Race and Public Housing: Revisiting the Federal Role by Richard Rothstein

Poverty & Race POVERTY & RACE RESEARCH ACTION COUNCIL PRRAC

November/December 2012 Volume 21: Number 6

Residential racial segregation, ac- teachers can transform a child's life in neighborhoods to which planners companied by social and economic chances—and that poverty is not des- wanted to relocate a ghetto. Unlike hardship, burdens the learning of many tiny. It's a belief deeply rooted in his projects for middle-class whites who urban children. But school reformers childhood, as a kid growing up in pub- paid market rents that fully covered often express hope that, harsh though lic housing in Queens… He under- construction and operating costs, these obstacles may be, children in stands that education is …the force that projects for low-income blacks were high-poverty, racially isolated neigh- lifts children from public housing heavily subsidized with federal and borhoods could typically still be suc- projects to first-generation college stu- sometimes state and local funds. cessful if only they had better teach- dents….” (Duncan 2010). There were also privately-built and ers, more orderly schools and more Our credulity about Duncan’s well- -owned developments that were sub- hours of instruction. intentioned observation reveals a sidized by public land clearance and To support this hope, advocates shocking loss of collective memory tax breaks—such as the whites-only seek examples of disadvantaged chil- about how public policy created and Stuyvesant Town in New York City. dren who succeeded, overcoming great remains responsible for the hopeless These remain today as middle-class socioeconomic handicaps. Some such segregated ghettos in which too many urban islands, but forgotten have been cases exist, of course—there is a range children live today. the truly public projects—built, owned of outcomes for any human condition True, Joel Klein grew up in public and operated by government—for —but the reality that some who grew housing. But from the Depression into working- and middle-class whites. The up in “truly disadvantaged” neighbor- the early 1950s, faced with housing Woodside Houses in Queens, New hoods (Wilson 1987, 2012) beat the shortages compounded by a flood of York, where Joel Klein lived as a boy, odds does not mean that many can. returning war veterans, cities con- was one of these. Frequently-cited examples of such suc- structed public housing for white work- The New York City Housing Au- cess usually turn out, upon examina- ing- and middle-class families. These thority carefully screened applicants tion, to be chimeras (Rothstein 2001, projects, for stable white families like for projects like Woodside. Preference 2002). Joel Klein’s, became highly-prized (Please turn to page 2) A claim by U.S. Secretary of Edu- treasures, the most desirable housing cation Arne Duncan, referring to available, their lucky residents the former New York City Schools Chan- object of envy. The projects were lo- CONTENTS: cellor Joel Klein, is one. Mr. Duncan cated in mostly all-white neighbor- said: “Klein knows, as I do, that great hoods, and admitted only a token few Race and Public black residents, if any. Housing ...... 1 Richard Rothstein (rrothstein@epi. Fisher v. Univ. TX ..... 3 org) is a Research Associate at the Eco- Dual Immersion ...... 6 nomic Policy Inst. and a Senior Fel- NYC’s Subsidized Housing San Francisco ...... 9 low at the Chief Justice Earl Warren Meanwhile, cities also built projects Resources ...... 18 Inst. on Law & Social Policy at the Index to Vol. 21 .....21 Univ. of Calif. (Berkeley) School of for low-income African Americans in Law. ghetto neighborhoods, or sometimes

Poverty & Race Research Action Council • 1200 18th Street NW • Suite 200 • Washington, DC 20036 202/906-8023 • FAX: 202/842-2885 • E-mail: [email protected] • www.prrac.org Recycled Paper (PUBLIC HOUSING: Cont. from page 1) board minutes explain that the South Levitt did not sell homes to blacks, Jamaica project should house minori- and each deed included a prohibition was given to war veterans. Only two- ties because it was “located in a neigh- of such re-sales in the future (TIME parent families were accepted, and ap- borhood having a preponderance of 1950; Jackson 1985). plicants had to produce marriage li- colored people” (Bloom 2008). The Of 300 large private subdivisions censes to prove their status. Investiga- project had lower income limits than built from 1935 to 1947 in New York’s tors visited potential tenants to verify Woodside, and rental rates were sub- Queens, Nassau, and Westchester they had good furniture and housekeep- sidized with federal funds, but not all Counties, 83% had racially restrictive ing habits, and well-behaved children. projects designed for African Ameri- deeds, with preambles like, “Whereas Stable post-war employment records, cans were low-income: A project the the Federal Housing Administration good credit, no teenage pregnant Housing Authority built contempora- requires that the existing mortgages on daughters and no alcohol or drug prob- neously with Woodside, also designed the said premises be subject and sub- lems were also required (Bloom 2008). for stable higher-income working ordinated to the said [racial] restric- Tenants typically had civil service jobs families where rents covered the full tions … [except for] domestic servants (like Klein’s father, a postal worker) of a different race domiciled with an or worked in trades or manufacturing. A shocking loss of owner or tenant…” (Dean 1947). Some were small business owners. collective memory. As whites fled cities, public hous- When the unsubsidized Woodside ing units were filled with lower-income project opened in 1949, its tenants were African Americans. In 1968, New 92% white. In the surrounding neigh- housing cost, was the Colonial Park York City abandoned its middle-class borhood was nary a black face. Across Houses in Harlem—it was 92% black, public housing program, accepting the borough in South Jamaica, the 7% Puerto Rican, and 1% white. federal subsidies for Woodside Houses Authority built a project for low-in- But as projects like Woodside filled and several other such projects. Long- come tenants: 30% white when it up with middle-class whites, other fed- term tenants with middle-class in- opened pre-war and down to 12% white eral policies lured these families out comes who did not leave voluntarily by the mid-1950s. Citywide, the Au- of projects into even whiter suburbs. were evicted. The Authority an- thority respected applicants’ prefer- These were the mortgage insurance pro- nounced that it would abandon previ- ences regarding which project they grams of the Federal Housing Admin- ous requirements of employment, sta- wished to occupy, guided by a rule es- istration (FHA) and the Veterans Ad- bility and orderliness and would no tablished during the New Deal by ministration (VA), from which black longer consider “morals of the appli- Harold Ickes, head of the Public Works families were mostly excluded. In the cants.” Many economically and so- Administration: public projects could 1950s, as single-family home construc- cially distressed minority tenants, not alter neighborhood racial compo- tion accelerated, the housing shortage some with unruly teenagers, were fun- sition. eased and white families took advan- neled into once-middle-class projects. As applied by New York City, the tage of these guarantees to decamp Changed population characteristics rule ensured that few low-income from Woodside and similar projects for were accompanied by a deterioration whites would live in South Jamaica, the suburbs. FHA- and VA-guaranteed in project upkeep. Students attending and few middle-income blacks would mortgages were so favorable that neighborhood schools now had drasti- live in Woodside. Housing Authority monthly carrying charges were often cally different, and greater, needs. less, for comparable rooms and square As public housing nationwide be- footage, than rents in the public came racially identifiable and associ- Poverty and Race (ISSN 1075-3591) projects. ated solely with poverty, public and is published six times a year by the Pov- Whether in the city or suburbs, the media stereotypes of public housing erty & Race Research Action Council, FHA required developers seeking its changed. By 1973, President Richard 1200 18th Street NW, Suite 200, Wash- financing to include restrictive cov- ington, DC 20036, 202/906-8023, fax: Nixon could describe many public 202/842-2885, E-mail: [email protected]. enants in their homeowner deeds, pro- housing projects as “monstrous, de- Chester Hartman, Editor. Subscriptions hibiting sales or re-sales to African pressing places—rundown, over- are $25/year, $45/two years. Foreign Americans. For example, Levittown, crowded, crime-ridden” (Nixon postage extra. Articles, article sugges- a suburb just east of Queens, was built 1973). tions, letters and general comments are in 1947 with 17,500 mass-produced welcome, as are notices of publications, These patterns were not unique to conferences, job openings, etc. for our two-bedroom houses, requiring veter- New York, but were repeated nation- Resources Section. Articles generally ans to put nothing down and make wide. may be reprinted, providing PRRAC monthly payments of only $56. (Com- • St. Louis: In the 1960s, Pruitt- gives advance permission. pare this to the $75 unsubsidized Igoe homes became a national symbol © Copyright 2012 by the Poverty & charge in Woodside Houses for apart- Race Research Action Council. All of dysfunctional public housing, high- rights reserved. ments of comparable size.) At the rise towers packed with welfare-depen- FHA’s insistence, developer William (Please turn to page 13)

2 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 View from the Gallery – Oral Argument in Fisher v. University of Texas–Austin

by Rachel Godsil

Hotly contested cases are a form tionally prescribed limits.” 539 U.S. versity of Texas’ Black Student Asso- of political theater. The primary ac- at 328. And the Court affirmed the ciation attended, as did one of my own tors are the lawyers for the parties and Law School’s goal of attaining a students who, despite having spent all the Supreme Court Justices them- “critical mass” of underrepresented night in line in front of the Court, was selves. However, truly significant minority students in order to achieve thrilled to be sitting behind Jesse Jack- cases elicit broader participation akin the educational benefits that diversity son and Al Sharpton. Most notable, to a Greek chorus in the form of amici is designed to produce. perhaps, were the presence of both curiae (defined as “friends” of the The parties, Ms. Fisher and Will- Cecilia Marshall, the wife of the late Court). Fisher v. University of Texas, iam Powers, the president of the Uni- Thurgood Marshall, and former Jus- the Court’s most recent challenge to versity of Texas, were present in the tice Sandra Day O’Connor. affirmative action in higher education, gallery, but the courtroom was appears to be one of those cases; it elic- crowded with others equally con- ited an enormous number of amicus cerned with the outcome of the case. The Plan at Issue briefs from a wide range of perspec- Many were the lawyers who had tives. authored amicus briefs in the case — The University of Texas’ admis- At issue is Abigail Fisher’s claim myself included (I co-authored a brief sions plan that is at issue in Fisher has that the University of Texas violated on behalf of experimental social psy- a tangled history. It is in large part a her rights under the Equal Protection chologists describing the “stereotype reaction to earlier litigation challeng- Clause by considering race as one fac- ing the University of Texas’ use of race tor among many in its admissions Hotly contested cases in admissions. Prior to the Grutter policy. Ironically, perhaps, Ms. Fisher are a form of political decision, in Hopwood v. Texas, 78 has already attended and graduated theater. F.3d 932 (5th Cir. 1996), the Fifth from Louisiana State University—so Circuit held unconstitutional the Uni- the harm to Ms. Fisher is speculative. versity of Texas School of Law’s con- The case compelled attention because threat” phenomena first identified by sideration of race in admissions. In it is seen as a potential challenge to Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson in response, UT revised its admissions Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 the mid-1990s, which explains the ef- policy and excluded the consideration (2003), in which the Court held in a fect on performance of the anxiety that of race. (See generally Brief Submit- Justice Sandra Day O’Connor opinion a person will confirm a negative ste- ted by Respondents University of that a university may conclude that ob- reotype about their identity group. Ste- Texas, pp. 6-10.) The new policy taining the educational benefits of di- reotype threat has been shown system- adopted a Personal Achievement In- versity, including racial and ethnic atically to depress performance of mi- (Please turn to page 4) diversity, constitutes a compelling in- nority students on tests such as the terest and therefore, so long as its SAT, and, accordingly, we argued to means is narrowly tailored, is consti- the Court that a truly meritocratic ad- tutional. The Court noted the consti- missions policy should take this effect Russell Means tutional tradition of granting “giving into account.) a degree of deference to a university's Others had unique connections to We dedicate this issue of Pov- academic decisions, within constitu- the role of race at the University of erty & Race to Russell Means, who Texas, including the grandson and passed away in October, the char- other members of Heman Sweatt’s ismatic Oglala Sioux who co-led Rachel Godsil (rachel.godsil@shu. family, who as amici shared the story (with Dennis Banks) the 1973 edu) is the Eleanor Bontecou Profes- of the brave man who successfully Wounded Knee protest and sus- sor of Law at Seton Hall Univ. Law obtained admission of African Ameri- tained activism throughout his life, School and the Director of Research cans to the University of Texas Law calling attention, internationally as to the American Values Institute. School in Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. well as here at home, to the For a version of this article with de- 629, one of the important cases that nation’s history of injustice against tailed citations to the record, pls. con- paved the way for Brown v. Board of its indigenous peoples. tact the author. Education. Students from the Uni-

