Journal Volume 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017

INDEX

Sr. Page Name of the Research Paper Author No. No. 1. Industrial Disaster : A Case Study of Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster Neeru Sharma 1-2 Food Status in Drought Prone Areas of : Dr. Vinod Kumar 2. 3-8 A Study based on Agro-Climatic Regions Somvir Bhoria 3. Stone Tools, Technology in Ancient Parveen Kumar 9-12 Impact Assessment Study of Rural Road Connectivity Under Ravin Kumar, 4. 13-18 PMGSY - A Case Study Suman Bajiya 5. Declining Sex Ratio in Dr. Urmila Sabharwal 19-21 An Analysis of Growth Rate and Sex Ratio of Haryana, Priyanka, 6. 22-25 2001-2011 Poonam Rani, Sachin Land Use/Land Cover Change in the Buffer Zone of Nimbahera 7. Satyapal Jiterwal 26-29 Cement Industries Region, Chittorgargh, Rajasthan Need and Perspectives of Sustainable Development in Indian 8. Rahul Choudhary 30-33 Scenario THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Mrs. Mamta Nandal 9. Employment Pattern in Rural Haryana : An Analysis 34-37 Mrs. Kavita Vpo Rukhi Recent Trend, Pattern and Characteristics of Crime against Naveen Kumar 10. 38-42 Women in India : 2004-14 Dr. Naresh Malik Subhi Gaur 11. Sustainable Urban Waste Management in India Dr. Anil Kumar 43-47 12. Crop Diversification Pattern in Haryana Neelam Garg and Savita 48-51 13. Environment and Landuse of Rasikbeel Complex Subhashis Biswas 52-57 Water Table Fluctuation in District, Haryana : Vinay Kumar, 14. 58-62 A Geographical Analysis Pardeep Kumar Evolution of Party System in India and Alliance Performance in 15. Sunil 63-66 Parliamentary Election, 2009 16. Water Insufficiency and Its Management: A Challenge for India Neetu Singh 67-70 Identification of Backwardness in Mewat: A Study Based on Socio- Shiv Kumar, 17. 71-77 Economic Aspects of Development Babita 18. Climate Change Strategies and Development Dr. Sushma Redhu 78-80 The Need of Hour: 19. Sanjeev Kumar Chaudhary 81-85 Balance Between Development and Environment 20. Farmers Suicide in India: Causes and Remedies Sajjan Kumar 86-91 21. Development and Environment Poonam 92-94 22. Sustainable Development: Need of the hour Dr. Manisha 95-96 Irrigation Expansion and Change in Cropping Pattern in 23. Partibha and Salesh Kalkal 97-104 District 24. Regional Disparity in Availability of Electricity in India Praveen Kumar 105-110 25. Depleting Natural Resources-A Threat To Sustainability Dr. Pardeep Malik & Dr. Anju 111-112 Urban Sprawl: A Critique For Sustainable Development of National 26. Anil Malik 113-116 Capital Region (NCR )

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Industrial Disaster : A Case Study of Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster

Neeru sharma Assistant Professor, Dept. of Geography, P.T.N.R.S. Govt. College,

Abstract With globalization and rapid industrialization, there emerged a quantum jump in chemical production, handling and transportation of hazardous chemical across the globe, which is associated with a non- speculative risk of fire, explosion, toxicity, environmental pollution etc. occurrence of chemical accidents and probability of their manifesting in a chemical disaster remains a cause of concern. Such emergencies/ disasters pose a great threat to human life, flora and fauna. Many such disasters which occurred in past worldwide are eye openers. Chemical disasters are always man- made. Unlike emergencies caused due to natural disasters which are difficult to prevent, chemical accidents can be prevented and their impact minimized by better planning, preparedness and response. As we do not learn from our mistake, history repeats. Government of India and state governments have imposed many acts rules to ensure avoidance of chemical disasters, effective control of such disasters if they occur and post disaster mitigation and rehabilitation measures. This paper discuss a case study on Bhopal Gas Disaster which is a citation of the above mentioned chemical disaster. Keywords : disaster, mitigation, hazardous, volatile, indicator. Introduction One of the most disastrous events since the history of chemical industry occurred in BHOPAL, the capital city of Madhya Pradesh, on the night of December 02,1984 ,in the factory of Union Carbide of India Ltd. [UCIL]due to leakage THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER of Methyl Iso Cynate [MIC] gas. UCIL, a subsidiary of multi national company Union Carbide Corporation [USA] was in the business of manufacturing agricultural pesticides among other things. MIC was required in these manufacturing activities and was therefore, manufactured and stored at the UCIL plant in Bhopal. Characteristics of MIC MIC has very special characteristics which make the chemical very hazardous. Some of the properties of the MIC are : 1. It is extremely volatile and vaporizes very easily. 2. It can boil at a temperature of 38 degrees C, so it is very important to be kept cool. 3. It is chemically very active and reacts violently with water. 4. It is highly toxic ,it is about 100 times lethal than cyanide gas. 5. It is heavier than atmospheric air, it stays near the ground after release. The Disaster During the night of December 2-3, 1984, about 45 tonnes of MIC [ Methyl Iso Cynate] gas leaked form the UCIL[Union carbide of India Ltd]plant at Bhopal. MIC was stored in the underground tanks; which became contaminated with water. The contamination produced chemical reaction, followed by a rise in gas pressure and a subsequent leak. The chronology of the events leading to one of the most disastrous events in the history of chemical industry is as follows: Chronology of the Event  December 2, 1984, was a routine day at the UCIL factory in Bhopal.  MIC was stored in an underground tank. The pipeline washing stared at 9:30p.m. As a routine maintenance operation  Between 10:30-11:00 PM : workers engaged in pipeline washing became aware of a leak. Little attention was however paid considering it a normal leak. A casual attempt was made to trace the source of leak age, but of no use. The leak continued.  Around 12:15 -12:3 a.m.: The pressure in the MIC tank about up to 55 pounds per square inch [which was the maximum the gauge could read]. The temperature had also shot up to 200 degree celcius and was increasing. An operator saw that the concrete above the tank was cracking. About 12:30 a.m., the relief valve of the tank gave away and large quantities of MIC gas leaked into the atmosphere.

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 The workers at the factory realized the risk of a massive disaster. They tried to activate the safety systems available at the factory at about 12:30 a.m. The three safety systems available within the factory and their condition at that time were as under :  Turning on the flare tower to burn off toxic gas. This system was not in working condition as a piece of pipeline leading to the tower had been removed for maintenance.  Using the vent gas scrubber, which was considered the main line of defence. It was also not in an operational condition.  Transferring the MIC form the tank into a-hear by spare tank. The gauge of the spare tank indicated that the tank already contained something. This gauge indicator was found defective, later on. After failure in all the three safety systems, the workers attempted to douse the leaking gas with water spray. The water spray reached a height of 100 ft from the ground, while the leak was at 120 ft. above the ground. At 1.00 a.m., realizing that nothing could be done to stop the leak, the workers at the plant fled. 1. At about 1.00 a.m. thousands of people living around the plant were awakened by the suffocating, burning effect of the gas. As one three sides the UCIL plant was surround by slums and other poor settlements, the people living in these colonies were the worst sufferers. 2. There was no warning or guidance to the general public around this time. There were two type of alarms in the factory, one mild siren for workers and one loud public siren was started only at about 2:30a.m. 3. About 2.00, a large number of people were rushing out of the town through the highways leaving Bhopal. The mad rush on the main roads of the city resulted in stampedes. About two lakh people were rushing out of town through the highways leaving Bhopal. The mad rush on the main roads of the city resulted in stampedes. About two lakh people had fled the city by 3:30 AM.. 4. By 4:00 a.m. hospitals were crowded with suffering people. In the wake of the tragic disaster, a large number of people lost their lives and received injuries, many their lungs and eyes. According to the government reports, 1754 persons had died and 200,000 were injured. Removal of dead bodies of livestock THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER The real problem was the removal of dead bodies of livestock, which was still littered on the streets and houses of the affected areas. About 20 dumpers and six cranes were pressed into service to remove 790 buffaloes, 270 cows, 483 goats, 90 dogs and 23 horses. During the burying operation of dead bodies, adequate care was taken to check the spread of epidemic. Emergency Response And Relief Operations : The preparation for coping with a major accident of unprecedented dimensions affecting the surrounding communities like this one was minimal. After the event the immediate response was chaotic and inadequate. Information regarding the gas release was late and incomplete. The police and medical service were unaware initially that there had been a release of MIC gas. No one knew about the adverse effects of the gas release and the treatment methods of the affected persons. For the relief purposes of the affected persons a relief commission was created directly under the Chief Minister. Two additional collectors were made in charge of relief and rehabilitation respectively. The main duties of the additional collectors included the proper field work coordination and to ensure the implementation of administrative directives. Various gas affected localities were divided into seven administrative zones. Each zone was under the administrative control of a deputy collector. The next of kin of the dead were paid immediate ex-gratia compensation of Rs. 10,000. The poor families in the gas affected wards were paid an ex-gratia of Rs. 1500. Wheat and rice were distributed free in the affected localities. The local administration faced problems in the absence of reliable socio-economic surveys which made the identification of poor families very difficult. The gas relief commission and the state department of industry launched schemes to provide alternative employment for the affected people. Reference :  Khan, Mr. Amar Ali CDM-02 Disaster Management Method and Techniques, Increased Understanding of Disasters-II  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disaster  https://www.britannica.com/event/Bhopal-disaster  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1142333/  http://www.ndma.gov.in/en/

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017

ISSN 2277 – 4858

Food Status in Drought Prone Areas of Rajasthan:

A Study based on Agro-Climatic Regions

Somvir Bhoria, Research Scholar, Dept. of Applied Geography, Revanshaw University, Cuttak (Odisha) Dr. Vinod Kumar, Department of Geography, Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak

Abstract: Food, clothing and shelter are among the basic needs for mankind. Further, among the three, food occupies the top most position as it is essential for the very survival of mankind. While, scarcity of clothing and shelter is likely to cause misery, absence of food or its insufficiency manifests itself in under nutrition and malnutrition and, in case of acute shortages, in sickness, starvation and premature deaths. The availability of minimum amount of food and nutrition are thus at the root of the survival and wellbeing of the individuals and the society at large. Food problem, arising from growing food requirements in the wake of a rapid growing population, therefore has been and continues to be, at the centre stage of discussions among general masses and academia. The concept of „Carrying Capacity‟ of the earth has always influenced the thinking on the „population-food‟ dynamics. It is generally recognized that population growth and food availability are closely interrelated; even to the extent that at times the population problem has been identified as a food problem It is generally accepted that the publication of Malthus‟ Essay on the Principles of Population in 1798 was the turning point in the evolution of present population-resource debate. And among the various viewpoints on-going debate, the one projecting food-population conflict is the most prominent one. At the same time, the work of researchers who have conversely tried to study the effects of population changeTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER on the enhanced functioning of agriculture. According to this school, any increase in population stimulates efforts among farmers to grow more food by introducing suitable changes in agricultural technology. This school of thought is in the line of the works of E. Boserup (1965), and hence is classified as the Boserup School of thought. In the light of above this paper is an attempt to look into the various dimensions of food status in Rajasthan, which is considered one of the food deficit state owing to water related stress and prolonged drought. This study is based on agro-climatic regions of the state in order to judge the performance of agriculture with reference to population. Introduction Food, clothing and shelter are among the basic needs for mankind. Further, among the three, food occupies the top most position as it is essential for the very survival of mankind. While, scarcity of clothing and shelter is likely to cause misery, absence of food or its insufficiency manifests itself in under nutrition and malnutrition and, in case of acute shortages, in sickness, starvation and premature deaths. The availability of minimum amount of food and nutrition are thus at the root of the survival and wellbeing of the individuals and the society at large. Food problem, arising from growing food requirements in the wake of a rapid growing population, therefore has been and continues to be, at the centre stage of discussions among general masses and academia. The concept of ‗Carrying Capacity‘ of the earth has always influenced the thinking on the ‗population-food‘ dynamics. It is generally recognized that population growth and food availability are closely interrelated; even to the extent that at times the population problem has been identified as a food problem (UN, 1973:17). In fact, during the greater part of man‘s history on the earth the number of people has been regulated by the availability of food, and for most of these times the balance between population and food has been a precarious one. The development of agriculture and increasing food supplies in the more recent times are among the main factors which made possible the accelerated growth in the population. Owing to rapid population growth in recent decades and the prospects of its continuation in the future in most of the countries, coupled with the desire for improvement in the levels of nutrition has brought the ‗population-food‘ problem again in the centre of attention (Lenka, 2010:168). Up to the middle of 18th century, a large and expanding population was generally considered as a source of wealth and power of a nation. Towards the second half of the 18th century, the idea that an indefinite growth in population ultimately retards the process of economic development started getting currency

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(Hassan, 2005:78). And because of this understanding and growing population resource mismatch today population is seen as liability rather than an asset (Amin, 1966:33). It is generally accepted that the publication of Malthus‘ Essay on the Principles of Population in 1798 was the turning point in the evolution of present population-resource debate. And among the various viewpoints on-going debate, the one projecting food-population conflict is the most prominent one. A close analysis of existing literature on food supply and population relationship reveals that the problem has been approached in two fundamentally different ways (Dube, 1990). The first one represents the work of scholars who have been interested in possible rates of growth in population as well as food production with a main focus on as to, whether or not the latter is able to keep the pace with former. This viewpoint is in the lines of Malthus‘ arguments and, therefore, is widely known as the Malthusian School of though. The second involves the work of researchers who have conversely tried to study the effects of population change on the enhanced functioning of agriculture. According to this school, any increase in population stimulates efforts among farmers to grow more food by introducing suitable changes in agricultural technology. This school of thought is in the line of the works of E. Boserup (1965), and hence is classified as the Boserup School of thought. The basic difference between the two approaches is that while population is seen as a dependent variable in the former, in the later it is an independent variable. The reasoning of the Malthusian doctrine is based on the two principles. First, in the absence of any checks, human population has a tendency to grow at a geometric rate and thus it doubles itself every twenty-five years. Second, production from the land even under most the favourable conditions could at best increase at an arithmetic rate. Thus, the power of population to grow is infinitely greater that the power of land to provide subsistence to human beings and with passage of time the ratio between population and food production becomes highly imbalanced. Lack of food, Malthus and his followers argue, is the ultimate check on population growth (Belshaw, 1960:14). Therefore, means of subsistence is visualized as lagging far behind population growth, because of non-availability of land. And limits to the amount of food production are, therefore, supposed to check population growth. Malthus suggested preventive and positive checks as the two main ways by which population is deemed to be curbed once the carrying capacity of the land is reached (UN 1973:16). Therefore, food supply in Malthusian vision is considered as the power of regulating population size. The Beserup‘s viewpoint on ‗population and food relations‘ is based on the reasoning that in a pre-industrial society an increase in population stimulated a change in agricultural techniques so that more food could be produced to THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER support the increasing population. After examining different land use systems of the world, Boserup (1965) asserted that there is a close connection between agricultural technique and the type of land use system. Unless population increases the adoption of new agricultural technique is highly unlikely. Thus, according to this viewpoint growth in population, leads to agricultural development and augments food supplies to meet the demands of growing population (Dube, 1970). The Neo-Malthusian and Boserupean perspectives dominate the current thinking on population resource dynamism even today, and the debate on their validity is still alive. The prevailing literature suggests that the concept given by Malthus is more popular among academia. Increased food crisis over time and the works of Baker (1928), Bansil (1958), and Ackerman (1959), have contributed to the growing popularity of Malthusian vision. The widespread popularity of Malthusian views was also endorsed by Meadows (1972) in his famous book Limits to Growth. While accepting Malthusian views Meadows attempted to analyse the principles under new evidences, and reiterated worries about mismatch between food and population. In the light of above philosophical development in food-population balance in Geography, present paper attempts to identify the contours of agricultural development and the behaviour of food economy in Rajasthan. It is interesting to note the behaviour of both population and agriculture in one of the most food distressed state of India. It is well known fact that Rajasthan is traditionally known for severe droughts and associated food problems in the state. Objectives of the study In this study an attempt has been made to analyse the food-population relationship in Rajasthan using agro- climatic regions as base for the study. Following agro-climatic approach paper has brought out factors determining food status of any society while keeping agricultural and climatic into consideration. Database and Methodology Present study is based on varied data sources collected through primary as well as secondary. In order to collect information regarding agricultural development in the state data is collected from publications state government for various years. Moreover, for data related to population is collected from Census of India 2011 pertaining to Rajasthan. At the same time to obtain first-hand information regarding actual situation related to food-population balance in various agro-climatic regions of Rajasthan systematic field survey was conducted taking a same size of 400 households. In this survey agro-climatic region has served as base for field survey which is spreaded into three stages. In 10 identified agro- 4 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 18

climatic regions, 10 districts one each from one agro-climatic region was selected. For field survey districts were selected having highest Gross Cropped Area in agro-climatic region. From 10 selected districts, 10 tehsils were selected. Here also tehsils having highest area under Gross Cropped Area as selected. At the third stage of sample survey from 10 identified tehsils 20 villages, 2 each from tehsils were selected. These villages were selected having 80 % households engaged in agriculture and related activities and also having 70 % or more area under Gross Cropped Area. Later on among these 20 villages 20 household (20*20 = 400) were identified taking cognizance of caste and social makeup of the society. Present study has attempted to identify the impact of various socio-economic indicators on food-population of Rajasthan and the indicators selected for the study are as follows: X1 Per Capita Income X2 Levels of Agriculture Development X3 Prevalence of Malnutrition X4 Shifted towards Newer Crops X5 Food Shortage X6 Frequency of Food Shortage X7 Satisfaction with PDS X8 Caste Affiliation of the family X9 Educational Level X10 Family Size X11 Religion In order to reach a composite level of food status of each agro-climatic region composite score was calculated using normalisation method of z-score. The formula of z-score is as under Z-score Zi =

Here, Zi Z-score Xi Value of observation THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Mean of all values Composite Score CS =

Here,CS Composite Score Zij Indicate Z score of an indicator Jth in district N Number of variable

Findings and Discussions Data obtained from field survey was normalised by using z-score method and z-scores were added to reach at the composite score. Analysis shows that there is great regional variation in the food status of various agro-climatic regions. Prevalence of malnutrition and anaemia shows that food sufficiency is a problematic issue for all the agro- climatic regions. Situation is more heartening given the fact that there is serious mismatch among male and female in terms of prevalence of mal-nutrition and anaemia, higher difference in the prevalence of mal-nutrition and anaemia of male-female indicates towards male-female discrimination. Discrimination is even more alarming with reference to girl child and aged women. With reference to causes of food problems, study found that among many causes over population, drought and poor agriculture has emerged as prominent causes of food problems as per people‘s perception. In overwhelming responses respondents accepted that increasing size of population is taking toll on their food prospects. Study also concludes that although most of household feels show frequency of food shortage but as drought like conditions remain year round people have to suffer food problems year round. There are some differences in food status of various religious and social groups. Food problems are not specifically related to any one religion or social group they are almost universal. But some sections of the society are more prone towards food related issues, these includes households receiving less services such as safe drinking water, access to ration facility and access to any form of assured job creation scheme. Situation is more alarmingly for households headed by females, as study shows that households headed by female are more prone towards food related problems as they have less food determining resources.

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Table: 1 Rajasthan: Food Status of Agro-Climatic Regions, 2014

Range of Food- Category Name of Agro-Climatic Regions Status Index Highly Secure Food Status 2.12 & Above ✓ Transitional Plain of Luni Basin ✓ Flood Prone Eastern Plain ✓ Sub-Humid Southern Plains ✓ Irrigated North-Western Plain Moderately Secure Food 0.40 to 2.11 ✓ Arid Western Plain Status ✓ Humid South-Eastern plain Low Secure Food Status Below 0.41 ✓ Transitional Plain of Inland Drainage ✓ Semi-Arid Eastern Plain ✓ Hyper Arid Partly Irrigated Western Plain ✓ Humid Southern Plains Source: Calculated from data obtained from field survey. In any economy performance of agriculture lays Map 1: the foundation of food-population balance. In this paper an Rajasthan: Food-Status of Agro-Climatic Regions attempt was made to identify whether there is any change in cropping pattern and what are the prime drivers that are leading to changes in cropping pattern. Study reveals that increasing irrigation facilities and higher prices of crop induced much of the cropping pattern and 84 % of household accepts that they have shifted from previous cropping pattern. One more interesting finding of this study was that around 65 % households are dissatisfied THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER from agriculture and they feel that agriculture is becoming more and more non-renumurative, hence pushing for changes in existing cropping patterns is the need of hour as per them. Government has initiated many schemes to give a flip to the food economy and increase access to food to all the sections of the society. In this regard PDS services are regarded as most important. In this study function and problems associated with PDS were also studies and found that although people have ration cards and they are using PDS but the rate of satisfaction is extremely low and most of the people are highly dissatisfied from PDS. Insufficient Quantity and supply of bad quality food material has emerged as chief problems which are letting PDS down. At last, this may be concluded that in the determination of food status, PDS is not working adequately and dissatisfaction is growing among general public. Conclusion Food-population debate has always remained in the lime light as it forms one of the basic needs of human being. Food-population balance of any region is highly precarious as it is dependent upon man social, economic and geo- climatic factors. This paper was an attempt to provide an insight into the food-population relationship in Rajasthan that has remained as prolonged food deficient state of India. Study has revealed that not only agro-climatic condition but various socio-economic conditions such as family size, per capita income, levels of agricultural development has shown definite bearing upon food status of general masses. Study has revealed that Transitional Plain of Luni Basin, Flood Prone Eastern Plain, Sub-Humid Southern Plains and Irrigated North-Western Plain have performed well in comparison

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to other agro-climatic regions as they have developed agriculture because of higher levels of assured irrigation and better socio-economic performance. In comparison to these agro-climatic regions such as Transitional Plain of Inland Drainage, Semi-Arid Eastern Plain, Hyper Arid Partly Irrigated Western Plain and Humid Southern Plains have performed low in food status index. One interesting thing is that even the agro-climatic region in low food-secure category has access to irrigation and agriculture is performing relatively better but there performance in food status index is poor purely because of low levels of socio-economic development. Table 5.19 Rajasthan: Correlation Matrix of Indicators of food Sufficiency in Sampled Villages

Levels Satis- Shifted Feeling Preva- Educ- Frequency Per of Agri- faction Family towards Food Reli- lence of Indicators Caste ational of Food Capita culture with Size Newer Shor- gion Malnu- Level Shortage Income Develop PDS Crops tage trition ment Pearson 1 Caste Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Educational -.177** 1 Correlation level Sig. (2-tailed) .000 Frequency of Pearson -.025 .050 1 Food Correlation Shortage Sig. (2-tailed) .617 .316 Pearson Satisfaction .043 .026 -.043 1 Correlation with PDS Sig. (2-tailed) .388 .608 .387 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Pearson .143** -.107* .071 .040 1 Family Size Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .004 .032 .156 .428 Shifted Pearson .077 -.049 .047* -.018 .002 1 towards Correlation Newer Crops Sig. (2-tailed) .122 .325 .353 .724 .963 Pearson Feeling Food .034 -.017 -.514** -.081 .470** .064 1 Correlation Shortage Sig. (2-tailed) .498 .739 .000 .106 .001 .201 Pearson Per Capita -.033 .031 .015 .063 -.904* -.022 .054 1 Correlation Income Sig. (2-tailed) .506 .538 .763 .207 .038 .659 .281 Pearson 1.000** -.177** -.025 .043 .143** .077 .034 -.033 1 Religion Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .617 .388 .004 .122 .498 .506 Levels of Pearson -.120* .025 .101* .112* .038 -.014 -.195** .037 -.120* 1 Agriculture Correlation Development Sig. (2-tailed) .017 .622 .044 .025 .447 .775 .000 .455 .017 Pearson - -.146** -.071 .140** -.107* .249** -.036 .327** .013 .009 1 Prevalence of Correlation .146** Malnutrition Sig. (2- .004 .159 .005 .032 .000 .468 .000 .793 .004 .863 tailed) **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

