Securing Potable Water Supply Under Extreme Scarcity Marin, Charalambous, and Davy About the Water Global Practice
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Securing Potable Water Supply under Extreme Scarcity WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE Public Disclosure Authorized Securing Potable Marin, Charalambous, and Davy Marin, Charalambous, Public Disclosure Authorized Water Supply under JUNE 2018 Extreme Scarcity Philippe Marin, Bambos Charalambous, and Thierry Davy Lessons and Perspectives from the Republic of Cyprus Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized About the Water Global Practice Launched in 2014, the Word Bank Group’s Water Global Practice brings together financing, knowledge, and implementation in one platform. By combining the Bank’s global knowledge with country investments, this model generates more firepower for transformational solutions to help countries grow sustainably. Please visit us at www.worldbank.org/water or follow us on Twitter at @WorldBankWater. Securing Potable Water Supply under Extreme Scarcity Lessons and Perspectives from the Republic of Cyprus Philippe Marin, Bambos Charalambous, and Thierry Davy © 2018 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of the World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because the World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for non-commercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Please cite the work as follows: Marin, Philippe, Bambos Charalambous, and Thierry Davy. 2018. “Securing Potable Water Supply under Extreme Scarcity: Lessons and Perspectives from the Republic of Cyprus.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: [email protected]. Cover photos: Lemesos desalination plant, Water Development Department, Cyprus; dam and wastewater treatment plant, Bambos Charalambous. Cover design: Jean Franz, Franz & Company, Inc. Contents Acknowledgements vii Introduction ix Abbreviations xi Executive Summary 1 Priority Pillar 1: Starting to Focus on Demand Management 4 Priority Pillar 2: Modernizing the Financial and Institutional Framework 4 Priority Pillar 3: Complying with the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive 5 Priority Pillar 4: Developing a Sustainable Strategy for Irrigated Agriculture 5 Notes 5 Chapter 1 Overview of Water Management in Cyprus 7 1.1. Geopolitical Situation: Areas under Government Control 7 1.2. Water Resources under Scarcity 10 1.2.1. High Variability of Rainfall and Frequent Droughts 10 1.2.2. Cyprus Is One of the Most Water-Scarce Countries in the World 12 1.2.3. The Water Balance in Cyprus 14 1.3. Institutional Framework of the Water Sector 17 1.3.1. Governmental Organization 17 1.3.2. The Water Development Department 18 1.3.3. Water Supply and Sanitation Service Providers 20 Notes 22 Chapter 2 Ensuring the Security of Potable Water Supply 23 2.1. Mobilizing All Available Rainwater through Dams and National Conveyor 23 2.1.1. Massive Investments in Dam Development in the 1980s 23 2.1.2. Southern Bulk Water Conveyor 26 2.2. The Switch to Desalination for Potable Water Supply 30 2.2.1. Rainwater Is Too Unreliable for Securing Potable Water Demand 30 2.2.2. Developing Seawater Desalination Plants under Build-Operate- Transfer Schemes 33 2.2.3. Contractual Features of Desalination Build-Operate-Transfer Schemes 37 2.3. Potable Water Distribution: Water Losses and Demand Management 40 2.3.1. Water Losses of Water Services Providers 40 2.3.2. Rationing under Drought: Impact of Intermittent Water Supply 45 2.3.3. Tariffs and Demand Management 47 Securing Potable Water Supply under Extreme Scarcity iii 2.4. Sewerage Services and Reuse: Closing the Urban Water Cycle 52 2.4.1. Sewerage Services in Urban and Rural Areas 52 2.4.2. Design-Build-Operate Schemes for Wastewater Treatment 55 2.4.3. Reuse of Treated Wastewater 58 Notes 61 Chapter 3 Water Resources Management under Scarcity 65 3.1. Arbitrating between Dams and Desalination Plants 65 3.2. Irrigation: The “Poor Parent” in Water Management 69 3.3. Aquifer Management and Recharge 75 3.4. Implementing EU Water Legislation under Water Scarcity 79 Notes 83 Chapter 4 Conclusions: What Has Been Achieved and What Remains to Be Done 85 4.1. Potable Water Security under Extreme Scarcity Is a Remarkable Achievement 85 4.2. Institutional Reforms Are Still Needed for Sustainable Water Management 87 4.2.1. Priority Pillar 1: Starting to Focus on Water Demand Management 87 4.2.2. Priority Pillar 2: Modernizing the Institutional and Financial Framework 88 4.2.3. Priority Pillar 3: Complying with the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive 89 4.2.4. Priority Pillar 4: Developing a Sustainable Strategy for Irrigated Agriculture 93 Note 93 Appendix A 95 Bibliography 97 Boxes 1.1. Cyprus’s Geopolitical Situation 9 2.1. How the Island’s de facto Partition in 1974 Affected Future Water Policies of the Republic of Cyprus 25 3.1. EU Water Policies 80 4.1. Water Management in Northern Cyprus, in Areas Outside of the Government Control 90 Figures 1.1. Average Annual Precipitation in the Government-Controlled Areas of Cyprus, 1901–2008 12 1.2. Evolution of Average Precipitation and Temperature in Cyprus, 1901–2009 13 1.3. Freshwater Balance for Cyprus Areas under Government Control 15 1.4. Water Usage in Cyprus, by Sector 16 1.5. Institutional and Administrative Structure of the Water Sector 17 2.1. Storage Capacity in Dams Constructed between 1961 and 2015 24 iv Securing Potable Water Supply under Extreme Scarcity 2.2. Schematics of the Southern Bulk Water Conveyor 26 2.3. Water Storage Curve for All Dams, 1988–2016 31 2.4. Water Inflow to Dams, 1987/88–2015/16 32 2.5. Nonrevenue Water in the Three Urban Water Boards of Larnaca, Limassol, and Nicosia, 2011–13 43 2.6. Minimum Night Flow for All Reservoirs, 2007 and 2010 47 2.7. Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Cyprus, by Category of Usage, 2015 59 2.8. Annual Quantities of Treated Effluent in Cyprus from the Urban Wastewater Treatment Plants (Except Mia Milia), 2004–15 59 3.1. Source Contribution to Potable Water, 1991–2015 66 3.2. Volumes of Water Used for Agriculture in Government-Controlled Areas 70 3.3. Water Allocation by Water Development Department, 1991–2015 (No Private Boreholes) 70 3.4. Irrigation Water Quantities per Supply Source from Water Development Department, 1991–2015 74 B4.1.1. Freshwater Pipeline from Turkey to Cyprus 91 A.1. Subsidies for Potable Water Conservation in Place in 2009 95 Maps 1.1. Physical Features and Location of Cyprus 7 1.2. Map of the Island of Cyprus with Green Line Divide 8 1.3. Annual Rainfall Distribution (mm) in the Troodos Mountains 10 1.4. Large Water Infrastructure Operated by the Water Development Department 19 2.1. Location of Major Dams and Ponds in Cyprus 24 2.2. Links of Transmission Network with Dams and Water Treatment Plants 27 2.3. Location of the Permanent Desalination Plants 36 2.4. National Implementation Program for Urban Wastewater, 2008 53 2.5. Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants in 2015 54 2.6. Treated Wastewater Conveyance Network in Lanarca 60 3.1. Agricultural Production in Government-Controlled Areas 68 3.2. Map of Cyprus’s Aquifers 76 3.3. Recharge Ponds in Kouris River (Ezousas Aquifer) Near Paphos 79 3.4. Floods Risk Areas in Cyprus Identified under Flood Management Plans 83 Photographs 1.1. Nonperennial River in the Troodos Mountains 11 1.2. Pictures of Archeological Remains of Water Infrastructure in Cyprus 14 2.1. Aerial Views of Two Large Cyprus Dams 25 2.2. Laying of Main Conveyor’s Pipeline 28 2.3. General View of the Limassol Water Treatment Plant 30 2.4. View of Kouris Dam in 2004 and at the Worst of the 2008 Drought 33 Securing Potable Water Supply under Extreme Scarcity v 2.5. The Dekhelia Desalination Plant 34 2.6. Supplying Potable Water to Limassol via Tankers from Greece 34 2.7. View of the Limassol Desalination Plant 35 2.8. Limassol—Domestic Roof Tanks on Houses and Valve Closing System 44 2.9. The Limassol (Moni) and Vathia Gonia WWTPs 57 2.10. View of the “New Nicosia” Bicommunal WWTP 57 2.11. Treated Wastewater Reservoir in the Troodos Mountains 61 3.1. Sprinkler Irrigation and Drip Irrigation in Cyprus 72 3.2. Irrigation with Treated Wastewater 74 Tables 1.1. Percentage of Total Population Served by Domestic Water Service Providers 20 1.2. Key Characteristics of the Water Boards in Limassol, Larnaca, and Nicosia, 2013 21 2.1. Potable Water Dams in Cyprus and Connections to the Southern Conveyor 29 2.2. Potable Water Treatment Plants in Cyprus 29 2.3. Key Characteristics of Cyprus Permanent Desalination Plants 37 2.4. Price Structure Components for the Desalination Build-Operate-Transfer Contracts 40 2.5. Constituent Components of the Unit Price for One of the Desalination Build-Operate-Transfer 40 2.6. Key Characteristics of the Temporary Desalination Plants Operated under BORs, 2008–10 41 2.7.