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 3 (FISHER: Cont. from page 3) UT found that the top 10% law in- and nearly 40% of those classes en- creased minority admissions, but at rolled zero or one Latino student. dex (PAI) to be used with its Academic significant cost to educational objec- Slightly larger classes were similarly Index (AI), which included a “holis- tives. It is atypical for a major univer- constituted. In classes enrolling 25-49 tic review of an applicant’s leadership sity to base admissions decision solely students, over 70% had zero or one qualities; extracurricular activities; on class rank, without regard to other Black student enrolled. Classes of this awards/honors; work experience; ser- standard markers of academic achieve- sort are the most likely to allow for vice to school or community; and spe- ment and potential. And UT found that discussion or exchanges where the edu- cial circumstances.” “[S]pecial cir- basing the admissions decision on “just cational benefits of diversity are real- cumstances” included factors such as a single criterion” undermined its ef- ized. the “socio-economic status of a fam- forts to achieve diversity in the broad Following the Supreme Court’s de- ily,” “language spoken at home,” and sense. cision in Grutter, UT added race and “socio-economic status of school at- Many have also argued that the ra- ethnicity as factors to be considered tended” (but not an applicant’s race). cial diversity the law does add is among the “special circumstances” UT also devoted substantial efforts to mostly a product of the fact that Texas criteria in the PAI. Beginning in 2005, developing race-neutral initiatives that public high schools remain highly seg- UT has enrolled 4.5%-6% Black stu- it hoped would increase enrollment of regated in regions of the state—Latino dents and 15% and 25% Latino stu- underrepresented minorities, such as dents. By comparison, Texas high creating several scholarship programs Even with other schools graduate approximately 15% aimed at recruiting highly qualified diversity initiatives Black students, and the percent of students of all races from lower socio- Black and Latino Latino students has grown to 40%. economic backgrounds and students who would be the first in their family enrollment remained to attend college. low. The Oral Argument These efforts were unsuccessful. as Theater UT experienced an immediate and se- rious decline in enrollment among students tend to live in the Rio Grande The case was argued by Burt Rein underrepresented minorities. Between Valley, and Black students are isolated for Abigail Fisher, Greg Garre for the 1995 and 1997, African-American in urban areas such as Dallas and Hous- University of Texas, and Solicitor enrollment dropped almost 40% (from ton. That limits the diversity that can General Donald Verilli, who appeared 309 to 190 entering students) and His- be achieved within racial groups and in in support of UT. Missing was the panic enrollment dropped by 5% creates “damaging incentives.” voice of the underrepresented Black (from 935 to 892 entering students). The portion of the class admitted and Latino students. The Texas Legislature responded to pursuant to the top 10% law has ranged Not surprisingly, the questioning re- Hopwood by enacting the top 10% law from roughly 60 to 80%. To fill the flected the sharp divisions on the (House Bill 588), which guarantees ad- remaining seats in its freshman class, Court. Justices Sotomayor, Ginsberg mission to UT to any graduate of a UT used the full-file review process and Breyer’s questions reflected an Texas high school who is ranked in developed after Hopwood—which con- adherence to the precedential value of the top 10% of his or her high school sidered numerous individual charac- Grutter, the view that the Texas plan class, beginning with the 1998 admis- teristics (but not race). is consistent with Grutter and thus sions cycle. Tex. Educ. Code § With both the top 10% plan and the should be upheld. Chief Justice Rob- 51.803. An acknowledged purpose of holistic review in place, even with erts, along with Justices Scalia and the law was to increase minority ad- other diversity initiatives, Black and Alito, challenged whether an appli- missions, given the loss of race-con- Latino enrollment remained low. In cant’s race or ethnicity can be reason- scious admissions. Fall 2002, only 3.4% of the freshman ably ascertained and whether the con- class was African-American and cept of “critical mass” has any mean- 14.3% was Latino, below 1996 lev- ing. Justice Kennedy’s position is less els. The numbers were 4.5% and clear. His questions indicated that he Don’t forget 16.9%, respectively, in 2004. is wrestling with what role race actu- School officials were also con- ally plays in the Texas plan. Justice to send us items cerned that the diversity they had at- Kagan was not physically present, since for our tained failed to reach so many class- she recused herself from hearing the rooms. They found that nearly 90% case. As a former Dean of a law Resources of undergraduate classes of the most school, her perspective would have common size at UT—sections with added great value. Section. 10-24 students—enrolled zero or one Summations of the gist of the Jus- African-American student in 2002, tices’ questions fail to convey the tenor

4 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 of the questions—and the degree of dreds or thousands of these people and questions seemed clearly to intend a emotion presented by these far from have Federal judges dictating the policy very different effect—to suggest that dry legal issues. And perhaps most of admission of all these universities? self-identifying as a “Hispanic” would relevant, summations cannot provide The notion of institutional competence simply be a ploy to game a college a reader with a glimmer of whether and the appropriate degree of intrusion admissions officer. However, the the questions displayed an attempt to of courts is common in constitutional record provides no evidence that such engage the lawyers in a genuine dis- litigation. Often, Justices contend that “gaming” is occurring – in light of the cussion of the issues or whether the the Court should exercise “restraint” fact that the number of Latinos has re- questions were sound bites intended and refrain from inserting themselves mained so far below the number of persuade. into areas that are traditionally the do- graduating students. This form of iden- main of the states or private actors. tification is commonplace—in the Cen- Such an argument would seem persua- sus, k-12 education and virtually ev- A Challenge to Grutter? sive, particularly in the realm of higher ery other context. education. Justice Breyer early in the argument asked Fisher’s lawyer, Bert Rein, di- Defining Critical Mass rectly: “whether you want us to— or Who Counts? are asking us to overrule Grutter. Likely most salient to the ultimate Grutter said it would be good law for Almost immediately after Greg decision of the case is the issue of what at least 25 years, and I know that time Garre stood up to argue on behalf of constitutes a critical mass. In Grutter, flies, but I think only nine of those UT, he was challenged to justify the the Court held that it was consistutional years have passed. And so, are you? University’s method of determining for a university to seek a critical mass And, if so, why overrule a case into “who counts.” Chief Justice Roberts of under-represented minority students which so much thought and effort went and relied on the definition of critical and so many people across the coun- Likely more salient to mass used by the Michigan Law try have depended on?” the ultimate decision is School’s Director of Admissions: Rein disclaimed that Fisher’s goal “meaningful numbers” or “meaning- is for the Court to overrule Grutter the issue of what ful representation” that “encourages altogether. Rather, he claimed, UT’s constitutes critical underrepresented minority students to failure was its use of race in this par- mass. participate in the classroom and not feel ticular plan—in light of other possible isolated.” However, during oral ar- alternatives. Justice Ginsburg appeared gument, Justice Alito made his posi- unconvinced, asking Mr. Rein during questioned whether “someone who is tion plain in his question to Rein, “Do his rebuttal how the UT plan differed one-quarter Hispanic check the His- you understand what the University of from the “Harvard plan which —that panic box or some different box?” In Texas thinks is the definition of a criti- started all this off in 1978, decided by response to Garre’s contention that a cal mass? Because I don't.” Justice Powell? Is it any different from student has an opportunity to check the The following colloquy between how race is used in our military acad- multiracial box or to self-determine Chief Justice Roberts and UT’s law- emies?” Hispanic, the Chief Justice shot back yer, Garre, best reflects the challenge: “What about one-eighth?” Mr. Garre: Another is that we did Later, during a discussion of what look to enrollment data, which Judges as Admissions constitutes a “critical mass” for pur- showed, for example, among African Officers poses of satisfying Grutter, Justice Americans, that African- American Alito raised a similar challenge, ask- enrollment at the University of Texas Rein’s response elicited a new set ing how UT “justif[ies] lumping to- dropped to 3 percent in 2002 under of concerns from Justices Sotomayor gether all Asian Americans” rather the percentage plan. and Breyer. Justice Sotomayor que- than determining whether they have a Chief Justice Roberts: At what level ried: “So now we're going to tell the “critical mass of Filipino Americans? will it satisfy the critical mass? universities how to run and how to Cambodian American?”. Mr. Garre: Well, I think we all weigh qualifications, too?” And Jus- The issue of how people of color agree that 3 percent is not a critical tice Breyer remonstrated: “There are self-identify is generally seen as an in- mass. It's well beyond that. several thousand admissions officers in ternal challenge the individual experi- Chief Justice Roberts: Yes, but at the United States, several thousand uni- ences, as is the very real distinctions what level will it satisfy the require- versities, and what is it we're going to within the broad category of “Asian ment of critical mass? say here that wasn't already said in American.” However, in the context Mr. Garre: When we have an en- Grutter that isn't going to take hun- of the political theater of this case, the (Please turn to page 17)

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 5 Have We Learned Our Language Lesson? In Spite of Massachusetts’ Decade-Old English-Only Law, Two-Way Bilingual Programs Demonstrate Promise and Enjoy Enduring Popularity by Susan Eaton