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References : 1) Ackerman, E.A. (1959): ―Population and Natural Resources‖, in P.M. Hauser and O.D. Dumcan edited, The Study of Population, Broos Publishing House, Landon, pp 717. 2) Admin, A. Galal (1966): Food Supply and Economic Development with Reference to Egypt, Frank Cass and Company Ltd. 3) Baker, O. E. (1928): ―Population, Food Supply and American Agriculture‖, Geographical Review, Vol. 18, pp 353- 373. 4) Bansil, P.C. (2003): ―Demand for food grains by 2020 AD‖, in S. Mahendra Dev, K.P. Kannan and Nira Ramachandran edited, Towards a Food Secure India: Issues and Policies, Institute for Human Development, New Delhi and Centre for Economic and Social Studies, Hyderabad, pp. 59-88. 5) Belshaw, Horace (1960): Population Growth and levels of Consumption, with Special Reference to Countries in Asia, George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London. 6) Boserup, Ester (1965): The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure, George Allen and Unwin Ltd., Landon. 7) Dube, R.S. (1990): Population Pressure and Agrarian Change, Rawat Publications, pp 14. 8) Hassan, Mohammad Izhar (2005): Population Geography, Rawat Publications, Jaipur, pp 349-352. 9) Lenka, Jagannath (2010): ―Crop Diversification in Orissa‖, in Jagannath Lenka edited, Current Issues in Indian Agriculture, Serial Publications, New Delhi, pp 167-176. 10) Meadows, D.H. (1972): The Limits to Growth, a Report for the Club of Rome Project on the Predicament of Mankind, Universe Books, New York. 11) United Nations (1973): The Determinants and Consequences of Population Trends, New Summary of Findings on Interaction of Demographic, Economic and Social Factors, Vol. 1, New York.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Stone Tools, Technology in Ancient India

Parveen Kumar, Dept. of History, G. N. College, Killianwali

Millions of year age our ancestor began littering the African landscape with stone and bones tools. From the first tools to today‟s glass bottles is the dominant component of the archaeological record. The material retrieved from excavation and exploration needs to be classified into types and styles on the basic of objective and descriptive attribute clusters. Finally when these objects are arranged in chronological order, many significant information regarding culture change and evolution start becoming apparent. To use a modern culture example we can have pots, pans, ladles etc can be broadly grouped into a cluster as „cooking object‟. Likewise reading and writing objects, sleeping objects, transport objects etc., can all be formed to reflect upon the relative specialization and pre-occupation of certain functions in the society (Sankalia, 1974). In pre-history, unfortunately, no indication in the object themselves and we have to depend on stone tools (Sankalia, H.D. 1970:1). Tools: The stone tools which were fabricated by man constitute the main bulk of culture material recovered from as earliest time to 5000 years ago. This does not mean that man did not fashion tools from wood or bones as well (Bhattacharya, 1979). Apparently the organic medium on which man have possibly made tools did not stand the test of time. From around 35000 years, bones are recovered along with the stones but any possible attempts on this material made by man earlier to this date have been destroyed forever (Agarwal, 1984). The usual tool types and the cultural stages defined on them are given below:

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Paleaolithic Broad Tool Duration Mode Tool Types Cultural Divisions Categories Pebble tools and Cleavers, Handaxe, Chopper, 2.8 million years i Lower Paleaolithic flakes Chopping tool, Clactonian flakes 100,000 – 80,000 BC Flake tools ii Side scrapers, Knives, Points, Awls Middle Paleaolithic Blade and Bone Blade, Burins, End Scrapers, Bone 40,000- 10,000 BC iii Upper Paleaolithic Tools harpoons, Needles Mesolithic Likewise Mesolithic (10,000-6000 BC) is defined on the basis of several tool types made on tiny blades often referred to as micro-liths. These are 3-5cm long, 1-1.5cm broad and 0.5-0.2cm thick blades which have been skillfully detached by pressure flaking technique (Bhattacharya, 2010:1). These are blunted along one border are mounted on adequate handles to form composite tools. One of the significant inventions of this period is the construction of bows and arrows, the latter with micro-liths attached to form the tip. Neolithic During Neolithic (6000-4000 BC) big axes appear with surfaces perfectly smoothened by laborious rubbing on stones with sand and water. Thus, we see that the various cultural stages are discernible on the basic of type identification alone. It is not very surprising; therefore, that stones age typology forms a fundamental aspect of research for archaeologist of this period. Techniques: There are a number of tool techniques prevalent during the pre-historic period i.e. Stone Age and these are discussed below in detail:

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A. Block-on-Block Technique:- Though in India we have not a very clear-cut stratigraphic development in the flaking of stone tools, the earliest and the most widespread was the Block-on-Block or Anvil Technique. Tools of this technique have been recovered from Hoshangabad and Maheshwar and in Sohan, the Indus, and the Banganga and in the Lidder Valley. Huge Flaks with prominent bulbs of percussion were most probably the result of striking one large pebble or boulder against another. Their age is early to Middle Pleistocene. B. Stone Hammer Technique:- In the Stone Hammer Technique, the artificer took one round or ovalish pebble and struck against the periphery of the other, kept in his right or left hand as the case may be. This was continued, often striking on alternate sides, until a sharp wavy edge, as desired was produced.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

C. Controlled or Step-Method Technique:- This was followed by the controlled or Step-Method of flaking. Briefly, the flake scars are smaller. Shallower and leave a step-like mark, as the blows do not go much deeper, and are against the body of the tool. The longitudinal profile of many hand axes as well as cleavers is found trimmed in this way. D. Cylinder Hammer Technique:- In the Cylinder Hammer Technique, the artificer took one hand was striked by a cylindrical hammer of stone, bone or hard wood. Small flakes from the tools were removed and finally a tool prepared. The flake scars are very shallow and small.

E. Prepared Core and Platform Technique:- Then came a highly ingenious technique. It is called prepared core and platform technique or the Levalloisian technique after the type site in France. This technique was certainly practiced in the closing stage of the Early Stones Age and such tools were very common on the Stone Age sites on India. In this technique a single, comparatively thin flake-round, oval or triangular removes with carefully work on the core, and prepare the platform. The blow should usually at an angle of 900. Though it must be emphasize that the prepare platform. As a result of this technique symmetrical fairly thin flake were obtained. 10 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 19

F. Clactonian Technique:- In this technique a nodule is selected which has fairly regular surfaces intersecting or meeting in a ridge. Such a ridge is normally found in a flat river pebble. It is usually dull and may be rounded, but in the case of a pebble or nodule broken naturally, there might be a sharp edge. Having selected such a nodule, a blow gave with another stone the edge of one of the plain surfaces. If this blow is well directed and of suitable strength, quite a good flake will be detached. G. Levallois Technique:- A more advanced, artistic and skilful method of preparing flakes and cores is Levallois Technique. It was first noticed at Levallois Perret, Paris. Hence the technique has been often described as ‗Levalloisian‘. In this method instead of straightaway hit one flattish pebble or core with another pebble and the result of it a comparatively thin flake, roughly triangular or oval outline. It had a clean undersurface, and a part of the prepared platform form an angle of about 800-900 with the undersurface. The undersurface should ordinarily bear shallow triangular centrally directed flake scars indicating previous preparation of the core. It required little or no subsequent retouch because its edge was already sharp due to previous preparation. In the Punjab, De Terra and Paterson noticed that flakes with Levalloisian character appear only in the Late Soan A, during the Third Glacial times (Terra, H. De. and T.T. Paterson. 2003). H. Grinding and Polishing Technique:- Lastly we have the technique called ‗Grinding and Polishing‘. In this a pebble or nodule or a block of stone, preferably dyke basalt, or diorite, was first flaked by the stone hammer, control and pressure techniques, if necessary. A fairly uniform surface was achieved. Then followed pecking by which all uneven surface were removed with a chisel-like tool. Then, this partly finished tool was ground in boat-shaped sandstone or rough-surfaced querns, with a little water and abrasives, tough these are not quite necessary, if the surface is rough. Gradually the surface was smoothed. Since the man at this time was more particular about the edge part, this was further ground, until it become perfectly smooth and perhaps with a little addition of some oily substance, the surface was made glistening. Thus were made the pointed but axes (or Celt), chisels and other wood-working tools of the New Stone Age. In India its principal at home was Andhra, Mysore, Madras, then South Eastern U.P., Assam and Burzahom in Kashmir and now found in the East and West Punjab at a number of sites. In the latter, the stone used is not as hard as in the South. They are made on soft stone. In Eastern THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER India, Assam particularly; shouldered Celts were made by wire-cutting (Dani, 1960). I. Blade – Flake Technique:- The Blade-Flake, pressure and Crested Ridge techniques are in a sense related because the main aim was to produce a thin flake, the length of which was more than its breadth, known as blade. In the earliest to be discovered was the blade-flake technique. The characteristic blade-flake is long and comparatively narrow with more or less parallel edges. Such blade-flakes are occasionally found in Early and Middle Stone Age cultures, but regularly in the Upper Palaeolithic culture or the true blade-flake cultures. It was at this time, it is believed, that the proper technique for obtaining blade-flake was discovered. J. Crested Ridge Technique:- In this technique, all the irregularities or whatever could be easily removed by a round stone hammer. Secondly, a ridge was prepared along the length of the prepared core by alternate flaking. This ridge is supposed either to guide the regular removal of parallel-edged flakes or it creates a line of weakness which makes it easy for the removal of the first series of flakes. Such crested ridge flakes and cores still having a ridge on them are found in the Harappan and Later Chalcolithic cultures and it is believed that for the mass production of blades this was a very convenient technique (Subbarao and Sankalia et al. 1958) K. Pressure Flake Technique:- Thin, long, slender blades were also removed by a pressure technique (Sankalia, 1964:34). It was not specialized in form, but a rough flake on which there was somewhere a thick, more or less rectangular, edge. By holding the fabricator in one hand and placing its end against the edge of the blade which was to be blunted exerting pressure, little flakes could be pushed off very rapidly and with particularly no risk of snapping the blade. It was by a kind of pressure-flaking again thet very thin, flat flakes were removed from the surface of a blade in order to trim it into a lance-head or arrow head (Sankalia, 1964). 11 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 19

Conclusion:- The term ‗stone tools‘ can technically refer to the study of any anthropogenic stone object, but in its usual sense it is applied to archaeological material which can be associated with pre-historic period. A holistic understanding of the lithic reduction and ground stone processes, in combination with the use of statistics, can allow us to draw conclusions concerning the type of lithic manufacturing techniques used by pre-historic peoples. These data can then be used to draw an understanding of socioeconomic and cultural organization. The best known stone tool techniques and typology in India were defined by H.D. Sankalia (1982) on the basis of manufacturing techniques and morphological characteristics. During the Paleaolithic period, Block-on-Block, Stone Hammer, Step-Method, Prepared Core and Platform, Clactonian, Levallois were used to manufacture tools. In the Mesolithic Prepared Core and Platform, Blade-Flake Technique, Crested Ridge, Pressure Flake was used to fabricate micro-lithic. Grinding and Polishing technique was used during the Neolithic period to make tools. References:- 1) Agarwal, D.P. 1984. The Archaeology of India. Delhi: Select book Service Syndicate. 2) Bhattacharya, D.K. 1979. Old Stone Age Tools: A Mannual of Laboratory Techniques of Analysis. Culcutta: K. P. Bagchi and Company. 3) Bhattacharya, D.K. 2010. A Catalogue of Prehistoric Tools. New Delhi: Indian Archaeological Society. 4) Chakrabarty, Dilip. 2006. The Oxford Companion to Indian Archaeology. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 5) Dani, A.H. 1960. Prehistory and Protohistory of Eastern India. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. 6) Leakey, L.S.B. 1956. The Stone Age. London: Combridge University Press. 7) Sankalia, H.D. and B. Subbarao and S.B. Deo. 1958. Excavation at Maheswar and Navdatoli. Poona, Deccan College. 8) Sankalia, H.D. 1970. Some Aspect of Prehistoric Technology in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. 9) Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Pune: Deccan College.

10) Sankalia, H.D. 1982. Stone Age Tools, Their TechniquesTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER and Probable Function. Poona: Deccan College. 11) Timothy, D. 2003. The Concise Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 12) Terra, H.De. and T.T. Paterson. 2003. The Ice Age in the and Associated Human Cultures. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER

Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Impact Assessment Study of Rural Road Connectivity under PMGSY - A Case Study

Ravin Kumar, Senior Research Scholar, Dept of Geog., University of Rajasthan, Jaipur Suman Bajiya, Research Scholar

Abstract Inclusive growth is the most talked about issue in India. Rural road connectivity is a very important component of inclusive growth and plays an important role in promoting access to social, physical and financial services. In this context The Government of India had launched the PMGSY on 25 December, 2000. It is a nationwide programme under the Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India. The object of PMGSY was to provide basic access to all the eligible habitations by way of all-weather roads. The purpose of this study is to analyse the impact of rural road connectivity in Gangapur city blockof Sawaimadhopur District (Rajasthan). In this block, 127.74 km. of road-work and bridge construction were completed during the period of 2000-01 to 2012-13. For this road-work, total expenditure of ₹ 248.675 million, which is 75.42 % of the total sanctioned amount, was made. Now the time has come to develop a new approach called “upgradation planning of rural roads” in order to connect all the villages to fulfill the basic needs. Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) are veryuseful in development of efficient planning of roads in rural areas. It has a positive impact on rural development in Gangapur city block. Of course, certain changes are still required in government plans and programmes to fulfill the objective. Introduction : India has one of the largest and densest road networks in the world.Rural roads are the tertiary road system in total road network which provides accessibility for the rural habitations to market and other facility centres. In India, rural roads are being planned and programmed in theTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHERcontext of overall rural development, and tried to provide all- weather connectivity with some level of achievement. However a large part of the 2.7 million km rural road network was in poor condition and, until the year 2000, 30 percent of the country‘s population lacked access to all-weather roads.The Government of India had launched thePradhanMantri Gram SadakYojana (PMGSY)on 25th December, 2000. It is a nationwide programme under the Ministry of Rural Development to substantially expand rural road connectivity in a systematic manner. PMGSY is a fully-funded centrally sponsored scheme to provide all-weather road connectivity in rural areas of the country. The programme envisages connecting all habitations with a population of ―500 (or above) in the plain areas‖ and ―250(or above) in the hilly states, the tribal and the desert areas.‖ In February 2005, ‗Bharat Nirman‘ goal to provide connectivity to all habitations with a population of ―500 or above in hilly and tribal areas‖ and ―1000+ for the rest habitation‖ with an all-weather roads. The PMGSY shall cover only the rural roads. Rural roads provide the access to basic amenities and means of transporting agricultural products to nearby market centers. Study Area : The study area for this paper is Gangapur city block (District Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan). This block geographically lies between 26°29´ N to 26°65´ N latitude and 76°56´ E to 76°97´ E longitude. Area of Gangapur city block is 644.22sq.kmand population is 3, 46,614 (2011), out of which 62.47 % population is rural. Objects -  To find out accessibility of education facilities and health care facilities.  To find the socio- economic impact of PMGSY roads in Gangapur city.  To find out drawbacks and problems in implementing PMGSY in rural areas of Gangapur city. Collection of Data & Methodology This study is mainly based on secondary data collected from the PMGSY website but to know the socio- economic impact of PMGSY roads, the primary information is also needed through personal investigation and observation techniques. Gamma index of road network analysis graph theory is used to assess the economic development and road connectivity in this study area. Secondary data are collected through:  Government agencies like NRRDA, RRRDA.  Annual report of PMGSY.  Magazines and Journals related to rural road connectivity and rural development.  Websites like ommas.nic.in, for mapping bhuvan-panchayat. nrsc. gov. in etc.

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THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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Use of GIS for Planning of Rural Roads PMGSY programme is monitored, planned using online monitoring system called as Online Management, Monitoring and Accounting System (OMMAS). The use of Global Positioning System (GPS) for preparing a Geographical Information System (GIS) database for monitoring, management and building transparency in programme implemented in all districts of Rajasthan. To implement use of GIS for development of rural roads and creation of GIS data base, Rajasthan is chosen as pilot state. An important part of the PMGSY is the preparation of detailed District Rural Road Plans (DRRP) and the Core Network Plans. The DRRP clearly identifies the proposed roads for providing connectivity to unconnected habitation in an economical and efficient way, in termsof cost and their utility. The core network of all roadsis necessary to provide basic access to all the habitations. Implementation of PMGSY by NRRDA was difficult to manage, update this giant scheme using traditional and manual methods of project management as these methods are not only tedious and time consuming but also difficult to retrieve the desired information. A GIS database is quite suitable for planning, constructing and monitoring of rural roads since all the relevant data in this case is geographically referenced and the GIS makes it very easy to store, retrieve, analyse and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth for solving complex planning and management problems. GIS is a useful mapping tool that links information found in database to geographic locations found on colourful map displayed in order to make analysis. GIS also depends on the informationcontent input in computer but this information system requires special processing. Presentation of rode network locations along with road width, pavement type, no. of road line, remoteness and distance between two centers can be made by GIS. Road Network Analysis Density, accessibility of road network and its structure related analysis can be a good aspect to measure the economic development of any region. Graph theory can be used to analyse the road network of an area. In graph theory, road network is displayed as path, circuit and graph in topological form. For this study area, gamma index ( ) is used to know the connectivity. Since there is a direct relation between the value of gamma index and level of economic development.

Gamma Index ( ) = THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Here:

e v

In Gangapur city block no. of road linkages are 47 and no. of nodes (connected habitation) are 78. So the value of gamma index is; Gamma Index (γ) =

(γ) = 0.2061 For economically developed area, the value of gamma index is approx. 1 and for developing or undeveloped area it varies between 0 and 1. In Gangapur city block, on the basis of gamma index value is 0.20 and percent of rural road connectivity is 20.61. So, this area is ranked as undeveloped. Physical and Financial Progress of PMGSY in Gangapur city Block The Rajasthan Rural Road Development Agency (RRRDA) has been entrusted with the task of implementing this programme in Rajasthan. RRRDA is a nodal department and executing agency for this programme. Under the PMGSY in

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Gangapur city Block, during the period of 2000-01 to 2012-13 total ₹ 329.68 million have been sanctioned for new connectivity and upgradation of rural roads through PMGSY, out of which 75.42% of total sanctioned amount was spent. The net habitation of Gangapur city block is 484 out of which 136 habitations have been found eligible for PMGSY. Till 2012-13, 78 (out of 136) habitations have been linked through 37 new connectivity roads and 10 upgradation road work. As per 2001 census, total population of 64,877 resides in 78 habitations. Out ofthe proposed 156.98 km. road length, 127.74 km. of roadwork and bridge construction were completed during the period of 2000-01 to 2012-13. For this road work total sanctioned amount of ₹ 329.68 million, out of this sanctioned amount, ₹ 248.67 million has been spent. Work for the phase 2012-13 is still going on. Financial and Physical Progress of PMGSY in Gangapur city Block (2000-01 to 2012-13) No. of Road Work Road Length (in KM.) Sanctioned Expenditure Habitation being Year Cost Cost Connected Phase New Sanction Completed (Rs. in (Rs. in Upgradation Total connectivity Road Road Lacks) Lacks) Population Habitations 2000-01 1 3 10.200 10.200 93.39 78.91 8 12890 2001-02 2 0 4.850 4.600 77.38 57.90 2 2988 2002-03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2003-04 4 0 10.660 9.855 164.83 141.02 4 3052 2004-05 3 0 13.850 13.850 190.39 181.17 5 2958 2005-06 6 0 14.250 14.250 289.12 238.36 6 3691 2006-07 10 0 21.770 19.780 417.91 318.68 10 3980 2007-08 0 5 40.300 38.250 931.06 894.67 10 25573 2008-09 0 2 15.20 15.160 455.49 448.31 1 2539 2009-10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2010-11 0 0 0 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER0 0 0 0 0 2011-12 1 0 1.800 1.800 49.52 42.49 1 1000 2012-13 10 0 24.100 0 627.77 85.24 31 6146 Total 37 10 156.98 127.745 3296.86 2486.75 78 64877 Habitation coverage in Gangapur city Block Population wise habitation coverage in Gangapur city block under PMGSY has been shown by the below graph. According to graph, till December 2013Out of the 78 habitations covered under the study 60 habitations were connected by new connectivity and upgradation work was done for 18 habitations by constructing rural roads. Impact of PMGSY The objective of this study was to find out and quantify the possible impact of rural roads on socio-economic development in rural areas.Rural road construction and up gradation is the key component for rural development. At the outset one particular point needs to be clarified that economic benefits such as increase inagriculture production, employment, marketing, education, banking, hospitality, E-mitra service and such other variables depend on a number of factors other than roads. Poverty reduction is the main object in rural roads construction under the PMGSY. Connectivity of roads in rural areas helps to open up remote regions and also links the backward regions with advanced developed areas which help for better and full utilization of available resources. Broadly speaking, the impact of rural roads can be summarized as follows-  Improvement in market access and transportation services.  Availability of public services and public functionaries in the rural areas.

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 Improve access to school, banking, and hospitality.  Improve basic health level and income etc. Impact on Agriculture  Because of PMGSY road connectivity, all-weather transportation has developed, as a result, access of farmers to agri product markets, chemical fertilizers and seed-centers has become easy.  Thus the agriculture products produced by farmers can easily reach the market and farmers can get the actual return- price for their products.  Crop pattern has also changed due to road connectivity and now farmers have started giving more attention to cash- crops instead of food crops.  It was found that in 2001 the population of agriculture labourers was 3151 after PMGSY road construction it increased to 8000 in Gangapur city block. Impact on Employment Generation  As a result of construction of PMGSY roads, employment opportunity outside the villages has increased. And creation of additional man-days in farming activities due to additional crops being cultivated has risen.  It was found that in 2001 the no. of households was 43,343 after the road construction it increased to 63,010 (31.21%) in this block. Workers Population in Gangapur city Block No. Workers Census 2001 Census 2011 1 Main workers 75072 91985 2 Marginal workers 23543 42600 3 Total workers 98615(34.64%) 134585(38.82%) Impact on Poverty Alleviation and Income  Because of construction of rural roads under PMGSY, poverty rate has declined in rural areas.  Rural roads are the important enabling conditions for livelihood development of people in rural areas. The THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER poor and very poor primarily benefit through the indirect impact of road improvements, of better access to state services and improved provision of services to the villages, and opportunities in alternative livelihood income stream. Impact on Health Aspect  The access of rural population to urban health centers has become easy and now doctors have started visiting rural areas because of road connectivity.  There has been an overall improvement in access to the health facilities like PHCs, sub-centres and district hospitals in the Gangapur city block. Positive impact was observed on accessibility to preventive and curative health care facilities; better management of infectious diseases and attending to emergencies and increase in frequency of visits by health workers.  In Gangapur city block the percentage of Public Health Centres is 14.2%. Impact on Education  Because of road connectivity done under PMGSY, schools have witnessed a greater presence of students and enrollments in urban colleges have also increased.  Apart from increase in presence of girl students, even presence of teachers in schools has also increased. As a consequence, literacy rate in rural areas has witnessed a sharp rise.  It was found that in 2001 total literates population was 1,45,003 after PMGSY road construction literates population increased to 2,09,381 in Gangapur city block. Impact on Other Aspects  Ruralites have got greater access to Government services like- Aanganwari centers, E- Mitra, Banking and Primary health centres.  Increase in road connectivity has led to a decline in transportation cost and travel time.  Rural areas have started witnessing urbanization to some extent.  It was seen that in 65% habitations there has been increase number of household having electricity connections after the road was constructed.

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Problems  Suspension in road construction work because of lack of competent contractors and Engineers.  Shortage of skilled and local workers and the problem of Child Labour.  Use of sub-standard raw material and increase in the cost of raw material.  Delay in payment to workers by contractors.  Problem of land procurement in construction of the rural roads.  Lack of monitoring by administrator due to other work load.  Complex proportional separation of percent of human labour and machine according to labour act.  Monsoon and geographical problems.  Regional and political problems. Suggestions  Solve the problem of ineligible contractors and engineers by using the Electronic bid system (tender).  Low cost marginal and industrial waste materials may be promoted for rural road construction; necessary design and specifications should be developed.  The District may use the resources from Employment Programmes and other available sources from the District for providing connectivity to the lower order settlements.  It is proposed that the State Executing Agencies of rural roads shall make it possible to take atleast 5% of the road works under Research and Development using cost-effective new materials, adoption of new technology and new process which are likely to ensure R&D culture to the field engineers.  A plan for tree plantation should be formulated at the time of finalizing the detailed project report for construction/upgrading of rural roads.  To create a green belt and avenues for meeting aesthetic recreational needs and thereby providing shade to pedestrians and reduce the ambient temperature  To reduce the surface run-off discharge and checking erosion in the downhill side especially in hilly regions.  Monitoring should be regular and transparent.  District magistrate should be authorized for landTHE KOKANprocurement GEOGRAPHER for rural road construction.  Road route should be finally approved by Panchayat.  Contractors should be penalized for delay in work.  Eco-friendly raw material should be used for road construction. Conclusion Rural roads are back bone of whole economic system of rural development. It provides connectivity in rural areas. A well-developed rural road serve the socio-economic development in particular regions.After the construction of the PMGSY roads, there has been an improvement in the education, health, employment, hospitality, banking, man-days, rural income etc. Social interaction and integrations have increased due to implementation of PMGSY. Assimilation of GIS into planning, implementation and monitoring process of PMGSY is changing the whole concept of execution of rural road plan. PMGSY has achieved a great success in the field of rural road construction in our country. References 1) Planning Commission Study Report (2000), ‗Impact of Implementation of PMGSY Programme: An Enhancement of Employment Opportunity,‘ Planning Commission of India, Dec.28, 2000. 2) Ministry of Rural Development (2004), Guidelines for PradhanManatri Gram SadakYojana (PMGSY), Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. 3) Ministry of Rural Development (2005), PMGSY - Operational Manual. Government of India. 4) Arora A. and Pandaey M.K. (2011), ‗Transportation Network Model and Network Analysis of Road Networks,‘ Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P., India. 5) Neog R. (2014), ‗Panchayat and Rural Development: A Case Study of Amguri under Siva Sagar District, Assam,‘ International Journal of Advanced Research,January 2014, Vol. 2, Issue 1, pp. 228-232. 6) Konch U. (2014), ‗Rural Transportation: A Study of PradhanMantri Gram SadakYojana (PMGSY) in Assam,‘ Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol.4, No. 8, August 2014, pp. 223-234. 7) Mishra K.K. and Thakral N., ‗Using Geo-informatics for Development of Rural Roads underPradhanMantri Gram SadakYojana, PWD, Jaipur, Rajasthan.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Declining Sex Ratio in Haryana

Dr. Urmila Sabharwal, Associate Professor in Geography, Pt. N.R.S Govt College, Rohtak

Introduction Haryana is one of the 29 states in India, situated in North India. It is bordered by Punjab and Himachal Pradesh to the North, Uttrakhand to the east and by Rajasthan to the west and south. It is located between 27º37‘to 30º53‘ latitude and between 74º28‘and 77º36‘longitude. Total Geographical Area covered by this state is 44,212 km2 which is 1.4% of the total Geographical area if the country. The city of is its capital while the National Capital Region city of is the most populous city of the state and the city of Gurugram is financial hub. Haryana is one of the wealthiest states of India. Total population is 25,353,081 with a population density of 573/km2 .Various social, economic and demographic indicators provide evidence of Gender Bias and inequality against women. Many studies in Haryana have shown that female ratio in total population is quite low. According to census 2011 sex ratio of Haryana is 877.

Haryana

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Figure1: Map showing Location and states of Haryana.

Sex Ratio

920

900

880

860

840

820 Sex Ratio

Figure 2: Chart showing sex ratio of different districts of Haryana

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Sex Ratio Sex ratio is the number of females per 1000 of males in a particular area at a given time. Sex Ratio is an important demographic indicator. In the 2011 census, Kerala has 1084 females per 1000 males, making it the best state to have a good sex ratio. With a ratio of 877 females per 1000 males Haryana has the lowest sex ratio in the country. Factors Responsible For Declining Sex Ratio  Education – Literacy rate in India is about 74%. The female literacy rate in India is 65.5% whereas of Men is 82.2%.Women have a much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out. Conservative cultural attitudes prevent some girls from attending school. Due to illiteracy, people are unaware about the power and role of women in today's era. Literacy rate in Haryana has seen an upward trend and is 76.64 percent as per 2011 population census. Male literacy stands at 85.38 percent, while female literacy is at 66.67 percent.  Social status of women- Traditionally, an Indian woman had four fold status-role sequences. These were her role as a daughter, wife, housewife, and mother. The majority of our women are still content to accept an inferior status. Much of the discrimination against women arises from India's dowry tradition, where the bride's family gives the groom's family money and/or gifts. Male child is considered to the heir of the family and female child is considered to be a liability.  Poverty- Poverty refers to a situation when people are deprived of basic necessities of life. In the worst cases, the burden of illness may mean that families sell their property, take children out of school to earn a living or even start begging. The burden of caring is often taken on by a female relative, who may have to give up her education as a result, or take on waged work to help meet the households costs. Missing out on education has long-term implications for a woman‘s opportunities later in life and for her own health.  Female foeticide- Female foeticide is the abortion of a female foetus outside of legal methods. Generally, male babies were preferred THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER because they provided manual labor and success the family lineage. The selective abortion of female fetuses is most common in areas where cultural norms value male children over female children for a variety of social and economic reasons. Schemes to combat the problem of sex ratio Due to the declining sex ratio, the government has introduced certain schemes to tackle the issue. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao: It is a social campaign of the Government of India that aims to generate awareness and improve the efficiency of welfare services intended for girls. The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao scheme was launched on 22 January 2015 by Prime Minister Modi. It aims to address the issue of the declining child sex ratio image. It is a national initiative jointly run by the Ministry of Women and Child Development, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and the Ministry of Human Resource Development. Aapki Beti, Humari Beti – To cope up with the issue of lowest sex ratio, the Haryana government launched this scheme. A sum of Rs 21000 would be deposited by the state government in the account of every new born girl. The scheme would be implemented in both rural and urban areas. It would target the girl child of Below Poverty Line families. Sukanya Samriddhi Account- Under this scheme A legal Guardian can open account in the name of Girl Child. A guardian can open only one account in the name of one girl child and maximum two accounts in the name of two different Girl children. Account can be opened up to age of 10 years only from the date of birth. For initial operations of Scheme, one year grace has been given. PCPNDT Act – The Indian government has passed Pre-Conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act in 2004 to ban and punish prenatal sex screening and female foeticide. It is currently illegal in India to determine or disclose sex of the foetus to anyone. However, there are concerns that PCPNDT Act has been poorly enforced by authorities.

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Conclusion : Imbalance in sex ratio is likely to cause a rise in social problems like dowry deaths, forced polyandry, rape, child mamage, bride selling, kidnapping of women for marriage etc. In this way discrimination against the girl child from womb to tomb is prevalent in Indian society. The need of hours is that declining sex ratio in Haryana must be controlled. It is clear that there are several critical issues which underlie the problem of gender discrimination which lead to decline in sex ratio. These issues need to be addressed carefully so as to evolve a strategy to combat the problem. For this there is a need to bring attitudinal change by spreading awareness about this serious issue of declining sex ratio. Also it must be made sure that the strict implementation of dowry laws is done.

References: 1) Population Geography by Sahab Deen Maurya. 2) Jansankha Bhugol by Ramkumar Tiwari. 3) R.C. Chandna Population Geography. 4) Haryana Population Census data 2011. 5) Press Information Bureau Government of India Ministry of Women and Child Development. 6) Declining Sex ratio - Reasons and Government's initiatives to tackle it-Careerride.com

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

An Analysis of Growth Rate and Sex Ratio of Haryana, 2001-2011

Priyanka, Research Scholar (Phd), MDU, Rohtak Poonam Rani, M.Phil, MDU, Rohtak Sachin, Msc Student, KU,

Abstract Population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population. Haryana has recorded a decadal population growth of 19.90 per cent during 2001-2011 as compared to 28.43 per cent in the previous decade of 1991-2001 The sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population. The present paper is an attempt to study the growth rate and sex ratio in state of Haryana. For this purpose, the paper considers the total population (by sex), sex ratio and growth rates for districts of Haryana (by sex) as per census 2001 and 2011. Sex ratio at district level in Haryana‟s population and observed the deficiency of females which was attributable to low sex ratio at the time of birth and higher rate of mortality. There was the difference in urban and rural sex ratio, according to state sex ratio is lower than action (Krishnan and Chandana, 1973). The overall sex ratio was increased to 877 in the year 2011, which was 861 in the year 2001, but still it is at very low level as compare to national level of sex ratio that is 940 according to the census 2011. Introduction The present paper is an attempt to study growth rate and sex ratio in one of the northern sates of India, i.e., Haryana. The inter district disparities have been analysed to study the situation of literacy rate in Haryana State. Haryana is the 16th largest state of India and is stretched over an area of 44,212 sq. km. The total population of this state, as per the census report, 2011, is 25,353,081 with a population density of 573.4 per sq. km. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Objectives The current research paper studies the inter-district disparities in growth rate and sex ratio in the state of Haryana. An attempt has been made to study the demographic figures of Haryana according to census, male-female sex ratio and interdistricts disparities in Haryana. For studying the population of Haryana data has been taken from the census 2001 and census 2011. For studying sex ratio data have been taken for 21 districts of the state of Haryana. Bata Base and Methodology The following sources have been used to collect data - The Present research work is essentially based on secondary source of data which is mainly derived from census department of India and statistical abstract of Haryana. Few information and data have been derived from Govt. publication. For the spatial analysis of sex ratio, census years have been selected from 2001-2011. Presentation of data through Statistical tools. Table:1. gives information regarding district wise total population, male population, female population and growth rate of Haryana (according to census 2001and census 2011). Table : 1 Haryana Growth Rate 2001-2011 Total population Growth Rate (Total Pop) State/Distrct Persons Male Female 2001-2011 HARYANA 25353081 13505130 11847951 19.9 558890 298919 259971 19.3 Ambala 1136784 604044 532740 12.1 1214162 646801 567361 16.6 Kurukshetra 964231 510370 453861 16.8 1072861 570595 502266 13.4 1506323 798840 707483 18.2 Panipat 1202811 646324 556487 24.3 1480080 798948 681132 15.7 1332042 712254 619788 12.0

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Fatehabad 941522 494834 446688 16.8 1295114 683242 611872 16.0 1742815 931535 811280 13.4 1629109 864616 764493 14.3 Rohtak 1058683 566708 491975 12.6 Jhajjar 956907 514303 442604 8.7 Mahendragarh 921680 486553 435127 13.4 Rewari 896129 472254 423875 17.1 1514085 817274 696811 73.9 Mewat 1089406 571480 517926 37.9 Faridabad 1798954 961532 837422 31.7 1040493 553704 486789 25.5 Source: Statistical Abstract of Haryana, 2011 Haryana has recorded a decadal population growth of 19.90 per cent during 2001-2011 as compared to 28.43 per cent in the previous decade of 1991-2001. Rampant urbanization and industrial growth have resulted in a 73.93% increase in Gurgaons population in the last 10 years. All districts of the state, except Gurgaon, have shown decline in growth rate as compared to the period bewteen 1991-2001.Surprisingly, even though it is a part of the NCR and is being considered as the upcoming hub of industrial development, Jhajjar, with an 8.73% increase, has reported the lowest population growth. Overall, the NCR especially Gurgaon, Faridabad, Mewat and Palwal has shown more population growth than the rest of Haryana. Panchkula and Panipat have also registered a higher growth in the last decade. Fig. 1 Decadal Growth Rate in Percentage 2001-2011

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Decadal Growth Rate 80 60 40 20 0

Source: Data Derived from Statistical Abstract of Haryana, 2011 Overall, Haryana has recorded a decadal population growth of 19.90% during 2001-2011 as compared to 28.43% in 1991-2001. Also, the state recorded a population. The share of Haryana‘s population in the country‘s total population has increased from 2.06 to 2.09 per cent. Table: 2 gives information regarding district wise sex ratio of Haryana (according to census 2001and census 2011). Table : 2 Haryana Sex Ratio 2001-2011 State / District Child Sex Ratio 2001 Child Sex Ratio 2011 Sex Ratio 2001 Sex Ratio 2011 HARYANA 819 830 861 877 PANCHKULA 829 850 823 870 AMBALA 782 807 868 882 YAMUNANAGAR 806 825 862 877 KURUKSHETA 771 817 866 889 KAITHAL 791 821 853 880 KARNAL 809 820 865 886

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PANIPAT 809 833 829 861 SONIPAT 788 790 839 853 JIND 818 835 852 870 FATEHABAD 828 845 884 903 SIRSA 817 852 882 896 HISAR 832 849 851 871 BHIWANI 841 831 879 884 ROHTAK 799 807 847 868 JHAJJAR 801 774 847 861 MAHENDRAGAH 818 778 918 894 REWARI 811 784 899 898 GURGAON 807 826 850 853 MEWAT 893 903 899 906 FARIDABAD 847 842 826 871 PALWAL 854 862 862 879 Source: Statistical Abstract of Haryana, 2011 The sex ratio in the age group of 0-6 attempts to bring out the recent changes in our society, in its attitude and outlook towards the girl child. The sex-ratio in 2011 was 877 which are quite better than the previous year‘s sex-ratio of the state. There is an increase of 16 females in 2001 to 2011. Fig. 2 Child Sex Ratio (0-6)

950

900 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

850

800

750 2001 2011

700

Jind

Sirsa

Hisar

Jhajjar

Karnal Palwal

Mewat

Rewari

Rohtak

Kaithal

Panipat

Sonipat

Ambala

Bhiwani

Gurgaon

Faridabad

Fatehabad

Panchkula

Kurukshetra Yamunanagar Mahendragarh Source : Data derived from Statistical of Haryana, 2011

The sex-ratio in 2011 was 877 which are quite better than the previous year‘s sex-ratio of the state. There is an increase of 16 females in 2001 to 2011. The highest sex ratio was observed in Mewat at 907, followed by Fatehabad at 902, as per Census 2011.

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Fig.3 Sex Ratio

940 920 900 880 860 840 820 800 20 780 01 760

Source: Data derived from Statistical Abstract of Haryana, 2011. According to census 2011, lowest sex ratio was reported in Gurgaon at 854, Sonipat at 856 and Jhajjar at 862. Conclusion: As per the provisional results of Census 2011, total population of India is 1,21,01,93,422 which comprises of THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 62,37,24,248 males and 58,64,69,174 females with the sex ratio of 940 females per 1000 males. Haryana has a total population of25353081, with males 1,35,05,130 and 1,18,47,951 females with sex ratio of 877. Districts which account for the highest and lowest sex ratios in the Haryana are mentioned in the below table-2. As per Census 2011, top five districts which have the highest sex ratio are Mewat (906) followed by Fatehabad (903), Rewari(898), Sirsa (896) and Mahendragarh (894). Five districts which have the lowest sex ratio are Gurgaon (853), Sonipat(853), Panipat (861), Jhajjar (861) and Rohtak (878). References 1) Chandna, R.C. (2011), ―Sex ratio in Punjab-Haryana region, 2011, Punjab Geographer, Vol. 7, pp.110-114, Oct. 2011. 2) Chauhan and et al, 2016. A Declining Child Sex Ratio in Haryana: a SpatioTemporal Analysis. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) 2(1)pp.379-390. 3) Census of India (1991, 2001, 2011), Final population Totals, India Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi. 4) Census of India (1991, 2001, 2011), Final population Totals, India Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi. 5) Dhoke. A, 2016FLUCTUATION OF SEX RATION IN MAHARASHTRA WITH SEPAL REFERENCE TO PUNE DISTRICT. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research. 7(9), pp. 13277-13282. 6) Kamal. & Kumar, A. 2014. Declining in Child Sex Ratio: Challenges, Causes and Emerging Issues in Haryana. International Journal on Arts, Management and Humanities. 3(1), pp. 44-48. 7) Vinod and et al, 2015. Declining Sex Ratio in Haryana since 1981: Reasons, Impact and Solutions. International Journal of Enhanced Research in Educational Development (IJERED), 3(3), pp: (9-16). 8) Websites 9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryana 10) http://timesofindia.com 11) http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ 12) www.google.co.in/

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Land Use/Land Cover Change in the Buffer Zone of Nimbahera Cement Industries Region, Chittorgargh, Rajasthan

Satyapal Jiterwal Senior Research Fellow Dept. of Geography University of Rajsthan Jaipur Abstract This paper assessed the changes in Land use/Land cover in Nimbahera cement industrial region of Rajasthan using remotely sensed data and GIS tool over 27 years period. The LANDSAT (ETM) imagery of 1989 has been used with a purpose to know the status of Land use/Land cover variables of the existing cement industries in the year 1989 and the imagery of RESOURCESAT-2 (2016) to know the latest Land use/Land cover pattern of 2016. Main objective of the study is to provide a baseline status of the study area so that present Land use pattern and temporal changes occurred in the surroundings due to cement industrial activities can be assessed. Comparative study indicates that all area under Land use/Land cover classes has been changed in the due course of time i.e. 1989 to 2016. Keywords : Change detection, land use and land cover, GIS and remote sensing Introduction Land use/ Land cover (LULC) mapping and detection of change using remote sensing and GIS techniques is of paramount importance to policy makers, planners, geographers and environmentalist, in fact to everybody who cares about human sustainable development. More recent significant effects of land use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil and land degradation, salinization and desertification. Land use changes together with the use of fossil fuel are the major anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHERhouse gas, into the atmosphere (World Bank Environment Development, 1993). The knowledge of land use and land cover is important for many planning and management activities as it is considered as an essential element for modeling and understanding the earth‘s systems. The term land use relates to the human activity or economic function associated with specific piece of land, while the term land cover relates to the type of feature present on the surface of the earth (Lillesand and Kiefer, 2000). During 2007-09 extensive studies were carried out by Geological Survey of India on limestone mines and cement plants in Rajasthan (www.portal.gsi). Land use/ land cover mapping and detection of changes may not provide the ultimate explanation for all problems related to land use/ land cover changes but it serves as a base to understand the patterns and possible causes and consequences of land use/ land cover changes in the area (Abbas, Muazu and Ukoje, 2010). The cement plant development would not be on the cost of intensive cropland (Sihag and Sihag, 2011). The present status of land use/ land cover of Kanpur city is evaluated by visual interpretation of satellite data (Kumar, 2011). Land use and land cover change, is one of the main driving forces of Global Environmental Changes and central to the sustainable development debate (Jaiswal and Verma, 2013). Land use/ land cover classes along with the changes under different categories can be identified from the satellite imagery (Sharma, Rishi, Ahluwalia and Lata, 2014). The present study has been taken up in order to understand the changes that have taken place in land use/land cover in Nimbahera Region. Objectives i. To evaluate the land use/land cover change detection of the study area. ii. To generate statistics from the classified outputs. iii. To determine the trend, nature, rate, location and magnitude of land use/ land cover change Hypothesis In the present study following hypothesis is formulated: There is huge change in the land use/land cover in the region between 1989 and 2016. Study Area : Geographically, the study area falls between Latitudes 24°35‘06.86‖ and 24°47‘40.43‖ North, and Longitude 74°29‘40.35‖ and 74°42‘21.00‖ East. The study area covers 401.50 km2. The region is well accessible by rail

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and road to other parts of the country. The nearest railway stations are Chittorgarh, Shambhupura, Nimbahera and Nayagaon. Database and Methodology Indian Remote Sensing Satellite LANDSAT (ETM) and RESOURCESAT-2(L4FMX) FCC (False Color Composite) has been employed for preparation of land use/ land cover thematic map of the study area. Satellite image has been procured from National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad. Survey of India toposheet as a reference map on the scale of 1:50000 have been used for preparation of base map showing road, rail network, village and plant site and for georeferencing of satellite image. The data for the present study have been collects from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data includes ground control points by GPS survey, whereas secondary source of data includes satellite imagery and toposheets. Survey of India Toposheets have been registered in Geographic Lat/Long and re-projected in Universal Transverse Mercator Projection with datum WGS-84, Zone 43. Erdas Imagine 9.1 is used for georeferencing and subset. ArcGIS 9.2 has been used for interpretation of Land use/ Land cover for the study area. Image interpretation elements as well as maps were considered while identifying various lands attributes. Table 1: Data Used Sr. Spectral Satellite/Sources Sensors/Maps Scale Date/ Year No. Bands 1. LANDSAT ETM B2,B3,B4 Oct, 1989 2. RESOURCESAT-2 L4FMX B2,B3,B4 Nov, 2016 3. Toposheets 45L6,45L9,45L10, 1:50000 ----- 1972

Land Use/Land Cover of the study area The relative distribution of land use/land cover classes in the study region in 1989 and 2016 is represented in table 2 and figure 1&2 respectively. The land use/land cover classes classified into 11 categories and given below in table 2. Table 2: LULC Based Satellite Imagery THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER LULC Based on Oct. 1989 Vintage LULC Based on Nov. 2016 Vintage Satellite Satellite Imagery Imagery Sr. Class Name Area (Km2) Area (%) Class Name Area (km2) Area (%) No. 1 Water Bodies 5.90 1.47 Water Bodies 3.36 0.84 2 Open Scrub Land 12.05 3.00 Open Scrub Land 35.88 8.94 3 Stony Waste Land 59.37 14.79 Stony Waste Land 47.94 11.94 4 Open Land 0.21 0.05 Open Land 9.41 2.34 5 Mine Quarry 0.75 0.19 Mine Quarry 8.63 2.15 6 Plantation 9.81 2.44 Plantation 13.35 3.32 7 Forest Land 58.99 14.69 Forest Land 25.18 6.27 8 Fallow Land 109.84 27.36 Fallow Land 78.48 19.55 9 Crop Land 135.74 33.81 Crop Land 166.14 41.38 10 Human Settlement 8.42 2.10 Human Settlement 10.18 2.53 11 Industrial Area 0.41 0.10 Industrial Area 2.95 0.74 Total 401.50 100.00 Total 401.50 100.00 Source: Visual Interpretation by the authors Water Bodies Water bodies consist of Rivers, streams and reservoirs. Gambhiri is the main river in the region which flows through from south to north. It is located in the north western part of the study area. It covered area of 5.90 km2 in the year 1989. In 2016, its area decreased to 3.36 km2 which is 0.84 % of the total area. This reduction shows that the river is not perennial. There is also a big reservoir named Gambhiri Reservoir which is towards south east. Satkhanda River drains south centre part of the study area. Changes in land use can affect the volume, timing and quality of water. Therefore people facing problems of water scarcity for drinking and irrigation purpose.

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Fig. 1

Fig. 2

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Open Scrub land - Open scrub land is characterized by uncultivated land and barren land. It is associated with grasses, herbs and geophytes. In 1989 it covered 3.00% of the total area that increased to 8.94% in 2016. It is more prominent in the north western side of the study area. The Increase of 5.94% of open scrub land is mainly due to degradation of forest canopy and reserve mineralized zone. Stony area - The stony area is described as degraded land that may occur naturally or be the result of human activities. The area under stony land was 14.79 percent which has decreased by 11.94 in the year 2016. The reason behind is dumping of non mineralized material. The practice of Industrialization, dumping waste and Mining Activity stony area become decreased.

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Open land - In 1989 the open land constituted 0.21 km2 which has increased up to 9.41 km2 in 2016. During this period it has witnessed 2.29 % increase of the total area. This includes uncultivated land and open space which is used in urban planning. These open lands are purposed by developers reserved for recreational parks, play grounds and civic amenities etc. Once these lands are brought under use then in future these lands also will decrease. Mine quarry - Area under mine quarry was 0.75 km2 that has risen up to 8.63 km2. It increased Approx. Eleven Times in 2016 over 1989. It indicates that the limestone bands in this area are quarried and accelerated development in cement industry in the study area. There lands are degraded. It will require considerate efforts to retain to bring under the use. Plantation - Plantation indicates an increase from 2.44% in the year 1989 to 3.32% in 2016. It include the planting trees around the plant boundary, roadside, office buildings and stretches of open land and also in recent times farmers have been encouraged to go for mixed plantation with crops. Forest - The forest is mainly reserved forest that was 14.69% in the year 1989 decreased to 6.27% in 2016. This negative sign shows deforestation which is mainly due to Mining activities and for agricultural purpose. Crop land and Fallow land - Crop land and fallow land together comprises of an area of 245.58 km2 in 1989 that reduced to 244.62 which is 0.24 % of the total area. It shows the negative impact of the cement industries in this region and also the changing trend of rural activities. Human Settlement and Industrial Area The area under built up land category in the year 1989 was 2.20% considerably increased to 3.27% in 2016 which indicates the declining trend of rural activities in the study region. There is significant increase in the human settlements around the mining areas and cement plants during 1989-2016 which effect land use pattern of the area. This is because of increase in population which is due to establishment of cement plant and mining activities. It promotes the educational, health and socio-economic activities that attract people to migrate to the area resulting in urbanization that offers better opportunities and facilities to the communities. Conclusions

The study was carried out in the Nimbahera regionTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER of Chittorgarh district, Rajasthan. The study clearly reveals that satellite remote sensing coupled with GIS technique can be a powerful tool for mapping and evaluation of land use/land cover changes of a given area. The perceptible changes in the land use/land cover during the period between 1989 and 2016 recorded some interesting observation. During this time span i.e. more than two decades the classes of forest land, crop & Fallow land, water bodies and Stony Waste Land Area indicate a decreasing trend whereas the built up area open land, plantation and open scrub land, indicates an increasing trend. This clearly shows that industrialization has encouraged the concentration of human population within urban areas and the depopulation of rural areas. Therefore follows that land management in the study area is not satisfactory. On above basis we can conclude that land use/land cover mapping and detection of changes shown here may not provide the ultimate explanation for all problems related to land use/land cover changes but it serves as a base to understand the patterns and possible causes and consequences of land use/land cover changes in area. References 1) Abbas, I.I., Muazu, K.M. and Ukoje, J.A. 2010. „Mapping Land Use-Land Cover and Change Detection in Kafur Local Government, Katsina, Nigeria (1995-2008) Using Remote Sensing and GIS‟. Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences. 2(1): 6-12-2010, ISSN: 2041-0492, Maxwell Scientific Organization, 2009, pp.6- 12. 2) Jaiswal, J.K. and Verma, N. 2013. „The study of the Land use/ Land Cover in Varanasi District Using Remote Sensing and GIS‘. Transactions, Indian Institute of Geographers, Pune, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 201-209. 3) Kumar, J. 2011. „Mapping and analysis of land use/ land cover of Kanpur city using remote sensing and GIS techniques, 2006‘. Transactions, Indian Institute of Geographers, Pune, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 43-53. 4) Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.W. 2000. „Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation‟. Fourth Edition, Wiley & Sons, New York. 5) Sharma, R., Rishi, M.S., Ahluwalia, A.S. and Lata, R. 2014. „Comparative Change in Land use/Land cover in the Buffer Zone of Kashlog Limestone Mines, Darlaghat, Himachal Pradesh, India Using Remote Sensing and GIS Tools‟. International Journal of Remote Sensing & Geoscience, ISSN No. 2319-3484, Volume 3, Issue 6, Nov. pp. 27-30.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Need and Perspectives of Sustainable Development in Indian Scenario

Rahul Choudhary Assistant Professor, Dept. Of Geography, Pt. N. R. S. Govt. College, Rohtak

ABSTRACT In 1972, the then Prime Minister of India, Mrs. Indira Gandhi emphasized, at the UN Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm, that the removal of poverty is an integral part of the goal of an environmental strategy for the world. The concepts of interrelatedness, of a shared planet, of global citizenship, and of ‗spaceship earth‘ cannot be restricted to environmental issues alone. They apply equally to the shared and inter-linked responsibilities of environmental protection and human development. History has led to vast inequalities, leaving almost three-fourths of the world‘s people living in less-developed countries and one-fifth below the poverty line. The long-term impact of past industrialization, exploitation and environmental damage cannot be wished away. It is only right that development in this new century be even more conscious of its long-term impact. The problems are complex and the choices difficult. Our common future can only be achieved with a better understanding of our common concerns and shared responsibilities. KEYWORDS: sustainable development, climate change, environment, growth. INTRODUCTION What is Sustainable Development ? The United Nation defines sustainable development as ― development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖. Previous dialogues on sustainability have more or less focussed on climate change and environmentalTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER issues , but the new paradigm of sustainability includes all efforts towards an inclusive , sustainable and resilient future for people and the planet. There is a significant departure from the previous framework to now including a ―harmonising‖ of three elements: economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection. “Eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions is an indispensable requirement for sustainable development” The world‘s governments have agreed on an ambitious agenda to transform our world by 2030, adopting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that aim to ensure no one is left behind , and everyone benefits from development efforts. The SDGs are multi-dimentional and interconnected, and the scale of the challenge at hand is vast. Realising these 17 goals will require deep commitment, trillions of dollars in investment, and innovative ideas and approaches. It will also require institutions and individuals to bring together the very best they have to offer in order to achieve this shared vision of prosperity for all. NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT "Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed." - Mahatma Gandhi With the ever growing economies and the need and greed for more, the doctrine of Sustainable Development becomes the most relevant principle in today's times. The doctrine of Sustainable Development has most commonly been defined as development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains two key concepts:  the concept of needs, in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and  the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs." This definition emanates from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report published by World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987.

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For the first time, the doctrine of "Sustainable Development" was discussed in the Stockholm Declaration of 1972. Thereafter, in 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development submitted its report, which is also known as Bruntland Commission Report wherein an effort was made to link economic development and environment protection. In 1992, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development codified the principle of Sustainable Development. Simply put, the principle of Sustainable Development attempts to maintain a balance between development and the environment. It promotes inter-generational equity, i.e. better quality of life for present and future generations. The benefit from development ought to be equated with the impact on the environment for such development. While development is important or in fact necessary, the impact on the environment ought to be studied before undertaking such development. The basic concept of sustainable development aims to maintain a balance between economic advancement while protecting the environment in order to meet the needs of the present as well the future generations. The two pillars of the doctrine of Sustainable Development are Polluter Pays principle and Precautionary principle. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS IN INDIA India has played an important role in shaping the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, it is no surprise that the country‘s national development goals are mirrored in the SDGs. As such, India has been effectively committed to achieving the SDGs even before they were fully crystallized. The expression “Sabka Saath Sabka Vikas,” which translates as ―Collective Effort, Inclusive Growth‖ and has been popularized by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, forms the cornerstone of India‘s national development agenda. To fast track this agenda, the Government of India has just released a draft Three-Year Action Agenda covering years 2017- 18 to 2019-20. In parallel, work is in advance stages on a 15-Year Vision, which will also include a 7-year Strategy. Reflecting the country‘s long-standing federal tradition, these documents are being prepared with active participation of the States (sub-national Governments). Special efforts have been made to invigorate the federal governance structure of the country through cooperative and competitive federalism. State Governments are playing a prominent role in advancing the national development agenda. The recommendations made by three sub-groups of Chief Ministers of States on various themes including the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Movement) and skill development have contributed towards shaping relevant policy decisions at the national-level. India‘s bold Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC), communicated to the Conference of the Parties (COP) THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, form a significant part of its SDG strategy. These include substantially reducing the emission intensity of GDP, tapping non-fossil fuel energy sources and creating additional carbon sink. The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro in 2012 laid down seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to encounter the urgent environmental, economic and political challenges being faced by the world. Seventeen goals were set: to end poverty; zero hunger; quality education; gender equality; clean water and sanitation; affordable and clean energy; decent work and economic growth; industry innovation and infrastructure; reduced inequalities; sustainable cities and communities; responsible consumption and production; climate action; life below water; life on land; peace, justice and strong institutions and partnership for the goals. One can see that these goals are achievable only when nations forget their boundaries and work together as global citizens. One of the major goal is to combat climate change, which would entail climate action, industry innovation and infrastructure, use of affordable and clean energy and building sustainable cities and communities. The main messages for India‘s Voluntary National Review of SDG implementation encapsulate the progress made with respect to Goals 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 14 and 17. This is not to suggest that progress has not been made with respect to other goals. Interconnections across the 17 SDGs are so strong that the pursuit of the goals explicitly discussed below necessarily involves the promotion of other goals as well. . GOAL 1: END POVERTY IN ALL ITS FORMS EVERYWHERE . GOAL 2: END HUNGER, ACHIEVE FOOD SECURITY AND IMPROVED NUTRITION AND PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE . GOAL 3: ENSURE HEALTHY LIVES AND PROMOTE WELLBEING FOR ALL AT ALL AGES . GOAL 5: ACHIEVE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER ALL WOMEN AND GIRLS . GOAL 9: BUILD RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE, PROMOTE INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIALIZATION AND FOSTER INNOVATION . GOAL 14: CONSERVE AND SUSTAINABLY USE THE OCEANS, SEAS AND MARINE RESOURCES . GOAL 17: REVITALIZE THE GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

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Combating Climate Change Climate change is a global phenomenon, which transcends national boundaries. Emissions anywhere affect people everywhere and hence it's a global issue, which requires global solution. International cooperation between all nations is required to help developing nations become green or low-carbon economies. The rich nations, such as USA (one of the most polluting nations, having the largest per capita carbon emission) must help developing nations such as India, in moving towards low-carbon economies. The rich countries have a larger role to play and must commit to lowering their carbon footprint and help the developing nations monetarily and by way of exporting technical know-how to developing nations. Commitment to Climate Change can be secured from all Nations basis principles of "climate justice" and principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. STEPS TAKEN BY INDIAN GOVERNMENT India being a growing economy has seen rampant industrialisation and development in recent past, which resulted in adverse impact on the environment. Witnessing such degradation, the Supreme Court of India in a bid to protect the environment, played a significant role in shaping and adopting the doctrine of Sustainable Development. This crusade for safeguarding the environment was led by Justice Kuldip Singh, who famously came to be known as the 'Green Judge'. The Supreme Court of India emphasised on the need to set up specialised environment courts for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases involving environmental issues, since the right to healthy environment has been construed as a part of right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution. Establishment of the National Green Tribunal Keeping in mind the risk to environment and human health due to unchecked and rampant industrialisation and the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June, 1972, as well as United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio de Janeiro in June, 1992, to both of which Conferences India was a party, the legislature enacted the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (Act). Vide the Act, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established for effective and expeditious disposal of cases involving multi- disciplinary issues relating to environment. Even though the Tribunal has time and again stoutly applied the doctrine of Sustainable Development and valued the local population over economic benefits from a project, the NGT has also passed judgments in favour of THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER industries when the economic development surpasses the environmental costs. The NGT in various cases has held in favour of project/ industries where an industry/project has taken adequate preventive steps, mitigatory measures and are armed with detailed Environment Management Plan backed by scientific studies. Sustainable development in India encompasses a variety of development schemes in social, cleantech (clean energy, clean water and sustainable agriculture) and human resources segments, having caught the attention of both Central and State governments and also public and private sectors. In fact, India is expected to begin the greening of its national income accounting, making depletion in natural resources wealth a key component in its measurement of gross domestic product (GDP). CONCLUSION : Given that a large population of India is dependent upon agrarian economy, and lives in vast coastal areas and Himalayan regions, India is highly vulnerable to adverse effects of Climate change. However, India also has 30% of its population under poverty; 20% living without proper housing; 25% living without electricity and is a growing economy, thus economic and infrastructural development is critical too. Thus, in this milieu it is most important that development projects be encouraged and while being conceptualised, the doctrine of Sustainable Development be kept in mind. In order to maintain a balance between development and environment, the principle of Sustainable Development which encompasses the 'Precautionary Principle' must be followed while envisaging a project. This would prevent any anticipated environmental impact a project may have by following and incorporating mitigating measures. Right from the stage of selection of site, to adopting efficient and environmental friendly measures at each stage and facet of construction to avoid or minimise environment de-gradation, to providing mitigatory measures and monitoring the impact of a project on the environment/eco-system and thereafter providing for restorative action in case of any degradation is imperative in today's pro- environment climate and is also the need of the hour. The developers today must be conscious of the environment and adopt a green, pro- environment, scientific and energy efficient mind-set for each stage of a project. These measures, may increase the over-all expenditure of the project, but in the longer run the benefits would surpass such costs. The Indian Government in furtherance of its INDCs (Intended Nationally Determined Contributions) and National Action Plan on Climate Change incentivises developers and

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promotes use of green and energy efficient measures and these incentives can be used by developers to off-set any additional green costs. Undeniably, Sustainable Development is the need of the hour. With the advent of energy efficient technology, a harmonious marriage between development and environment is possible. It is time that each one of us adopt an 'energy- efficient and green' mind-set and use the natural resources available equitably, judiciously and save them for our future generations, as the best way to predict future is to create it. Shepherding the achievements of the SDGs is an enormous task that requires the involvement of every sector and each level of society. The experiences of the pilot countries illustrate the opportunities the platform can create for India to build meaningful and lasting state-philanthropy partnerships to achieve the prime minister‘s vision of ―SABKA SAATH , SABKA VIKAS‖ i.e. collective effort, inclusive growth. “You have to decide whether development means affluence or whether development means peace, prosperity and happiness‖. - Sunderlal Bahuguna

REFERENCES 1) www.moef.nic.in/divisions/ic/wssd/doc4/consul_book_persp.pdf 2) https://www.ibef.org/pages/sustainabledevelopment 3) https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ 4) http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/559702/Clean+Air+Pollution/Need+For+Sustainable+Development 5) 'Our Common Future', United Nations General Assembly,1987 6) https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/india

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Employment Pattern in Rural Haryana: An Analysis

Mrs.Mamta Nandal, Assistant Prof., Pt. N. R. S. College, Rohtak Mrs. Kavita vpo Rukhi

Abstract Despite rampant urbanization, a staggering 69% of Indian population still lives in rural areas. The rural people are mostly employed in agriculture and related informal sector activities, but receiving (and contributing to) a disproportionately low share of gross domestic product and also are characterized by low values in various development indicators. For example, human development index and life expectancy in Indian states decrease with every increase in rural population.. This micro level study, conducted in the state of Haryana to examine the employment pattern, has revealed that agriculture and non agriculture activities are the main sources of income and employment and non agricultural activity contributes only a small portion. The small holders as well as landless households are depending on secondary and tracery activity as the source of earning. A very few persons has been observed that they depend upon secondary and tracery activities. The present study has been also based on employment pattern of rural economy of Haryana state. For collecting such kind of information the author has selected the Haryana state. After analyzing the study author found that most of the villagers are depend upon the agricultural sectors. The main objective of the study is that to know the employment pattern of rural areas of Haryana state. Most of the study is based on secondary source. After collecting the information the data are presenting with the help of suitable table and diagrams. The detail analysis has been given in full paper. Key words: Rural Economy, Employment, Economic Activity

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Introduction Agriculture is an important sector for the sustained growth of Indian economy, as nearly 70 per cent of the rural and 8 per cent of the urban households still depend on it for employment and livelihood. Despite a series of successful agricultural innovations, the agriculture sector in India continues to be dominated by small landholders and large fluctuations in agri-output. At the same time, several non-agricultural activities also provide opportunities for income and employment to the labour force belonging to both farming and non-farming households. In the recent time, farming in India has become non-viable, specifically for marginal and small farmers. Their meager land is not sufficient to earn adequate income to maintain their family (Rajshekhar, 1995; Pandey and Singh, 2003). Also, the agriculture sector alone cannot absorb the growing rural labour force due to fallings output elasticities of employment within the sector (Singh et al., 2003). The importance of non-farm employment is gaining momentum in India as rural economy is becoming diversified and is being extended well beyond agriculture. The labour absorptive capacity of agriculture has reached the upper limit and it is not able to keep the rural workers engaged throughout the year. Rural households also seek employment outside the agriculture sector to tide over the inter-year and intra-year variations in agricultural .income According to 1991 census of India a worker is defined as ―a person whose main activity is participation in any economically productive activity.‖ Such participation may be physical or mental in nature work involved not only actual work but also effective supervision and direction of work. One should have worked at least 183 days in one or more than one activity for classifying as a worker. Census hand book of Haryana, 1991 classified workers into nine industrial categories: 1. Cultivator 2. Agricultural labour 3. Live stock, forestry, fishing, hunting and plantation, orchards and allied activities. 4. Mining and quarrying 5. (a) Manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs in household industries. (b) Manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs in other than household industries 6. Construction 7. Trade and commerce 8. Transport, storage and communication 9. Other services 34 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 19

Objectives of the study The present work has been undertaken with following main objectives: • To know the employment pattern in the area. • To know the kind of employment. • To evaluate the distribution of different working group Research Design and Methodology The present study has been carried out through inductive and empirical approaches. Data pertaining to various attributes of data shall be collected with the help of primary sources. An attempt have also been made to highlight and interpret the data by applying suitable statistical techniques and also displayed through tables and suitable cartographic techniques like tables, graphs etc. Sources of Data Collection For the purpose of data collection and to get other require information related to the research study, primary data has been collected with the help of questionnaire and secondary from the concerned office and institutions. Regarding has also been consulted from the statistical abstracts and census of India. Analysis of data Table 1 Distribution of total working and non working population of the village Gender Working Non-working Male 1327 (77.47%) 2057(65.36%) Female 386 (22.53%) 1090(34.64%) Total 1713 (100%) 3147(100%) Sources: field survey Working and non working population of the village

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

working population

non working population

Fig 1 Table 1 and fig 1 shows the distribution of total working and non working population of the village. It shows that out of total population only 35.25 per cent population are working and reaming are non - working. In which total working population 77.47 per cent are male are worker and 22.53 per cent are female. It shows that very small portion or we can say that 64.75 per cent are not working. Table2 Age wise Distribution of working population in the village Age group Male Female <40 854(64.36%) 234(60.62%) 40-60 346(26.07%) 123(31.87%) >60 127(9.57%) 29(7.51%) Total 1327(100%) 386(100%) Sources: field survey

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Table 2 and fig 2 reveals the age wise distribution of working population in the village. It shows the much more contribution of population is 40age group. Than 40- 60age group and very few persons are working >60 age group. Out of total working population the < 40 age groups are more involve than other age groups. The main reason of involving this age group is that the youngest age group has more basic requirements than other age groups. Working population in the village

80

60

40 Male Female 20

0 <40 40-60 >60

Fig 2 Table 3 Distribution of Total Workers in Different, Working category Agricultural Household Total Cultivator Others Worker industries Male 356(59.63) 454(83.92%) 231(100%) 286(83.14%) Female 241(40.37%) 87(16.08%) 0(0%) 58(16.86%) Total 597(100%) 541(100%) 231(100%) 344(100) Sources: field survey

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Total Workers in Different, Working category

Cultivator

Agricultural worker Household industries others

Fig 3 Table 3 shows the distribution of total working population in different category. Fig 3 also shows that much more persons are cultivators which are 597 and 541are agriculture working and very small portion of worker are engaged in household industries and reaming 341 are involve in secondary and treasury activities. it also shows that in rural areas very small portion of population are working other than agricultural activities. Table 4 Distribution of Total Workers (main and marginal), Main Workers Marginal workers Person Male Female Person Male Female 1156(100%) 823(71.19%) 333(28.81%) 557(100%) 504(90.48%) 53(9.51%) Sources: field survey

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Total Workers (main and marginal),

main worker marginal worker

Fig 4 Table 4 shows the distribution of marginal and main workers. There are 35.25 per cent working population (main + marginal) of the total population, who are working in different categories like cultivated, agriculture, household industries and other field. Out of which the total working population 63.69 per cent people are main worker while only 36.31 per cent are marginal worker which reveals the same picture in figure 2.14. Table 4 shows, 1713 total main + marginal workers. Out of which males 1327(77.47%), and 386 (22.53%) female, who are engaged in different activities. Major findings of the study  After analyzing the study finds that the non working population is much more than working population.  Also find that most of the rural populations are involved in agriculture and other agriculture related activities.  Very few people are engaged in secondary or treasury activities  The female work participation is also very low. Suggestions THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Here are some suggestions proposed as given below:  There is a need to increase the involvement of peoples in other activities than agriculture.  It is fairly evident that with increasing population pressure, small and fragmented agricultural holdings and highly iniquitous distribution of land, etc., agriculture alone cannot provide the solution for rural unemployment and under- employment in the state.  Financial assistance may be provided to the rural households to start new non-farm activities. It will help increase not only employment and income but would also provide better livelihood to rural households. Conclusion Basically, it is the landless, marginal and small farmers that own livestock and development of this sector will help them in generating employment and engaging themselves gainfully. However, the policies needed for higher growth in agriculture are increasing public investment, removing domestic and external controls, simplifying land leasing, etc. A number of factors have been observed affecting rural employment significantly in both non-agricultural and agricultural sectors. A well-designed technical programme based on the local conditions of the area can help in strengthening their skills which would benefit and provide better possibility of getting employment in non-farm sector. Knowledge gaining/ skill development may also help in motivating the local people to become enterprising. References 1) Basant, R. and Kumar, B.L. (1989) ―Rural non-agricultural activities in India: A review of available evidence‖. Social scientist, 17 (1-2): 13-17 2) Gauraha, A. K. (1996). ―Farm and non-farm employment: A case study‖. The Bihar Journal of Agricultural Marketing, 4 (4): 417- 425. 3) Kumar, Anjani (2009) ―Rural employment diversification in eastern India: Trends and determinants‖. AgriculturalEconomics Research Review, 22 (1): 47-60. 4) Mukhopadhyay, Abhiroop and Rajaraman, Indira (2007) ―Rural unemployment 1999-2005: Who gained, who lost?‖ Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (21): 3116-3120. 5) Sharma, H.R. (2001) ―Employment and wage earnings ofagricultural labourers: A state-wise analysis‖. The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 44 (1):27-38.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Recent Trends and Patterns of Crime against Women in India

Naveen Kumar, Department of Geography, University of Rajasthan Dr. Naresh Malik, Department of Geography, University of Rajasthan Surbhi Gaur, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University

Abstract The ‗crime against women‘ signifies direct or indirect physical or mental cruelty against women. ‗Crime against women‘ embraces all gender-based physical violence, sexual or psychological harm, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty. Violence or crime against women is a social problem which is associated with gender inequality and violates the fundamental right to live a woman without fear with freedom and dignity. Crime against women is showing a sharp increase during more than a decade across the states in India. The present study indicates that the trend and pattern of cognizable and heinous crime has increased in India during 2004-14. Key words: Crime against Women, Rape, Kidnapping, Domestic Violence Introduction According to a report by National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), every 1.7 minutes in India, a crime is recorded against women. Every 16 minutes a rape case is recorded and every 4.4 minutes a girl is subjected to domestic violence. Crime against women is a gender-based discrimination, which is based on social structure, gender and cultural relationship among the society. The 1993 United Nations define violence against women as ―any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to a woman, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivations ofTHE KOKANliberty, GEOGRAPHER whether occurring in public or private life‖ (Gomez, 1996). Presently, the crime against women in India is increasingwith an alarming rate. NCRB statistics illustrating that in 2004, total 1,50,301 cases of crime against women were registered. In 2014 total 3,21,993 cases of crime against women were registered. During 2004-14 the number of crimes against women has increased by 114.23 percent (Table 1). In last 10 years the crime against women has increased reflecting an upsurge in crime against women or an upsurge in reporting of gender specific crime in India. This paper aims to examine the trend, pattern and characteristics ofcrime against women in India during 2004-14. Crime against Women in India The incidences of crime against women in India have been increasing continuously over the time. A total of 3,21,993 cases of crime against women (both under various sections of IPC and SLL) were reported in the country during the year 2014 as compared to 1,50,301 in the year 2004, thus showing an increase of 114.23percent from 2014- 15.Crimes against women have increased by 171692 during 2004 – 2014.According to the report of National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) for the year 2014, Uttar Pradesh with 16.8percent share of country‘s female population has reported total 38467 cases of crime against women amounting to 11.4 percent of total crimes committed against women at all India level. Uttar Pradesh had reported highest crime against women in the year 2014, accounting for 11.4 per cent of the total number of incidence of crime against women in the country. When we apply the spatio-temporal analytical approach analysing the data from 2004 to 2014 comparing it in different states of India; we find that in terms of total number of incidents reported during stipulated time of 10 years, Andhra Pradesh tops the list with 282760 cases, followed by Uttar Pradesh (251941) and West Bengal (250807). However, if we look from the perspective of percent change in the given time period, it is Goa with 269.70percent that is at the helm of the list followed by West Bengal (246.69percent) and Arunachal Pradesh (235percent). Thus, it shows that the states which have recorded the highest gain in percentage aren‘t the same from the perspective of total number of cases reported. However, this difference, of percentage change is also linked to the overall population of the particular state. One another interesting fact that arises from evaluating this data is that ‗Tamil Nadu‘ is the only state in the whole country which has shown a negative growth in the number of cases reported, although discontinuously. One other

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conclusion that can be drawn from the geo-spatial analysis of this data is that the states which lie in Indo-Gangetic Plain show more number of cases in comparison to southern states like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh etc. Table1: Number of Incidence, States Share and Rate of Crime Committed Against Women from 2004 – 14. Cognizable Crimes Number of Incidence States Share (%) Rate States/Years Total Change (%) 2004 2009 2014 2004 2009 2014 2004 2009 2014 (2004-14) 2004 -14 Andhra Pradesh 18921 25569 30648 282760 61.98 12.3 12.8 9.1 24.0 30.7 71.7 Arunachal 148 164 351 2191 137.16 0.1 0.1 0.1 12.9 13.4 57.4 Pradesh Assam 5700 9721 19139 116405 235.77 3.7 5.4 5.7 20.2 31.8 123.4 Bihar 8091 8803 15383 104786 90.12 5.2 4.0 4.6 9.2 9.2 31.3 Chhattisgarh 3763 4002 6255 48748 66.22 2.4 2.0 1.9 17.0 16.6 49.6 Goa 132 164 488 2118 269.70 0.1 0.1 0.1 9.0 9.7 53.9 Gujarat 6211 8009 10837 94362 74.48 4.0 3.8 3.2 11.6 13.9 37.2 Haryana 4276 5312 8974 63271 109.87 2.8 2.6 2.7 19.1 21.9 73.0 Himachal 823 954 1517 11291 84.33 0.5 0.5 0.4 13.0 14.4 44.4 Pradesh Jammu & 2208 2624 3321 30139 50.41 1.4 1.2 1.0 20.0 20.3 57.0 Kashmir Jharkhand 2490 3021 5972 40767 139.84 1.6 1.4 1.8 8.8 9.9 37.4 Karnataka 5423 7852 13914 93583 156.57 3.5 4.1 4.1 9.9 13.5 46.0 Kerala 6483 8049 11380 99079 75.54 4.2 4.4 3.4 19.7 23.2 63.0 Madhya 15203 15827 28678 190796 88.63 9.9 7.7 8.5 23.5 22.3 79.0 Pradesh

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Maharashtra 12169 15048 26693 185231 119.35 7.9 7.4 7.9 12.0 13.8 47.6 Manipur 134 194 337 2401 151.49 0.1 0.1 0.1 5.3 7.3 26.7 Meghalaya 113 237 388 2553 243.36 0.1 0.1 0.1 4.7 9.2 28.8 Mizoram 91 150 258 1745 183.52 0.1 0.1 0.1 9.7 15.1 51.0 Nagaland 30 46 67 499 123.33 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 2.1 6.0 Orissa 5239 8120 14606 100741 178.79 3.4 4.0 4.3 13.7 20.1 70.4 Punjab 1955 2631 5425 33269 177.49 1.3 1.3 1.6 7.7 9.8 41.1 Rajasthan 13127 17316 31151 202055 137.30 8.5 8.5 9.2 21.7 26.2 91.4 Sikkim 49 41 110 670 124.49 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.6 6.8 36.9 Tamil Nadu 9332 6051 6325 80191 -32.22 6.0 3.1 1.9 14.5 9.0 18.4 Tripura 670 1517 1615 14312 141.04 0.4 0.8 0.5 20.0 42.5 88.0 Uttar Pradesh 15485 23254 38467 251941 148.41 10.0 9.4 11.4 8.7 11.9 38.3 Uttaranchal 988 1188 1395 12499 41.19 0.6 0.5 0.4 11.0 12.3 27.4 West Bengal 11047 23307 38299 250807 246.69 7.2 12.2 11.3 13.2 26.1 85.4 Total 150301 199171 321993 2319210 114.23 97.4 97.7 95.3 14.1 17.3 54.7 Source: Table 5.1 Incidence & Rate of Crime Committed Against Women, National Crime Record Bureau: 2004-14. In 2004, share of the states in the total crime against women was 97.4 which was decrease to 95.3 percent in the year of 2014, whereas the share of crimes against women in UT has increased from 2.6 percent to 4.7 percent (Table 1). The share of Cognizable Crimes in crime head-wise details of cases reported during the year 2004-14 also leads us to some thought-provoking conclusions. For instance, in Assam, the share of the cognizable crimes against women was 20.2 percent in 2004, which increased to 123.4 percent in 2014 (Table 1). If we look at it from the comparative perspectivein upside down manner, we can broadly classify the different states into three broad categories. The states like Rajasthan (91.4), Tripura (88.0), West Bengal (85.4) Madhya Pradesh (79.0), Andhra Pradesh (71.7), Haryana (73.0) etc. record the highest rate of cognizable crimes against women while the ones like Kerala (63.0), Arunachal Pradesh (57.4), Goa (53.9), Mizoram (51.0) Jammu &Kashmir (57.0) fall in the moderate category with rest of the states registering relatively less rate.

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Characteristic of Crime Against Women As the figure 1 depicts, one thing to be noticed here is that while the total number of incidences show an almost continuous rate of growth from 150301 cases reported in 2004 to 321993 cases in 2016. But, what is interesting is that while from 2004 to 2011, the rate of increase of total cognizable crimes is showing almost a parallel rise to total number of incidences but it shows a steep increase from 2011 onwards with the share of cognizable crimes forming 18.7percent in 2011 to 54.7 percent in 2014 of total cases. 3.1 Crime Head-wise Analysis (IPC) Rape (Sec. 376 IPC) A total of 2,24,549 cases of rape under section 376 IPC were registered during 2004-13 (excluding cases under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012). An increasing trend in the incidence of rape has been observed during the periods 2011 - 2013. These cases have shown an increase of 9.2 percent in the year 2011(24,206 cases) over the year 2010 (22,172 cases), an increase of 3.0percent in the year 2012 (24,923 cases) over 2011, with further increase of 35.2percent in the year 2013 (33,707 cases) over 2012 and 9.0 percent in 2014 (36,735 cases) over 2013. Figure 1: Incidence & Rate of Crime Committed Against Women (2004-14) Incidence and Rate of Cognizble Crime in India (2004-14) 321993 60.0 295930 300000 54.7 Incidence 237931 50.0 50.9 250000 Rate of Total Cognizable Crimes 223091 199171 208681 41.4 40.0 200000 180009 191519 150814159770 150301 30.0 150000

100000 20.0 17.3 17.9 18.7 14.5 16.1 16.9 50000 14.1 13.9 10.0

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 0 0.0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Source:National Crime Record Bureau: 2004-14. Figure 2: Incidence of Crimes Committed Against Women During 2004-13 Incidence of Crimes Committed Against Women During 2004-13

120000 118866 106527 100000 99135 94041y = 6828.7x + 46938 89546 R² = 0.9818 80000 81344 75930 60000 63128 58319 y = 3672.8x + 7133.9 58121 R² = 0.9002 51881 40000 38262 20737 35565 18233 29795 18359 19348 25741 33707 20000 22939 24206 24923 21467 21397 17414 20416 22172 y = 1295.4x + 15330 15578 15750 R² = 0.7477 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Rape (Sec. 376 IPC) Kidnapping & Abduction (Sec.363-369,371-373 IPC) Cruelty By Husband And Relatives (Sec.498A IPC) Source: National Crime Record Bureau: 2004-14.

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A decrease of 5.7 percent was reported in 2015 (34,651 cases) over 2013 (33,707 cases). 12.7percent (4,391 out of 34,651 cases) of rape cases were reported in Madhya Pradesh followed by Maharashtra (4,144 cases), Rajasthan (3,644 cases), Uttar Pradesh (3,025 cases) and Odisha (2,251 cases) accounting for 11.9 percent, 10.5 percent, 8.7 percent and 6.5 percent of total cases respectively. Delhi UT reported highest crime rate of 23.7 followed by A & N Islands at 13.5 as compared to national average at 5.7. 3.2 Kidnapping & Abduction of Women A total of 2,73,341 cases were registered under kidnapping & abduction of women (under section 363-369, 371-373 IPC) from 2004-13. These cases have shown an increase of 35.54 percent during 2013 over the previous year 2012 (from 38,262 cases). Uttar Pradesh with 9737 cases of kidnapping & abduction has accounted for 9.9 percent of the total such cases. Assam has reported the highest crime rate at 27.7 percent compared to the national average of 8.3 percent. 3.3 Cruelty by Husband or His Relatives (Sec 498A IPC) The cases of cruelty by husband or his relatives in the country have increased by 104 percent during observation period (2004-13). Most of these cases were reported in West Bengal (18,116 cases) followed by Rajasthan (15,094 cases) and Andhra Pradesh (15,084 cases). These three States together accounted for 45.7 percent of total such cases 48294 out of 1,15,721 cases). So now, when we make the comparative study of these crimes, we get to know that it‘s the cases reported under the category of ―Cruelty by Husband or His Relatives‖ that forms the largest share with almost 63 percent of total cases in 2004 and 58percent in 2013, thus, making it a continuous trend. One more conclusion that can be drawn is that while in 2004 it‘s the Rape cases, forming 20 percent of total cases, leading ―cases of Kidnapping and Abduction‖ marginally by 3 percent. But, this trend shows a reversal from 2008 onwards with Kidnapping and Abduction cases (25.3 percent) leading the Rape cases by a significant 9 percent lead. Table 2. Incidence and Rate Crimes Committed Against Women in 2013 Kidnapping & Cruelty By Husband or Rape Dowry Deaths States/Years Abduction his Relatives

I* R* I* THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER R* I* R* I* R* Andhra Pradesh 1635 3.8 1595 3.7 492 1.1 15084 35.1 Arunachal Pradesh 75 12.4 86 14.2 0 0.0 29 4.8 Assam 1937 12.7 4222 27.6 170 1.1 8636 56.4 Bihar 1128 2.3 4419 9.1 1182 2.4 4533 9.3 Chhattisgarh 1380 11.1 1881 15.1 109 0.9 1181 9.5 Goa 86 9.7 70 7.9 0 0.0 40 4.5 Gujarat 732 2.5 2230 7.7 29 0.1 7812 27.1 Haryana 971 8.0 1957 16.2 263 2.2 3617 29.9 Himachal Pradesh 250 7.4 290 8.6 0 0.0 328 9.7 Jammu & Kashmir 378 6.6 949 16.5 7 0.1 428 7.4 Jharkhand 1204 7.6 926 5.9 307 2.0 2084 13.2 Karnataka 1030 3.4 1359 4.5 277 0.9 3276 10.9 Kerala 1221 6.8 185 1.0 21 0.1 4820 26.8 Madhya Pradesh 4335 12.1 2873 8.0 776 2.2 4988 13.9 Maharashtra 3063 5.5 1874 3.4 320 0.6 8542 15.4 Manipur 72 5.8 125 10.0 0 0.0 29 2.3 Meghalaya 183 13.7 33 2.5 2 0.2 23 1.7 Mizoram 89 17.8 2 0.4 0 0.0 5 1.0 Nagaland 31 2.8 11 1.0 1 0.1 4 0.4 Orissa 1832 8.9 2067 10.1 395 1.9 2792 13.6 Punjab 888 6.8 987 7.5 126 1.0 1741 13.3 Rajasthan 3285 9.8 4047 12.0 453 1.4 15094 44.9 Sikkim 43 14.6 16 5.4 0 0.0 5 1.7 Tamil Nadu 923 2.7 1516 4.5 118 0.4 2471 7.3 Tripura 233 12.8 124 6.8 29 1.6 827 45.6

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Uttar Pradesh 3050 3.1 9737 9.9 2335 2.4 8781 8.9 Uttaranchal 228 4.5 633 12.6 43 0.9 435 8.7 West Bengal 1685 3.8 3830 8.6 481 1.1 18116 40.8 Total States 31967 5.5 48044 8.3 7936 1.4 115721 19.9 I* - Incidence R* - Rate Note: „Crime rate‟ for crimes committed against women has been calculated using only female population which is based on mid-year projected female population for the year 2015, as supplied by Registrar General of India/Population Commissioner, MHA. Source: Table 5.2 Incidence & Rate of Crime Committed Against Women, National Crime Record Bureau: 2013. Conclusion: Incidence of crime against women have been increasing consistently during 2004 to 2014 in all the states of India. The incidence of such crimes in the States like Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryanaare much higher as compared to all India average and most of the other states. The number of serious crimes against women such Rape, Kidnapping & Abduction, Dowry Deaths, Cruelty by Husband or his Relatives have increased considerably. Centre and State Government have to takeeffective steps to curtail crime against women, through strengthen police force, infrastructure, awareness, sensitisation of police personal about women related crime, monitoring and surveillance of public places and promotion of public participation and social awareness in the country. References 1) Jiloha, RC. 2015. ―From Rape to Sexual Assault: Legal Provisions and Mental Health Implications.‖ Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry 31 (1): 9. doi:10.4103/0971-9962.161992. 2) Kalaiyarasi, Ms R. 2015. ―Violence against Women in India.‖ IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science Ver. III 20 (2): 51–55. doi:10.9790/0837-20235155. 3) Lisham, Shanthalembi. 2017. ―Courtship, Marriage, Consent and Violence against Women in the Meitei Society

A Feminist Viewpoint.‖ The Journal of Development PracticeTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 3 (July): 2394–2476. 4) Livne, Emma. 2015. ―Violence Against Women in India: Origins, Perpetuation and Reform.‖ Global Studies Spring 2015, 1–33. http://www.cmu.edu/hss/globalstudies/images/livne-gs-capstone-paper.pdf. 5) Saravanan, Sheela. 2000. ―Violence Against Women in India A Literature Review,‖ no. March. 6) Singh, S.K. 2016. ―Heinous Crimes against Women in India.‖ Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies 41 (3): 4070–80. 7) Walker, Rebecca. 2011. ―Chapter – 3 Crime Against Women : Types And Causes‖ 6: 41–125.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Sustainable Urban Waste Management in India

Dr.Anil Kumar, Associate Professor, Pt. Neki Ram Sharma Govt. College, Rohtak (Haryana)

Abstract Municipal solid waste generation of waste is an integral part of ecological cycle. Every element of ecosystem directly or indirectly produces waste. While increasing urbanization, industrialization, fast growing rural areas and changing lifestyles are widely accepted key drivers for waste generation, the pressures and Impacts are observed in different magnitudes across the value chain. With the advancement in human activities, inventions and discoveries, the quantity of waste generation has gone high. It has not only increased in volume but also has become more and more complex in composition which cannot be decomposed completely through natural processes. Hence waste management becomes an important responsibility of all the stakeholders generating waste and authorities managing human habitat and environment. Collecting, processing, transportation and disposing this municipal solid waste (MSW) is the prime responsibility of urban local bodies in India. Most of local bodies are struggling to provide efficient waste management services to citizens. The coverage and efficiency of waste collection is still low, waste is collected in open trucks in an unsafe and insanitary manners. Improper waste management has led to worsening sanitation conditions in urban areas. The present paper studied about the problem of solid waste management in Indian cities. Introduction: Management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) continues to remain one of the most neglected areas of urban development in India. Magnitude and density of urban population in India is increasing rapidly and consequently the civic THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER bodies are facing considerable difficulties in providing adequate services such as supply of water, electricity, roads, education and public sanitation, including Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM). Solid waste management (SWM) has become a global issue and is of a major concern, especially in developing countries, due to various environmental problems, such as pollution of air, soil and water and generation of greenhouse gases from landfills. Indian cities and towns generate on an average 300–400 grams of solid waste per capita per day. This translates into approximately 80, 000 metric tonne/day or 30 million metric tonne/annum. The population of India has been estimated to increase from 1029 million to 1400 million during the period 2000-2026, an increase of 36 percent in 26 years at the rate of 1.2 percent annually (Census of India, 2001). About 742 million people live in rural areas and 285 million in urban areas. The level of urbanization of the country has also increased from 17.6 percent to 31.16 percent during the last 60 years and is expected to rise further to 40 percent by the year 2026. The urban population of India generated 114,576 tons/day of municipal solid waste (MSW) in 1996, which was predicted to increase by four times to about 440,460 tons/day by the year 2026 (Talyan et. al, 2008). The present paper discussed about the problem of solid waste management in Indian cities. Objectives of the Study: The purpose of the present research study is to examine the spatial and temporal aspects of municipal solid waste generation of Indian Cities. The study minutely examines all the elements from waste generation to final disposal of urban waste. Data Base and Research Methodology: The present study is based on secondary data. Secondary data was collected from government, semi- government, non-government and private publications. The background information was related to, area, demographic characteristics, urbanization status and socio-economic profile as was compiled from the Census of India. Required data and comprehensive information as well as available published material related to solid waste management was collected from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).

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Concept of Solid Waste: ―Solid Waste‖ refers to non-liquid waste materials arising from domestic, trade, commercial, industrial, agricultural and mining activities and from the public services (Moitra, 2000). Solid waste can be defined in terms of unwanted residues, solid or semi–solid that is thrown away by domestic, industrial and commercial sectors. According to World Health Organization, the term "Solid Waste" is applied to unwanted and discarded materials from houses, street sweepings, commercial and agriculture operations arising out of mass activities. Urban solid waste consist of household wastes, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residues, industrial and hospital waste (Planning Commission, 1995). Solid waste defined as a mixture of vegetables and non–vegetables, paper, plastics, rags, fabrics, dust, ash and a variety of biodegradable and non–biodegradable matter. These materials are generally known as garbage or solid waste (Kappayantula, 2006). Sources of Urban Solid Waste Generation in Indian Cities: Major sources of waste generations are: (i) residential premises, (ii) commercial and business establishments, (iii) street sweepings (iv) institutional premises, viz. schools, colleges, hotels, restaurants, hostels, hospitals, religious places, vegetables, fruits, fish and mutton (meat) markets, community and marriage halls and cinema theatres besides government buildings (v) trade waste, (vi) stable waste, and (vii) construction and demolition materials. Generation of Urban Solid Waste: Due to population growth, industrialization, urbanization and economic growth which has induced a changed life style and social status, a trend of significant increase in solid waste generation has been recorded. Solid waste generation, in terms of kg/capita/day has shown a positive correlation with economic development (Sharholy, 2007). The generation rate of solid waste is influenced by the level of economic development, the degree of industrialization, public habits lifestyle and local climate. It also depends upon the population size of the city, the floating population, the income levels of the population, the economic activities, the cultural habits of people, and so on. The waste generation rates in India are lower than the developing countries in different parts of the world and much lower as compared to the developed countries. However, lifestyle changes, especially in the larger cities, are leading to the use of more packaging material and probability of per capita waste generation is increasing by about 1.3 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER percent per year. With rapid urban population growth at 2.7 percent to 3.5 percent per annum, as a result, the growth rate of solid waste in the cities will be more than 5 percent (Asnani, 2006). The given Table 1 reveals the municipal solid waste generation metro cities/state capitals of India. Delhi takes first place in respect to waste generation in India and Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad, Banglore and Kolkatta following it. With increasing urbanization and changing life style, there has been more than eight times increase in urban waste generation in Indian cities in last sixty five years (1947- 2012). Table:1 Municipal Solid Waste Generation in Metro Cities/State Capitals Sr. Municipal Solid Waste (Tonnes per day) Name of City No. 1999-2000 (a) 2004-2005 (b) 2010-11 (c) 1. Agartala - 77 102 2. Agra - 654 520 3. Ahmedabad 1683 1302 2300 4. Aizwal - 57 107 5. Allahabad - 509 350 6. Amritsar - 438 550 7. Asansol - 207 210 8. Bangalore 2000 1669 3700 9. Bhopal 546 574 350 10. Bhubaneswar - 234 400 11. Chandigarh - 326 264 12. Chennai 3124 3036 4500 13. Coimbatore 350 530 700 14. Daman - 15 25 15. Dehradun - 131 220 16. Delhi 4000 5922 6800

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17. Dhanbad - 77 150 18. Faridabad - 448 700 19. Gandhinagar - 44 97 20. Gangtok - 13 26 21. Guwahati - 166 204 22. Hyderabad 1566 2187 4200 23. Imphal - 43 120 24. Indore 350 557 720 25. Itanagar - 12 102 26. Jabalpur - 216 400 27. Jaipur 580 904 310 28. Jammu - 215 300 29. Jamshedpur - 338 28 30. Kanpur 1200 1100 1600 31. Kavaratti - 3 2 32. Kochi 347 400 150 33. Kohima - 13 45 34. Kolkata 3692 2653 3670 35. Lucknow 1010 475 1200 36. Ludhiana 400 735 850 37. Madurai 370 275 450 38. Meerut - 490 52 39. Mumbai 5355 5320 6500 40. Nagpur 443 504 650 41. Nashik - 200 350

42. Panjim THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER- 32 25 43. Patna 330 511 220 44. Pondicherry - 130 250 45. Port Blair - 76 45 46. Pune 700 1175 1300 47. Raipur - 184 224 48. Rajkot - 207 230 49. Ranchi - 208 140 50. Shillong - 45 97 51. Shimla - 39 50 52. Silvassa - 16 35 53. Srinagar - 428 550 54. Surat 900 1000 1200 55. Thiruvanandapuram - 171 250 56. Vadodara 400 357 600 57. Varanasi 412 425 450 58. Vijayawada - 374 600 59. Vishakhapatnam 300 584 334 Total MSW 30058 39031 50592 Source: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 2014 Transportation and Disposal of Waste: Transportation of solid waste is an intermediate yet important activity. It is the vital link between collection and disposal of garbage. The waste generated from residential houses, markets, hotels, commercial areas, parks and garden is collected in community bins and taken away to processing or disposal sites by using various kinds of vehicles. Transportation of solid waste is carried out by municipalities maintained vehicles. Transportation of waste is carried out by municipalities employing vehicles like open trucks, tractor-trailers, dumper placer, RRTs, compactor vehicles special

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municipal vehicle etc. In a city like Delhi, various factors like width of the road, transport volume, road conditions, etc. play an important role in the selection of vehicles. The right selection of vehicles should be provided to save the vehicles from wear and tear due to heat and rain. Preventive maintenance system should be introduced which is useful for promoting longer life of the vehicles. Vehicle routes should be properly planned for best utilization of manpower, saving of fuel and lesser time consumption. Time and motion study should be conducted to reduce the non-productive idle time of the vehicles and it may lead to increased productivity. It is estimated that the city managers transports about 75-85 percent of total waste generated. The remaining waste is either left on the streets, deposited in open plots, low-lying areas and drains or burnt in the open. The fleet is generally inadequate and utilization un-optimal. The traditional transportation system does not synchronize with the system of primary collection and secondary waste storage facilities and multiple manual handling of waste results. The disposal of waste is an important aspect of the municipal solid waste management system and it requires special attention by the city corporation through effective and efficient planning. The waste collected from various dustbins or dhalaos as disposed off by various methods such as open dumping, sanitary landfill, composting, Incineration, pyrolysis etc. Only open dumping and sanitary landfills are widely practiced in developing countries. Solid waste disposal methods, regulation and implementation are varied around the world. In most of the developing nations such as India, Brazil, South Africa, Nigeria etc. with about 140 million populations, waste is dumped indiscriminately on roadsides and any available open pits irrespective of the health implication on people. All classes of solid waste are collected and dumped together without much effort at segregating and differentiating the various components of solid wastes. In India, generally the disposal of municipal solid waste in open grounds is normal practice. Uncontrolled dumping of waste blights the land for any future use and causes serious risk of water pollution, air pollution and vector breeding. Unsanitary dumping of waste results in underground water pollution, bad odours, fires, flies, rats etc. These problems can be reduced by proper dumping of waste. Apathy of Municipal Authorities: Elected representatives as well as the municipal authorities generally relegate the responsibility of managing urban waste to junior officials such as sanitary inspectors. No serious efforts are made to adopt latest methods and technologies of waste management, treatment and disposal.THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Large proportion of budgetary provision goes to establishment expenditure. In many small towns, even qualified sanitary inspectors are not posted and services are left in the hands of unqualified supervisors. The situation of cities with ten lakhs plus population is somewhat better, though far from satisfactory. Conclusion: Solid waste management continues to remain one of the most neglected areas of urban development in India and most urban local bodies have weak administration and management capacities. Then there is the problem of solid waste management practices prevailing in the city at every level, i.e. collection, transportation, processing and disposal. Municipal solid waste increased many times over in the past few years because of the increased population, urbanization, standard of living, changing life style and food habits and so on. The garbage collection is the weakest link in the whole chain of management. In India 30-35 percent of garbage remains uncollected. It has been observed that uncollected waste attracts rodents and flies; as a result, this deteriorated condition spread diseases. The uncollected waste affects not only human beings but also animals and the ecosystem of the city. In Indian cities open dumping of waste is widely used and it is caused for environment pollution. Suggestion: Some suggestions which would improve the SWM practices in the city are as follows:  Location of waste dustbins should be as per people‘s requirement. City managers should follow locational suitability of waste receptacles.  Open waste storage sites and other unhygienic street bins should not be allowed.  Segregation of household waste at the source would reduce the burden of solid waste.  Old vehicles should be replaced by new vehicles specifically designed for waste transportation in order to increase the carrying capacity. Waste transportation vehicles should be more efficient, modern, covered, equipped with global positioning.  Dumping of garbage at present landfill sites should be stopped immediately. Proper maintenance and supervision of landfill sites, keeping in view their environmental and health impacts.

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 Government must encourage the processing of waste in the city, because the processing of waste can provide a suitable answer of MSW.  Awareness of waste management should be emphasised as an important part, so street plays, newspapers, pamphlets and other public awareness programs should be arranged by the Government with the involvement of RWAs, NGOs and Eco-Clubs etc. regularly.  Government should adopt 4R‘s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recycling) principle. Refrences: 1) Asnani, P.U. (2006): ―Solid Waste Management‖, India Infrastructure Report 2006, urban Infrastructure, ed. Anupan Rastogi, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 2) Kappagantula, S.R. 2006. ―Solid Waste Management – A Study of Municipalities in West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh‖, Nagalok, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, pp. 31–39. 3) Moitra, M. (2000): Management of Solid Waste, Edited by A.K. Maitra, pp. 158-173, New Age International. 4) Planning Commission 1995. Report of high power committee: Urban solid waste management in India, New Delhi: Planning Commission, Govt. of India. pp 58. 5) Rao, S. 2006. ―Solid waste management- A study of municipalities in West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, Nagarlok, Vol. XXXVII, No.1, pp 31-39. 6) Sharholy, M. et al., (2008): ―Municipal Solid Waste Management in Indian Cities: A Review‖, Journal of Waste Management, 28, 459-67. 7) Talyan, et.al 2008. ―State of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Delhi‖, Journal of Waste Management, Vol. 28, pp. 1276-1287.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Crop Diversification Pattern in Haryana

Neelam Garg, Assistant Professor, M.A.C.W. Jhajjar Savita, Lecturer in Geography, M.A.C.W. Jhajjar

Introduction Haryana is one of the Indian states which are better placed in terms of agricultural performance. The cultivated land of Haryana is continuously being brought under non-agricultural uses due to the fast expanding urbanization and industrialization. The rapid urbanization and increase in population pressure have also influenced the agriculture. The choice of crops, their variety and the area under different crops obviously depend upon a number of factors such as apart from physical determinants, different socio-economic factor, technological factor, and infrastructure facilities. It is obvious that greater the number of crops in combination, higher will be the degree of diversification. Objective The main objective of the paper is to find out as to what extent the cropping pattern in the state has diversified following the neo-liberalization policy. Methodology The present paper is based on secondary data drawn from published as well as unpublished sources. The time series data relating to various aspects of agriculture such as total cropped area, area under various crops at state and district levels are obtained from Statistical Abstract of Haryana, for the period 1990-91 to 2010-11. Simple cartographic techniques are used

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Crop Diversification Pattern: Diversification means the raising a variety of crops. The cultivation of crop depends on physical and socio- economic variables. This cultivation of crop shows contemporary competition. In the dry areas crops are diversified in the field due to erratic nature of rainfall and insufficient irrigation. But in the present world sowing of greater numbers of crops leads to greater competition, the higher magnitude of diversification (Ogale and others 2012). Crop diversification means moving away from specialized established cropping pattern and adding new crops. Crop diversification in Haryana over the period 1990-93to 2008-11 shall be construed moving from established cropping pattern to more remunerative food and nonfood crops. The neo-liberalization policies since early 1990s in India are supposed to have offered greater scope of crop diversification. As a consequence of initiation of green revolution in 1960s the cropping pattern in Haryana largely revolved around the food grain, i.e. wheat and rice with pockets of cotton and mustard cultivation in western and south western Haryana. The cultivation of rapeseed and mustard, gram and bajra, a coarse grain, in the nonirrigated areas diversifies the cropping pattern in the south-western region mainly due to limited irrigation facilities. The present study attempt to find out as to what extent the cropping pattern in the state has diversified following the neo-liberalization policy. For assessing this, two indices of crop diversification, namely Herfindahl Index and Simpson Index have been computed and results interpreted. Herfindahl Index (HI): Herfindahal Index is computed by taking sum of squares of acreage proportion of each crop in the total cropped area. High value of Herfindahl Index shows lower degree of crop diversification. The value of the 1 shows complete concentration and zero indicates perfect diversification. Table and Figure show that value of the index for Haryana has increased from 0.15 in 1990-93 to 0.22 in 2008-11. It shows that overall in the state of Haryana the cropping pattern has become less diversified over this period. In 1990-93, Rohtak, Jind, Hisar, Bhiwani and Gurgaon districts had most diversified cropping pattern with index value below 0.20. Besides, Yamunanagar, Ambala, Sirsa, Rewari, Faridabad Mahenragarh and Sonipat districts also had well diversified cropping pattern (0.20-0.25). The least diversified cropping pattern was found (more than 0.30 index value) in Panipat, Kaithal, Kurukshetra and Karnal districts of the state. During 2008-11, had most diversified cropping pattern with index value 0.15. Panchkula, Mewat and Sirsa districts with index value between 0.20-0.25 displayed higher level of crop diversification. Rohtak, Jhajjar, Faridabad,

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Rewari, Jind, Yamunanagar, Gurgaon and Palwal districts had the index value 0.25-0.30. During this period the districts of Sonipat, Mahendragarh, Ambala, Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Karnal and Panipat districts showed comparatively low levels of index value exceeding 0.30. The comparison of district wise value of Herfindahl index for the time period 1990-93 and 2008-11 shows that all the districts of the state with exception of Bhiwani have moved towards crop specialization rather than diversification. Haryana - Herfindahl Index (HI) of Crop Diversification District 1990-93 2008-11 Ambala 0.21 0.34 Panchkula NA 0.20 Yamunangar 0.20 0.29 Kurukshetra 0.32 0.35 Kaithal 0.31 0.37 Karnal 0.34 0.38 Panipat 0.30 0.38 Sonipat 0.25 0.31 Rohtak 0.16 0.25 Jhajjar NA 0.25 Faridabad 0.24 0.26 Palwal NA 0.29 Gurgaon 0.19 0.29 Mewat NA 0.23 Rewari 0.23 0.27 Mahendragarh 0.25 0.31 Bhiwani 0.19 0.15 Jind 0.17 0.28

Hisar THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER0.17 0.18 Fatehabad NA 0.27 Sirsa 0.21 0.24 Haryana 0.15 0.22 Source: Statistical Abstract of Haryana NA District Not Available

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Simpson Index: Simpson index provides an indication of dispersion of commodities in a geographical region. The Simpson index ranges between zero and one. The value of index if it 0 represents most specialized cropping pattern towards foodgrain and value 1 represents most diversified cropping pattern towards non- foodgrains. The horizontal diversification is the increase in the number of crops grown given the economical rationality of this expansion. The extent of horizontal diversification can be gauged empirically through Simpson index of diversification. The index for different districts was computed to evaluate the extent of diversification at two-points of time, 1990-93 and 2008-11. Categorization of Districts in Relation to Changes in Simpson Index during 1990-93 to 2008-11. Increased diversification No Change Concentration toward food grain crops Away from foodgrains Ambala, Panchkula, Yamunanagar, Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Karnal, Panipat, Sonipat, Rohtak, Faridabad, Mahendragarh, Bhiwani Rewari Jhajjar, Palwal, Gurgaon, Mewat, Jind, Hissar, Fatehabad, Sirsa For Haryana as a state overall concentration towards food grain crops. It is evident from Table and Figure that over the period 1990-93 to 2008-11 the cropping pattern in the state of Haryana moved towards foodgrain specialization. The value of Simpson index was 0.33 in 1990-93 which decreased to 0.28 in 2008-11. Haryana - Simpson Index (SI) of Crop Diversification District 1990-93 2008-11 Ambala 0.24 0.17 Panchkula NA 0.15 Yamunangar 0.39 0.24 Kurukshetra 0.19 0.15 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Kaithal 0.17 0.11 Karnal 0.15 0.12 Panipat 0.20 0.13 Sonipat 0.25 0.13 Rohtak 0.33 0.16 Jhajjar NA 0.19 Faridabad 0.26 0.27 Palwal NA 0.24 Gurgaon 0.33 0.20 Mewat NA 0.32 Rewari 0.40 0.40 Mahendragarh 0.37 0.41 Bhiwani 0.30 0.39 Jind 0.33 0.20 Hisar 0.46 0.43 Fatehabad NA 0.33 Sirsa 0.51 0.48 Haryana 0.33 0.28 Source: Statistical Abstract of Haryana NA District Not Available

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In 1990-93 only of the state had very low value of the index, i. e. 0.15. But in 2008-11 as many as six districts of the state (Kaithal, Karnal, Sonipat, Panipat, Panchkula, and Kurukshetra) had value of the index 0.15 or less. On the other hand in 1990-93 there were five districts of the state with Simpson index value 0.35 or above (more diversified cropping pattern). These districts were Sirsa, Hisar, Mahendragarh, Rewari and Yamunanagar. In 2008-11 also there were five districts (Sirsa, Hisar, Mahendragarh, Rewari and Bhiwani) with Simpson index value 0.35 or above. All these districts located in western and southern parts of theTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER state devote large part of cultivated area to non-foodgrains. Table reveals that value of Simpson index has increased (indicator of increase in non-foodgrain crops) in Bhiwani, Mahendragarh and Faridabad districts over the time period 1990-93 to 2008-11. There is no change in the value of this index in . Interestingly, in all other 17 districts of the state the cropping pattern shows indication of concentration and a move towards specialization in growing foodgrain crops. This also included three districts of western Haryana (Sirsa, Fatehabad and Hisar) where traditionally the share of non-foodgrains crops is high. It reveals that over the period of time the cropping pattern in most districts of the state in becoming more and more oriented towards foodgrain production. CONCLUSION The district wise crop diversification analysis for early 1990s and take 2000s bring out dynamics of cropping pattern in the state. It has been found that at regional level the cropping pattern is more diversified in the western and south -western parts of the state. The cultivation of rain fed crops such as rapeseed and mustard, gram and bajra, in the nonirrigated areas diversifies the cropping pattern in this region. REFERENCES 1) Jaglan, M.S and Thakur, B.R. (2006), ―Ecology of Changing Cropping Pattern in Bharaur Tribal Area of Himachal Pradesh‖ Journal Human Ecology, vol. 19, No. 1, pp.13-20. 2) Jana, M.M. (1987), ―Cropping Pattern in West Bengal‖ Geographical Review of India, Vol. 49, pp. 13-22. 3) Singh, B.B. (1967), ―Land use Cropping Pattern and Their Ranking‖ National Geographical Journal of India, Vol. XIII, Pt. 1, pp. 1-13. 4) Singh, J. and Dhillon, S.S., (2005), ―Agricultural Geography‖ Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Environment and Landuse of Rasikbeel Complex

Subhashis Biswas Guest Lecturer, Balagarh Bijoy Krishna Mahavidyalaya.,Balgarh, Hooghly WB

ABSTRACT Rasikbeel is a perennial wetland located at neighboring area of Buxa Tiger Reserve. This natural wetland lies between the river Rydak and Sankosh. This Beel is a cut-off meander or ox-bow lake of the river Sankosh. This sanctuary is constituted by five ‗Beels‘ or wide elongated water bodies namely Neeldaba, Bochamari, Raichagmari, Shankhadanga and Rasikbeel. Rasikbeel is a wonderful habitat for water birds. Over 171 migratory and residential species of birds are reported at this place. Among them some are migratory birds. The wetland complex is surrounded by Chengmari, Bara Salmari, Atiamochar and Takomari forming a protected forest. The adjacent forest of the Beels is very young and is about 10-12 years old. All the characteristics related to Rasikbeel are of much significance for Landuse Planning. The consideration of Landuse Planning and management includes wetland configuration as the wetlands have rich biological diversity. The present study has been made on the basis of configuration of the concerned Beel and has tried to identify the relation of it with Landuse planning specifically. The environment fosters and supports species, which are unique to wetlands. Therefore, protection of wetland ecosystem is extremely important to the conservation of biodiversity of an area. Key Word : Beel, Perennial Wetland, Cut Off Mender, Habitat, Biological Diversity, Wetland Conservation, and Landuse Planning.

INTRODUCTION: THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Wetlands are the ‗Supermarket‘ of biological Diversity (Bhandari, Abe, Takanashi, Nakahata 2003). Rasikbeel is one of the most productive environment of West Bengal included in the Wetland Development Project of the Government of India (M.O.E.F., Govt. of India, vide No. 1-22012/33/2004-CS(W) dated 1.9.2005). The distance of Bhutan Himalayas from Rasik Beel is only about 40 km. The general slope of the region is towards the south. The northern part of Rasik Beel is bounded by a 40 m (figure 3) contour line. The Altitude of this complex is thus around 40 m. The main river of the locality is Raidak at a distance of 7 Km of the West from Rasik Beel. Rasik Beel lies between the Burah- Raidak and the Ghoramara rivers. The Beel is interconnected with some other Beels e.g. Nildoba Beel, Bochamari Beel, Raichangmari Beel and Sankhabhanga Beel. Rasikbeel is a wonderful habitat for water birds. Over 171 bird (both migratory and residential), 53 ichthyofauna, 4 annelids, 49 arthropods including 24 butterflies, 6 molluscans, 5 amphibians, 6 reptilians, 9 mammalian species are reported at this place (Zoological Survey of India 2012). The wetland complex is surrounded by Chengmari, Bara Salmari, Atiamochar and Takomari protected forest. The adjacent forest of the Beel is very young and is about 10-12 years old (Plate 4). All the characteristics related to Rasikbeel are of much significant for Landuse Planning. The consideration of Landuse Planning and management includes wetland configuration as the wetlands have rich biological diversity and geomorphic significance. The present study has been made on the basis of configuration of the concerned Beel and has tried to identify the relation of it with Landuse planning specifically. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRESENT STUDY: Rasikbeel is a perennial wetland located at neighboring area of Buxa Tiger Reserve. This natural wetland lies between the river Rydak and Sankosh. This Beel is a cut-off meander or ox-bow lake of the river Sankosh. It is a very popular bird sanctuary, famous for local and migratory birds. This sanctuary is constituted of five ‗Beels‘ or wide elongated water bodies namely Neeldaba, Bochamari, Raichagmari, Shankhadanga and Rasikbeel. Rasikbeel

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is the abode of about a jumble of wild flora and fauna. It is surrounded by three dark and dense forests namely Nagurhaat, Atasmochar and Bochamari. After 1995 for the attraction of tourists (Both academic and recreational) the forest department has created several other sites at the adjoining area of this Beel i.e. Deer Park, Aquarium, Aviary, Leopard Cage, Serpentine Bridge, Children Park, Watch Tower etc. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this present study is to portray the environmental configuration or characteristics and to represent a relation of it with Landuse planning. The study also enlightens: To find out the driving forces behind detrimental changes of wetland eco-environment. To prepare some management procedures for the concerned Beel. To suggest some inventories for sustainable management. LOCATION: Rasikbeel is located under Tufanganj subdivision of Cooch Behar district. Latitudinal and longitudinal location of this area is 26°25‘30.7‖N, 89°43‘32.3‖E. Rasikbeel is a vast natural wetland, covering an area of 178 hectares (Figure No: 1). It is 34 Km away from Alipurduar town and 20 Km away from Tufanganj sub-divisional town beside NH 31 and well connected by two parallel roads from both sides. It is the largest wetland of North Bengal. It is a very popular bird sanctuary, famous for local and migratory birds. METHODOLOGY The methodology adopted in this paper includes pre- field work, field-work, post-field work. During the pre-field work necessary information had been collected from Institute of Wetland Management and Ecological Design, District Forest office, Cooch Behar and various governmental organizations. And various libraries were consulted for collection of secondary data. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER GEOMORPHOLOGY: Rasikbeel is a part of Dooars area. Dooars is mainly a plain land. The land is mostly constructed by younger Alluvium and some parts of it are undulating. This area is developed by active flood of fluvial origin (Figure 2). Some areas are filled with different types of rocks, minerals and hills. RIVER SYSTEM: This area is full of natural resources. Many rivers are present here. Some important and main rivers are Torsa, Rydak, Sankosh, Kaljani, Bala, Jayanti etc. The rivers are non - perennial. The monsoon rainfall is the main source of water supply of those rivers. For this reason the surface erosion is excessively high in nature. Due to sand stagnation in riverbed, flood is a common factor in Dooars. GROUND WATER Water table in the Northern ―Bhabar‖ is usually very low. In the southern Terrain region along Damodpur, the water table is high. The perennial streams and dug-wells form the main source of water supply for human welfare. A large portion of the area is covered with gravels. There is a continual development in ground water. It creates both shallow and deep aquifer. Slope of water table is parallel with the surface slope which is southwards (Figure 3).

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CLIMATIC CONDITION Average rainfall of the area is about 1800mm- 2000mm. Monsoon generally starts from the middle of the May and continues till the end of September. Winters are cold with foggy mornings and nights. During this time the Minimum Temperature is 10° to12° Centigrade. Summer is mild and constitutes a very short period of the year. At this time the Maximum Temperature is 31° Centigrade. Humidity is very high throughout the year. VEGETATION: 1. Large open area with plenty of submerged vegetation, large population of floating, submerged and emergent Macrophytes. 2. Patches of grasslands which extend up to high banks. 3. Rest of the area is covered with forest.

SOME FACTS ABOUT RASIKBEEL: Table. 1: WATER QUALITY

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Table. 2: LIST OF BIRDS (Source: Institute of Wetland and Environmental Management of Kolkata) VALUES OF RASIKBEEL:

There are physical, ecological and economical values. PHYSICAL:  Flood control: This wetland system offers a unique drainage network as a part of Rydak and Sankosh river system and thus helps in flood control.  Storm Protection: May abate the fury of Nor‘westers and cyclonic storms.

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ECOLOGICAL:  Water Source: Water of the wetland is used for domestic and agricultural purposes.  Habitat of biodiversity: This vast natural wetland is the reservoir of the large and diverse forms of both flora and fauna. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF RASIKBEEL: Aquaculture: At present Pisciculture is practiced in the fringe areas of the wetland which supports a large number of families. Recreation and Eco-tourism: Since last few years this wetland is being developed as a water fowl habitat as well as recreation center. Local people are getting employed through various types of works. THREATS TO RASIKBEEL: Overgrazing: The greatest threat posed on Rasikbeel is overgrazing. It leads to soil erosion. Intensive Agriculture: Due to intensive agriculture practice around Rasikbeel, the excessive use of fertilizer and pesticides are entering the Beel by agricultural run-off. Landuse change: Due to excessive changes of Landuse pattern at surroundings and interiors of Rasikbeel, environment is getting polluted. Transformation of drainage system: the changing drainage system of Rasikbeel is indicating loss of biodiversity as the water channels are degenerating at a faster rate by various forms of human activities. Tourist Pressure: the natural habitats of the various migratory birds are being disturbed by the increasing tourist pressure. Tourists are throwing plastic and other non-biodegradable substances, thus polluting the wetland environment. MANAGEMENT PRACTICE OF RASIKBEEL The “Ramsar convention” is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands, i.e. to stem the progressive encroachment on and loos of wetlands now and in the future, recognizing the fundamental

ecological function of wetland and their economic, cultural, THEscientific KOKAN GEOGRAPHER and recreational value. Role of forest department: for the attraction of local tourists, the Forest department has created several other sites at the adjoining areas of the Beel e.g. deer park, Aviary, turtle Rearing Pond, Aquarium, Leopard-Cage etc. Role of Panchayat: the foremost work of panchayat is to provide an alternate grazing land to the importance of wetland. Establishing wetland conservation committee and ensuring peoples participation: with the effort of panchayat and forest Department, a wet land committee should be established so that the importance of the wetland can be spread to the local people. Improvement of water quality: water quality should be made conductive to the water-fowls and other flora and fauna by regular removal of silt and weeds including hyacinths. Prevention of encroachment: fencing of wetland boundaries and display of caution notice at prominent places would prevent large scale water removal. Improvement of Hydrology: restriction to overgrazing and fishing. Prevention of water-fowl hunting. Maintenance of hydrological balance clearance of input and output channels control of erosion by afforestation. Minimization of fertilizer use at the adjoining agricultural field. SUGGESTIONS: Wetland includes marshes, flood plains, bogs, peat lands, shallow ponds, littoral zone of large water bodies etc. A rich variety of flora and fauna thrive in the congenial ambience of wetlands. This special environment fosters and supports species, which are unique to wetlands. Therefore, protection of wetland ecosystem is extremely important to the conservation of biodiversity of an area. There are few suggestions provided by the present author that are:  Awareness Generation Programme among people on the restricted use of chemicals and fertilizers for cultivation to avoid run off pollution.  Fishing activities inside the Rasikbeel complex should be controlled and with the help of local people alternative ways can be adopted.

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 Grazing should be under control. As it effects on surface erosion and it creates nuisance to the nesting birds in grasslands.  Intruding modern, eco-friendly ways of cultivation inside the wetland complex area.  Various unscientific and improper developmental works in the complex area should be avoided.  Afforestation measures might be taken to ensure the land erosion.  Wetland zone can be included within the ecotourism orbit to promote the importance in state, national and international platform.  To distribute several pant species proper plan should be made. FOR REGULATING PROCESSES AND SERVICES  Increasing plant biodiversity increases resistance to invasion by exotic plants.  Plant pathogens, such as fungal and viral infections, are less prevalent among more diverse plant communities.  Plant species diversity increases aboveground carbon sequestration through enhanced biomass production (but see statement 2 concerning long-term carbon storage).  Nutrient mineralization and soil organic matter increase with plant richness. ACTS ASSOCIATED WITH RASIKBEEL:  The Bengal Act II of 1889 referred to as the private fisheries Act 1 of 1939 and West Bengal Act XXI of 1959.  Indian Forest Act 1927.  The Bengal Tank improvement Act, 1939 & West Bengal tank acquisition of irrigation rights Act, 1939.  The wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (amended till 1991) and the forest (Conservation) Act 1980.  The West Bengal canal Act of 1864 and the Bengal ferries Act of 1885. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER  The environment (protection) Act, 1986.  The Indian Fisheries Act of 1897.  The west Bengal town and country (Planning & Development Act) 1979.  The west Bengal Estates Acquisition Act, 1953.  The west Bengal fisheries (requisition and Acquisition) Act 1965.  The West Bengal Land Reforms (Amendment) Act, 1981.  Water ( Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act- 1974 (Amended,1988)  The West Bengal inland fisheries Act, 1984 (Amended in1993).  National Conservation strategy and policy statement on environment and development-1992.  The waste land (Requisition & Utilization) Act. 1952. WETLAND AND LANDUSE: During land use changes there may be direct or indirect impacts to wetland habitats. Direct impacts may primarily be regulated. Indirect impacts can be prevented through wise land use planning mostly related to storm water management and buffer maintenance. Plans affecting indirect impacts are predominantly developed at the County and Municipal level. To improve wetland conservation and reduce wetland controversies proper land use decision should be undertaken. Appropriate Landuse system can be helpful for wetland environment (Figure 4). For the successful planning and implementation local participation has to be ensured as the local communities know the area better. In mind tit should be kept in mind that local administration has the authority to adopt wetland protection standards that are more stringent than those required under state and federal laws. Practical options already adopted by local administration

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across the state include: 1. Use zoning to protect all wetlands (Shoreland and Inland), or use conservancy districts (or some equivalent) to selectively protect inland wetlands. 2. Amend zoning and land division ordinances to: designate wetlands as unsuitable for development; require buildable, upland locations for parcels with wetlands; and require or encourage the establishment of wetlands as park, conservancy or open space (e.g. conservation subdivisions, dedication). CONCLUSION: Wetlands were considered to be marginal waterlogged lands, harboring disease, hazardous and are also the source of immense human suffering (Keddy, 2000), (Dugan, 1993). That‘s why wetlands and surrounding lands are necessarily managed. Lake and surrounding areas of Rasik Beel Wetland witness a large population of residential and migratory birds having different characters. Birds like cormorants, egrets, herons, kingfishers, raptors etc. reside almost throughout the year. Several teals such as Brahmini duck, Lesser-whistling teals, Poachard etc. visit the area from far countries during winter period. A rich variety of flora and fauna thrive in the congenial ambience of wetlands. This special environment fosters and supports species, which are unique to wetlands. Therefore, protection of wetland ecosystem is extremely important to the conservation of biodiversity of an area especially the land use features. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This author is grateful to Prof. S C Mukhopadhyay of former head of geography department, University of Calcutta, Kolkata; Saroj Pramanik, a Trainee Teacher of Ramakrishna Mission Brahmananda College of Education, Rahara; Chandan Das, Assistant Teacher, Hasanpur Rajeswari Vidyapith, Murshidabad, Rajib Jana, Deptt. of English, Narendrapur Ramakrishna Mission, Pranami Sur of Madras University and Sudarshan Das, student of CBPBU who have extended their valuable advices and active co-operation in different ways in the preparation of this article. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1) Acharya.S, Adak.T: Wetland Management for Sustainable Development. (2009) Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 8, No.4, pp. 25-30. 2) Blumenfeld, S., Lu, C., Christophersen, T. and Coates, D. (2009): Water, Wetlands and Forests. A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Montreal and Gland.THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER CBD Technical Series No. 47. pp. 16-36. 3) Conservation of Wetlands in India: A Profile (Approach and Guidelines). Publication released on World Wetlands Day 2 February 2007. Conservation Division-I Ministry of Environment & Forests Government of India. New Delhi. pp. 9-34. 4) Dandekar. P: Measures for protection of Wetlands, Audit of emerging environment issues. International Centre for Environmental Audit and Sustainable Development. 2015. 5) Das D, Sen A and Mitra P: Biodiversity of Rasik Beel Wetland Complex (WB, India). International wetland symposium (IWS) 2012, Pokhara, Nepal. ISBN: 978-9937-2-5938-5. 6) Das, Debashis, Sen, Apurba and Mitra, Pinaki. 2013: Major Fauna of Rasik Beel Wetland Complex (WB). Rec. zool. Surv. India, Gcc. Paper No., 343: 1-76 (16 Plates), (Published by the Director, Zool. Survey. India, Kolkata) 7) Das R K. and Barat S.: Fishing Gears Operated In Lotic Water Bodies Of Cooch Behar District, West Bengal, India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. Vol. 13 (3), July 2014, pp. 619-625. 8) Guchhait S: Conservation Measures Current Initiatives and Future Necessities. PhD thesis, Chapter-4, 2012, pp. 231-302. 9) Kang. A. Briefing Paper: Legal, Institutional and Technical Framework for Lake/Wetland Protection (2013). Centre for Science and Environment. New Delhi-110062. pp.2-11. 10) Matthews. G. V. T: The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: its History and Development, Re-issued Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2013, The Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland, pp. 37-61 11) National Wetland Conservation Program Guidelines for Conservation and Management of Wetlands in India. Conservation and Survey Division Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of India New Delhi. June, 2009. Pp. 1-14. 12) Peter W. van Horssen, Paul P. Schot and Aat Barendregt: A GIS-based plant prediction model for wetland ecosystems.1999. Landscape Ecology 14. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. pp.253–265. 13) Roy U. S, Banerjee P and Mukhopadhyay. S. K: Study on Avifaunal Diversity from Three Different Regions of North Bengal, India. Asian Journal of Conservation Biology, December 2012. Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 120 -129 AJCB: FP0015. ISSN 2278-7666.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Water Table Fluctuation in Rewari District, Haryana : A Geographical Analysis

Vinay Kumar, Research Scholar, Department of Geography, M D University Rohtak Pardeep Kumar, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Geography, M. D. University, Rohtak

Abstract Groundwater is one of the most precious natural resource for all the human activities. It is basic element of social, economic and industrial sustainable development of the study area. The present work is aimed to assess the changing pattern of groundwater table in Rewari district of Haryana. In the last few decades due to rapid increase demands of water to due to high population concentration, urbanization, industrialization and intensive irrigation boost for agricultural production has lead the overexploitations‘ of ground water. Resulted the ground water table is declined significantly. Some pockets have been indicated more critical condition which are continuous alarming for dangerous threats to groundwater ecosystem of the district. Present study has been carried out of the spatial pattern of groundwater table fluctuation during the period 2004-2014. IDW Interpolation method has been used to extract the declined zone of groundwater table on the bases of morethan75 randomly distributed sample site data. Whole thematic mapping and zoning work has been completed in Arc GIS software. Introduction Water is a prime natural resource to sustain human life on this planet. Groundwater scenario in India is not very encouraging due to imbalance between recharge and groundwater exploitation. Being an important and integral part of the hydrological cycle, its availability depends on the rainfall and recharge conditions (Singh, 2010 & Chenini, 2010). THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER India has been experiencing increasing incidents of drought in the recent past due to the weather anomalies and developmental pressures resulting from the changes in land use and life style of the people (Nihila, 2012, Ramesh, 2012 & Shalini, 2012).The land irrigated by surface water has doubled between 1950 and 1985, but the area irrigated from aquifers has increased by 113 times. Direct human interventions over the years have lead to reduction in groundwater recharge. In many parts of the world, ground water development has already reached a critical stage, resulting in acute scarcity of resources due to improper management of water resources and environmental degradation (Peter, 1998 & Mushini, 2012). District Rewari, Haryana is one of them where last few decades due to rapid increase demands of water to due to high population concentration, urbanization, industrialization, changing life style of local people and intensive irrigation boost for agricultural production by farmer has lead the overexploitations‘ of surface water as well as groundwater resources of the area. Due to this paradoxical situation has been occurred, one portion led to water logged and other represent water scarcity. The fluctuation of ground water level is alarming for the agricultural practices in the district. With the declination of water table many dug wells and tube/bore wells have decreased their yield continuously. The situation becomes more precarious during summer. Hence, it is necessary to develop strategies for conservation and improvement of water resources. To sustain the ground water ecosystem and provide safe drinking water for all will be a biggest challenge in future. Study Area Rewari district is situated in Southern part of Haryana state covering an area of 1549 km2 sq.km according to open series Survey of India Topographical maps, 1:50,000. It is bounded by in the north, by in the east, by Mahendragarh in the south, southwest and Figure - 01: Location of the study Area

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by the state of Rajasthan in the southeast and west (Fig. 1). It is constituted by five administrative blocks (Rewari, Bawal, Khol, Jatusana and Nahar) lies between 27096‘ 00‖ and 28047‘ 39‖ North Latitudes and 76027‘ 46‖ and 76086‘ 29‖ East Longitudes. Geomorphologically, the area has developed by both type‘s action alluvial and Aeolian geomorphic processes. The district drained by two main seasonal rivers Sahibi and Krishnawati. The agriculture constitutes the main source of economy, and most of the area fit for agriculture is being cultivated. The climate of Rewari district can be classified as tropical steppe, semiarid and hot. Annual rainfall of the district is varies from 489 mm and 553 mm, respectively, which is unevenly distributed over the area. Generally rainfall in the district increases from southwest to northeast. The mean minimum and maximum temperature in the area ranges from 5.6o C to 41o C during January and May or June respectively (CGWB, 2007). As per Census 2011, district population is 900332, of which comprising the 474335 male and 425997 females; approximately 74% of populations are living in rural areas. Objectives of the Study The main objectives of the study remain are:  To identify and explore the spatial status of ground water level.  Quantification of ground water table fluctuation variability from 2004-2014.  Zoning of water table fluctuation variability. Material and Methods Two types of data sets were used for the groundwater assessment; a) Survey of India topographical maps on 1:50,000 scale, b) secondary data on hydrology collected from Ground Water Cell of the study area. In order to demarcate the groundwater declined zones in the study area on the basis on collected hydrological data. Intensive GPS survey was also conduct for data collection and ground truth of the sample sites. All type collected attribute data were integrate with spatial data in GIS software. IDW Interpolation method has been applied to extract the declined zone of groundwater table on the bases of more than 75 (Figure 02) randomly distributed data sample sites. All supporting maps and statistics have been generated in Arc GIS software. Result and Discussion Southern Haryana is leading towards a fresh waterTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER crisis due to improper management of water resources and environmental degradation, which has lead to imbalance the groundwater ecosystem of the area. Such type conditions have been posed a challenge for people to sustain their livelihood. Due to this groundwater resources of the study are more significant because the fluctuation of groundwater levels in respect to natural or artificial recharge in space and time domain is more important to prepare a sustainable management strategy for groundwater development of the area. In the study area the consumption of ground water from last two or three decades has lead to its overuse together with the increasing population demands along with enhanced standard of living as an effect of ground water exploration scientific innovations. This is a common aspect, not only in urban centres but also in rural area of the district. Water level, being directly measurable, is an important parameter to study the aquifer systems and their dynamic behaviour (Kumar 2003). In order to assess the groundwater conditions of the study area is initially visualized in the form of thematic maps. The level of groundwater varies from 3 meter to 70 meter below ground. The groundwater problem is still being a challenging problem in hard rock systems owing to their inherent heterogeneity. The present study narrates to assess the groundwater status of the study area using geospatial technology. To achieve the objectives of this study more than 75 randomly distributed sample site have been used which depicts the figure – 02.

Figure - 02

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Table – 01 to 05 are depicting sample wise changing level of ground water depth during the study period of time. During this period of time, the paradoxical conditions occurred here more than 40 samples indicated the decline trend of water table that most of these are as Piragpura, Dawana, Dharuhera, Kanuka, Tankri, Jhabwa, Bdhoj, Khol, Basdudha, Kund Mandi, Uncha, Buroli, Siha, Pali and Nahar. Table – 01: Block Rewari Ground Water Depth Year 2004 - 14 Sample Wise Spatial Status of Ground Water Level Sr. Sample Year Change Sr. Sample Year Change No. Site 2004 2014 No. Site 2004 2014

1 Ghorkawas 9.70 2.35 -7.35 10 7.20 3.35 -3.85 2 Kunbhawas 11.90 14.00 2.10 11 Junawas 15.95 10.00 -5.95 3 Kapriwas 32.00 34.20 2.20 12 Rewari 12.50 13.60 1.10 4 Mirpur 11.20 17.70 6.50 13 Harinagar 14.85 12.55 -2.30 5 Akaira 30.48 31.80 1.32 14 Sundraud 17.64 21.55 3.91 6 Lakhnaur 16.16 12.26 -3.90 15 Jatuwas 20.00 18.25 -1.75 7 Ramgarh 7.05 5.25 -1.80 16 Padainyawas 7.66 8.21 0.55 8 Mahesri 10.25 12.15 1.90 17 Dawana 40.00 61.00 21.00 9 Dharuhera 16.00 36.00 20.00 18 Jaitarawas 15.70 13.18 -2.52 Source: Ground Water Cell, District Rewari; Table – 02: Block Bawal Ground Water Depth Year 2004 - 14 Sr. Sample Year Change Sr. Sample Year Change No. Site 2004 2014 No. Site 2004 2014 1 Kathiwas 10.05 3.85 -6.20 11 Tankri 29.75 39.80 10.05 2 Pithanwas 18.15 8.25 -9.90 12 Saban 16.19 19.94 3.75 3 Kasaula 11.41 10.81 -0.60 13 Bawal 19.68 19.93 0.25 4 Karnawas 11.90 14.00 2.10 14 Tihara 16.32 17.92 1.60 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 5 Kanuka 32.00 45.00 13.00 15 Dharchana 17.75 18.70 0.95 6 Garhi 13.70 14.80 1.10 16 Jhabwa 24.79 31.00 6.21 7 Nehchana 17.99 19.10 1.11 17 Dharan 36.58 35.00 -1.58 8 10.41 8.61 -1.80 18 Piragpura 27.62 50.50 22.88 9 Bagttala 9.45 9.60 0.15 19 Raipur 17.78 21.58 3.80 10 Banipur 13.62 13.20 -0.42 20 Bdhoj 18.30 23.70 5.40 Source: Ground Water Cell, District Rewari; Narnaul Table – 03: Block Khol Ground Water Depth Year 2004 - 14 Sample Wise Spatial Status of Ground Water Level Sr. Sample Year Change From No. Site 2004 2014 2004 to 2014 1 Buroli 24.00 38.35 14.35 2 Rajpura 20.32 22.70 2.38 3 Khol 40.50 60.30 19.80 4 Uncha 42.60 60.30 17.70 5 Gumina 38.00 49.30 11.30 6 Basdudha 55.00 70.70 15.70 7 Pali 36.75 47.55 10.80 8 Kund Mandi 39.63 60.80 21.17 Source: Ground Water Cell, District Rewari; Narnaul

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Table – 04: Block Jatusana Ground Water Depth Year 2004 - 14 Sample Wise Spatial Status of Ground Water Level Sr. Sample Year Change From No. Site 2004 2014 2004 to 2014 1 Kanhauri 8.44 7.44 -1.00 2 Guraora 10.20 12.20 2.00 3 Palhawas 8.50 1.65 -6.85 4 Jatusana 21.32 23.70 2.38 5 Rampuri 27.60 25.00 -2.60 6 Berli Khurd 8.49 14.14 5.65 7 Siha 40.00 59.05 19.05 8 Nangal Mundi 18.70 14.30 -4.40 9 Rauhrai 6.04 5.59 -0.45 Source: Ground Water Cell, District Rewari; Narnaul Table – 05: Block Nahar Ground Water Depth Year 2004 - 14 Sample Wise Spatial Status of Ground Water Level Sr. Sample Year Change Sr. Sample Year Change No. Site 2004 2014 No. Site 2004 2014 1 Sudhrana 9.22 6.42 2.80 10 Rathanthal 8.60 7.45 1.15 2 Judi 14.26 19.20 -4.94 11 Karoli 9.70 11.45 -1.75 3 Dharauli 7.20 9.00 -1.80 12 Bhurthala 21.25 17.50 3.75 4 Bharangi 14.00 15.30 -1.30 13 Shadipur 8.96 9.21 -0.25 5 Bhakli 9.68 11.10 -1.42 14 Murlipur 10.73 17.23 -6.50 6 Garhi 15.98 14.91 1.07 15 Bahu 14.06 12.46 1.60 7 Nahar 28.17 18.00 10.17 16 Khera Bahu 17.48 17.13 0.35 8 Mubarikpur 13.75 15.70 -1.95 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 17 Bahuwa 10.45 12.20 -1.75 9 Malesiawas 12.90 13.70 -0.80 Source: Ground Water Cell, District Rewari; Narnaul The groundwater table have been depicts rise condition more than 30 sample sites of, these are as Murlipur, Judi, ( CD Block Nahar) Palhawas, Nangal Mundi, (CD Block Jatusana) Kathiwas, Pithanwas (CD Block Bawal) Ghorkawas, Hansaka and Junawas (CD Block Rewari). Figure: 03 Figure: 04

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Figure: 05

Conclusion : THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER In the study area it is observed that the agricultural land-use dynamics at the village level are highly interlinked to the ground water ecosystem of the district. Multi-dimensional anthropogenic development and flood irrigation are the major drivers of changes in water table of the area. The fluctuation in water table is also greatly influenced by the increase demands of human population, government policies, local decisions maker as well as rainfall deficit.

References : 1) Chenini, I. et. al., (2010). Groundwater Recharge Study in Arid Region: An Approach Using GIS Techniques and Numerical Modelling. Computers & Geosciences, vol. 36: 801–817. 2) Kumar, D. et. al., (2003). Seasonal Behaviour of Spatial Variability of Groundwater Level in a Granitic Aquifer in Monsoon Climate. Current Science, vol. 84 (2):188-196. 3) Ministry of Water Resources (2007). Ground Water Information Booklet. Government of India, North Western Region, Chandigarh. 4) Mushini V. S. R., (2012). Assessment of Quality of Drinking Water at Srikurmam in Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, India. International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, vol. 1(2): 13-20. 5) Nihila, A. et. al., (2012). Water Poverty Index Mapping and GIS Based Approach for Identifying Potential Water Harvesting Sites. International Journal of Remote Sensing & Geoscience; vol. 2(3): 1-10. 6) Peter, H. G. (1998). Water in Crisis: Paths to Sustainable Water Use. Ecological Applications, 8(3): 571–579. 7) Ramesh K., et. al., (2012). Hydrochemical Characteristics of Groundwater for Domestic and Irrigation Purposes in Periyakulam Taluk of Theni District, Tamilnadu. International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, vol. 1(1): 19-27. 8) Shalini, A. T. et. al., (2012). Groundwater Level and Rainfall Variability Trend Analysis Using GIS in Parts of Jharkhand State (India) for Sustainable Management of Water Resources. International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, vol. 1(4): 24-31. 9) Singh, S. et. al., (2010). Assessment of Groundwater Recharge Potential Zone - A GIS Based Approach. Indian Geotechnical Conference – 2010, GEO Trendz.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Evolution of Party System in India and Alliance Performance in Parliamentary Election, 2009

Sunil, Research Scholar, Department of Geography, I.G.U. Meerpur, Rewari

Abstract : The basic feature of a successful democracy is free and fair election by which decision makers are voted to power one of the main features of democracy is political parties. A party system is a concept in comparative political science concerning the system of government by political parties in a democratic country. The idea is that political parties have basic similarities; they control the government, have a stable base of mass popular support and create internal mechanisms for controlling funding, information and nominations. A political party is a group of people, organized to support/oppose certain public policies. The aim of a political party is to elect its representative who carries out its policies. A political party offers candidates for the public office. Each political party has its own position on issues, ranging from war and taxes to how children should be educated. Key words : Party System, Democracy, Political Parties, Elections. Alliance. Introduction The basic feature of a successful democracy is free and fair election by which decision makers are voted to power one of the main features of democracy is political parties. A political party is a group of people, organized to support/oppose certain public policies. The aim of a political party is to elect its representative who carries out its policies. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER A political party offers candidates for the public office. Each political party has its own position on issues, ranging from war and taxes to how children should be educated. When people in a democratic country disagree with policies of the government, they express their opinions by voting for those who could reflect their views. Political parties may be large or small, national or local. Large political parties parliamentary have millions of members and supporters. In democratic elections campaigns, parties compete for gaining more votes. Such competition is one of the hallmarks of democracy. How Parties Began Political parties did not emerge until the late seventeenth century. The ancient Greeks, who were pioneers in developing democracy, had no organized political parties in the modern sense. For many centuries after the fall of Rome (AD 476), the people of Europe had little voice in politics. Political parties, developed as representative assemblies, gained power in England. Some countries have only one party system. In China, for example, there is one party, the Communist Party. Under such a system, people who do not agree with the party in power cannot express their objections by voting for another group. In such a system, often the ruling party holds power with support of the army. Democracies usually operate under either a two party or a multi-party system. Like the United States, Britain has a two party system. Canada also has two major parties, the Conservative and liberals. Multi-party systems are common in Europe and other parts of the world. In this system, there are more parties on the scene with their own distinctive agendas. India, France, Germany, Israel and South Africa are just a few examples. Under the multi-party system as the number of competing parties is more, sometimes, it is difficult for any one party to get a clear majority. Hence government is formed though coalitions. Evolution Of Party System In India The origin of Indian party system can be traced to the formation of the Indian National Congress as a political platform in 1885. The other political parties and political groups originated after that. The Indian National Congress was formed as a response to the colonial rule and to achieve independence from the British government rule. During the post independence period, with the adoption of a democratic constitution, a new party system had emerged. This new party system emerged in the wake of the first parliamentary election of 1952 and was based on universal adult franchise. It was the phase of ‗One Party‘ dominance because with the exception of Kerala during 1956- 59, the ruling party, both at the centre and in the states, was the Congress. It was, however, during the period of 1962

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that the Congress party faced on serious electoral threat to its dominant position in the states. The second phase (1967- 77) saw the emergence of a multi-party system in India. In the assembly elections held in 1967, the Congress was defeated in eight states and for the first time non-Congress governments could form in these states. Then came the split in the Congress: Congress (I) and Congress (N) in November 1978. However, the Congress again became a dominant force at the centre after winning 1971 mid-term poll. Then came the emergency period (1975-77), which is known as the ‗Authoritarian‘ period in the history of Indian democracy. With lifting of the emergency, the dominance of the Congress ended. In the parliamentary election of 1977, the Congress was defeated by the Janata Party, which came into existence as a result of the merger of many opposition parties. However in 1980 parliamentary elections, the Congress was voted to power again and remained in power till 1989. The Janata Party had emerged as a result of the merger of the Congress (O) led by Morarji Desai, Bharatiya Lok Dal led by Ch. Charan Singh, Congress of Democracy(CFO) led by Jagjivan Ram and H.N. Bahuguna, the socialists led by George Fernades and Jana Sangh led L.K. Advani. In 1989 elections, the National Front formed the government with the support of the BJP and the Left Front. But this formation could not last its tenure and elections for the 10th Lok Sabha were held in May-June, 1991. The Congress was voted to power as a result of sympathy wave in its favour due to assassination of Rajiv Gandhi. In 1996 parliamentary elections, the BJP had emerged as the single largest party and formed the government at the centre. Since it could not prove it majority, the government failed. The United Front, which was a combination of thirteen (13) parties, formed the government at the centre with the external support of the Congress and the CPI (M). However, this government also could not last its full term. Although the coalition government formed under the leadership of BJP in 1998, failed to prove it majority, the 1999 Lok Sabha elections again provided the BJP opportunity to form government. It lasted it full term under a multi-party coalition, known as National Democratic Alliance (NDA).In the 14th parliamentary election 2004, the Congress had emerged as the single largest party. It formed alliance with likeminded parties and formed government at the centre. The phase of Indian party system, which began in 1989, has been aptly called as a ―phase of coalition‘s politics.‖ In this phase, no single party was able to formed government on its own at the centre. Study Area Politically India is the world‘s most populous democracy. A parliamentary republic with multi-party system. As per the Election Commission of India, it has seven recognized THEnational KOKAN GEOGRAPHER parties, including INC and BJP, and 34 regional (state party) parties. India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India, which serves the country as supreme legal document.The 2009 parliamentary elections were held on the re-drawn electoral constituencies. There are based on the 2001 Census, following the 2002 Delimitation Commission of India, whose recommendations were approved in February 2008. Unit of Analysis And Data Base In the present study, the electoral analysis has been carried out for India as a whole for the Parliamentary Elections, 2009. The source of data for the Parliamentary Elections, 2009 is Election Commission of India, New Delhi. The parliamentary Constituency has been selected as the unit of analysis and the analysis was carried out for all the 543 parliamentary constituencies. In total, there are the 543. Objective of The Study The main objective of the study is to examine the evolution of party system in India and alliance performance of different political groups in parliamentary election, 2009. Methodology In the parliamentary elections of the year 2009, the electoral performances of different alliance groups such as UPA, NDA and third front were taken for the analysis. The total vote polled percentage in 2009 election was 58.21. The UPA and its alliance had won the 262 seats. The NDA and its alliances parties had won 158 seats. The third front won 76 seats and fourth front won 27 seats share in parliamentary election 2009. Different Alliance Issues In Parliamentary Election, 2009 In every election, most of the issues define the base of political parties in which political parties attracted voters though their manifestos and tried to win maximum seats. There were a few local issues which have affected performance of parties. These issues then are spread percolated from national to regional levels, so that a considerable change in voting behaviors‘ is introduced the prospective political parties. In the parliamentary election, 2009, there were seven national parties which had to fulfill the criteria of national parties. In that election the Congress had emerged as the largest national party, which won 206 seats in the

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parliamentary election, 2009. Keeping in view the geographical perspective, Andhra Pradesh won 33 seats out 42, Haryana 9 out of 10, Rajasthan 20 out of 25 and it was a positive sign of MGNREGA. But if we see in BIMARU states, we find some negative aspects. The main reason behind the victory of more seats in Andhra Pradesh is support of the state government of the INC, which considerably affected the voting behaviour. The main issues of the BJP which the UPA had not considered were India-USA nuclear deal, National Security issues that made the base of the BJP manifesto. The BJP in its manifesto highlighted the Mumbai Terrorist attack. The UPA government could not achieve success at the matter of national security. Table 1: Emergence of parties caused by autonomy Sr. No. State Name Party Name Autonomy States Names 1 Andhra Pradesh TRS Telengana 2 Karnataka - Coorg 3 Maharashtra - Belgam Maharashtra - Vidharbha 4 Madhya Pradesh GGP Gondwana 5 Uttar Pradesh RLD Harit Pradesh - Bundelkhand PRBM Purvanchal Pradesh 6 West Bengal KKP (1966) Kamatpur GNFL (1980) Gorkhaland Source: Amit Prakash (Regionalism, the Politics of autonomy and smaller states, 2010). Keeping in view the relative situation, it becomes obvious that for the BJP issue of national security was paramount whereas for the INC, it was the life of the common men that became the core issue. The same is the case with agrarian society of the India. In this situation, the issues of the BJP were not effective which might have affected the voting behaviour to a considerable extent. It won only 116 seats out of 543 in that election. There were a number of reasons that led to the BJP‘s defeat, the one such reason being the promotion of Sh. Lal Krishan Advani as the Prime Minister THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER candidate, who had developed a notorious image at the national level. It is obvious that the regional voting behaviour had experienced a continuity and change in the mind-set of the people, belonging to different regions or the states. The factors like anti-establishment, the local issues, the common problems, faced by the local people, personal image of the candidate and the manifesto of different national and regional parties had proved a conducive factor to determine the voting behaviour of the people, belonging to different strata of society. Alliance Formation In Parliamentary Election, 2009 Parliamentary Elections, of 2009 were more or less the same as experienced during previous successive decades. It has been observed that not even a single political party had come in the full majority, meaning thereby, not even a single party, had been successful to get even 282 seats. The Congress party has made a coalition government. The main points may be highlighted as follows: 1) At parliamentary elections of 1991, the Congress won more than 200 seats for the first time; and or 206 seats in 2009 and with the coalition, 262 seats. 2) Dr. Manmohan Singh was the only Prime-Minister of India, who had-successively completed his tenure, after Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru. 3) In parliamentary elections, 2009 the Congress, there was regional party, based alliance rather that national parties. It is obvious; the voting behaviour is determined by some of ‗pulling‘ and some of the ‗pushing‘ factors, from time to time. Secondly, the spatial variability of pulling distribution has also been determined by the manifesto declared by the different political parties as well the contemporary issues in that particular region or the state.

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Table 2: Alliance formation in parliamentary election, 2009 FOURTH OTHER PARTY & Sr. UPA NDA THIRD FRONT FRONT INDEPENDENTS No Party Won seats Party Won Seats Party Won Seats Party Won Seats Party Won seats 1 INC 206 BJP 116 CPI 04 SP 23 HJP (BL) 01 2 DMK 18 JD(U) 20 CPM 16 RJD 04 JD (S) 03 3 NCP 09 SHS 11 RSP 02 LJSP 00 MDMK 01 4 JMM 02 SAD 04 ALFB 02 PRP 00 SPF 01 5 AITC 19 AGP 01 BSP 21 - - BVA 01 6 JKNC 03 RLD 05 AIADMK 09 - - BPF 01 7 AUDF 01 NPF 01 BJD 14 - - JVM (P) 01 8 KC (M) 01 INLD 00 TDP 06 - - SP 01 9 MLKSC 02 - - TRS 02 - - VCK 01 10 AIMIM 01 ------IND 09 11 RPI 00 ------JCP 00 ------PMK 00 Total 262 158 76 27 20 Source: Party data from the Election Commission Julu3, 2009. Alliance formation from the meiad In this election, the Congress party did a pre- electoral alliance with in eight state parties in various states i.e.; AITC in West Bengal, DMK in Tamil Nadu, NCP in Maharashtra and Kerala, IUML and KCM in Kerala and VCK in Tamil Nadu or break the alliance with national party due to create restrictions continue to drive government. State parties forgot the alliance strategies and alliance meaning: ‗Alliance meaning which is positive support from all over‘. The Congress party contested the elections in 21 states and all Union Territories without any alliance and cooperation with the national and regional parties. The tabulated figures indicate that the BJP and its alliance won 158 seats. The BJP party contested the election with 17 states and all Union Territories without alliance and cooperation with national and state parties.

Karnataka (19 out of 29), Madhya Pradesh (16 out of 29), THEGujarat KOKAN GEOGRAPHER (15 out of 26), Bihar (12 out of 40), Uttar Pradesh (10 out of 80), Chhattisgarh (10 out of 11), Maharashtra (9 out of 48) and followed by Rajasthan (4), Assam (4), Himachal Pradesh (3) and one-one seats won by Kerala, West Bengal, Andaman and Nicobar Island, Dadar and Nagar and Daman and Diu. BJP and its alliances almost swept some of the states like Bihar (BJP12+JD (U) 20+RJD4) 36 out of 40, Maharashtra (BJP 9+ Shiv Sena 12) 19 out of 48. The BJP lost the vote percentage in every major state of India like Bihar and Karnataka. Conclusion The main finding of the study is that the emergence of regional parties at the national level has affected the federal system in India. The perceptible change is in the centre- state relations. In coalition politics, state parties played a most important role during last two decades. At this time, the state parties played a nucleus role in the formation of the centre government. During the last two decades, state parties had a major contribution in the rise of total vote percentage, which further led to a change in political system or federal system. The main findings of the study are as follows:- in parliamentary election 2009, due to existing politics of alliance and coalition, our federal structure recorded major change. This had increased the importance of state parties make government at centre level. In parliamentary election, 2009, for the first time the Congress had alliance with only state parties. After 1984, first time the Congress won 206 seats in election, 2009. In politics of last two decades (1989-2009), national parties‘ performance decrease in every election in terms of vote and seats percent. The Congress party now focused on regional issues and alliance with state parties all over India. References : 1) Kumar, Anoop (2014) ―Caste, Politics in India‖, Caste class and politics (eds: Anoop Kumar) New Delhi: Anmol Publication Pvt. Ltd. 2) Kesalu, Satri Verra (2013)―Genesis and Evaluation Political Parties in India‖, International Research Journal of Social Sciences, vol.2 (2) 3) Kumar, Parmod (2011) ―Coalition Politics: Withering of National – Regional Ideological Position?‖ India’s 2009 Elections: Coalition Politics, Party Competition and Congress Continuity, New Delhi, Sage Publication. 4) Roy, Ramashray (2011) ―Regional Base and National Dream: Alliance Formation, 2009 National Elections‖, India’s 2009 Elections: Coalition Politics, Party Competition and Congress Continuity, New Delhi, Sage Publication,

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Water Insufficiency and Its Management: A Challenge for India

Neetu Singh, Research Scholar, Kota University, Kota

Abstract : Water, a need of life, is becoming a most important matter of concern among nations. India is rich in its natural water resources surface as well as ground water. But changing climate, increasing population, industrialization and urbanization are taking India from the state of water surplus to water scarcity. India is a water stress region due to its declined per capita water availability that is less than 1600 m3/capita/yr. Instead of these factors, international river water disputes, interstate water disputes, water management by different organizations; governmental or non-governmental, increasing water consumption in three major sectors; Agriculture, Industrial and Domestic are also putting more pressure on the water resources. Lack of water availability is a big challenge to the country but on the other hand disasters related to water like floods, cloud burst and Tsunami etc. cannot ignored. Such type of disasters are mainly associated with some particular areas. Overall, India is suffering from the problem of declining water availability and in the same way of consumption pattern is the pushing factor to make the country water stress, by following the same pattern, India will become water scare region very soon. In this paper, the causes and effects of water scarcity are contextualized in three major sectors of water consumption and how they are managed. Some issues regarding management of water resources in the situation of water scarcity are also highlighted in this study. Keywords:Water, Challenge, Management, Consumption, India. Introduction : Water, elixir of life, is going under stress due to overexploitation of it. Of all the water resources available on earth, THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER only three percent is not salty and two-thirds of the fresh water is locked up in ice caps and glaciers. At present only about 0.08 percent of the entire world‘s fresh water is exploited by mankind (Fry, 2008). In terms of fresh water availability, with 45 percent of total fresh water America continent has the largest share of the world, followed by 28 percent by Asia, 15.5 percent by Europe and 9 percent by Africa (Brar, 2011). Water resources are essential for maintaining healthy ecosystem and socio-economic development, because it has a lot of benefits in the terms of food and energy production. It is directly used by human beings in three major sectors; Agriculture, Industrial and Domestic; out of them agriculture is that sector which consumes large amount of water in world as well as in South Asian region. India is geographically largest country in South Asia and poses a large amount of water resources of this region. India is a vast country and is divided into three major regions according to its topography- Himalayan region, Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains region and peninsular region. In these regions, rainfall is unevenly distributed spatially and temporally. India has been always fortunate in having abundant fresh water reserves, but the growth of population and overexploitation of surface and ground water over the past few decades has resulted in water scarcity in many regions of the country (Jethoo & Poonia, 2011). Water scarcity is not observed in all over the country, some areas are badly affected by floods also. Some regional disparities has been observed in different parts of the country. Overview of Water scarcity related problems, water availability, consumption and management has been analysed in this study. Overall Water availability & water related problems in India: India roughly accounts for 4.5 percent of world‘s fresh water resources, while at the same time it accounts for 2.5 percent of total land mass and 16 percent of total population. per capita water availability in India has come down from about 5,177 cubic meter per head in 1951 to 1820 cubic meter per head in 2001 and it is expected to further go down to 1140 by 2050 (Sankarnarayan, 2005; Hegde 2009). The total water availability in the countries of India is summarizes in Table 1. Table: 1 Annual water Availability in India (2011-12) Data India Area ( 1000 Hectare) 328726 Population ( 1000 inhab) 1258351 Total renewable water resources (10 m3/yr.) 1911 Per Capita total renewable resources (m3/inhab/yr.) 1519

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The declining per capita water availability in India from last two decades has been shown in Fig 1. If the declining per capita water availability will follow same trend in coming decade, India will enter into the phase of water scarcity. While the situation may not similar in all region of the country, but in some areas situation may be severe. In this way, availability of fresh water will be a challenge for coming generations. The annual ground water availability, including monsoon rainfall recharge and annual ground water draft in different areas which are falling under overexploited category and the rainfall distribution in space brings a puzzling situation in the sense that, withdrawal of ground water is not only responsible factor for declining trends, the scanty and low rainfall resulting in less monsoon recharge is equally important (CGWB, 2012). With the pace of increasing population and economic growth, demand of water resources has been increased in the various sectors that create the situation of water scarcity in India as its limited and fragile (CGWB, 2012). Thus, to fulfil the demand in different areas ground water as well as surface water is used in different areas of the country. Historically, in India, plentiful water resources have been primarily used for irrigating crops, but with the rise of Indian economy and industrial activities and share of water demand in different sectors is changing rapidly. In addition increasing population and rapid urbanization also put an additional demand on water resources. There are three THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER major sectors in which the fresh water is used that are domestic, agriculture and Industrial. ―Groundwater is being heavily withdrawn in certain areas such as Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi and Punjab,‖ a statement given by S.K.Sharma, a groundwater consultant of the Ministry (Brar, 2011). India is abundant in surface water also as many rivers flow in different parts of the country. Areas nearby the Ganga and system have much surface water for use. While they are not suffering with water depletion but they are facing the problems of declining water quantity. Water quality problems are affecting virtually all of the rivers in India. Water Consumption in different sectors: Although, in many countries fresh water is abundant but access to water resources is an emerging problem mainly in developing countries. Water is used by human being by different ways; mainly it is divided into three different sectors: Agriculture sector, Industrial Sector and Domestic sector. Three of them have different factors that affect the consumption level of water. People use water for agriculture, industry and domestic purposes. In India, almost 89 percent of total water consumption has been used in agriculture sector, 6 percent in Industrial sector and 5 percent in Domestic sector. With the growing population, requirements for Fig 2: Water consumption in various sectors in India (% of total)

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basic personal use rise with same proportion. Rising living standards, which bring such amenities as running water to homes, dramatically increase per capita water consumption. Increasing agricultural and industrial water consumption also reflects changing living standards that leads to more consumption in domestic sector also. The growth rate of water consumption is in upward direction in Domestic and Industrial sector but in downward direction in agriculture sector (Fig 2). Today, the consumption of water resources is increasing. There is huge competition for water consumption for industrial sector, agricultural sector and domestic needs. In future, even more water will be needed to produce food because the earth‘s population is forecasted to rise to 9 billion by the end of year 2050(Asian Development Bank, 1993). In addition to this, increasing the rate of urbanization in India has been responsible for increase in per capita water consumption in towns and cities. Growth of urban area are also driving a change in consumption patterns and increased demand for water in industrial and agricultural sectors. Water Management: Water Resources Management aims at sustainable use of available natural water flows and resources, both surface water and groundwater, to complete the needs between both users and uses. Water management leads to manage water resources from source of water to personal use of human beings. There is abundant water resources about 70 percent of earth is covered by water and human could not manage whole water with its efforts. On the other hand, human beings are much more concern about fresh water resources for agriculture, industrial and domestic use at land surface of earth. Water resources are not equally divided on whole land areas of earth surface as well as not equally used. In many parts of the world where the economies are not much developed, are directly linked to water resources, such as for farming, fishing, household supply, small scale industries navigation, and livestock care. Some areas use more water in agriculture sector due to agrarian economy. India is an agrarian economy and it uses about 90 percent of its water resources in agriculture sector. Water resources in India fall under the pressure due to increasing the pressure of population and economic growth. Increasing urban and industrial demands for water now compare with the already high water requirements in agricultural sector. Geographically large and rich in water resources country India made a significant development in the water resources in the terms of water storage infrastructure after the independence. According to World Bank 2005, India has capacity to store 200 BCM of water, an irrigated areas of 90 Mha and 30000 MW capacity of to produce hydroelectricity (Unicef, 2013). But on the other hand the demand for the water resources increased at higher rates due to the explosive growth of THEpopulation, KOKAN GEOGRAPHER level of urbanisation that further put impact on it through increasing the demand for food security in the agricultural sector. Therefore, water resource in India has high values as it supporting its economy and settlement pattern of human beings as well as other species. In India, freshwater drive mainly from rainfall, river systems and groundwater. Therefore, water sector in India became a serious problematic issue that needs proper management. In spite of a sizeable water resource base and vast land resource, India continues to struggle to meet its water sector infrastructure supplies, with maintenance and operation costs. The agricultural in India mainly depended on irrigation, therefore availability of water put impact on the productivity of agricultural sector. Thus, question of water management arose especially in agricultural sector and it is defined as management of water resources under set policies and regulations. In below, there are some of water management technique are described:  Improving the efficiency of water use with the introduction of less water intensive crops such as maize, oil seeds rather than rice cultivation in areas water stress areas.  Adoption of rainwater harvesting and watershed management techniques.  Reduction of subsidies on power supply particularly for pumping water.  Prevention of ground water exploitation by introducing differential pricing, rewards and punishments.  Use of micro scale irrigation system such as drip and sprinkler irrigation.  Increasing the water storing capacity in agricultural field with built up of ponds, tanks and water reservoirs.  To increase the dependency of head farmers on ground water in solving problems of water logging and declining the dependency of tail end farmers on ground water.  To cut down or sort down subsidy on power so that extraction of ground water could be controlled.  Implementation of National River Link project which aims to connect 30 rivers and canals to generates 175 trillion litres of water. Country like India is facing many challenges from water sector, due to that many policies has been made from them, several are discussed above, in agriculture sector being a major consumer sector, particularly. But, there are other factors also which further influence the management; like same policies for differently effected areas, lack of implementation, lack of periodic reforms etc. So, there is a big need of mange water resources to fight the challenges like increasing demand with declining availability and climate change also. While, Effective management and development of

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water resources is essential for other many challenges also like growth, poverty reduction and equity. Water resources are crucial for socio-economic development and for maintaining healthy ecosystems. Conclusion: Water is lifeline of all living organism on the earth surface. The demand of water resources has been increased in all sectors of consumption, with increasing the pace of urbanisation, growth of population, increasing per capita income etc. India is not a water scare country, but the prevailing situation create a possibility of it. Therefore, it become necessary to use the available technologies and resources with proper management, ensure efficient use of fresh water in agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors. Both aspects scarcity of water and management which can be called poor, are becoming a big challenges for India making them burning issues in water sector. References: 1) Asian Development Bank. (1993). Service Level and Urban Poor: Managing WaterResources to Meet Megacity Needs. Themes paper. Manila:Proceedings of Regional Consultations. 2) Brar, A. S. (2011). Consumer Behaviour and Perception for Efficient Water Use in Urban Punjab. Ph.D thesis, Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar, Punjab. 3) CGWB. (2012). Ground Water Year Book- India 2011-12. Faridabad: Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India. 4) Fry, C. (2008). The impact of climate change: The world's greatest challenge in theTwenty- first century. New Holland Publishers Ltd. 5) Hegde, N. G. (2012, January). Water scarcity and security in India. In 99th Indian Science Congress. KIIT University, Bhubaneswar (pp. 3-7). 6) Jethoo, A. S., &Poonia, M. P. (2011).Water Consumption Pattern of Jaipur City (India). International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 2(2), 84-88.

7) Sankarnarayan, K. (2005). Urban Water Supply-ChallengeTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Ahead. XII World Water Congress of International Water Resources Association held on November 25-26, 2005. 8) Sato, Tatsuhiko. (2011). Analysing Feasibility of Pricing in Sustainable Irrigation Water Governance Reform in Punjab, India. