, and doctoral degree characteristics I have highlighted as they programs. Now that my daughter, who relate to myself. Such children may need attends The Ohio State University and is more, such college students may need an Early Childhood Education major, is more, and such faculty members may need much older, I have showed her the bus more, as unlike their peers, their needs stop on Ohio State’s campus in front of the may be greater due to these demographics old 24-hour library that I used to exit the and characteristics. Furthermore, my bus at each evening after work. I told her I mother was an optimist. During rough always had a decision to make when I got

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

off that bus; (1) head directly into the cafeteria, our principal profoundly library to study and complete my school announced to all of the students in the work; or (2) walk home and get some cafeteria “please excuse Denver, he is not much needed sleep. I told her I would used to being at these gatherings” as think of her and head into the library no apparently we were supposed to wait to matter how tired I was from my shift at grab a donut and milk. Of course, I work. I know she is grateful for this now, thought to myself, this guy is a real jerk. as well as for the father I am and have Furthermore, I thought about the fact that always been to her. She has always been he does not know how to lead a school. light years ahead of me with regards to her However, for me, it was a learning academics and faith. In fact, she has made moment – as this is how I have learned to the Dean’s list every semester of her chalk up such moments throughout my collegiate career, is on a full academic life. That is, I learned to never lead a scholarship, and is a bible study leader for school in such a manner, to never Real Life. She spends her spring breaks embarrass a student, especially when they visiting popular spring break destinations are making progress. In addition, this or visiting inner-city Chicago particular school leader is one of the main neighborhoods encouraging anyone from reasons I study ethics as they apply to college aged students to the elderly to school leadership today (Fowler, Edwards, accept God in their life. She is quite truly & Hsu, 2017; Posthuma, Fowler, & Tsai, amazing. 2016; Fowler & Johnson, 2014). It is my contention that you have to go through life PreK-12 educational experience. It goes thinking everything that happens, happens without saying that I had great educators for a reason. This particular experience and coaches throughout my life and within led me to my research agenda, and I the PreK-12 educational setting no matter happen to enjoy conducting research in where I was geographically, be it in Ohio, this area. Thus, I must see the positive in Texas, California, or Tennessee. For the it. It also made me a better school leader, most part, I had teachers who were truly because I will never forget the way it invested in my education and helping me made me feel. It is like I tell my students reach my full potential. Likewise, I also who are aspiring school leaders, “I have had what I would call not-so-great worked with some of the best school teachers and coaches. For example, upon leaders and teachers in the world, and I finding out my high school girlfriend was have worked with some of the worst, but pregnant, I started going to class, doing the key is, I learned a great deal from both my homework, and actually studied and experiences.” Some of the great teachers did my homework. Thus, it was no and coaches I had in my life were surprise that I made the honor roll shortly individuals such as Mr. Crozier, my 5th thereafter. I was sitting in class one day grade teacher, Mr. Don Thorp, my high when I was notified by the school school baseball coach, middle school intercom that everyone who made the physical education teacher, and later, my honor roll was invited to the cafeteria to high school athletic director, and my high have donuts. Being one of the first to school basketball coach Mr. Rob Smith, arrive, I grabbed a donut, a carton of milk, who is still coaching basketball today, and and sat down. As everyone filled into the so many more. When I think of all the

Fowler ______people who have contributed to my Jerry Johnson and Dr. Gordon Brooks who success, I think of the following quote, “It spent countless hours with me throughout takes a village to raise a child.” That is to the dissertation process. Not only did their say, we are all responsible for each other’s commitment help me in finishing a quality well-being, especially the well-being of dissertation, it was a great example of how children. dedicated we should be to our own doctoral students as they navigate the Higher education experience. Keeping process. Thus, I always aim to pass such with the theme of this essay, as it applies dedication on to my doctoral students. to the higher education setting, I had some During my time as an adjunct instructor at of the best professors at every level of Ohio State, I had the opportunity to work education I received in higher education. under great leaders such as Dr. Gordon There was Dr. Samuel Hodge at The Ohio Gee, Dr. Paul Sanders, and many others. State University, who always pushed me Here at The University of Mississippi, I well beyond what I thought I could have had the opportunity to work with accomplish academically during the many great students, faculty members, and completion of my undergraduate degree. leaders – too many to list. It goes without There was Dr. Bill McGlothin and Dr. saying that all of these individuals and so Bevin Shiverdecker at Mount Vernon many others were certainly motivating Nazarene University during the factors or influences along my journey, completion of my Masters degree, who and still are today. However, if there was inspired me to be a dedicated educator and one turning point, believe it or not, it may later, to become a school leader. There have come in the most insensitive of was Dr. Lawrence (Larry) Burgess in my forms. That is, if I had to single it down to Principals license program at Ohio one turning point in higher education, it University who took my aspiration to was the “tough love” talk I received from become a school leader, and helped turn it an academic advisor during the completion into a reality by preparing me to be the of my undergraduate degree. Now, before best school leader I could be. There was I share this story, unless she was a great Dr. Connie Calloway in my superintendent actor (and some of us leaders/mentors can license program (also at Ohio University) be), I believe her real intent was for me to who took my ambition to be a drop out of college right then and there. superintendent by preparing me to be one. However, her words did just the opposite, Through all of her stories of leading they lit a fire in me. At the time, I was Detroit City Public Schools, I gained great working 40-50 hours a week, I was taking insight as to what it meant to work in, and 12-16 credit hours a quarter, and as you around, all of the obstacles that may stand can imagine, I hardly slept. At this time in in our way to ensure we always do what is my life, I was regularly getting 5-6 hours best for each and every child. During my of sleep a night. This coupled with my superintendent internship, there was Dr. responsibilities as a father were starting to Thomas Tucker (two-time National take a toll on my grades. In fact, it landed Superintendent of the Year), Dr. Richard me on academic probation. Upon Ross (former state superintendent in the receiving this notification, I decided I had State of Ohio), and Mr. Jack Fette better go meet with my academic advisor allowing me to learn from them “on the and figure out what I needed to do in order job” as well as what it means to effectively to get my grade point average (GPA) up lead a school district. Then there was Dr.

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

and get into the College of Education, question everything. I learned a long time which was the next step for me at that time ago not to listen to people who tell you in my collegiate career. At this meeting, what they think you are capable of. As she sat me down, showed me my current what they are really telling you is what GPA, calculated and walked me through they believe they are capable of. what it would take for me to raise it to a 3.0, and politely said, “you know, college Continuing with the higher isn’t for everybody.” I was shocked by education setting, it provides an what I had just heard. She followed up by opportunity to connect with students and saying, “if you drop out before such and faculty who may not have the same such date, you won’t be charged background and experiences that you anything.” I could not believe what I was have, or may not share the same ethnicity hearing. Nonetheless, back then I was or nationality you have, or may not share much more tactful than I am now (not the same religious beliefs you have, and necessarily a good thing). I had the wits this is very much a positive in so many about me to do two things; (1) I asked her ways. I have always enjoyed making new to go over what I needed to do in great friends and getting to know people from detail (this time I paid attention and even different backgrounds and cultures. In took notes); and (2) I politely told her I some respects, I have always been curious needed to think more about rather or not I in this way. I believe it stems from my wanted to drop out of college (knowing I student mobility background. That is, I was not going to). After that conversation, had to learn to make friends and make I remember driving home and thinking, I them quick. But in the same breath, I am going to make A’s from here on out. believe I am naturally curious of all things, Although I did not earn A’s for every not just people and other cultures. course I took after that meeting, I certainly Nonetheless, the friends I made in college made A’s and B’s with the occasional C, at all levels of my academic career have of course I was no longer on academic taught me quite a bit about life, and probation, and yes, I was accepted into the myself. That is, I believe I have learned as College of Education. Nonetheless, it was much from them as they may have learned the turning point most identifiable to me. from me, especially as it relates to It was the turning point for my different perspectives on all things in this undergraduate experience, and perhaps, life. This is just another added advantage my life, and what would become of me. of serving in the higher education setting, Although I do not believe her intentions the ability to learn and grow through were noble, I took her intentions, whatever relationships you build with both students they were, and used them as motivation. I and faculty members, and this is just one have shared this story before, and I am more way we can begin to lead for equity, often met with the same response, “not by building lasting and meaningful everyone would of reacted the way you relationships with our students and faculty did.” In fact, I have had individuals who I members regardless of our roles (or theirs) have shared this story with tell me they at the university. probably would of listened to her. In that Gratitude. I felt it would be a disservice respect, I have to thank my mother for to the reader if I did not include this raising me to be an optimist and to section. Thus, I wanted to include

Fowler ______

gratitude, as I believe it is a large part of service to others. I have also found, at what we need to do when we receive help least in my experience, that it is through from others. That is, don’t forget to say service that I found myself, who I wanted thanks, and certainly “don’t forget to send to be, and furthermore, my true calling. I the elevator back down” or “pass it on.” I share this because I want leaders in higher have always been quick to thank the education to fully understand the individuals who have helped me along the excitement of being part of someone’s way and give credit where credit is due. success story, rather it be a student or For example, we were back watching a faculty member. There is little to nothing football game at my old high school years more rewarding than hearing how you ago. My mother was with me and Coach were part of someone’s success story. Thorp walked up and was talking with us. That you had a part in it. That is what it is After we were finished talking, as he was all about my friends. It is no less the having health issues at the time, he said he reason why I continue to give back by was going to leave and we were saying serving. For example, this past year I goodbye. I had already thanked him a served as a Ronald E. McNair Program4 million times before, but I thanked him mentor. Through this service, I had the again anyway. Likewise, my mother gave opportunity to mentor a student through a him a big hug, and with tears in her eyes, large-scale research project. I am happy to said, “thank you for all you have done for report that this student has presented this my boys.” I think it was the only time I research nationally and published it in a saw Coach Thorp tear up. What I am magazine. In addition, this student will getting at here is, we often do not know all present her research internationally and of the lives we touch. But it certainly feels publish it in an international peer-reviewed good to know when we have made a journal, all before she completes her positive impact. It goes without saying bachelor’s degree. It is the same reason that we do not lead or help others in order why I volunteered to teach the freshmen to receive a pat on the back or recognition. common book at The Ohio State However, throughout the years, I have University when I was an adjunct found that the timely emails, cards, letters, instructor there several years ago. It gave and phone calls reminding me of how I me the opportunity to serve in a capacity have touched someone’s life is fulfilling that was focused on utilizing the book and makes ones’ spirit feel good. Outcasts United (John, 2009) where I had Additionally, it helps refuel the tank when the opportunity to lead students through it is low, that is, when we feel like we’re lectures, workshops, and classroom not making an impact at all. When the exercises with one common goal in mind, opportunity presents itself (or maybe you need to create the right opportunity), be 4 McNair participants are either first-generation sure to thank people for their part in your college students with financial need, or members story, and equally important, pass it on, be of a group that is traditionally underrepresented in a part of someone’s success story. graduate education, and have demonstrated strong academic potential. The goal of the McNair Serve to Lead Scholars Program is to increase graduate degree I have always found the most gratifying awards for students from underrepresented and rewarding work to be that of service. segments of society (Ronald E. McNair, 2017). I truly believe that leadership starts with

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

to celebrate and embrace our differences might fully understand their needs, rather it be gender, ethnicity, nationality, and then aim to meet those needs. religious beliefs, etc. It is why I still coach • Create opportunities for social youth football, basketball, baseball, and interactions for both students and soccer today – to give back to the faculty members. community. It is why I am the Public • Provide collaborative learning Relations Chair for my Rotary Club. It is opportunities for students and why I conduct all those reviews each year faculty members. for the many professional organizations of • Support/implement a culturally which I belong, or why I started The responsive pedagogy meeting the Mississippi Association of Professors of needs of all students and faculty Educational Leadership. It is because members. quite simply, I believe that “you’re below • Focus on equitable and inclusive leadership if you’re above service” and as practices in all things higher my mother always said “every hand fits a education as it relates to students broom.” and staff.

Discussion Finally, I thought it would be valuable if I As you read through this article, it is my shared a quote from Rev. Dr. Samuel hope that you have begun to think of ways Dewitt (SDP Conference, 2011). Many you might lead for equity and utilize believe Dr. Dewitt has helped more differentiated leadership in your current African-Americans complete their doctoral role, wherever and whatever it may be. degree than any other professor. By discussing my own story, and how my Nonetheless, as you read the quote, we experiences in higher education might think of the scratch line as living transformed my own life, it is my hope comfortably, that is, in which an that you are able to use my story to further individual has access to all of the support the importance of your leadership resources they need. Furthermore, might in higher education, not only as it applies we think of a world where inequities in to students, but also to faculty members. wealth distribution, resources, and quality Below I have shared just a few strategies of life no longer exist. A world where the in bullet-point form that you can utilize as fence no longer exists and everyone can you lead for equity, and differentiate your watch the game, regardless of their leadership. As you read through them, backgrounds and experiences, and remember, “action reveals commitment.” regardless of their demographics and • Seek first to understand, then to be characteristics. understood – with regards to all Now all through my neighborhood, students and faculty. there were other young fellas…they • Support/implement faculty started life teaching the way students learn. • Get to know students and faculty beneath the scratch line, I started members. Build meaningful and life way above the scratch line…now if we lasting relationships so that you want these

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bones to live again, those of us toward more complex forms of thought who have inherited benefits that we did about the world, one’s area of study, and not earn or one’s self” (Moore, 2002, “Review of Model”). I see the results of this cognitive deserve, need to turn around and shift in every aspect of my professional help those who inherited deficits that they experience: teaching, research, practice, did not earn and service. Each aspect involves a different motivator and manifestation of or deserve, and help them to rise the shift, but each paves the way for up to the scratch line, where we are, so transformation. that they may I teach in the masters of social earn and enjoy all of the benefits work program at my institution, where that we so take for granted. students are learning to provide clinical Rarely do we find men who willingly mental health services. It is common for engage in hard, solid thinking. There is an students to go straight to the worst-case almost universal quest for easy answers scenario—what do I do if my client is and half-baked solutions. Nothing pains suicidal? What do I do if my client is using some people more than having to think. drugs? The students who are early in the program want The Right Answer: this is Martin Luther King, Jr., A Martin what you do in that situation. They are Luther King Treasury, 1964 frustrated by any response that includes “it depends.” As students’ progress through We are losing the ability to understand the program, they become more anything that's even vaguely complex. comfortable with the idea that we do not --Chuck Klosterman, Sex, Drugs, have a definitive, foolproof intervention to and Cocoa Puffs: A Low Culture use with suicidal and/or drug using clients. Manifesto, 2014 The Answer is not known. We, as a profession, simply do the best we can to Higher education transforms lives respond to each unique situation with the in too many ways to count. tools that research and practice wisdom Transformation may occur at the show have the best chance of success. My community level through service projects task is to support and challenge students in taken on by enthusiastic student all stages of development so that they may volunteers. It may come from new move toward comfort and skill in spaces inventions that change the world. It can where uncertainty and ambiguity reign. also happen on an individual level, not only in the lives and communities touched If the transformation is by the fruits of education, but also in the successfully made, creative solutions learners themselves. One of the most become more likely. Social work is a profound transformations I have witnessed profession grounded in problem-solving. comes from radical changes in students’ Freed from the rigid application of right worldviews as they move from rigid, and wrong, problem-solving flourishes. I binary thinking to a more complex, see this growth reflected in the contrasting flexible ability to understand, analyze, and ways that beginning and advanced integrate multiple perspectives. Higher students approach case studies. Beginning education involves a “difficult journey students will immediately launch into

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

trying to find an answer when presented categories of knowledge, right and wrong, with a one paragraph client scenario. there are now three: right, wrong, and not Advanced students want more yet known (Moore, 2001). Instructors information. They have become more should help them find the answers, and if adept at negotiating the subtleties of a they refuse to name one correct right situation and thus realize that problem- answer to a dilemma, it is merely because solving is context-specific. the instructor is using some sort of a technique to help the student learn how to Epistemological theory helps to find the right answer. explain these anecdotal observations. William Perry developed a seminal model The transition to late multiplicity of how students develop cognitively as involves an essential separation from they progress through higher education Authority—students in this position (Perry, 1970, 1999). In general, the model understand that Authority may never find describes how students move from very the right answers (Perry, 1970, 1999). The basic to more complex thinking. The first third category of knowledge now includes two categories of Perry’s model, dualism “we’ll never know for sure;” therefore, and multiplicity, are most relevant to this how one thinks about something becomes paper, as studies show that students rarely paramount (Moore, 2001, “Multiplicity: move beyond multiplicity before Positions 3-4”). Although the instructor graduation (Granello, 2002; Simmons & can be the source for the process of Fisher, 2016). According to the model, thinking, she can also be completely dualistic students have an absolutist view discounted (Perry, 1970, 1999). Students of knowledge. There are right and wrong in late multiplicity believe that their role is answers to all problems, Authority to learn to think for oneself and learn to (capitalization in original) is a trusted use supportive evidence. source of knowledge, and the role of the instructor is to provide the right answer. In One multi-layered example of this later stages of dualism, students move to a development happened during a course view that the role of the instructor is to designed to teach students to be clinical show them how to find the right answers supervisors. Clinical supervision is an (Perry, 1970, 1999). When confronted interactive, reflective process that with disagreement among authorities, promotes the professional development of students in dualism look to instructors to supervisees, while ensuring that agency tell them which is right, and can become needs are met. Over the course of the frustrated when the answer is not semester, a student who was already forthcoming. providing supervision in her agency realized that she was providing solutions Multiplicity also has two stages: for her supervisees’ problems, rather than early and late (Perry, 1970, 1999). helping them learn to find their own Students in early multiplicity come to solutions. Her understanding of her own accept that diversity of opinions can be role shifted from providing answers legitimate, but see the divergence as (dualism) to helping the students learn to temporary. They believe that if one tries think (multiplicity) as she herself hard enough, the right answers can be developed along these lines. found. Instead of merely having two

Fowler ______

Use of the Perry Scheme to study Furthermore, many of the most student development has quantified this widely used therapies today help clients to change. In the field of social work, the identify, deconstruct, and then reconstruct field experience, or internship, is the their ways of knowing. Cognitive therapy, signature pedagogy (CSWE, 2015). at its most basic, helps clients by During the field experience, students identifying harmful automatic thoughts experience a transformation in which they and replacing those thoughts (Beck, 2011). move from trying to figure out The Right This requires clients to examine and Answer for a hypothetical client in a challenge their sources of knowledge—as sterile classroom environment to in multiplicity, they must learn to think for understanding how to use their knowledge themselves and use supportive evidence to and skills to help an actual client find his develop their way of thinking. For or her own right answer in the real world. example, an automatic thought might be, An investigation into the mechanism of “I am terrible at this job.” The process of this change using the Perry Scheme cognitive therapy is to identify the revealed that at the end of their internship, thought, examine the evidence for it, then students are transitioning between early create a new thought based a more positive and late multiplicity (Simmons & Fisher, view of the evidence. Similarly, modalities 2016). They are making the critical such as narrative therapy and solution- transition to the ability to trust themselves focused therapy are based on constructivist to think through extremely complex theories—the client must first question the dilemmas with their clients and arrive at source of her harmful beliefs, then work to solutions. Perry’s analysis of the create a more positive story. Because development of cognitive complexity higher education has introduced the suggests that higher education has therapist to an analogous form of cognitive transformed them from receptacles of complexity, she will be adept at helping information to adept independent users of others negotiate this process. that information. Cognitively complexity not only In the field of clinical social work, opens the door to helping others, but also this transformation in social work students creates possibilities for self- provides the foundation for helping future transformation. Although I have not clients transform their own lives in turn. personally taught incarcerated students, I Facilitating the process of therapy and am privileged to provide support and counseling requires cognitive complexity service to colleagues who do so. One such (see, Kindsvatter & Desmond, 2013). If course was the Ice House the clinical social worker is not Entrepreneurship Program, taught at a cognitively complex herself, she will be maximum-security prison in our state unable to provide effective services. (Keena & Simmons, 2015). That program Critical therapeutic skills include empathy, produced changes in the worldview of its the ability to maintain a non-judgmental participants that helped the participants attitude, and the ability to develop move from dualistic thinking to more complex conceptualizations of clients and flexible ways of viewing their post-release their issues. Research has linked cognitive employment options. I hear similar stories complexity to these essential qualities. of transformation from colleagues who teach in a program called the Prison-to- College-Pipeline Project, which provides

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______courses for college credit at the same Reproductive Health: Teen maximum-security prison. The men are Pregnancy. Retrieved from: able to see new possibilities for their lives https://www.cdc.gov/teenpregnanc through the program (Smith, 2015). y/about/ Indeed, studies show that higher education transforms the lives of people who are incarcerated by reducing recidivism and Childhood Domestic Violence increasing chances of employment upon Association, (2014). 10 startling release (Davis et al. 2013), results that can statistics about children of be linked to a change in worldview and domestic violence. CDV Library. movement into more complex thinking Retrieved from: (Keena & Simmons, 2015). http://cdv.org/2014/02/10-startling- So often, an apparent lack of domestic-violence-statistics-for- options is a barrier to transformation. children/ People who are more cognitively complex are empowered to find or create options Databank Indicator, (2017). Births to because they have moved beyond the unmarried women. Child Trends. confines of binary thinking. Higher Retrieved from: education helps facilitate this https://www.childtrends.org/?indic empowerment in students. Once achieved, ators=births-to-unmarried-women the state of cognitive complexity is in itself transformational, enabling students Dawn (2016). Single Mother Statistics. to help transform others, our communities, and the world. Single Mother Guide. Retrieved from: References https://singlemotherguide.com/sing le-mother-statistics/ Aikens, N. L., & Barbarin, O. (2008).

Socioeconomic differences in reading trajectories: The Fowler, D., Edwards. R., & Hsu, H. contribution of family, (2017). An investigation of state neighborhood, and school superintendents in the United contexts. Journal of Educational States: Ethical leadership Psychology, 100, 235-251. perspectives, state leader demographics, and state education American Psychological Association, characteristics. Athens Journal of (2017). Education and Education. socioeconomic status. APA. Retrieved from: Fowler, D., Posthuma, R., & Tsai, W. http://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resource (2016). Hiring transformational s/publications/education.aspx leaders in education: Lessons learned from structured employment interviews. Center for Disease Control and Prevention International Journal of Education (2016). About teen pregnancy. and Teaching, 3(4), 240-260.

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lies/crc2013.pdf Fowler, D. & Johnson, J. (2014). An investigation of ethical leadership Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. perspectives among Ohio school M., & Maczuga, S. (2009). Risk district superintendents. Education Leadership Review of Doctoral factors for learning- related Research, 1(2), 96-112. behavior problems at 24 months of age: Population-based Gibbons, M., Rhinehart, A., & Hardin, E. estimates. Journal of Abnormal (2016). How first-generation Child Psychology, 37, 401-413. college students adjust to college. Journal of College Student National Campaign to Prevent Teen Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 0(0), 1-23. Pregnancy (2002). Not just another single issue: Teen pregnancy John, W.S. (2009). Outcasts united. New prevention's link to other critical York, NY: Random House. social issues. National Campaign to Kentucky Derby (2009). Kentucky Prevent Teen Pregnancy. Retrieved derby 2009. YouTube. Retrieved from: from: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED46 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= 2522.pdf Hv8x9x5A49s Ronald E. McNair (2017). About. Website. Krein, S.F., & Beller, A.H. (1988). Retrieved from: Educational attainment of children http://mcnairscholars.com/about/ from single-parent families: Differences by exposure, gender, and Rumberger, R. (2003). The causes and race. Demography of Children and consequences of student mobility. The Journal of Negro Education, (1)72, 6- Youth, (2)25, 221-234. 21. Kuttner, P. (2016). The problem with that Runzel, T. (2017). How are teenage equity vs. equality graphics you’re fathers affected by pregnancy? How using. Cultural Organizing. to Adult. Retrieved from: Retrieved from: http://howtoadult.com/teenage- http://culturalorganizing.org/the- fathers-affected-pregnancy- problem-with-that-equity-vs- SDP Conference. (2011, January 21). “The equality-graphic/ scratch line” Rev. Dr. Samuel Dewitt Lino, M. (2013). Expenditures on children Proctor—SDPC. Retrieved from by families, 2013. United States https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X Department of Agriculture. 1la3TAxu8w Retrieved from: Soileau, S. (2009). Kentucky derby winner www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/file Calvin Borel. Athlete Chat. Retrieved s/expenditures_on_children_by_fami

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from: education 2008. National Center for http://www.accessathletes.com/blog/bl Education Statistics, Institute of ogdisplay.cfm?/Athlete-Chat- Education Sciences, U.S. Department Kentucky-Derby-Winner-Calvin- of Education. Washington, D.C. Borel-266 Wirt, J., Choy, S., Rooney, P., Provasnik, Sparks, S. (2017). Student mobility: How it S., Sen, A., & Tobin, R. (2004). The affects learning. Education Week. condition of education 2004. U.S. Retrieved from: Department of Education, National https://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/stu Center for Education Statistics. dent-mobility/ Retrieved from: http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2004/ Spotlights. (2015). Postsecondary pdf/18_2004.pdf attainment: Differences by socioeconomic status. The Condition Wyatt, J. & Mattern, K. (2011). Low-SES of Education 2015. Retrieved from: students and college outcomes: The https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/pdf/c role of AP fee reductions. College oe_tva.pdf Board. Retrieved from: https://research.collegeboard.org/sites/d The Child Witness to Violence Project, efault/files/publications/2012/7/research (2017). For caregivers: Understand report-2011-9-low-ses-college- the problem. Child Witness to outcomes-ap-fee-reductions.pdf Violence Project. Retrieved at: http://www.childwitnesstoviolence.org Dr. Denver J. Fowler is currently an /facts--myths.html Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership within the Department of Leadership and The Council of Independent Colleges. Counselor Education in the School of Education at The University of Mississippi. . First generation college students. The He also serves as the elected President of The College Board. Retrieved from: Mississippi Association of Professors of https://www.cic.edu/ Educational Leadership. Dr. Fowler has over a decade of successful experience in the PreK- United States of Census Bureau (2014). 12 educational setting as a coach, teacher, America’s families and living athletic director, technology coordinator, and school administrator. In 2015, he was named arrangements: 2014: Children. the State Assistant Principal of the Year in the Families and Living Arrangements. State of Ohio and nominated for the National Retrieved from: Assistant Principal of the Year in the United http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/d States. In addition to his PreK-12 experience, he has over seven years of successful ata/cps2014C.html experience in the Higher Education setting at The University of Mississippi, The Ohio State Provasnik, S., & Planty, M. (2008). University, University of West Florida, and Community colleges: Special Bowling Green State University, where he has supplement to the condition of taught courses face-to-face, on-line, and in 39

Fowler ______hybrid formats at the undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels in educational leadership, teacher education, and educational technology. Dr. Fowler is dedicated to just, equitable, and inclusive education. He has advocated for policy reform and spoken on Capitol Hill in order to advocate for teachers and school leaders across the nation. Dr. Fowler completed his B.S. at The Ohio State University, M.A. at Mount Vernon Nazarene University, Ed.D. at Ohio University, and completed a School Leadership Institute at Harvard University. Dr. Fowler can be reached at [email protected].

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The Power of Differentiated Learning in Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) 41-49 Higher Education STEM Special Themed Issue

Brenda Hutton-Prager The University of Mississippi

Abstract The quality of education is a necessary input in utilizing the “power of higher education to

transform lives, communities and the world”, words spoken by Chancellor Dr. Jeffrey Vitter at his inauguration speech at the University of Mississippi. Despite the many advances in technology and

teaching methodology, traditional lecture-delivery courses still dominate. Lives, communities and the world truly are transformed as a result of higher education,education as indicatedranking at by 6.2, world while statistics the United linking States a country’s education quality with international competitiveness.of America However,was third (GCI)this transformation and with an could be even greater if additional effort was put into ‘transforming’ the higher education system, relying on innovative teaching approaches rather than those first used during the birth of Universities themselv es. Personalized (or differentiated) learning is the first of fourteen grand challenges for engineers in the 21st century, and as such is the key to truly transforming the education system in order to support continued transformation to lives, the community and beyond. This essay discusses in depth the characteristics and necessities of differentiated teaching and learning in contrast to the current state of higher education in STEM settings, and highlights the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to implement this framework on a large scale.

Dr. Jeffrey Vitter’s inauguration as the education ranking of 5.9. Compare these 17th Chancellor of The University of Mississippi rankings with Nigeria for example, which was on 11th November, 2016, provided an ranked 124 out of 140 (GCI), with an education

opportunity to spread an important message and ranking of 2.8 out of 7.0, or Guinea, with the theme: “the power of higher education to lowest GCI and an education rank of 2.2. The GCI is based on 12 different pillars or identifiers transform lives, communities and the world”. In such as health, financial market performance and his inauguration speech, Dr. Vitter described technological readiness, but here it is compared higher education as the “…great enabler that with the higher education pillar to demonstrate helps people lift themselves above their its strong positive correlation with global circumstances and disadvantages” (Vitter, performance. There is no question that the 2016). He also quoted Nelson Mandela’s belief power of higher education does indeed transform lives, the community and the world. that “education is the most powerful weapon you

can use to change the world.” Vitter also said at his inauguration (Vitter, 2016): “What does it take…to go from These inspirational words are certainly great to greater?”, and it is within this context true when you consider global economic that I focus on the actual nature or quality of performance of various countries (The Global “the power of higher education” in STEM Competitiveness Report 2015-2016). Using professions in order to have long-lasting and far- 2015-2016 data, Switzerland ranked first in the reaching effects within our world. Despite high global competitive index (GCI), with the higher freshmen retention rates of our students (86.5% based on the 2014 cohort), and overall education and training pillar ranking at 6.0 out graduation rates slightly higher than the national of 7. Singapore ranked second (GCI), with an average (The University of Mississippi, 2016), I

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see the daily struggles of my students learning participate in the transformative power of an new content as they ‘master the art’ of their ‘excellent’ education. newly chosen profession, and hear about their many struggles in other classes as well. A small For many of us fortunate to have gained part of me is pleased about this, because these a Bachelor’s Degree or beyond, we will recall struggles enable students to develop grit and the tedious task of sitting through lectures driven determination to overcome their obstacles. But entirely by the Professor, while participating in another, much larger part of me is very passive learning. We may have experienced a displeased to see the demoralizing and negative particularly engaging Professor who could keep effects of these struggles on students who had us fully engrossed for an hour with ‘just words’. left high school with a positive opinion of their This is not necessarily a bad thing … if you’re a capabilities and potential. Several pedagogies verbal learner who learns well by listening to practiced in K-12 settings are designed to content and making sense of your notes madly enhance engagement and understanding through scribbled down in the rush to get the most from differentiated learning, experiential learning, the lecture. Too bad for the much larger team work, active learning, and project-based majority of the class who prefers to be actively learning amongst others. Although students still participating with the content as they learn. face many struggles as they grapple with new Most of today’s Professors learned via passive concepts, the learning is structured in such a way learning, and do not see a problem in copying to give them the best possible opportunities to these teaching methods in their own classes. progress. Why should these pedagogical This method after all has been around since techniques suddenly no longer be applicable in Universities first began, in the 11th century higher education? Scaffolded instruction should (Brockliss, 1996). It is well-known by educators not stop simply because students ‘come of age’ in K-12 education settings that passive learning and move to a higher educational institution. does not provide sufficient engagement and Pedagogical techniques are still a necessary successful learning outcomes for many, although requirement in higher education settings, and this knowledge has been slow to filter through to despite Piaget’s theory that children by age 16 higher education. In a 2014 study by Freeman et should have mastered formal operational al (2014), active learning strategies vs lecturing cognitive thinking, studies have shown that over were compared via a meta-analysis of 225 half of students entering higher education are STEM education studies in the literature. It was still at concrete operational thinking concluded that examination performance by (Tomlinson-Keasey, 1978). This study, while students taught via active learning methods now dated, still rings true at least anecdotally for increased by almost half a standard deviation, many Professors today. Many of us have been – meaning that a student could score up to 18% and will continue to be – educated via traditional better than other students in the class if they lecture-style deliveries in higher education, but were actively, rather than passively, taught. if the power of higher education can transform Additionally it was found that the risk of failure lives, communities and the world, imagine the by students taught passively increased 55% phenomenal transformational power of an compared with the failure risk of students excellent education! At the University of participating in active learning strategies. In the Mississippi, we pride ourselves on offering a 67 lecturing studies analyzed by Freeman et al ‘great education’, but what can we do to make it (2014), they calculated that over 3,500 students greater? I take this opportunity to review and would not have failed a STEM-based course, if compare a) teaching in the higher education taught actively. Pardon? How many students sector; b) the shift from simply ‘getting an might this represent at a national level if all education’ to ‘getting an excellent education’; STEM-based courses delivered via traditional and finally c) the interconnectedness of different means were included? How many newly disciplines necessary to deliver personalized or qualified STEM professionals might have differentiated learning to all students, to truly

Hutton-Prager ______

entered the workforce to transform lives, progression as a result of more interactive communities and the world? pedagogies compared with traditional means. Boylan-Ashraf, Freeman & Shelley (2015) Thankfully in more recent times, performed a statistical study of structured or Engineering Education particularly is trending scaffolded learning in Introductory Engineering towards a more modern image. There are for Courses, and found significant advancements in example, several conferences specifically aimed learning of students who participated in the at engineering education, such as the American active / student-centered delivery compared with Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) and the lecture-based delivery. In the Introduction to the First Year Engineering Education (FYEE) Chemical Engineering course (ChE101) at the conference, both well attended annually. These University of Mississippi, I have implemented a conferences allow for discussion on many active freshman design project where students explore learning strategies within engineering, most of the scale-up opportunities of preparing chocolate which have been adapted from K-12 pedagogies. bars into a full-scale process. This experiential They include experiential learning, project-based project, while challenging, showed quantum or design-based learning (PBL or DBL), peer- leaps in learning by many students, and an mentoring and independent studies of ethical enhanced confidence and ability in knowledge, issues, to name a few. Engineering by its very as judged by subsequent assessments. All of nature is a practical profession, whether it is these examples show high engagement by the designing new plants or experimenting with new students and a depth of learning that is difficult concepts. Hence it is well-suited to experiential, to replicate by passively listening to lectures. project-based or design-based learning, where While these examples demonstrate we are many of the theoretical concepts are more offering a great education, what can we do to adequately mastered by use of such methods. make it greater? Farrell & Cavanagh (2014) discussed an experiential learning program devised for Personalized learning is one of the grand students in an introductory engineering course, challenges for engineers in the 21st century where they participated in several laboratory (NAE Grand Challenges for Engineering, 2016) trials to characterize biodiesel. Students worked from a technological point of view. As an in teams, learned various aspects of biodiesel educational strategy, it is known as production, purification and quality control, and differentiated learning or targeted learning, and were able to apply mathematics, science and is essentially a framework within which student engineering principles in their experimental need is identified early into a course. Armed design and analysis. This program was based on with this information, educators carefully choose a pedagogical framework known as “How activities that best meet the needs of their People Learn” (HPL), covering four main learners to enhance the outcomes of every criteria of knowledge, learner, assessment, and student. The framework at the K-12 level community centeredness. This course addressed consists of five principles (Rock, Gregg, Ellis & outcomes a, b, c, and e from the Accreditation Gable, 2008; Tomlinson, 1999; Prager, 2013): Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET); 1) Understand student need and preferred and pre- and post-assessment tests indicated a learning modes; 2) Focus on key concepts and highly effective study in achieving the stated provide multiple approaches to learning; 3) learning objectives. Mantri (2014), reported Provide challenging learning experiences within results of a detailed study in India, designed to each student’s Zone of Proximal Development assess the effectiveness of PBL with large (ZPD); 4) Foster collaboration between students numbers of students in three courses from and 5) Create independent learners and student electronics and communication Engineering. ownership of learning. This framework is well- PBL incorporates theoretical input from practiced throughout the world in many K-12 experiential learning and constructivist theory. settings (eg Valiandes, 2015; Wu, 2013; Results demonstrated significant improvements Bullock, 2016), but is sadly lacking in most in student engagement and knowledge/skill higher education settings. I am presently 43

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adapting these principles into this arena, framework, one can see that a great education focusing mainly on the later-acquired cognitive employing active learning strategies can be thinking appropriate at this level, however the made greater by directly attending to student key ingredients are still relevant. needs and providing support for all students in their chosen course of study. If active learning Implementing such a framework into a strategies can reduce failure rates (compared higher-education class does appear onerous to a with passive learning) by 55%, how much more Professor, particularly given the academic could be achieved with differentiated learning, pressures of research performance in addition to where strategies to address personal needs are teaching. And granted, this is of genuine accomplished? concern, however, going from ‘great’ to ‘greater’ takes work, dedication, and perhaps This question is in-part answered by a small short-term modified work priorities in order to body of differentiated learning studies attempted successfully implement such an important at the university level, with some excellent program. Mantri (2014) also noted the ‘non- results. Chamberlin and Powers (2010) trivial’ nature of suitably training faculty to implemented a differentiated curriculum for first improve their capabilities within the classroom year mathematics students in the Rocky in delivering student-centered learning, and Mountain region, USA, in two regional centers. others also mention time constraints as a barrier Both institutions ran the course: number and to effective implementation (e.g. Lavis et al, operations, and taught five sections at each 2016). A typical differentiated classroom would college with a total of 224 student participants. start with the Professor collecting initial data on One institution served as the control while the the students to find out their present academic other was the treatment group, where abilities and their preferred modes of learning. differentiated instruction was implemented ‘Teaching content’ would be replaced with between one and two times per unit, and overall identifying the main concepts of a topic, and approximately one-third of the course. also teaching these concepts in multiple ways. ‘Differentiated instruction’ for this study Several of the active learning strategies outlined included an initial gathering of data to assess above (e.g. experiential learning, PBL) would be students’ readiness, interests and learning employed in accordance with the students’ profiles, followed by a range of activities based preferred learning modes. Depth to this learning on their needs. These included tiered activities would proceed with additional activities in class to either improve or extend designed to extend the students’ current understanding; whole class discussions; student understanding to the next level. Clearly students work groups within class; choice of activities would be at a range of different levels of catering for different learning modes; pro-active understanding, and addressing these needs instructional modification based on students’ would require provision for beginning, needs; homework sheets with differentiated intermediate and advanced tasks. Collaborative tasks; and finally, formative and summative tasks would be added to promote further depth testing. Analysis of the pre- and post-testing to the learning, and provide additional means for from both student groups revealed that the students to construct their knowledge from each treatment group scored an average 1.7 times other. Throughout the concept development, higher than they did on the pre-test; while the depth of learning, and collaborative tasks, the control group scored only 0.3 times higher. Professor would check in with the knowledge Konstantinou-Katzi, Tsolaki, Meletiou- growth, (i.e. attending to student needs) and Mavrotheris, & Koutselini (2013) also created a review content and support learning as required. differentiated program for 27 first year Finally, armed with the mastery of concepts and engineering mathematics students. These depth of knowledge, students would eventually students had come from diverse secondary- progress towards taking ownership of their schooling backgrounds, namely from ‘science- learning and creativity. With this type of direction’ learning; ‘non-science-direction’

Hutton-Prager ______

learning; and ‘technical-direction’ learning. trained in arithmetic operations showed different Consequently, a pre-test of concepts ranging regions of brain activation, specifically in the from basic to advanced knowledge for Calculus left angular gyrus, representing the brain I revealed a normal distribution with most retrieving information from long-term memory students scoring a C (66 – 75%). Differentiated rather than from working memory (or short-term instruction was implemented into this class for memory) (Ischebeck et al, 2007). This shift in the semester, using activities ranging from direct brain activity demonstrates to the educator that instruction; interactive and collaborative learning has been successful, and has resulted in learning; revisiting concepts requiring additional long-term knowledge for the individual. attention; teacher intervention; and back-up Ischebeck et al (2007) presented complex materials provided for additional individual multiplication problems to healthy adults on a learning. In all cases, activities were prepared repeated basis and novel problems less for three levels covering pre-requisite, essential frequently, and demonstrated that repetition after and transformational knowledge and skills. In eight times showed a significant change in brain the post-assessment test, 13 more A-grades and activation patterns with higher input from the 15 less ‘C-or-below’ grades were recorded, left angular gyrus (linked with long-term demonstrating improvements by most students memory). This valuable insight contradicts as opposed to improvements only from the common perceptions in higher education, where ‘average student’. These results complement the a new topic or concept need be taught only once, many studies done on differentiated learning in rapidly disseminated to students, followed K-12 settings, and confirm the overall success of immediately by another. The onus on students utilizing the key differentiation principles in the to continually review the material is vital for the classroom. brain to receive the necessary repetition (preferably in different modes) for learning. Intentional implementation of Ceuvas (2016), a cognitive psychologist, personalized learning requires an discusses three types of memory storage – interconnectedness amongst different episodic, semantic and procedural – identifying disciplines: engineering and computer science; episodic memory as that most likely to fade or education; behavioral psychology; and reduce with time. He cites episodic memory as neuroscience or brain-based research. the form initially established within a classroom, Universities are well-positioned to draw these and that in order for students to genuinely learn various disciplines together, where the ‘best of and gain long-term knowledge, that episodic the best’ can synergistically come up with a memory must be converted to procedural multi-disciplinary solution. A brief review of memory. This is much like the shift in brain educational literature in recent years does in fact patterns observed from fronto-parietal areas to show evolvement of this multi-disciplined the angular gyrus. Ceuvas (2016) argues that approach, and results are fostering a far more while higher-order thinking as per Bloom’s targeted approach to enhance learning outcomes taxonomy is paramount in developing of all students. While this has generated much challenging processing of thought that can excitement and interest within the respective promote procedural memory, practice and research areas, there is still work to be done in reinforcement (and hence repetition) of these fully realizing and implementing personalized processes is required to fully engrain the longer- learning at all educational levels (K-16). term memory. Therefore repetition, not to be confused with rote learning of mundane facts, is Activation patterns in the brain can be a necessary key in activating the long-term imaged using fMRI, and several studies have memory storage of the brain, as identified by the reported working memory being served by brain imaging described earlier (Ischebeck et al, frontal areas of the brain, specifically the fronto- 2007). parietal areas and the basal ganglia (cited in Ischebeck, Zamarian, Egger, Schoke, & Delazer, 2007). However, studies with adults previously 45

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

Neurologist and educator Willis (2007) accordance with Vygotsky’s constructivist explains the brain functioning using a different theory. Frequent formative assessment of analogy. The brain stores information in students to identify their current struggles and neurons, and additional knowledge is gained subsequently addressing these issues correlates when neurons communicate with each other by well with brain-based research that identifies forming dendrites. The more skills, information repetition and practice for long-term memory to and experience; the more dendrites that form and be established. It is also clear that students the larger they become. However, these require different amounts of repetition connections can also decrease if the information depending on their prior knowledge, and is not regularly used or practiced. The more different types of stimulation depending on their different ways a particular concept is learned by many individual factors, and hence the learning students; the thicker the dendrite branching experience becomes individualized or becomes and hence the greater chance of differentiated to cater for each of their needs. shifting short-term memory into long-term The differentiation framework essentially memory. Additionally, the more engaging ways provides an avenue which supports the current the brain is stimulated with new concepts; the findings of brain-based research, and an greater the long-term memory that is built. educator can become highly creative within Building relationship and creating experience for these boundaries while keeping in mind the learners with their learning content also assists implications of student-centered activities on the brain in building multiple pathways to the brain activity. With a new generation of same storage centers of information. students equipped with longer-term knowledge in their chosen profession, imagine the power of The active learning strategies (eg HPL, utilizing in-depth knowledge to transform the PBL, scaffolded learning) practiced in some lives of individuals, communities and beyond? Engineering Education Centers described earlier certainly promote relationship with the content In addition to implementing such and create experience for the students, and techniques into Engineering Education, therefore their positive learning outcomes make engineers themselves have an important role to sense based on the improved multiple pathways play in the development of personalized within the brain created. However, education from a technological viewpoint. In a differentiated learning takes these positive technology-driven era, it is tempting to take up effects further. Using the five differentiation the challenges of automating processes, even principles enables educators to shape the education. Personalized learning tools are in learning based on learner need and present fact available in some instances, such as drill- information in multiple ways (i.e., build the based mathematics or language software repetition to shift from working- to long-term programs that adapt to the learner’s responses by memory). Depth and higher-order thinking can gradually increasing or decreasing the level of be added to the learning process to foster long- difficulty as required. Several textbooks are term memory and capabilities. Collaborative being rewritten as interactive online texts with activities enable additional ways of learning the similar capabilities and prompts along the way same content, creating a different relationship for students to access when learning new with the learning material and allowing learners concepts. The challenges for engineers and to construct new knowledge from their peers, in computer scientists is to produce this type of

Hutton-Prager ______

learning on a mass-scale – for example, there are communities and the world, I argue that the few textbooks written for specialized subjects in power of an excellent education, uniquely Chemical engineering designed in this way. But directed to the needs of each learner, is is automation of personalized learning the right significantly more transformative. way to go? Certainly as a tool within a toolkit of Differentiated learning is a concept that must be many possible options for differentiated embraced by our university in order to make our learning, this technique could indeed be useful, ‘great education even greater’. but caution is to be practiced in relying too heavily on any one technique. Levinson, References Weaver, Garside, McGinn & Norman (2007) Boylan-Ashraf, P. C., Freeman, S. A. & Shelley, investigated computer-aided instruction in M. C. (2015). Scaffolding in medical education, using simulations and Introductory Engineering Courses. multiple view of various anatomical structures. Journal of STEM Education, 16(4), 6- Students with poor spatial ability had a reduced 12. performance of almost 30%, which was quite significant. This result was matched with other Brockliss L. (1996). Curricula. A History of the studies that also showed, for some students, a University in Europe, (ed. de Ridder- significant drop in performance via the use of e- Symoens H, Vol II). Cambridge, UK: learning of complex structures. Online Cambridge University Press textbooks, and links to you-tube clips or other multimedia isn’t necessarily the answer to Bullock, J. (2016). Differentiated Instruction, higher engagement and long-term knowledge One Size Does Not Fit All. Education gain, and it is important for the educator to Week Spotlight On Differentiated understand and experiment with each class Instruction, Jan, 9-11. which activities contribute to angular gyrus Ceuvas, J. (2016). Cognitive psychology’s case brain activation. Any potential downside to for teaching higher order thinking. activities that may not be as effective can be Professional Educator, 15(4), 4-7. minimized by keeping in mind the need for multiple approaches to learning and the use of Chamberlin, M. & Powers, R. (2010). The multiple stimulations. promise of differentiated instruction for enhancing the mathematical To recap, I have described the typical understandings of college students, experiences of students in higher STEM Teaching Mathematics and Its education; the significant advancements possible Applications, 29, 113-139. for students with the implementation of differentiated teaching and learning techniques; Farrell, S. & Cavanagh, E. (2014). Biodiesel and finally the role that interdisciplinary production, characterization, and research has and can continue to play in the performance: A hands-on project for widespread introduction of personalized learning first-year students. IChemE, 9, e21-e31. in higher education. Dr. Vitter is right to focus this university on the transformational Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., possibilities available through the power of Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H. higher education. While the power of higher & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active education does indeed transform lives, learning increases student performance

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in science, engineering, and Differentiation. Masters Thesis, The mathematics. PNAS, 111(23): 8410 – University of Melbourne. 8415. Rock, M. L., Gregg, M., Ellis, E. & Gable, R. A. Ischebeck, A., Zamarian, L., Egger, K., Schoke, (2008). REACH: A Framework for M. & Delazer, M. (2007). Imaging Differentiating Classroom Instruction. early practice effects in arithmetic. Preventing School Failure, 52(2), 31-47. NeuroImage, 36, 993-1003. The Global Competitiveness Report 2015-2016. Konstantinou-Katzi, P., Tsolaki, E., Meletiou- Retrieved from Mavrotheris, M. & Koutselini, M. http://reports.weforum.org/global- (2013). Differentiation of teaching and competitiveness-report-2015-2016/ learning mathematics: an action research study in tertiary education. The University of Mississippi, Office of International Journal of Mathematical Institutional Research, Effectiveness, Education in Science and Technology, and Planning (2016). Student Success 44(3), 332-349. and Outcomes Data. Retrieved from http://irep.olemiss.edu/institutional- Lavis, C. C., Williams, K. A., Fallin, J., Barnes, research/student-success/ P. K., Fishback, S. J. & Thien, S. (2016). Assessing a Faculty Valiandes, S. (2015). Evaluating the impact of Development Program for the Adoption differentiated instruction on literacy and of Brain-based Learning Strategies. New reading in mixed ability classrooms: Forums Press, 30(1), 57-69. Quality and equity dimensions of education effectiveness. Studies in Levinson, A. J., Weaver, B., Garside, S., Education Evaluation, 45, 17-26. McGinn, H. & Norman, G. R. (2007). Medical Education, 41, 495-501. Tomlinson-Keasey, C. A. (1978). Chapter 1: Piaget’s theory and College Teaching. Mantri, A. (2014). Working towards a scalable Essays from and about the ADAPT Program, Paper 29, 1-6. model of problem-based learning and

instruction in undergraduate engineering Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The Differentiated education. European Journal of Classroom, Responding to the Needs of Engineering Education, 39(3), 282-299. All Learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and NAE Grand Challenges for Engineering, Curriculum Development. Advanced Personalized Learning. (2016). Retrieved from Vitter, J. (2016). Investiture of Dr. Vitter as the th http://engineeringchallenges.org/9127.as 17 Chancellor of the University of Mississippi. Retrieved from px http://chancellor.olemiss.edu/keynote- Prager, B. H. (2013). An analysis of the Current address/

VCE Mathematics Study Design and Willis, J. (2007). Review of Research: Brain- Comparison with other Equivalent Based Teaching Strategies for Designs with respect to the Principles of Improving Students’ Memory, Learning,

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and Test-Taking Success. Childhood Education, 83(5), 310-315.

Wu, E. H. (2013). The Path Leading to Differentiation: An Interview With Carol Tomlinson. Journal of Advanced Academics, 24(2), 125-133.

Brenda Hutton-Prager is a practitioner and researcher in STEM education, and is particularly interested in differentiated learning in higher education, techniques commonly used in K-12 settings. Brenda also conducts scientific research in the areas of surfaces and interfacial phenomena. Dr. Hutton-Prager can be reached at [email protected].

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Discursive Leadership in Higher Education: Journal of Contemporary Research in Education The Case of Chancellor Jeffrey Vitter at Ole Miss Special Themed Issue 6(1)50-56

Milorad M. Novicevic The University of Mississippi

Abstract In this essay I explain the concept of discursive leadership and describe how it is mapped on the leadership practice of Dr. Jeffrey Vitter, Ole Miss Chancellor. I provide multiple examples illustrating instances of this mapping and outline the vocabulary of key terms that my MBA students derived from Chancellor Vitter’s letters, speeches, statements, and social media presence. My essay provides a unique contribution to our understanding of discursive leadership practice in the context of higher education.

When in early 2016 I opened my Ole and not as an ongoing and prospective sense- Miss Email Inbox, upon checking an email giving process practiced by Chancellor Vitter. containing Chancellor Vitter’s first letter I Therefore, I started contemplating how I could expected to read a routine transmission of conceptualize Chancellor Vitter’s practice of information about ongoing activities at the discursive leadership and how I could University of Mississippi. I was surprised, contextualize it into the Leadership and Ethics however, when I discovered that the letter was course that I teach in the Ole Miss Master of written in a warm, personalized tone with the Business Administration (MBA) program. intent to initiate a meaningful discourse on a variety of critical - even polarizing - events Discursive Leadership occurring in the Institution’s environment. Soon, Discursive leadership is a social- the Chancellor’s initial discourse evolved into a influence dialogical process that is grounded in multitude of statements, tweets, and social the leader-constituent member flow of meanings media posts creating my eerie feeling that (in Greek, dia = flow and logos = meaning). In former Duke University President Terry the context of higher education, most salient is Sanford, an icon of presidential communication the discursive leadership role of the chancellor in higher education, was reincarnated in today’s (i.e. the principal, president, or rector). The electronic world. primary mission of the chancellor as a discursive Chancellor Vitter’s communicative leader is to influence an inclusive, collaborative leadership resonates well with Fairhurst’s (2007) and sustained constituent engagement based on concept of discursive leadership, the process of shared values such as integrity, civility, and providing meaning(s) to constituents so that they fairness. The discursive leader aspires to inspire may make sense of the events reflecting constituents’ meaningful construction of organizational change. This concept, however, institutional reality that is commonly unsettled has been scarcely addressed in the literature of when a change initiative is undertaken and higher education, as only Gigliotti (2016) has affects all aspects of institutional context. examined it comprehensively, but mostly as a Change initiatives are increasingly pursued in retrospective, post-crisis sense-making process, universities to produce a positive institutional

Novicevic ______

renewal that is imperative for survival in today’s identity and by aligning it with the institution’s environment of higher education. The goals. By framing the changing situation with a imperative for change is imposed primarily by a consideration to constituents’ expectations, the complex web of institutional stakeholders discursive leader is likely to effectively mobilize exerting often competing or contradictory constituents to a collective action that addresses demands for increasing efficiency and equitable the issues hindering the success of the change effectiveness (Minei, 2015; Ruben, De Lisi, & initiative (Fairhurst, 2011). Gigliotti, 2016). When the leader’s considerate sense- The main outcomes sought out through giving about the need for a change successfully undertaking a change initiative are sustainable reframes constituents’ expectations, discursive excellence in research, service, and learning. leadership will help them communicate the The major challenges to sustaining excellence in relevant patterns of meaningful cues signaling today’s dynamic context of change are declining the benefits of the change initiatives. This levels of private donations and state financing, patterning of situational cues not only enhances higher federal supervision, scarcity of affordable constituents’ understanding of the evolving student loans, increasing demands for creating change, but also nudges them to voice back to and sustaining an inclusive diverse community, the leader their suggestions related to the change development of career-relevant curricula, initiative. Through this bidirectional discourse, a delivery of online courses, and containing sense of shared identification in the changing conflicts between faculty members and institutional reality evolves as a social process. administration. These challenges that drive the This social process of collective sense-making need for change often create a situation that of the change initiative is both retrospective in engenders a sense of a loss of shared identity that it engages the community’s awareness among the institution’s constituents. As a toward revising the past shared identity and response to these situations, discursive prospective to the extent that it aims to construct leadership is critical for constituents to make the future shared identity (Fairhurst & sense of the events occurring in the changing Connaughton, 2014). environment and of the expected benefits of change (Ruben & Gigliotti, 2016; 2017). Once the revised constituents’ shared identity is stabilized and sustained across In the discursive leadership process, the various situations experienced as a result of the leader frames institutional change while change initiative, the leader’s sense-giving will exhibiting sensitivity toward constituents be aligned with the constituents’ sense-making because the change process involves both of the change. The alignment is important to breaking old frames and constructing new reduce gaps in constituents’ understanding of frames such that the change initiative’s actions how the change initiative and its outcomes will may destabilize the identification of institutional affect their individual roles. Based on this community members. When the change-focused meaningful understanding, constituents will sense-giving process of discursive leadership likely reject speculative interpretations of embodies sensitivity towards constituents, they change and preserve continuity of their shared are more likely to reinterpret critical events identity. As a result, discursive leadership will through a shared, evolving lens of the evolve into an institution-wide process of institutional reality, and respond proactively to constructive reinterpretation of the events the change initiative by revising their shared occurring in the changing institution’s

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______environment and motivate a concerted collective viewpoint and that each person’s viewpoint is to action supporting the change initiative (Gigliotti, be accepted with fairness and civility, he 2016) reiterated how important mutual respect is to keep the university community safe. By The process of understanding change prioritizing the institution’s commitment to can be accelerated when the leader develops and community safety, Chancellor Vitter responded reiterates an effective sense-giving vocabulary in a timely, meaningful manner to problems that provides constituents with a sense of from the broader community that could have orientation while navigating the change process. been mapped onto the institution’s context. A positive outcome of the constituents’ reliance on the leader’s vocabulary as a navigational In his discourse, Chancellor Vitter device during the change process is reduced presents each challenging situation that the ambiguity of their initially often unrealistic or University of Mississippi faces through the lens conflicting expectations. With more certain of his personal values that resonate with those expectations about the future that the change is articulated in the Institution’s Creed (i.e. like to bring, constituents will better navigate the fairness, integrity, and stewardship). In new institutional reality and accept the particular, he relates these shared values to institution’s vision (Gigliotti, 2016). critical events that occur in order to uncover how the events arose. For example, when the Discursive Leadership of Chancellor Vitter controversy ascended about the University Halls Dr. Jeffrey Vitter, the Chancellor of the named after local historical figures (e.g. Lamar, University of Mississippi, has introduced Vardaman, etc.) with connections to slavery, Chancellor Vitter formed a highly competent discursive leadership as a novel communicative Chancellor’s Advisory Committee on History approach to practicing leadership in the domain of higher education. The warm and personal, yet and Context to contextualize these names as well even and firm tone of his communication- as scrutinize the lives that they led. By acting centered leadership approach is focused on impartially and with reference to the shared values on this controversy, Chancellor Vitter framing meanings of ordinary and extraordinary exemplified his resolve never to shirk from events occurring in the community’s environment. Using the principled language of addressing transparently challenging situations the University’s Creed, Mission, and Vision as or events occurring in the institution’s evolving resources, Chancellor Vitter frames each environment. delicate situation that the institution faces with Chancellor Vitter initiated also a consideration and sensitivity that connect its transparent discourse on the issues of: 1) the community members. His reflexive and fluid termination of playing “Dixie” during University discourse invites all constituents to engage in the sporting events; 2) the removal of the process of securing community stability as the Mississippi State Flag from the University foundation of the University’s betterment. For campus; and 3) a community member’s racist example, in his November 8, 2016 letter, reaction to a church shooting in South Carolina. emailed on the eve of the US Presidential He always makes sure that his discourse on elections, Chancellor Vitter referred to the challenging issues is clear and sincere and takes University’s Creed. Arguing that the Creed the form of a meaningful dialogue, encouraging emphasizes respect for every individual’s that constituents prefer talking with one another

Novicevic ______

rather than at one another with their attention symbols should be determined comprehensively focused on the future of the institution. For through the avoidance of politics and guidance example, he made sure that the Flagship Forum of experts so that the most appropriate symbols engendered a community-wide dialogue that are selected. For example, while the State’s flag mobilized the willpower and enthusiasm of the is no longer flown on the University’s campus, University of Mississippi’s constituents and Ole Miss recently raised the bicentennial flag to secured their commitment to foster community commemorate two-hundred years of Mississippi growth and aspiration to move the Institution Statehood. Also, while the University Grays are from a great to a greater level of excellence. commemorated in Ventress Hall, they are not contextualized in the University’s plaque placed By communicating with sincerity and next to the Civil War statue located on campus clarity, Chancellor Vitter has inspired the grounds because the statue had not been erected collective efforts to transform the Institution’s to commemorate the University Grays but to brand from being a state brand to becoming a honor the Lafayette Veterans of the Civil War, national and international brand. In support of thereby advancing the “lost cause” ideology these efforts, he advocates the continued use of grounded in the beliefs that the war was not the Ole Miss name for three reasons. First, the begun to address the merits of whether or not the name is as an endeared term and revered name United States should allow slavery, but a matter to the University’s alumni. Second, evidence of state independence. from a Google search for information on the University reveals that the term “Ole Miss” is The discursive leadership of Chancellor used seven times more frequently as a search Vitter, exemplified in his communicative term than the term, “University of Mississippi.” approach to addressing these above and other Finally, the name has gained a widespread, emerging challenges is rich in meanings that favorable national recognition. These are have the potential of reshaping constituents’ specific reasons why Chancellor Vitter identification with the Institution. As the encourages the community members’ practice of discourse initiated by Chancellor Vitter has referring to themselves as “Ole Miss” family evolved into a community-wide bidirectional members. In the same vein of supporting name dialogue conducted through vertical and redefinition, Chancellor Vitter argues that the horizontal exchanges of symbolic meanings, it name Rebel should be used in a redefined has become relevant to the way constituents manner to connote that Rebels are entrepreneurs perceive the impact of change on their role and leaders who always challenge the prevailing identity. The broadened and enriched discourse status quo. His support is grounded in the fact motivates constituents to innovate their that the university owns both the “Ole Miss” and individual roles and to adapt them to fit the “Rebel” names, and therefore he suggests that changing institutional environment. The both names should be retained as critical constituent role innovation occurs because components of the Institution’s brand Chancellor Vitter’s discursive leadership management strategies that promote the informs the process by which constituents can University’s positive image. meaningfully link their values, expectations, and aspirations to their innovated roles in the change Particularly delicate was Chancellor process. Vitter’s discourse with stakeholders related to the use of symbols on campus. In this discourse, For the formation of this link, it is not the Chancellor emphasized that the use of only the context of Chancellor Vitter’s

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______

discursive leadership that matters, but also its established Institutional lexicon, phrases, and timing. The interplay of the timing and the symbols. The vocabulary for the checklist can be context engenders a “sound of silence” whereby identified from the keywords accentuated in what is communicated and what is not Chancellor Vitter’s letters, blogs, posts, and communicated equally matter (Reuben & speeches and interpreted by unpacking how they Gigliotti, 2017). To make this sound of silence are meaningfully, coherently, credibly and “heard” in the community, Chancellor Vitter transparently crafted, framed, problem-focused, reiterates, as a refrain in all of his and timely incorporated in a caring language of communication, the significance of the: 1) sense-giving that is tailored to engender Flagship Forum of a hundred-day listening and community engagement by resonating with the learning tour that involved interacting with University’s mission and values. thousands of constituents; 2) Town Hall meetings with constituents that produced The vocabulary of Chancellor Vitter’s hundreds of ideas on how to advance the sense-giving process is reiterated in his Institution; and 3) Flagship Constellation communications to facilitate meaningful Initiative launched to catalyze multidisciplinary interpretation of the change initiative aimed at research initiatives aimed at uncovering the transformation of the Institution. The solutions that could transform communities. The vocabulary symbolically paves the way for new focus of all these initiatives is on achieving community members to connect Chancellor academic and athletic excellence and creating Vitter’s discourse and the Institution’s mission lively, diverse, healthy, and vibrant communities and values because the vocabulary selects and by relying on constituents, places and resources accentuates meaningful anchors for as the key enablers for change. identification of constituents such that they can rely on these anchors during the change process. Chancellor Vitter’s discursive leadership Once this connection is established, it is likely goes beyond mere conveyance of information that it will transform the newcomers’ mindset because his sense-giving also projects meanings and sentiments by nudging them to embrace grounded in the Institution’s unifying codes, change with reflection and civility, even when principles, and symbols, which make the core of they may question some aspects of the change the Institution’s identity as shared by initiative. constituents. The vocabulary of his mindful framing can be structured into a checklist that Establishing this connection is could be instrumental during newcomer particularly critical when the change initiative socialization in explaining local meanings of the entails the adoption of novel operational key terms relevant to acquiring the context- practices such as online delivery, digitization, specific institutional literacy, accelerating their social-media communication and cloud-based identification with the institution. This literacy is platforms, and novel strategic practices that also important for the development of newcomer support the Institution’s Flagship orientation felt self-accountability for reference to the toward honing its competence in data science, Institution’s core values (i.e. integrity, civility, big data, data analytics, cyber security, and fairness) embodied in its Creed. The checklist precision medicine. Chancellor Vitter promotes would likely reduce their role ambiguity because the adoption of these innovative practices by it could help them meaningfully decode the framing persuasively and knowledgeably their relevance for accomplishing the University’s

Novicevic ______

vision. His framing nudges all constituents to they are used in framing positive change. Most imagine how the adoption of innovative importantly, the checklist built on the practices will eventually make the university vocabulary derived from Chancellor Vitter’s community a better place for both academic discursive leadership should be instrumental to learning and community development. enacting a climate of understanding between the Institution’s incumbent and international Contextualizing Chancellor Vitter’s newcomer constituents when engaging in the Discursive Leadership Institution’s change initiative.

As a guest speaker in my MBA class, The vocabulary identified by my Chancellor Vitter reiterated a repertoire of his students comprised of the following key words: signature themes that he regularly communicates inclusion, diversity, fairness, justice, civility, through multiple channels, including emails, respect, dignity, integrity, academic honesty, blogs and social media outlets. These themes academic freedom, good stewardship of serve as guides for constituents to assign resources, contextualization of UM history, meanings to ambiguous events occurring in the global responsibility, critical thinking, Institution’s internal and external environment. community engagement, internationalization, With reference to his guest speaking session, I care, tradition, shared identity, mission and gave an assignment to the MBA students taking vision, Creed, acceptance, excellence, town hall my Leadership and Ethics class to trace practice, Flagship Constellations, Flagship Chancellor Vitter’s signature themes across Forum, Hotty Toddy, Ole Miss, Rebel, and Land various media, platforms, and other Shark. The checklist built on this vocabulary communication channels and to assess how should not provide mere translations of these these themes can be instrumental to the terms, but additionally address their underlying orientation and socialization of international meanings in ways that credibly represent the Ole newcomers to the university community. Miss culture and appropriately guide the Specifically, I requested my students to newcomer towards achieving an operable examine these themes and identify a vocabulary understanding of the Ole Miss collaborative of key words that could be assembled as a code of conduct and their expected role checklist of symbols, principles, and values. The behaviors as new community members. vocabulary should comprise all of the key words Conclusion that could be communicated in the orientation sessions and socialization programs organized Chancellor Vitter both senses and paces for the international newcomers, with the the pulse of Ole Miss through his competent and purpose that the newcomers could eventually honest communicative presence on various develop appropriate assumptions about their social media platforms where he listens individual and collective roles in the Institution mindfully and converses openly with the Ole as it undergoes change. The ultimate goal is that Miss Community members. His ambition is to the international newcomers meaningfully enact at Ole Miss a thriving world-class understand a set of: a) specific expectations of institutional climate of inclusion and how quality relationships could be formed to fit collaboration in which a greater form of the institutional culture that support change; and excellence can emerge. His discursive leadership b) meanings underlying the vocabulary of the that fosters this ambition involves framing of a institution’s jargon, analogies, and metaphors as positive future by using vocabulary that is

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capable of attributing specific meanings to Gigliotti, R. A. (2016). Leader as performer; change events occurring in the Institution’s leader as human: A discursive and environment. Through his sincere, transparent, retrospective construction of crisis and positive discourse, Chancellor Vitter leadership. Atlantic Journal of proactively prevents constituents’ negative Communication, 24(4), 185-200. attributions of the change initiative that are undertaken. Minei, E. M. (2015). Discursive Leadership: Harmonious and Discordant Framing-to- In this article, I described the inputs of Sensemaking Outcomes. Journal of my MBA students, indicating how the texts of Creative Communications, 10(2), 141- Chancellor Vitter’s discursive leadership can be 160. used as a source to identify a vocabulary that is useful to guide the socialization of newcomer Ruben, B. D., De Lisi, R., & Gigliotti, R. A. constituents. For constituents in general, and (2016). A guide for leaders in higher international newcomers in particular, the education: Core concepts, checkpoints built on the vocabulary could help competencies, and tools. Stylus each member develop meaningful and positive Publishing, LLC. Sterling, VA. assumptions about the future course of the Ruben, B. D., & Gigliotti, R. A. (2016). Institution. The positive outcome of his Leadership as Social Influence: An discursive leadership is not only a creation of Expanded View of Leadership constituents’ motivated, inspired, and bold Communication Theory and understanding of the Institution’s situation and Practice. Journal of Leadership and change, but also their active engagement in the Organizational Studies, 23(4), 467-479. collective efforts of realizing the benefits of the change initiatives (Bunch, Fillingim & Ruben, B. D., & Gigliotti, R. A. (2017). Blackbourn, 2012) Communication Sine Qua Non of Organizational Leadership Theory and References Practice. International Journal of

Bunch, D., Fillingim, J., & Blackbourn, J. Business Communication, 54(1), 12-30. (2012). Leadership and Human Milorad Novicevic is an Associate Professor of Development. Journal of Contemporary Management at The University of Mississippi. Research in Education, 1(2), 93-97 His research focused on examining leadership in Fairhurst, G. T. (2007). Discursive leadership: historical, global, and educational contexts. He In conversation with leadership has published around 150 articles in peer- psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage reviewed journals including Leadership Quarterly, Leadership, Journal of Leadership Fairhurst, G. T. (2011). Leadership and the and Organizational Studies, Academy of power of framing, Leader to Management Learning and Education, Journal of Leader, 2011(61), 43-47. Education for Business, Quality Assurance in Education, Multicultural Education & Fairhurst, G. T. & Connaughton, S. L. (2014). Technology Journal and International Journal of Leadership: A communicative Management Education. Dr. Novicevic can be perspective. Leadership, 10(1), 7-35. contacted at [email protected]

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A Lens With Multiple Perspectives: The Journal of Contemporary Research in Education Transformative Power of Higher Education Special Themed Issue in Health Promotion 6(1) 57-65

Alicia C. Stapp Melinda W. Valliant M. Allison Ford Kristen A. Swain The University of Mississippi

Abstract According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, chronic conditions represent the largest risk to America’s health (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013). Approximately 50% of adults are affected by at least one chronic disease and 25% of adults are affected by more than two (CDC, 2013). As this health crisis expands, those who have the power to

create change must utilize it to their highest capacity. While the complexities of the current state of health are challenging, higher education provides a powerful platform wherein those intricacies can be fully examined and resolutions sought through multiple lenses. This essay provides an example of how both individual and collaborative endeavors have been fostered at the University of Mississippi to generate local, national, and global transformations in health.

Chronic health conditions such as the vast majority of health care spending

diabetes and heart disease have — approximately 75% — in the United significantly increased in the United States States is utilized to treat preventable over the past thirty years (Perrin, Bloom, chronic conditions (CDC, 2013). It is & Gortmaker, 2007). Onset by obesity, estimated that by 2025 nearly half of the these conditions are among the leading population in the United States will be cause of mortality and disability around affected by a chronic disease (Partnership the world (World Health Organization, for Solutions, 2007). 2016). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identify obesity as As the amount of people with a serious health concern (CDC, 2013). chronic health conditions exponentially Data from the 2011-2014 National Health increases, it is imperative that solutions to and Nutrition Examination indicated that counter these preventable diseases are the prevalence of obesity in adults was arduously sought. Higher education has 36% and 17% for youth (Ogden, Carroll, the potential to be a far-reaching change Fryar, & Flegal, 2015). Chronic diseases agent and plays a vital role in positively are the most prevalent health problems for transforming the current trajectory of all age groups in the state of Mississippi health. To prompt this shift, leaders in (Short, 2014). Compounding this health higher education with expertise in health epidemic, those with chronic conditions must develop and implement effective are the most frequent users of health care, programs in teaching, research, and accounting for 81% of all hospital service. Thus, creating an ideal admissions, 91% of all prescriptions filled springboard that has the capacity to and 76% of all physician visits influence a process of 'co-ordinated action' (Partnership for Solutions, 2007). Thus, across campuses. Outlined below are ways

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in which departments across the of the students they currently teach and the University of Mississippi (UM) are thousands of students they will teach in harnessing their powers individually and their future profession. collaboratively to initiate changes in health. The Department of Nutrition and Hospitality Management (NHM) houses Transforming Health Through undergraduate and graduate degrees in Teaching Dietetics and Nutrition and in Hospitality Management. In Community Nutrition, Accruing knowledge alongside NHM 417, students perform a service- corresponding learning experiences is an learning project and apply their nutrition essential component to stimulating change. background to their service-learning sites. Effective learning experiences occur when They accumulate 15 hours of service with a purposeful curriculum is developed and their service-learning partner and present taught for meaning making, transfer, and needs assessment findings and a proposed acquisition. Providing students with intervention for the population they have opportunities that translate classroom been working with. This is presented knowledge into their future profession is through a poster session to which the empowering, as it enables them to have service-learning partners are invited to small-scale impacts on the health of attend. The goal for this component of the individuals, communities, and the world. course is to provide students with real- world applications for their nutrition To encourage health promotion in education and create a feeling of public elementary schools, the Department connection between the University and the of Teacher Education (TE) offers an surrounding community. endorsement in wellness and physical activity for undergraduate elementary Within the Meek School of education majors. This endorsement is Journalism and New Media, an inclusive of four sequential courses interdisciplinary health communication (EDWP 340, EDWP 341, EDWP 342, course is offered (IMC 585), in which EDWP 343) that teach students how to students develop local health promotion integrate essential concepts of wellness campaigns and multimedia features. and physical activity into all aspects of K- Additionally, faculty has recently 6 learning environments. As part of the developed a three-course health coursework, students develop a 10-day communication specialization. This 9-hour unit that integrates all academic subjects specialization allows students majoring in as well as health and physical education journalism and integrated marketing standards simultaneously. Students then communications to gain expertise in risk teach the integrated unit in their practicum and health communication theory, to attain real-world experience. During information campaign design, multimedia Spring, 2017, the first cohort of wellness production, and medical knowledge in an and physical activity endorsement area of interest. graduates will implement their 10-day integrated units into elementary The Department of Health, classrooms across north Mississippi. This Exercise Science and Recreation methodology enables pre-service teachers Management’s (HERSM) Master of to have a far-reaching impact on the health Science in Health Promotion (MSHP)

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program, offers a course in health program seek to improve the current state of health planning (HP 605). During Fall, 2016, through individual, student-led, and students from this course partnered with collaborative research agendas. the Campus Recreation’s Office of Health Promotion to plan and successfully Research in teacher education has implement three health related programs; the unique ability to aid in shaping the World AIDS Day, The Great American health of our future generation through the Smokeout, and No Shave November. lens of classroom pedagogy. Students conducted needs assessments for Methodologies should aim to enhance both all three programs to find out what the the academics and health of young student population wanted in regards to children. One age group often overlooked venue and materials. No Shave November in regards to health research in schools is was the largest of the three events and adolescents. However, research indicates included Mustache Mondays, a social that obesity rates for adolescents have media campaign to raise awareness of significantly increased from 5% in 1980 to men’s health conditions, such as testicular approximately 21% in 2012 (Ogden et al., cancer. Other events included Broga (Male 2012). Thus, two faculty members in the Yoga class) and a social media beard department of TE created a wellness and competition throughout the month. The writing unit that secondary classroom month long events ended with the UM teachers could utilize to increase academic staff vs. students Battle of the Beards achievement and overall physical wellness Basketball game. The game was open to of adolescents (Stapp & Parker, 2015). the local and university community. Research suggests that students in Collaborators for this project included integrated programs demonstrate academic several on-campus departments and performance equal to, or better than, programs, two regional non-profit students in discipline-based programs organizations, and Mississippi’s State (Miller, 2011). Teacher education faculty Comprehensive Cancer Control Program. has also examined the impact of physically Students from this course were able to active units on elementary students’ utilize weekly material introduced in class wellness and academic achievement. and immediately apply it within their Through interviews, one study found that programs. They learned proper needs second grade students were able to retain assessment techniques, how to use and transfer information quicker when program-planning models, and finally how they learned academic content through to evaluate their self-developed programs. physical activity (Stapp, Chessin, & Deason, 2016). Students in the study also Transforming Health Through noted that physical activity made the Research lesson more enjoyable and easier to remember. This research suggests that Discovering new information that embedding physical activity into academic contributes to generalizable knowledge is content improves cognition and increases a critical component to the advancement healthy habits in young children. of any cause. Departments across UM employ research platforms from different Faculty in the department of NHM health perspectives everyday. With have been involved in several research parallel goals, these research perspectives investigations that resulted in benefits to

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the local community. One program, Eating health screening and needs assessments, Good…and Moving Like We Should, is a students and their faculty mentor school-based nutrition and physical developed nutrition and fitness programs activity education program for the for employees. Data from program Mississippi Delta and north Mississippi participants was collected in January 2011 regions. Funded by Delta Health Alliance and July 2013 and compared to data from and the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, the non-participants collected during the same project aimed to prevent student obesity times. Data evaluated included Body Mass and create healthier school environments Index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), by aiding schools in the adoption of blood glucose (BG), triglycerides (TG), healthy practices. The program assisted in high density lipoprotein cholesterol the delivery of nutrition education, (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL) and supported the establishment and blood pressure (BP). Data comparisons maintenance of school gardens, and resulted in a statistically significant provided increased opportunities for improvement (p < 0.001) in BMI, WC, physical activity. Fitness rooms for LDL and (p< 0.01) in BG, HDL, TG of teachers and staff, gardening for children, participants (n=86) (individual coaching and training for teachers on the and group fitness) compared to non- Mississippi State Department of participants (n=92) (p = 0.26). Further Education’s Move to Learn campaign were evaluation of participation revealed that three supports provided through the grant. those who attended individual coaching In addition, each school had regular visits sessions more frequently showed the from a registered dietitian and online greatest improvement in the analyzed access to the UM nutrition clinic for biometrics (correlation 0.88) compared to medical nutrition therapy for weight loss, group fitness participation (0.71). diabetes, and other medical conditions. However, those who participated in both Key findings showed lower BMIs in six showed the greatest improvement and primarily African-American schools, strongest correlation (0.90). Additionally, indicating that 27% of the students had 71 (83%) of participants reduced their some decrease in BMI from 2011 to 2014 metabolic syndrome risk factors whereas, (Knight, Cole, Dodd, Oakley, & Aloia, 9 (10%) of non-participants had a decrease 2015; Knight, Cole, Dodd, & Oakley, in one or more risk factors for metabolic 2016). syndrome. Nutrition and Hospitality In the Meek School of Journalism Management faculty have also conducted and New Media, faculty has conducted research to evaluate participation in a experimental research examining body corporate wellness programming and image in fiction, mortality salience effects, investigated the results of participation on and risk perceptions of pharmaceutical risk factors for metabolic syndrome ads. For a recent U.S. Department of (Roseman, Patrick, & Valliant, 2011; Transportation grant, faculty explored Valliant, Roseman, Patrick, & Wenzel, health and environmental impacts of U.S. 2011; Patrick, Valliant, & Roseman, toxic freight spills reflected in media 2011). Three graduate students served as coverage of 5,555 spills over a decade health coaches to employees of all three (Swain, 2016). Newspaper coverage of the shifts at a manufacturing plant in spills appeared in less than 3% of all Batesville, MS. After completion of a coverage. The few spills that did receive

Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 6(1) Special Themed Issue ______attention were more likely to appear when Recent research projects from journalists had more access to UM’s Bone Density Laboratory on risk authoritative sources, when the perceived factors of osteoporosis among African risk to citizens was higher, when someone American (Johnson, Ford, Jones, Nahar, & was blamed, or when the spill involved an Hallam, 2015) and Asian Indians unusual chemical or situation. However, populations (Nahar et al., 2016) provided news coverage was not linked to valuable osteoporosis related information seriousness or severity of accidents; for local health care practitioners, health instead, it was often connected to public educators, and health promotion fears including perceived industrial risk, professionals. Historically, young college potentially fatal outcomes, invisible risks age women (African American, Asian, and such as a gas leak, and involuntary Indian) were not thought to be at an exposure. Surveys of journalists and increased risk for osteoporosis. However, transportation officials revealed that media Johnson et al. (2015) found that nearly access to spill reports is often extremely 40% of the studied population had limited. osteopenic spinal scores. In addition, the limited previous research among African Health Promotion’s faculty and American women noted that when students have research interests spanning compared to their white counterparts, across various populations and interest African American bone density areas. Studies on weight management, measurements were significantly higher. physical activity, and osteoporosis However, findings from Johnson et al. preventive behaviors are among the (2015) did not agree with this previous department’s most recent community literature. There was no significant health studies. Ford, Haskins, & Nahar difference between race among college (2017) and Ford, Haskins, & Wade (2014) age women. Based on this data and a study were research projects from collaborative by Janz et al. (2015), who recommends multi-year UM campus weight loss more bone density research on young programs focusing on students and African American women should be employees, respectively. Results from conducted, research in the UM Bone both the 2017 and 2014 research revealed Mineral Density laboratory is underway that Motivational Interviewing (MI) and investigating college age African counseling improves adherence to weight American women to ascertain any loss among college students and biological and genetic differences between employees alike. Nooe, Morgan, Ford and African American and Caucasian mother Loprinzi (2016) examined Deep South daughter pairs. health care workers, exercise science students, and the general population’s Synergistic research. Through a perception of The American College of collaborative project, the Departments of Sports Medicine’s (ACSM) Exercise is NHM and TE submitted a proposal to the Medicine (EiM) Initiative. Findings Mississippi Center for Obesity Research revealed that all subpopulations have low (MCOR) - Fuel to Learn. The goal of Fuel levels of knowledge or were misguided on to Learn is to prevent and reduce rates of this important exercise initiative. childhood obesity in Mississippi by developing a sustainable nutrition

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education classroom program for pre-K-6th for National Food Day and teach those grade using strategic partnerships in self-created lessons in local elementary education, research, and university classrooms. In addition, parents and the athletics. A university-led team was community are involved in the National assembled that can provide Mississippi Food Day event by way of assignments schools with an engaging, culturally sent home that invite families to explore sensitive, nutrition education program, and healthy foods throughout their community, utilize the state’s university student including farmer’s markets and grocery athletes to increase reach and stores. Furthermore, students participate in effectiveness. Working closely with the the development of school gardens at UM Center for Health and Sport public schools through a local Performance, the Mississippi Department organization, volunteer for food tastings at of Education Office of Healthy Schools, schools and are also involved in and the MCOR at the University of developing and leading extra curricular Mississippi Medical Center, this program clubs and organizations within K-12 will insure that a clear evidence-based schools that focus on promoting and message is being sent to Mississippi developing healthy lifestyle habits in children and the adults in their sphere. children.

Transforming Health Through The Department of NHM has Outreach collaborated with the Calhoun County, MS, community to improve produce In addition to teaching and intake of community members, with the research, higher education has the unique intent to improve health and well-being. A opportunity to improve its local six-week produce intervention program community and beyond. For this to occur, targeted youth and families in Calhoun a University’s faculty must align its County. In collaboration with the school activities and curricula with community district and a local supermarket, with the engagement on multiple levels. Through support of a food and agriculture the articulation of purposeful community company, fresh produce was introduced at engagement, individual lives and even area elementary schools and then sent entire communities can be positively home to improve both produce intake and affected. Even though health concerns are food insecurity of the home. Another far-reaching, departments at UM have example program, funded by a Mississippi developed proactive projects in foundation and in collaboration with area Mississippi, across the United States, and chambers of commerce, sought to both beyond to aid in producing change in improve produce intake of households and health. the economic situation of the county. The 12-week intervention was conducted at The Department of TE offers two farmer’s markets and provided EDWP 341, a wellness integration course monetary incentives to shop at the for pre-service elementary classroom markets, as well as nutrition education and teachers. Students enrolled in this course cooking demonstrations. engage in service learning that encompasses health education at schools Faculty in the Meek School of across northwest Mississippi. Each year, Journalism and New Media helped students create health-integrated lessons develop the UM’s Society and Health

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minor, the first UM-UMCC Research Day, Currently, students have the opportunity to and numerous health-related broader complete internships, research projects, impact activities for engineering and and volunteer in many of the counties pharmacy federal grant proposals. In where they conducted community health addition, four adjunct instructors in the needs assessments. Meek School of Journalism and New Media contribute significant time outside Conclusion the classroom in promoting health through Higher education has the distinct the following regional healthcare power to position itself as a key organizations: 1. Fundraising volunteer - stakeholder in resolving one of the most North Mississippi Healthcare Foundation pressing issues in our country today. By and the Sanctuary Hospice House in bringing together multiple disciplines in Tupelo 2. Community relations director - one geographic location who are working North Mississippi State Hospital 3. Public towards congruent goals, there is information officer and director of undeniable potential to have a profound marketing - Baptist Memorial Hospital- effect on the current trajectory of health. DeSoto 4. Executive board member - As revealed in this essay, solutions leading Hospital Association’s American College to long-term change for the imminent state of Health Care. of health cannot be accomplished without In the doctoral level evaluation symbiotic efforts. Thus, higher education class (HP 685), students were given the has a great responsibility in ensuring that opportunity to participate in community their power is capitalized on to aid in health needs assessments in the reversing the current health epidemic for Mississippi Delta. These assessments the betterment of lives, communities, and enabled the UM’s HP students to the world. participate in an area of Mississippi unlike References many areas in our country. Several years ago, an HP faculty member led several Centers for Disease Control and study abroad trips to South Africa and Australia, introducing students to an Prevention (2013). National Center for international approach of community Health Statistics. Retrieved from health needs. While important for students http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/factshee to participate in study abroad trips, it is ts/factsheet_obesity.htm also important for students to know that there are significant public health needs Ford, M.A., Haskins, M. A., Nahar, V. K. less than 60 miles from Oxford, (2017-in press). Does adherence to a Mississippi. Sarah Ball, Doctoral motivational counseling program Candidate in Health Promotion and impact weight loss? International Behavior stated that “Conducting these Journal of Health Sciences. community health focus groups opened my eyes to not only the needs of the Ford, M.A., Haskins, M.A., Wade, C. Mississippi Delta, but helped me focus my (2014). Weight management through dissertation around the impact of volunteerism on community health.” motivational counseling in the workplace. The Journal of Safety, 63

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Health and Environmental Research, from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 10(2), 178-183. A&I. (911992753). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.umiss.idm.o Janz, K.F., Thomas, D.Q., Ford, M.A., clc.org/docview/911992753?accountid Williams, S.M. (2015). Top 10 =14588 research questions related to physical activity and bone health in children Nooe, A., Morgan, R., Ford, M.A., and adolescents, Research Quarterly Loprinzi, P.D. (2016). Perceptions of for Exercise and Sport, 86(1), 5-12. the exercise is medicine initiative in a geographical defined deep south Johnson, A.K., Ford, M.A., Jones, T.L., population. Southern Medical Journal. Nahar, V.K., Hallam, J.S. (2015). 109(12), 760-766. Predictors of bone mineral density in African-American and Caucasian Nahar, V.K., Nelson, K., Ford, M. A., college-aged women, Health Sharma, M., Bass, M. A., Haskins M. Promotion Perspectives, 5(1), 14-23. A., Garner, J. C. (2016). Predictors of bone mineral density among Asian Knight, K.B., Cole, J.W., Dodd, L.M., Indians in northern Mississippi: A pilot Oakley, C.B., and Aloia, C.R. (2015). study. Journal of Research in Health Increasing access to dietetic services Sciences, 16(4), 228-232. through a school-based nutrition intervention program. Proceedings of Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Fryar, C.D., the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Flegal, K.M. (2015). Prevalence of Food and Nutrition Conference and Obesity Among Adults and Youth. Exposition. Nashville, TN. United States, 2011-2014. NCHS Data Brief, no 219. Hyatsville, MD. Knight, K.B., Cole, J.W., Dodd, L.M. and National Center for Health Statistics. Oakley, C.B. (2016). Eating good…and moving like we should: A Partnership for Solutions, (2007). The consideration for registered dietitians Growing Crises of Chronic Disease in in schools. In press. International the United States. Retrieved from Journal of School Health. http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/si tes/default/files/docs/GrowingCrisisof Knight, K.B., Dodd, L.M., Cole, J.W. and ChronicDiseaseintheUSfactsheet_810 Oakley, C.B. (2016). Effects of a 09.pdf school-based intervention on BMI z- scores and fitness parameters in the Patrick, J., Valliant, M.W., Roseman, M.G. Mississippi delta. Manuscript (2011). Utilizing a health assessment submitted for publication. survey in developing a worksite wellness program. Journal of Miller, M. R. (2011). Integration of an the American Dietetic Association. arts-based curriculum in a K-5 charter Supplement, 111(9), A87. school (Order No. 3486989). Available

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Perrin, J., Bloom, S.R., Gortmaker, S.L. wellness screenings identify (2007). The increase of childhood employees with metabolic syndrome chronic conditions in the united states, risk factors. Journal of the American 297(24), 2755-2769, The Journal of Dietetic Association. Supplement. American Medical Association, 111(9), A81. doi:10.1001/jama.297.24.2755 World Health Organization (2016). Roseman, M.G., Patrick, J. Valliant, M.W. Obesity and Overweight Fact Sheet. (2011). Utilizing employee feedback in Retrieved from the Developing of a corporate wellness http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factshe initiative results in a customized ets/fs311/en/ program. Journal of the American Alicia C. Stapp is an Assistant Professor of Dietetic Association. Supplement. Health and Physical Education and Program 111(9), A86. Coordinator of the Wellness and Physical Short, V. (2014). Report on the Burden of Activity Endorsement in the School of Education at The University of Mississippi. Chronic Disease in Mississippi, 2014. Dr. Stapp is the corresponding author for this Mississippi Department of Health, essay and can be reached at Jackson, MS. [email protected].

Stapp, A., Chessin, D., Deason, R. (2016-in Melinda W. Valliant is an Associate press). Open-minds, open spaces: Professor of Nutrition, a Board Certified Interpreting natural patterns in the real Sports Dietitian and Co-Director of the Center world through dance and science. for Health and Sports Performance in the Science & Children. Department of Nutrition and Hospitality Management at The University of Mississippi. Stapp, A., Parker, M.A. (2016-in press). Effective integration of wellness and M. Allison Ford is an Associate Professor of writing: A firsthand focus for teacher Health Promotion and Director of the Bone Mineral Density Laboratory in The preparation programs and secondary Department of Health, Exercise Science and schools, National Journal of Teacher Recreation Management at The University of Education. Mississippi.

Swain, K.A. (2016). "Toxic Kristen A. Swain is an Associate Professor in Transportation Spills: Invisible or the Meek School of Journalism and New Ignored?" U.S. Department of Media at The University of Mississippi. Transportation Southeastern Region University Transportation Centers convention. Knoxville, TN. Valliant, M.W., Roseman, M.G., Patrick, J., Wenzel, R.K. (2011). Worksite 65