Nina and Lauren must decide escuchen,” (Now, listen) she implores, an undefined method called “sheltered quickly. Tuesday at the Barbieri El- pointing to her ears. Speaking slowly English immersion” (SEI) to teach ementary School in Framingham, Mas- in Spanish, Chacón explains that this English language learners. Under the sachusetts won’t officially begin until morning, students will write captions SEI method, students still learning the two fourth-graders make up their (in Spanish) for illustrations they had English are separated from English-flu- minds. started to draw yesterday. The captions ent peers and taught all subjects exclu- “English was first yesterday,” will be miniature stories—“his- sively in English, with special supports, Lauren reasons. torias”—that narrate the drawings. until they are fluent enough to move “Oh, right,” Nina says, nodding. The children scramble back to their into mainstream English-speaking “OK. Then Spanish. Spanish is first desks. A boy named José draws him- classrooms. today.” self gripping the strings of three bal- Largely overlooked during the ideo- Suppressing nervous laughter, the loons. “¡Mis globos!” (my balloons), logical battle that led to the still-con- girls hover over a microphone and be- he explains. A girl named Katherine tested policy was that the Massachu- gin. Their voices travel from the sketches several stick figures floating setts law exempted “dual immersion”— principal’s office into classrooms, cor- in a pool (piscina). Katherine turns to known interchangeably as “two-way ridors, the library and cafeteria. Up José, who speaks Spanish at home. “I bilingual”—schools and programs like on the second floor, first-graders stand can’t remember,” she tells him, “Cómo Barbieri’s. In such programs and with hands over hearts. The familiar schools, educators bring Spanish speak- words flow through the intercom. ers and native English speakers to- There are typically gether and teach all students in both Prometo lealtad a la bandera long waiting lists for languages, with the goal of producing de los Estados Unidos de América dual immersion bilingual, biliterate students. This . . . schools. meant that the handful of schools and programs using this specialized method A few heartbeats later, the Pledge could keep operating just as they were. of Allegiance streams from the inter- se dice (how do you say?) ‘swimming’ (One program in Cambridge teaches com again. This time it comes through en español?” in Portuguese and English and another in English. Chacón makes the rounds. “¡Muy there teaches in Mandarin and English. The morning ritual over, the first- bueno!” she enthuses over one draw- In all others, Spanish and English are graders move from their desks and sit ing. She slides over to Katherine and the instructional languages.) As is true in a half-circle on the floor in front of José’s table. She picks up Katherine’s of all the state’s dual immersion schools their teacher, Ana María Chacón. floating figures and studies them in- and programs, parents choose to put Fragments of English and Spanish tently. “¡Bueno!” she exclaims again. their children in such schools, and float through the air. Chacón settles Katherine beams. Then Chacón pushes there are typically long waiting lists. in a child-size chair and leans forward. her a bit: “¿Pero, cual es la historia, In the nation at large, it is exceedingly “Mírame a mí,” (Look at me) Katherine?” But what is the story? rare that a student would be mandato- Chacón says in a singsong voice. rily assigned to a dual immersion “¡Mírame a mí!” she repeats cheerily, * * * school. pointing to her eyes. “Ahora, Ten years after the SEI referendum, To hear Spanish in a public class- interest in and support for dual immer- room in Massachusetts, to find it wo- sion is growing both in Massachusetts Susan Eaton ([email protected]. ven so seamlessly with English as it is and nationally as educators, parents and edu) is Research Director for the at Barbieri, is quite a story in itself, or policymakers see it not only as an ef- Charles Hamilton Houston Inst. at at least an anomaly. This is because in fective educational method, but also as Harvard Law School and Co-Director 2002, Massachusetts became one of a dynamic model of ethnic and cultural of One Nation Indivisible, which docu- three states—Arizona in 2001 and Cali- integration in a rapidly changing soci- ments inclusive community-based re- fornia in 1997 are the others—to ef- ety. Ironically, this new nationwide sponses to our society’s increasing ra- fectively ban or greatly restrict bilin- interest in dual immersion comes at the cial, ethnic and linguistic diversity. gual education in their public schools. same time that civil rights and educa- www.onenationindivisible.org The new law required educators to use tional concerns over English-only laws

6 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 Please contribute to PRRAC’s annual campaign!

November, 2012

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re-emerge and intensify in Massachu- the state’s Commissioner of Education, learn subject matter. Ideally, about half setts. In September 2011, investigators Mitchell Chester, visited and then the students in such programs would from the U.S. Justice Department praised Barbieri School, citing it as “a be native English speakers and half found that educators in 275 Massachu- model” for the state and “a model, native Spanish speakers, or at least setts school districts—this equals 70% nationally.” nearly fluent Spanish speakers. Some of districts in the state—had placed schools, such as Barbieri, use an “80- English learners in classrooms with in- The Mass. Education 20” model in which teachers and stu- adequately trained teachers. Prior to Commr. praised Barbieri dents in the early grades speak Spanish this, other federal investigations had School as “a model, 80% and English 20% of the time. By found violations in three local districts, nationally.” grade 4 at Barbieri, classes are taught including Boston. In contrast, many of in English half the time and Spanish in the state’s dual immersion schools and the other half. The Amigos School in programs remain stable and popular. Under the dual immersion/two-way Cambridge uses a 50-50 model, in This includes Barbieri, with students bilingual method, native English which teachers and students use both in kindergarten through fifth grade, the speakers and Spanish speakers share languages in roughly equal amounts in celebrated Amigos School in Cam- their classrooms in all subjects. Each all grades. bridge and the long-standing model, lesson, whether in social studies, math As students grow into fluency in two the Hernandez School and the newer or science, doubles as a language les- languages, teachers use a lot of visual Hurley School, both in Boston, which son, with students concurrently learn- cues, including photographs and draw- are all K-8th-grade schools. In 2012, ing vocabulary and grammar as they (Please turn to page 8)

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 7 (IMMERSION: Continued from page 7) particular culture that is valued here,” are not just about how to teach lan- Sercombe says. “It’s a process of trav- guage, how to teach subject areas to ings. They also act out words and con- eling a little bit of distance to meet us, get these test scores up. The questions cepts. Barbieri’s first-grade teacher to participate in that culture, to learn go deeper than that: How do we chal- Ana María Chacón pulls on her ears from whatever discomfort that might lenge and engage kids as full partici- while requesting that students bring at first.” pants in a shared community? . . . “escuchen” (listen). In reference to a In the first month of the school How do we have them meet very high “claxon” (horn), she pushes her hand year, Sercombe had peeked in on a expectations within a context of a out in front of her and lets out a loud Latin dance class offered as an elec- healthy, diverse community, as active “Ehhh. Beep. Ehh. Beep!” tive. Several of the youngest students members of a community with the sat in the back, arms folded, Sercombe core value of bringing together stu- *** recalled, looking less than enthusias- dents of many backgrounds to prac- tic about moving their bodies to unfa- tice respect and negotiation for life?” Like at Barbieri, the goal of educa- miliar music. tors at the Amigos School extends far “I looked in and see kids in there *** beyond mere second-language acqui- who have never done any Latin dance, sition. The ultimate aspiration is bicul- maybe have never experienced this Evaluations of dual immersion pro- turalism. A bilingual person can in- music,” Sercombe recalls. “…So, we grams in California, Virginia and pre- deed speak two languages, an obvi- do things that make kids a little bit un- vious research at the Amigos School ously beneficial, practical skill. But a comfortable, but I put it to them: ‘Part show that English language learners bicultural person, explains Amigos’ of what makes you uncomfortable in gained literacy in English better or as long-time principal Deborah Ser- another culture is what’s going to bring well as students in more traditional combe, “crosses over into a different schools. The U.S. Department of Edu- culture,” uses language as a tool for Each lesson doubles as a cation commissioned one of the most “fostering friendship and working re- language lesson. comprehensive studies of dual lationships across cultures and ulti- immersion’s effectiveness. Published mately for playing a role in sustaining in 2002 and conducted by Professors a peaceful, pluralistic society.” This you closer to understanding what it Virginia Collier and Wayne Thomas, can only be achieved, Sercombe ex- means to be a bicultural person in this the study analyzed data over 18 years plains, if the status of the Spanish lan- world.’ ” in 23 school districts over 15 states. guage and the status of Latin cultures And indeed, on a Friday night in The dual immersion model, Collier and are “consciously elevated” within a early March, the once hesitant novice Thomas concluded, was strongly as- school. dancers Sercombe had looked in on sociated with the closing of the “We put the language- majority kids months before strolled with seemingly achievement gap between students in the position where they have to learn little trepidation onto the makeshift learning English and native English something from the Spanish-speaking dance floor at the Amigos School’s speakers. kids,” Sercombe explains. “And hav- annual potluck dinner, community Conducting research on dual im- ing students integrated together and party and fundraiser, Noche Caribeña. mersion, however, is tricky, as it is being able to see and negotiate that…is In pairs, the Salsa dancers spun and often complicated by self-selection at the basis of how you build a socially twisted sharply to the syncopated beat. bias. In other words, the very quali- connected or interconnected group of Live musicians sang Latin ballads and ties that propelled a family to choose students, and school community and pop songs. They strummed guitars and dual immersion—say, a passion for lan- society.” invited students to accompany them on guage and world cultures, motivation, Each morning, parents and children a conga drum. A long table at the back etc.—may very well play a role in a saunter through Amigos’ doors, greet- of the room held dishes from Trinidad, student’s success in such a program. ing teachers and administrators with West Africa, the Dominican Repub- Professors Collier and Thomas are in “Buenos días” and “¡Hola!” and lic, Brazil and Mexico. The homemade the midst of a large study based in “¿Cómo está?” From the Latino moth- dishes mingled with boxes from the North Carolina where the demographic ers, fathers and children, the routine Pizza Ring (“you ring, we bring”) make-up of dual immersion programs greetings usually flow naturally. For around the corner and with organic is similar to schools that do not use some others, the greetings still sound chocolate cupcakes from the high-end the method. In comparing achievement a bit clumsy, accompanied by a bit of market down the street. and attendance rates and behavior of self-conscious laughter. “There are other methods for learn- otherwise similar students, Collier and “It’s important that when anyone ing and for learning languages, and we Thomas find that students taught walks into our school, they are aware could debate that all day,” Sercombe through dual immersion make far that they are entering a Spanish-speak- explains. “To me, though, and I think more progress as measured by test ing environment and entering into a to all of us here, the questions we ask (Please turn to page 16)

8 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 From Urban Renewal and Displacement to Economic Inclusion: San Francisco Affordable Housing Policy, 1978-2012 by Marcia Rosen & Wendy Sullivan

Once notorious for urban renewal its parts. Moveover, the overall suc- housing that was developed as part of that diminished housing affordability cess of the housing system and poli- the City’s urban renewal program. and displaced residents, the City of San cies employed is the result of an inter- While there was private market-rate Francisco is now renowned nationally action of four key factors: dedicated housing affordable to low-income for its best practices in housing and community advocacy and strong coa- families, thousands of such units had community development. How did litions; development of and access to been lost to urban renewal. No state this “hot market” city with limited substantial funding sources; a holistic or local funding sources were avail- land for development, extremely low vision of building “not just housing, able for housing rehabilitation or de- rental vacancy rates and high demand but communities”; and constantly velopment, and no community-based for housing move from archaic urban evolving housing programs that meet infrastructure existed to undertake this renewal practices to thoughtful poli- work. cies designed to preserve and enhance Geographic limitations further ex- housing opportunities for low -income San Francisco has acerbated the housing problem. San families, prevent displacement of low- severely constrained Francisco has severely constrained de- income families, and create inclusive development potential. velopment potential: It has limited land communities? capacity; is roughly 47 square miles The answer is not simple. In a city new challenges and opportunities. The on the tip of a peninsula; and has no that consistently places amongst the interaction of these factors has allowed ability to expand through Bay infill or highest in the nation for its housing the City to take advantage of ever- annexation. It is “built out,” with al- costs and is largely built out, produc- changing markets and political forces most all its available land developed. tion and preservation of homes afford- to maintain and develop strong local Consequently, as stated by Calvin able to its residents is an ongoing chal- communities. This article describes the Welch, San Francisco housing activ- lenge. The successful evolution of af- development and interaction of each ist, lecturer in development politics, fordable housing programs in San of these four key components of hous- and former Co-Director of the Coun- Francisco cannot be understood by sim- ing program and policy development cil of Community Housing Organiza- ply looking at the local codes and or- since the late 1960s and how they have tions, “development in the City is a dinances, policies, development re- resulted in the current dynamic afford- zero sum game, with winners and los- quirements and restrictions separately; able housing system in San Francisco. ers. [With minor exceptions], new de- the whole is greater than the sum of velopment in San Francisco, residen- San Francisco’s Afford- tial or commercial, means the demo- Marcia Rosen ([email protected]) lition and displacement of what was is Executive Director of the San Fran- able Housing Movement there.” With each new proposed de- cisco-based National Housing Law and Community Vision velopment in San Francisco being a Project (NHLP), former Director of battle between competing land uses, a the San Francisco Mayor's Office of San Francisco’s affordable housing strong community movement was Housing, and former Executive Direc- and community development policies needed to protect low-income residents tor of the San Francisco Redevelop- largely evolved during the late 1960s from displacement and enhance neigh- ment Agency. through the present day, spanning pe- borhoods as urban renewal, private Wendy Sullivan (wsullivan@nhlp. riods of rapid economic and demo- development and market interests org) is an attorney and planning con- graphic change, wide-scale commer- sought to transform the city. sultant. cial development, dramatic changes in Extensive changes in the economic This article is adapted from a longer land use, and exploding housing costs, base and escalating housing prices in report published by PRRAC and the which continue to threaten displace- the city during the 1970s spurred for- National Housing Law Project, avail- ment of low-income residents. Prior mation of neighborhood and tenant able at www.prrac.org/pdf/SanFran to 1968, San Francisco’s affordable organizations, bringing resident hous- AffHsing.pdf and www.nhlp.org/file/ housing stock was limited to public ing needs to the City’s attention. These SanFranAFFHSING.pdf housing and other federally-funded (Please turn to page 10)

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 9 (SAN FRANCISCO: Cont. from page 9) Table 1. City, State and Federal Financing groups were originally focused on of San Francisco’s Affordable Housing Projects: maintaining housing affordability in FY 2002-03 to FY 2010-11 their communities and preventing the displacement of families from neigh- Total Financing Percent borhoods disrupted by the City’s ur- Source of Financing FY 2002-03 to FY 2010-11 of Total ban renewal programs and private development interests. Their focus later Tax Increment Revenues expanded to include a community de- and Bond Proceeds $460,130,116 24% velopment mission—the preservation City Affordable Housing Fund $95,961,640 5% and development of affordable com- Developer Contributions munity housing and resident services and Housing Income $73,371,353 4% to meet the changing demographic City Hotel Tax or needs of families, maintain the city’s Contributions in Lieu of Tax $47,623,208 2% diversity and mitigate the exclusive City General Fund $30,000,000 2% effects of the rising cost of market Proposition A Affordable housing within the city. Housing Bonds $18,053,081 1% City and Local Sources $725,139,398 38% Funding San Francisco’s State Propositions 46 and 1C Affordable Housing Bonds $286,129,994 15% Affordable Housing State Tax Credits $57,654,092 3% California Dept. of Housing Pivotal to the efforts and effective- and Community Development $8,190,000 0% ness of the community housing move- California Housing Finance Agency $4,100,000 0% ment was access to significant finan- State Sources $356,074,086 19%* cial resources. In San Francisco, affordable housing is primarily produced Federal Tax Credits $634,609,090 33% by three sectors: nonprofit housing Federal CDBG, HOME developers who are funded in part by and HOPWA Grants $194,768,626 10% the (former) San Francisco Redevel- Federal sources $829,377,716 43% opment Agency (SFRA) and the TOTAL $1,910,591,200 100% Mayor’s Office of Housing; the San Francisco Housing Authority; and Source: San Francisco Budget and Legislative Analyst (Jan. 2012). Perfor- market-rate developers operating in mance Audit of San Francisco’s Affordable Housing Policies and Programs, accordance with the inclusionary hous- p. ii. Prepared for Board of Supervisors for the City and County of San ing program or the jobs-housing link- Francisco. age program. Spurred on by, and in * Discrepancy is due to rounding. partnership with, nonprofit developers and housing advocates, the City has implemented revenue strategies that have provided significant funding for lion of tax increment financing has other creators of new affordable hous- the preservation, rehabilitation and contributed to the development of more ing opportunities received their fair development of affordable housing. than 10,000 units of affordable hous- share; a permanent City hotel tax was Between FY 2002-03 and FY 2010- instituted to help fund housing; and 11, more than $725 million was ap- These forces have San Francisco voters passed Proposi- plied to affordable housing from City- counteracted the tion A in 1996, a $100 million gen- and locally-controlled funding sources, detrimental effects of eral obligation bond dedicated for af- over $356 million from state sources fordable housing. In total, almost 40% and over $829 million from federal gentrification. of housing funding in San Francisco sources, totaling just under $2 billion. has come from local sources. This ex- Community organizations were also ing for low- and moderate-income emplifies the concrete impacts that instrumental in ensuring that, since households throughout San Francisco. strong local advocacy can have on the 1990, up to 50% of local tax incre- Other local initiatives established ad- development of housing policy and on ment revenues and bond proceeds were ditional funding streams: changes to the creation of available funding allocated by the SFRA to affordable CDBG allocations that ensured com- streams necessary to put policies into housing. As a result, over $600 mil- munity development organizations and action.

10 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 San Francisco’s Afford- Table 2. Comparison of California and San able Housing Programs Francisco Redevelopment Agency Requirements and Policies State of California SFRA Dedicated and zealous community advocacy, strategic development and Affordable Housing Unit allocation of funding sources, and re- replacement requirement One-for-one One-for-one sponsiveness to market changes and Term of Affordability political opportunities have resulted in for units assisted with 55 years (rental); 55 years rental); a system of strong housing preserva- tax increment monies 45 years (owner) 45 years (owner) tion and production policies, programs and organizations in San Francisco. By Inclusionary 15% (non-agency developed) 20% to 40% ensuring the creation and retention of requirement 30% (agency developed) a range of housing to serve diverse resident and community needs within Occupancy Preference the city, these forces have counteracted to displaced residents Yes Yes the detrimental effects of gentrification % Tax Increment caused by market forces and have kept dedicated to Housing 20% Up to 50% affordable community housing in the forefront of the City’s development Residential and redevelopment decisions. condemnation powers Yes No - too controversial In fact, by 2012, the housing and in development areas community development corporations that were formed in the early decades have developed, rehabilitated and pre- low-income residents. Such efforts one-fourth of which are maintained served more than 26,000 permanently successfully pressed the City and the with a guaranteed level of afford- affordable housing units, mainly for State to require redevelopment agen- ability. families and seniors earning less than cies to develop, preserve and revital- • Adoption of a Condominium 50% of the city’s median income. The ize new and existing housing afford- Conversion Ordinance in 1979 that community housing movement also able for low- and moderate-income retains larger occupied rental proper- influenced the adoption of key afford- households and prevent displacement. ties for the housing purposes for which able housing policy and financing leg- San Francisco advocates also influenced they were intended, helping to protect islation, including the enactment of San changes at the federal level, resulting units covered by the 1979 Rent Stabi- Francisco’s Rent Stabilization and lization and Arbitration Ordinance. Arbitration Ordinance in 1979 that San Francisco is • Passage by voters of a ground- now covers some 170,000 rental units. demonstrating that the breaking ballot measure in 1986 The movement also served as a cata- early urban renewal and (Proposition M), which capped the lyst to the City’s inclusionary zoning amount of office development that ordinance, which has resulted in over displacement days are could be approved each year and es- 1,500 units of permanently affordable gone. tablished planning priorities that incor- ownership and rental housing, as well porated the development and preser- as the Jobs-Housing Linkage program, in the Uniform Relocation Assistance vation of affordable housing for resi- which has contributed to the develop- and Real Property Acquisition Act of dents in the downtown area. ment of an additional 1,100 units. The 1970, requiring federally-funded • Adoption of a Downtown Plan more than 200,000 units of “price con- projects to ensure that adequate relo- policy and corresponding Planning trolled” housing constitute approxi- cation assistance and other protections Code amendment in the mid-1980s mately 53% of San Francisco’s entire are available for displaced persons. prohibiting the demolition of housing housing stock. Other substantive • Adoption of a Residential Hotel units in the downtown area without achievements include: Demolition and Conversion Ordinance conditional use approval. Community- in 1980 to stave off the significant loss based neighborhood plans and zoning • In response to relentless advo- of these affordable housing units that provisions for neighborhoods sur- cacy by community and housing or- had occurred during the late 1960s rounding the downtown area were also ganizations, rejection by the City and through the 1970s. Thanks to this developed, aimed at protecting exist- the State of outmoded models of early policy and replacement requirements, ing housing from demolition or con- federal urban renewal policies that tar- San Francisco has about 500 residen- version and protecting and enhancing geted slum eradication and displaced tial hotels with 19,120 rooms, about (Please turn to page 12)

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 11 (SAN FRANCISCO: Cont. from page 11) community organizations for the South nently affordable housing and hous- of Market, Mission Bay and Hunters ing for a diverse range of needs, as the residential quality and scale of the Point Shipyard redevelopment areas in well as such important services as neighborhoods. the 1990s (with later modifications) to childcare, health and social services, • Adoption of enhanced redevel- improve the neighborhoods without and amenities such as neighborhood- opment plans in collaboration with gentrification and displacement. De- serving retail, parks, libraries and residents, small business owners and velopments include substantial perma- schools. Hunters Point in particular will be a transformative project to re- References build the community and the city and a true test of inclusive gentrification. DeLeon , Richard E. (1992). Left Coast City: Progressive Politics in San Francisco, • Creation and adoption of a 1975-1991 (p. 46). Univ. Press of Kansas. groundbreaking Housing Preservation Galle, Brian (Oct. 1999). “Preserving Federally Assisted Housing at the State and Program in 1997 to preserve 8,000 Local Level: A Legislative Toolkit.” 29 Hous. Law Bulletin 183. units in 88 HUD-assisted housing de- Gray, Deb Goldberg (Sept. 2000). Resident Participation in Affordable Housing Pres- velopments in the city threatened with ervation Projects: What Works? (p. 36). Univ. Ctr. For Cooperatives. conversion to market-rate units as a Habal, Estella (2007). San Francisco's International Hotel: Mobilizing the Filipino result of changes in federal budget and American Community in the Anti-Eviction Movement (pp. 167-69). Philadelphia: policy priorities. At a time when the Temple Univ. Press nation lost over 100,000 units of fed- Hartman, Chester (1984). The Transformation of San Francisco (pp. 2, 3, 6-7, 262). erally-assisted housing, San Francisco Totawa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld. did not lose even one. Housing Element: Part I: Data and Needs Analysis (Mar. 2011). Adopted by SF • Adoption of SB 2113 and SB 211 Planning Commission. in 2000 and 2001, requiring the City Interview with Calvin Welch, San Francisco housing activist, lecturer in development to replace the 6,709 net loss of units politics, and former longtime Co-Director of the Council of Community Housing Organizations, July 20, 2012. that occurred during the early urban Interview with Olson Lee, Director of the Mayor’s Office of Housing, former Chief renewal period—i.e., before a one- Financial Officer at the Mayor’s Office of Housing and former Deputy Director for for-one replacement requirement was Housing of the SFRA, July 25, 2012. placed on the SFRA. These bills per- Jacobson, Daniel & Stallworth, Chris (2009). “Bayview-Hunters Point: Urban Trans- mit tax increment revenues to be col- formations and Community Cooptation,” Urbanist, 161, 9-13. lected from some redevelopment ar- Kelly, Dan (Nov. 2009). “Fiscal and Policy Implications for Single Room Occupancy eas for low- and moderate-income Hotels”. Report to SF-HAS Managers/City Department Representatives, at www.sf- housing activities until all 6,709 units planning.org. have been replaced. Significantly, Non-Profit Housing Assn. of California (2007). Affordable by Choice: Trends in these bills ensure that, even after the California Inclusionary Housing Programs, at http://www.nonprofithousing.org/ demise of the SFRA in 2012 (discussed pages/publications-and-press-room/publications.html. below), the City will continue to re- Rubin, Gayle (1997). “The Miracle Mile, South of Market and Gay Male Leather 1962-1997.” In Reclaiming San Francisco: History, Politics, Culture. San Fran- ceive some tax increment to replace cisco: City Lights Books (1998). Retrieved Sept. 27, 2012 from FoundSF website: the housing that was lost during the http://foundsf.org/index.php?title=Redevelopment. early urban renewal period. San Francisco Budget and Legislative Analyst (Jan. 2012). “Performance Audit of San Francisco’s Affordable Housing Policies and Programs.” Prepared for Board of Supervisors for the City and County of San Francisco. Conclusion San Francisco Planning Department (June 2011). “25-Years: Downtown Plan Moni- toring Report: 1985-2009.” San Francisco continues to face “Update on the Housing Preservation Program. San Francisco: A City Committed to tough challenges in providing the af- Preservation, Policy” Link case study, at http://www.policylink.org/site/ fordable, quality housing that its resi- c.lkIXLbMNJrE/b.5136999/k.7DA7/Case_Studies.htm. dents and workforce need, but the City Welch, Calvin (2011). “The Fight to Stay: The Creation of the Community Housing Movement in San Francisco, 1968-1978.” In Chris Carlsson & Lisa Ruth Elliott is demonstrating a solid commitment (Eds.), Ten Years that Shook the City: San Francisco 1968-1978 (pp. 154-162). to addressing those challenges. A sig- San Francisco: City Lights Books. nificant blow to financing opportuni- “Western Addition A-1.” Retrieved Sept. 27, 2012, from City and County of San ties occurred earlier this year when Francisco as Successor to Redevelopment Agency website: http:// California dissolved all 400 of its re- www.sfredevelopment.org/index.aspx?page=64. development agencies, including the Wright, James & Rubin, Beth (1997). “Is Homelessness a Housing Problem?” In SFRA, to redirect redevelopment rev- Understanding Homelessness: New Policy and Research Perspectives. Washington, enues away from housing and toward DC: Fannie Mae Foundation, at http://content.knowledgeplex.org/kp2/kp/report/ report/relfiles/homeless_1997_wright.pdf. the $25 billion deficit in the state budget. An assessment of housing needs

12 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 in San Francisco by the regional planning association, Association of Bay New on PRRAC’s Website Area Governments (ABAG), also shows that the City did a good job Do Federally Assisted Households Have Access to High Performing Public meeting its very-low-income and mar- Schools? by Ingrid Gould Ellen & Keren Mertens Horn (a 50-state analysis ket-rate housing needs between 1999 of the location of family housing units in the four largest federally-assisted and 2006, but fell woefully short in housing programs) meeting its housing needs for low- and moderate-income households—those An Early Assessment of Off-Site Replacement Housing, Relocation Plan- earning between about 50% and 120% ning and Housing Mobility Counseling in HUD’s Choice Neighborhoods of AMI. In response to these ob- Initiative, by Martha Galvez (is the Choice Neighborhoods program living stacles, a proposed Housing Trust up to its fair housing commitments?) Fund, which has broad community, government, and business support, is “Why socio-economic integration alone is not enough – a statement on being placed before the San Francisco Fisher v. Texas” voters in November 2012, which, if approved, will more than replace the visit www.prrac.org lost redevelopment revenues. Also, the Mayor’s Office of Housing has been exploring options to produce housing San Francisco must continue to that the early urban renewal and dis- for low- to moderate-income house- evolve its policy to fill in the gaps in placement days are gone and have been holds through various programs and its housing needs and find creative and replaced with a vision of creating the funding modifications. Despite the substantial sources of funding to de- housing, jobs and services required to quick response, however, it is evident velop and maintain affordable hous- maintain and build thriving, diverse that San Francisco will continue to need ing in one of the nation’s most expen- and inclusive communities within the to be inventive and its housing advo- sive housing markets. By also ensur- city. ❏ cates strong in order to meet the chal- ing that the needs of local residents are lenges ahead. heard, San Francisco is demonstrating

(PUBLIC HOUSING: Cont. from page 2) leaders, for non-discriminatory fund- ment built the Ford Willow Run ing. The segregated projects were bomber plant in a previously undevel- dent families, many of which were opened in 1945 with preference for oped suburb without pre-existing ra- headed by barely literate single par- veterans. The white project remained cial housing patterns. The Federal Pub- ents. Youth gang activity became more predominantly so until the late 1950s, lic Housing Agency then built hous- frequent. A combination of deterio- when most early residents had relocated ing for white workers only. Thus, the rating social conditions and public dis- to suburbs, many with FHA- and VA- workforce necessarily was overwhelm- investment made life in the projects guaranteed mortgages and restrictive ingly white, in contrast to Ford’s city so untenable that the federal govern- covenants (Heathcott 2011). operations. By 1944, as whites left pub- ment evicted all residents and dyna- • Cleveland: Public housing con- lic housing for FHA-subsidized single- mited the 33 towers in 1972. structed during WW II was open only family suburban homes, 3,000 Detroit But few knew another side of St. to white workers, at the insistence of public housing units were vacant, while Louis history. When federal housing the Ohio Congressional delegation. black workers in desperate need of funds became available during the Towards the war’s end, a few African housing were barred from occupancy New Deal, St. Louis proposed to raze in the city as well as from employ- a racially integrated low-income Only two-parent ment opportunities in the suburbs neighborhood whose population was families were accepted. (Weaver 1948, 1967). about ¾ white and ¼ black, to con- As the post-war housing shortage struct on that land a whites-only low- Americans were admitted to previously eased, whites’ opposition to public rise project for two-parent families white-only projects, in token compli- housing grew. In 1948-49, the Detroit with steady employment. When Wash- ance with nominal (but unenforced) City Council proposed 12 projects in ington objected, St. Louis proposed federal non-discrimination policy. By white areas. The mayor vetoed them an additional blacks-only project re- 1945, black presence in Cleveland's all; only housing in predominantly moved from the white one, but also in four designated-for-whites projects black areas was approved (Sugrue a previously integrated area. This met ranged from 0.3% to 3% (Weaver 1995). the federal government’s conditions, 1948, 1967). • Los Angeles: Over 10,000 Af- insisted upon by liberals and civil rights • Detroit: In 1941, the govern- (Please turn to page 14)

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 13 (PUBLIC HOUSING: Cont. from page 13) white neighborhoods, and the city's pattern of the neighborhoods in which Housing Authority did not permit [projects] are located” (California rican-American families migrated dur- blacks to reside there. African Ameri- Eagle 1943). ing WW II for work in shipyards, air- cans eligible for public housing re- But faced with a growing housing craft plants and other war industries mained homeless while units set aside crisis and civil rights protests, the Los that, desperately in need of labor, hired for whites remained vacant. The Hous- Angeles Housing Authority soon re- blacks for the first time. But little or ing Authority chairman explained in versed itself and adopted a non-dis- no adequate housing was open to 1943 that "the Authority selects its resi- crimination policy for all projects. It blacks. Public housing was built in dents by following the previous racial even adopted a lease clause that prom- ised eviction for those who contributed to a disturbance based on "racial intol- erance." The new policy was swiftly Works Cited: implemented, and by 1947 Los Ange- les public housing was extensively in- In most cases and except for direct quotations, only books and easily accessible magazine, journal and newspaper articles have been cited. For tegrated. But this was only temporary. archival and less easily accessible documentation of other claims in this As white tenants left the projects for article, contact the author at [email protected]. homes in more solidly middle-class suburbs, blacks—for whom housing Bloom, Nicholas Dagen. 2008. Public Housing that Worked. New York in the Twenti- elsewhere was barred—disproportion- eth Century. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. ately remained. Whereas in 1947 Los California Eagle. 1943. "Housing Authority Vows 'Liberalization'." California Eagle Angeles public housing tenants were 63 (39), January 8: 1, 5. http://www.archive.org/details/la_caleagle_reel25 55% white and 30% black, by 1959, Dean, John P. 1947. "Only Caucasian: A Study of Race Covenants." The Journal of they were only 14% white and 65% Land & Public Utility Economics 23 (4), November: 428-432 black, with Mexican-origin tenants Duncan, Arne. 2010. “Joel Klein's Legacy, Cathie Black's Challenge: Secretary of Ed. another 19%. Los Angeles public Arne Duncan Grades N.Y. Schools Big.” New York Daily News, November 14 housing came to be perceived as "Ne- Heathcott, Joseph. 2011. “’In the Nature of a Clinic.’ The Design of Early Public gro housing," and whites began to pro- Housing in St. Louis.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 70 (1), test the location of new projects in their March: 82-103 neighborhoods. Public officials caved Jackson, Kenneth T. 1985. Crabgrass Frontier. New York: Oxford Univ. Press in, and projects initially designated for white areas were relocated to Watts. A Nixon, Richard M. 1970. “The President’s News Conference,” December 10. The project designated for Santa Monica, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2840 #axzz1y8oEdhy5 for example, was cancelled after such protests and relocated to Watts. Three Nixon, Richard. 1973. "Special Message to the Congress Proposing Legislation and new projects were built in Watts be- Outlining Administration Actions To Deal With Federal Housing Policy," September 19. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. tween 1953 and 1955 alone, turning http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3968 Watts from an area where some blacks were already residing to an impover- Polikoff, Alexander. 2006. Waiting for Gautreaux. Evanston, IL: Northwestern Uni- ished and racially isolated ghetto. versity Press But best known in Los Angeles’ pub- Rothstein, Richard, 2001. “Poverty and Achievement, And Great Misconceptions.” lic housing history was an attempt to The New York Times, January 3 build a racially integrated project in Rothstein, Richard, 2002. “Schools, Accountability and a Sheaf of Fuzzy Math.” The Chavez Ravine, northwest of down- New York Times, April 10 town and far from Watts. By the end Sides, Josh. 2003. L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great of 1951, land had been cleared and con- Depression to the Present. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press struction begun. But the City Council Sugrue, Thomas J. 1995. "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction called an emergency meeting and can- against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964." The Journal of American History celled the project. The California Su- 82 (2), September: 551-578 preme Court voided the cancellation, TIME. 1950. “Up From the Potato Fields.” TIME 56, July 3 but the Council sponsored a 1952 referendum and voters overwhelmingly Vale, Lawrence J. 2002. Reclaiming Public Housing. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press rejected the public housing. The city Weaver, Robert C. 1948, 1967. The Negro Ghetto. New York: Russell & Russell then sold the land that had been cleared Wilson, William Julius. 1987, 2012. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the to the Dodgers baseball team for its Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press stadium (Sides 2003). • Boston: In the late 1930s, the city razed a dilapidated, overcrowded

14 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 and low-cost neighborhood, to replace tenants had more than high school edu- it with public housing for white cation, but by 1975 the median adult Thanks middle-class families. Slum dwellers level was 10th grade (Vale 2002). whose homes were demolished could • And Elsewhere: Examples na- As is my custom, and pleasure, not afford to live in the new public units tionwide abound of how public hous- at the end of each year, I want to with their relatively high rents. When ing was used by federal, state and lo- thank the various folks who assist the first project, Old Harbor, was cal governments to create the segre- in getting P&R out: our numer- opened in 1938, median monthly rent gated metropolitan areas we know to- ous short-term policy and law in- of $26 was only $3 below the citywide day. In 1960, Savannah (Georgia) terns, but especially Angela median. In 1940, only 9% of project evicted all white residents from its Parker of the Center for Law & residents were unemployed, compared Francis Bartow Place project, creat- Policy staff, who devotes a por- to 30% in the surrounding neighbor- ing an all-black neighborhood where tion of her time to PRRAC and is hood who were either unemployed or integration previously existed. The particularly helpful in putting to- on public work relief; neighborhood Housing Authority asserted that with gether our Resources Sections, median rent was $15. The project ac- national (and local) housing shortages Michelle Vinson, who tirelessly cepted families whose income was five abating, whites could easily find hous- updates our mailing list, and Teri times the citywide median rent (six ing elsewhere and blacks needed the Grimwood, who for lots and lots times for families with three or more housing more. In Miami, where black of years has assisted me with all children). Another nearby develop- tenants had been assigned to segregated kinds of projects—in this instance, ment, the D Street Project, opened in projects while whites were given creating the layout for each issue. 1949, mostly for veterans; tenants’ vouchers to subsidize private apartment - CH median education level included some rentals, it was not until 1998 that a college, considerably higher than typi- legal settlement required that vouch- cal levels at the time. ers also be offered to blacks. The rem- government's opposition to public As in New York, Boston disquali- edy was insufficient to undo the seg- housing in white communities: "There fied prospective tenants for cohabita- regation that public policy had created will be an enormous practical impact tion, out-of-wedlock children, exces- and abetted. on innocent communities who have to sive drinking and unsanitary house- In 1984, The Dallas Morning News bear the burden of the housing, who keeping. Inspectors entered prospec- investigated federally-funded projects will have to house a plaintiff class from tive tenants’ apartments without no- in 47 cities, reporting that the nation's Chicago, which they wronged in no tice (or permission) to evaluate their nearly 10 million public housing resi- way" (Polikoff 2006). The federal gov- household habits. Applicants had to dents were still almost always segre- ernment thus defined nondiscrimina- provide references from previous land- gated by race. The few remaining pre- tory housing as punishment visited on lords and prove stable employment dominantly white projects had supe- innocent suburbanites. histories. After WW II, veterans were rior facilities, amenities, services and Other court decisions, for example given preference. maintenance in comparison to pre- in Baltimore, Yonkers and Dallas, have Also like New York, Boston as- dominantly black ones. also confirmed that the federal gov- signed a token number of African In 1976, the Supreme Court found ernment created or perpetuated ghet- Americans to Old Harbor and D that the Chicago Housing Authority, tos with its public housing site loca- Street, while maintaining other collaborating with federal agencies, tion and tenant assignment policies. projects where few whites resided. But had unconstitutionally selected sites to a 1962 discrimination complaint forced maintain segregation. Mayor Richard The Government’s the city to assign additional black ten- Daley had stated, in rejecting projects One-Two Punch ants to the middle-class projects. Ini- for predominantly white neighbor- tially, only middle-class families were hoods, that public housing should only The result has been a one-two assigned, but as more whites took ad- go "where this kind of housing is most punch. With public housing, federal vantage of FHA and VA subsidies to needed and accepted" (Polikoff 2006). and local government increased Afri- move, earlier residents were gradually President Richard Nixon told a news can Americans’ isolation in urban ghet- replaced by much lower-income mi- conference: "I believe that forced in- tos. An with mortgage guarantees, the norities. tegration of the suburbs is not in the government subsidized whites to aban- D Street had initially accepted only national interest," and then followed don urban areas for suburbs. The com- two-parent families, but by 1960, there up with a formal policy pledging not bination contributed heavily to creation were 50% more adult females than to require any suburb to accept public of the segregated neighborhoods and males. It had opened with higher rents housing over the suburb’s protest schools we know today, with truly dis- than those in the surrounding distressed (Nixon 1970). In the Chicago case, advantaged minority students isolated area, but by 1970, rents were below President Gerald Ford's Solicitor Gen- in poverty-concentrated schools where those in any nearby community. Early eral Robert Bork stated the (Please turn to page 16)

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 15 (PUBLIC HOUSING: Cont. from page 15) The conventional idea that we now (CABE), which provides technical as- suffer from “de facto” segregation, sistance to two-way bilingual educa- teachers struggle unsuccessfully to created by vague market and demo- tors, estimates that there are more than overcome families’ multiple needs. graphic forces (Justice Potter Stewart 900 of what she defines as “true” dual Without these public policies, the ra- once termed them “unknown and per- immersion programs in 46 states, with cial achievement gap that has been so haps unknowable”) is urban mythol- about 400 in Texas and 300 in Cali- daunting to educators would be a very ogy. Residential segregation was as fornia. To give some sense of the different, and lesser, challenge. That much the product of purposeful pub- method’s increased popularity, in 1990 gap can’t be addressed by nostalgia for lic policy as was “de jure” school seg- the Center for Applied Linguistics es- a fanciful past when whites grew up regation. The legacy of both endures. timated that just 35 two-way immer- in public housing and succeeded solely ❏ sion programs were operating across by benefiting from good teachers. the nation. Molina and other experts caution, though, that it is difficult to determine how many such programs ex- (IMMERSION: Continued from page 8) gual school. ist because increasingly educators in “I have seen a genuine interest recent years have started “Spanish” or scores, have better attendance records, among parents to learn Spanish,” “Chinese” immersion schools that do and get referred for behavior problems Hillion says. “There is a completely not enroll a significant share of native far less frequently. English language open attitude and desire to really em- Spanish or Chinese students. learners, English-speaking Latino chil- brace Latin cultures....But you know “That’s not what the original idea dren, African-American students and it is challenging. It is not easy to have of two-way bilingual is,” Molina ex- white students all performed better in your child learning in two languages plains. “It involves, at its heart, shar- dual immersion schools. ing language. When you do not see any Dual immersion schools also enjoy The ultimate aspiration other language but English represented enduring popularity among parents is biculturalism. in the enrollment, we don’t see this as from a variety of racial and economic a two-way program.” backgrounds. Under Cambridge’s con- when you do not know one of them. Molina cautions educators against trolled choice policy designed to en- It is a true commitment.” allowing dual immersion to become sure socioeconomic diversity, parents Like Jelstrup, Lisa Downing, who dominated by middle-class, English- list schools in order of preference. also has two sons at Amigos, praises speaking families as its popularity Consistently, for several years, the school’s high academic standards. grows. “…. How we design these pro- Amigos is among the top three choices The mothers agree, however, that they grams should ensure that it is English of parents. Every year, at Barbieri, at could not have predicted and cannot language learners getting to benefit Boston’s schools and the Amigos quantify some of school’s most impor- from this method just as much as En- School, the requests for admission far tant benefits. glish-speaking students who want to outnumber the available seats. “I do think that the kids here de- learn another language and learn about “I didn’t know anything about the velop an incredible empathy that another culture,” she says. research,” says Kristen Jelstrup, whose comes from having to learn a second two sons attend Amigos. Breathless, language and being so immersed with *** Jelstrup’s first- grader, Alex, shows other cultures,” Downing says. off his robot drawings and then runs “Maybe that’s because when you have The research on the benefits of bi- back to his friends on the playground to learn a second language, you do lingualism is increasingly clear. The after school. need to take risks….go out on a limb.” cognitive neuroscientist Ellen Bialystok “We had visited other schools and *** of York University in Toronto has pub- then we came here to Amigos and it lished some of the most convincing was a no-brainer. It just felt right, and The dual immersion model has long findings. In repeated studies, Bialystok then my husband and I talked about it been common in the border states of finds that bilingual children tend to and for our kids to graduate fluent in Texas and New Mexico and in regions master letters and numbers more a second language? It was an unbeliev- of California. But more recently it has quickly than monolingual children. able opportunity.” spread to other states, including, most Also, she finds that children who have Jelstrup is learning Spanish bit by notably, Utah, where 11 school dis- been exposed to stories in two lan- bit with help from Yanina Hillion, a tricts maintain dual immersion pro- guages tend to have advantages as they native of Argentina whose four chil- grams. Though there is no official ac- learn to read. More recently, Bialystok dren attend Amigos. Hillion offers counting of dual immersion programs has studied bilingual adults, finding Spanish classes for parents and also in the nation, Rosa Molina, executive that they tend to be less prone to cog- provides advice in how to assist kids director of the Two-Way California nitive decline in their older years and with homework and adjust to a bilin- Association of Bilingual Educators more efficient multi-taskers, likely

16 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 because using two languages exercises Resources the prefrontal cortex section of the brain. The Center for Applied Linguistics: A wealth of information and resources, particularly Meanwhile, outcomes from the re- for educators, related to two-way immersion programs across the nation. strictive language policies of Arizona, http://www.cal.org/topics/ell/immersion.html California and Massachusetts, which Bialystok, E., Craik, F., & Luk, G. (2012). “Bilingualism: Consequences for mind move away from or else effectively ban and brain.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240-250. bilingual education, have been discour- Collier, V.P. & Thomas, W.P. (2009, November). Educating English Learners For aging. a Transformed World. Albuquerque, NM: Fuente Press. Go to www.dlenm.org and In their edited volume of research click on Fuente Press for a book description and sample material. studies and research reviews, Forbid- den Language: English Learners and likely than even African-American stu- and Tran find that the degree of segre- Restrictive Language Policies, UCLA dents to attend often overwhelmed, gation within a school explains most Professor Patricia Gándara and North- unstable high-poverty schools. of the variation in English language western University researcher Megan In a recent survey of about 900 Ari- learners’ achievement. In other words, Hopkins find that, contrary to what zona teachers, 85% of them said they the more integrated English language English-only proponents had prom- felt that segregating English learners learners are with English speakers, the ised, the evidence fails to show that from English-speaking students in better the English language learners English-only policies resulted in im- tend to do in school. proved educational programming or All students performed better educational outcomes for En- *** glish language learners. Gándara and better in dual immersion Hopkins recommend increased use of schools. Deborah Sercombe stands amid stu- methods and programs such as dual dents opening lunch boxes, eating sand- immersion in which students’ home school is harmful to education. Other wiches and munching on chips in the languages are respected as assets and research indicates that those Arizona din of the school cafeteria. She offers where English learners are fully incor- teachers have good instincts. For ex- a simple and obvious but necessary porated into schools rather than sepa- ample, in a 2010 study, Russ Rum- observation: rated from other students. berger and Loan Tran of the Univer- “You enable those friendships, you Dual immersion provides a small sity of California-Santa Barbara ana- enable integration by putting kids to- counterweight to a trend Patricia lyzed data on segregation levels and gether,” she says. “You put kids to- Gándara terms “triple segregation.” achievement in 50 states. They con- gether in classrooms, and just like this, Research by Gándara and other experts cluded that increasing integration of right here, you put them together just shows Latino students disproportion- English language learners with native eating lunch. You get them working ately concentrated and separated by English speakers would be the most together with equal status, throughout ethnicity, by economic class and by effective thing policymakers could do the day every day. That’s the founda- language. Latinos are now the nation’s to improve overall achievement of tion right there.” ❏ largest “minority” group and are more English language learners. Rumberger

(FISHER: Cont. from page 5) ing in Bakke: “Our conclusion that the argument was the final words of the Law School has a compelling in- Solicitor General Verrilli: “I think it vironment in which African Americans terest in a diverse student body is in- is important, Your Honors, not just do not -- formed by our view that attaining a to the government, but to the coun- Chief Justice Roberts: When—how diverse student body is at the heart of try, that our universities have the flex- am I supposed to decide whether you the Law School's proper institutional ibility to shape their environments and have an environment within particular mission, and that ‘good faith’ on the their educational experience to make minorities who don't feel isolated? part of a university is ‘presumed,’ ab- a reality of the principle that Justice Mr. Garre: Your Honor, part of this sent "a showing to the contrary.") . Kennedy has identified in, that our is a—is a judgment that the admi strength comes from people of differ- Chief Justice Roberts: So, I see— * * * ent races, different creeds, different when you tell me, that's good enough. cultures, uniting in a commitment to The Chief Justice’s questions make From a perspective of viewer in the freedom, and to a more perfect union. a mockery of the thoughtful words of gallery who is of the view that UT’s That's what the University of Texas Justice O’Connor in Grutter, which plan should be upheld as consistent is trying to do with its admissions reflect directly Justice Powell’s reason- with Grutter, perhaps the highlight of policy, and it should be upheld.” ❏

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 17 Resources

Most Resources are July 2012, $75), has been 2012), has been published No. 1 (July 2012) of The available directly from the published by Lexington by Routledge. [13673] American Journal of issuing organization, either Books. Included in the Sociology [13644] on their website (if given) or essays are those by • "Ensuring that the via other contact informa- PRRAC Bd. member John Ladder of Opportunity tion listed. Materials Brittain & Howard U. Remains Strong for the Criminal published by PRRAC are Law Prof. Derek Black Latino Community" took available through our (author of the article on place Aug. 7, 2012 at The Justice website: www.prrac.org. Middle-Income Peers in Center for American the May/June 2012 P&R). Progress. Among the • Unequal Justice: The Prices include the [13650] speakers was Labor Sec. Relentless Rise of the 1% shipping/handling (s/h) Hilda Solis. Inf. from Court is a new (2012) charge when this informa- • "The Racial Impact events@american documentary from The tion is provided to of Voter Identification progress.org [13655] Alliance for Justice. PRRAC. “No price listed” Laws in the 2012 Elec- Contact them at items often are free. tion," by Jon C. • The Institute of [email protected] [13665] When ordering items from Rogowski & Cathy J. American Cultures is PRRAC: SASE = self- Cohen (21 pp., mid- holding its inaugural • "Video Visits for addressed stamped envelope 2012), is available conference, "Super Children Whose Parents (45¢ unless otherwise (possibly free) from The diversity California Style: are Incarcerated: In indicated). Orders may not Black Youth Project, New Approaches to Race, Whose Best Interest?," be placed by telephone or http://www.blackyouth Civil Rights, Governance ed. Susan D. Phillips (14 fax. Please indicate from project.com [13651] and Cultural Production," pp., Oct. 2012), is which issue of P&R you are Feb. 28-March 1, 2013 at available (no price listed) ordering. • "Title VI Enforce- UCLA. Inf.from PRRAC from The Sentencing ment Rights" is a July Bd. member Don Project, 1705 DeSales St. 2012 publication of the Nakanishi, [email protected] NW, 8th flr., Wash., DC Race/Racism U.S. Dept. of Education [13676] 20036, 202/628-0871, Office of Civil Rights, staff@sentencing • What's the Matter available at www/ed.gov project.org [13671] With White People? [13652] Poverty/ Longing for a Golden Welfare • Invisible Men: Mass Age That Never Was, by • Racing to Justice: Incarceration and the Joan Walsh (261 pp., Transforming Our Myth of Black Progress, 2012, $25.95), has been Conceptions of Self and • Vibrant Communities by Becky Pettit (June published by John Wiley Other to Build an is a poverty reduction 2012, 156 pp., $29.95), & Sons. [13648] Inclusive Society, by john program, for across has been published by a. powell, a PRRAC Bd. Canada and beyond, The Russell Sage Fdn. • Controversy Over member (336 pp., Aug. organized by Tamarack- [13684] Pew Research Center 2012, $32), has been An Institute for Commu- Report on Asian Ameri- published by Indiana nity Engagement. Contact • "Race, Gender and cans: Criticized for being Univ. Press. [13653] them at www.tamarack the School-to-Prison "highly biased" and community.ca [13662] Pipeline: Expanding Our "damaging" by leading • ADC Law Review is a Discussion to Include scholars; a June 25, 2012 brand new legal journal • Poor Kids is a new Black Girls," by Press Release detailing from the American-Arab Frontline film on child Monique Morris (23 pp., these objections is Anti-Discrimination poverty. Will be shown Aug. 2012), from the available from (PRRAC Comm. Guidelines for Nov. 13, 2012 at the African-American Policy Soc. Sci. Adv. Bd. submissions available National Press Club in Forum, is available at member) Paul Ong, from [email protected]. Wash., DC, along with a http://aapf.org.wp- pmong.ucla.edu and ADC is at 1900 M St. panel discussion with Ray content/uploads/ads/2012/ Melanie De La Cruz- NW, #610, Wash., DC Suarez and others. Inf. 08/Morris-Race-Gender- Viesca, 310/206-7738. 20036, 202/244-2990. from 617/300-5382. and-the-School-to-Prison- [13649] [13656] [13663] Pipeline.pdf [13685]

• Charles H. Houston: • Conservatism in the • "Eviction and • "Race and Juvenile An Interdisciplinary Black Community: To the Reproduction of Urban Incarceration Propensity Study of Civil Rights Right and Misunder- Poverty" (46 pp.), by Score Matching Exami- Lawyers, ed. James L. stood, by Angela K. Matthew Desmond, nation," by George E. Conyers, Jr. (302 pp., Lewis (160 pp., Dec. appeared in Vol. 118, Higgins, Melissa L.

18 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 Ricketts, James D. Sci. Adv. Bd. member) Food/ • “Addressing Health Griffith & Stephanie A. Gary Orfield, reachable at Disparities Through Jirard, appeared in the the UCLA Civil Rights Nutrition/ Civil Rights Compliance March 2012 American Project, 8370 Math Hunger and Enforcement” was a Journal of Criminal Sciences Bldg., Box recent webcast from the Justice. [13693] 951521, LA, CA 90095- • "Hunger and Poverty HHS Office of Civil 1521, 310/267-5562, Hurt African-American Rights. It's archived/ • "Race Influences [email protected] Women and Children available at services. Criminal Sentences, Fact Sheet" (2 pp., Feb. choruscall.com/links/hrsa/ Research Indicates" is the • "Digital Strategy for 2012) is available from 20919.html [13677] heading of an article Increasing Access and Bread for the World at describing a recent study Opportunity in Rural www.bread.org/what-we- • "Health Action 2013" by David Abrams, using Schools" was an Oct. 25, do/resources/fact-sheets/ is Families USA's 18th data from Cook County, 2012 webinar put on by african-american-2012.pdf annual conference, IL, that appeared in the the Alliance for Excellent [13647] Wash., DC. Inf. from Aug. 22, 2012 National Education. Inf. from info@ familiesusa.org Law Journal. [13694] [email protected] • “Growing Urban [13658] [13664] Agriculture: Equitable • "Life Sentence in Strategies for Improving America" was an Oct. 24, • "The Coalition of Access to Healthy Food Homelessness 2012 event, held at the Essential Schools Fall & Revitalizing Commu- Open Society Fdns. in Forum 2012" will be nities,” by Allison Hagey, • "Report on 2010 DC, sponsored by The held Nov. 9-10, 2012 at Solana Rice & Rebecca Census Emergency & Sentencing Project, 1705 Met School in Provi- Flournoy (52 pp., 2012), Transitional Shelter DeSales St. NW, 8th flr., dence, RI. Inf. from 740/ is available (no price Programs" is available Wash., DC 20036, 202/ 662-0503, info@ listed) from PolicyLink, via The Bureau of the 628-0871, staff@ forumforeducation.org, 55 W. 39th St., 11th flr, Census, 301/763-3000. sentencingproject.org www.forumforeducation.org NYC, NY 10018, 212/ [13681] [13669] [13678] 629-9570. Housing • “Survival Pending Education Families/ Revolution: What the • "The Rise of Residen- Black Panthers Can tial Segregation by • "Millions of Students Women/ Teach the US Food Income" (22 pp., Aug. Locked Out of Class- Children Movement,” by Raj Patel, 2012) is available rooms" (Aug. 2012) is is a 3-page article in the (possibly free) from Pew available (possibly free) • "Kids Count - 2012 Summer 2012 Food First Social & Demographic from the National Data Book" shows that, Backgrounder, available Trends, 1615 L St. NW, Opportunity to Learn over a 5-yr. period, (likely free) from Food #700, Wash., DC 20036, Campaign, 675 Mass. economic well-being of First Inst. for Food and 202/419-4372. www. Ave., 8th flr., Cambridge, children declined, while Development Policy, 398 pewsocialtrends.org MA 02139, 617/876- health & education 60th St., Oakland, CA [13645] 7700. [13642] outcomes improved. The 94618, 510/654-4400, 60-page report is avail- [email protected] • "The State of Fair • "The Urgency of able (likely free) from the Housing in Northeast Now: The Schott Founda- Annie E. Casey Fdn., 701 Ohio" (35 pp., April tion 50-State Report on St. Paul St., Baltimore, 2012) is available Public Education and MD 21202, 410/547- Health (possibly free) from Black Males" is available 6600, bit.ly/NqXfyf, Krissie Wells, (no price listed) from the www.aecf.org [13666] • "Safe, Stable Homes kwells@thehousingcenter. Foundation, 675 Mass. Lead to Healthier org, of the Housing Ave., 8th flr., Cambridge, • "America's Report Children and Families" Research & Advocacy MA 02139, 617/876- Card 2012: Children in are 2 Research Briefs, Center, 3631 Perkins 7700, www.blackboy the U.S." (32 pp., Oct. about Boston and Balti- Ave., #3A-2, Cleveland, sreport.org [13692] 2012), from First Focus more, available (possibly OH 44114, 216/361- and Save the Children, is free) from Children's 9240. Available as well • “Segregation Promi- available (possibly free) Health Care Watch, 88 E. on their website, www. nent in Schools, Study from First Focus, 1110 Newton St., Vose Hall, thehousingcenter.org Finds” was the headline Vermont Ave. NW, #900, 4th flr., Boston, MA [13646] in a Sept. 20, 2012 NY Wash., DC 20005, 202/ 02118, childrenshealth Times story, reporting on 657-0670. [13668] carewatch@childrens • The House We Live a new analysis of Dept. of healthcarewatch.org In skillfully documents Education data. Author of [13675] the history of housing the study is (PRRAC Soc. discrimination and the

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 19 role of government & the United States," by Inst. Inf. from events@ Austin Nichols & Jennifer other players in reinforc- Aaron Matteo Terrazas migrationpolicy.org T. Comey (7 pp., Sept. ing residential segrega- (Oct. 2012), is available [13667] 2010), is available (likely tion and unequal invest- (possibly free) from The free) from The Urban ment in communities. Migration Policy Inst., Inst., 2100 M St. NW, (PRRAC Bd. member 1400 16th St. NW, #300, Transportation Wash., DC 20037, 202/ john powell appears in Wash., DC 20036, 202/ 833-7200, [13680] it.) Inf. from Calif. 266-1940, source@ • "Transporting Black Newsreel, 877/811-7495, migrationpolicy.org Men to Good Jobs, • "Millions to the www.newsreel.org [13686] Transportation Infra- Middle: 14 Big Ideas to [13672] structure, Transportation Build a Strong and • "Refugees and Jobs & Public Transit" Diverse Middle Class" is • "Protecting Tenants Asylees in the United was a Sept. 26, 2012 available from Demos, Displaced for Redevelop- States," by Joseph Russell event held at the Rayburn 200 Fifth Ave., 2nd Fl., ment Projects" was an & Jeanne Batalova House Office Bldg. by NYC, NY 10001, 212/ Oct. 26, 2012 forum at (2012), is available The Economic Policy 633-1405, info@ the LBJ School of Public (possibly free) from The Inst. Inf. from EPI, 1333 demos.org [13682] Affairs, part of its Migration Policy Inst., H St. NW, #300 E. Gentrification Series. For 1400 16th St. NW, #300, Tower, Wash., DC this and future Series Wash., DC 20036, 202/ 20005, newsletter@ Job events: opportunity 266-1940, source@ epi.org [13691] [email protected] migrationpolicy.org Opportunities/ [13683] [13688] Fellowships/ Miscellaneous • "The Immigrant Grants Immigration Workforce and the • "It Has Always Been Future of U.S. Policy" About Voting" is a photo • The Center for Law • "Tailoring Place- was a July 31, 2012 exhibit by Robert Brand. & Social Policy (DC) based Services to Immi- Forum held at the Contact him at rbrand@ (headed by former grant Families in Brookings Institution's solutionsfor progress. PRRAC Bd. member Alan Portland, Oregon," by Metropolitan Program. A com, 215/701-6102. Houseman) is seeking a Molly M. Scott (2012), is video of the event, audio [13657] Development Director. available (no price given) and transcript are avail- Resume/writing sample/ from the author, able from metro@ • My Storm: Managing thoughtful cover ltr. to [email protected] and is brookings.edu [13636] the Recovery of New [email protected] downloadable at http:// Orleans in the Wake of [13634] blog.metrotrends.org/ • "Immigration Katrina (the City in the 2012/08/tailoring-place- Enforcement: How 21st Century), by Edward • The Southern based-services- Children, Families and Blakely (177 pp., 2012), Poverty Law Center is immigrant-families- Communities Are has been published by seeking a Deputy Legal portland-oregon/ [13635] Impacted" was a Aug. 20, Univ. Penn. Press. Director for its Immigrant 2012 event sponsored by [13659] Justice Project. Atlanta • "Workers' Rights Are The Center for American base. Ltr./salary reqs./ Human Rights: South Progress. Inf. from • Driving Detroit: The resume in one document Asian Immigrant Work- events@american Quest for Respect in the to https://home.eea. ers in New York City" progress.org [13641] Motor City, by George se.com/recruit2/?id= (32 pp., July 2012) is a Galster (328 pp., 2012, 1968681&C=1 [13689] report by Desis Rising • "The 9th Annual $45 -- but 20% discount Up & the Community Immigration Law and available: 800/537-5487), • “Poverty, Inequality Development Project of Policy Conference," co- has been published by & Mobility among The Urban Justice Center. sponsored by The Univ. Penn. Press [13661] Hispanics”: The Stanford Available at info@ Migration Policy Inst., Ctr. on Poverty & drumnyc.org [13638] Catholic Immigration orrow Newsletter is Inequality, with funds Network & Georgetown's published by Policy Link from the Office of • The Multicultural Center for Migration (headed by former Planning, Research & Dilemma: Migration, Studies, was held Oct. 1, PRRAC Bd. member Evaluation of HHS’ Ethnic Politics and State 2012. Inf. from events@ Angela Glover Administration for Intervention, ed. Michelle migrationpolicy.org Blackwell). Available at Children and Families, Williams (264 pp., Nov. [13637] AmericasTomorrow@ will fund up to 5 projects 2012), has been published policylink.org [13679] (maximum grant: by Routledge. [13674] • "Rethinking National $25,000). Proposals due Identity in the Age of • "Benefit of Living in by Dec. 15, 2012 to • "Disentangling Migration" was an Oct. High-Opportunity [email protected]. Immigration and Inter- 24, 2012 event sponsored Neighborhood," by Further inf. from Alice national Development in by the Migration Policy Margery Austin Turner, Chou, 650/724-6912.

20 • Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 Poverty & Race Index, Vol. 21 (2012)

This Index includes the major articles in the six 2012 issues of Poverty & Race (Vol. 21). The categories used frequently overlap, so a careful look at the entire Index is recommended. Each issue also contains an extensive Resources Section, not in the Index below, but available in database form for all 21 volumes. We can send an Index for any or all of the first 20 Volumes of P&R; please provide a self-addressed, stamped envelope. Articles are on our website, www.prrac.org

Race/Racism Housing

642. “Count Them One by One: Black Mississippians Fight- 652. “Causa Justa :: Just Cause: Multi-Racial Movement- ing for the Right to Vote,” by Gordon A. Martin, Jr., Building for Housing Rights,” by Maria Poblet & Jan./Feb. Dawn Phillips, March/April 643. “Promoting Diversity and Reducing Racial Isolation 653. “Lessons from Mount Laurel: The Benefits of Afford- in Ohio,” by Stephen Menendian, July/Aug. able Housing for All Concerned,” by Douglas S. 644. “Race Reporting in the 21st Century,” by Craig Massey, May/June Flournoy, July/Aug. 654. “Race and Public Housing: Revisiting the Federal 645. “View from the Gallery: Oral Argument in Fisher v. Role,” by Richard Rothstein, Nov./Dec. University of Texas-Austin,” by Rachel Godsil, Nov./ 655. “From Urban Renewal and Displacement to Economic Dec. Inclusion: San Francisco Affordable Housing Policy, 1978-2012,” by Marcia Rosen & Wendy Sullivan Poverty/Welfare Immigration 646. “Criminalization of Poverty,” Jan./Feb. 647. “Why Don’t Vouchers Do a Better Job of 656. “The Other Side of Immigration: Humane, Sensible Deconcentrating Poverty? Insights from Fieldwork with & Replicable Responses in a Changing Nation,” by Poor Families,” by Stefanie DeLuca, Philip M.E. Susan Eaton, March/April Garboden & Peter Rosenblatt, Sept./Oct. 657. “One Nation Indivisible,” March/April

Education Miscellaneous

648. “Middle-Income Peers As Educational Resources and 658. “Reshaping the Social Contract: Demographic Dis- the Constitutional Right to Equal Access,” by Derek tance and Our Fiscal Future,” by Manuel Pastor & W. Black, May/June Vanessa Carter, Jan./Feb. 649. “What Are We Holding Our Public Schools Account- 659. “The Help,” Association of Black Women Historians, able For? The Gap Between What is Measured and Jan./Feb. What is Needed to Prepare Children for an Increas- 660. “Fighting Today’s Voter Suppression Laws,” Jan./ ingly Diverse Society,” by Amy Stuart Wells, Sept./ Feb. Oct. 661. “Occupy Wall Street, SLATE & SNCC: Lessons?,” 650. “Have We Learned Our Language Lesson?,” by Su- by Mike Miller, March/April san Eaton, Nov./Dec. 662. “Social Justice Movements in a Liminal Age,” by Deepak Bhargava, May/June 663. “The Haas Institute for an Equitable Society,” Sept./ Homelessness Oct. 664. “A State of Emergency on Voting Rights,” Sept./Oct. 651. “The Criminalization of Homelessness,” Jan./Feb.

Poverty & Race • Vol. 21, No. 6 • November/December 2012 • 21 PRRAC'S SOCIAL SCIENCE ADVISORY BOARD

Dolores Acevedo-Garcia Fernando Mendoza Brandeis Univ. Dept. of Pediatrics, Stanford Univ.

Xavier de Souza Briggs Roslyn Arlin Mickelson Massachusetts Institute of Technology Univ. of No. Carolina-Charlotte

Camille Zubrinsky Charles Pedro Noguera Dept. of Sociology, Univ. of Pennsylvania New York Univ. School of Education

Stefanie DeLuca Paul Ong Johns Hopkins Univ. UCLA School of Public Policy & Social Research Ingrid Gould Ellen New York Univ. Gary Orfield Wagner School of Public Service UCLA Civil Rights Project

Lance Freeman Gregory D. Squires Columbia Univ. School of Architecture, Dept. of Sociology, George Washington Univ. Planning and Preservation Margery Austin Turner John Goering The Urban Institute (Wash., DC) Baruch College, City Univ. of New York Margaret Weir Heidi Hartmann Dept. of Political Science Inst. for Women’s Policy Research (Wash., DC) Univ. of California, Berkeley

William Kornblum David Williams CUNY Center for Social Research Harvard School of Public Health

Harriette McAdoo Michigan State Dept. of Sociology

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POVERTY & RACE RESEARCH ACTION COUNCIL Board of Directors/Staff

CHAIR Janis Bowdler S.M. Miller Philip Tegeler John Charles Boger National Council The Commonwealth Institute President/Executive Director University of North Carolina of La Raza Cambridge, MA School of Law Washington, DC Don Nakanishi Chester Hartman Director of Research Chapel Hill, NC John Brittain University of California University of the District Los Angeles, CA Megan Haberle of Columbia School of VICE-CHAIR Dennis Parker Policy Counsel José Padilla Law American Civil Liberties California Rural Legal Washington, DC Union Gina Chirichigno Assistance Sheryll Cashin New York, NY Co-Director San Francisco, CA Georgetown University Anthony Sarmiento One Nation Indivisible Law Center Senior Service America SECRETARY Washington, DC Silver Spring, MD Ebony Gayles john powell Craig Flournoy Theodore Shaw Law & Policy Fellow Haas Institute for a Southern Methodist Columbia Law School Fair and Inclusive Society University New York, NY Michael Hilton University of California- Dallas, TX Brian Smedley Law & Policy Fellow Berkeley Damon Hewitt Health Policy Institute Berkeley, CA NAACP Legal Defense Joint Center for Political and Silva Mathema and Educational Economic Studies Research Fellow TREASURER Fund, Inc. Washington, DC Spence Limbocker New York, NY Catherine Tactaquin Dierra Luckett Neighborhood Funders Olati Johnson National Network for Law & Policy Intern Group Columbia Law School Immigrant & Refugee Rights Annandale, VA New York, NY Oakland, CA Elizabeth Julian Camille Holmes Wood Inclusive Communities National Legal Aid & Project Defender Assn. Dallas, TX Washington, DC Demetria McCain [Organizations listed for Inclusive Communities identification purposes only] Project Dallas, TX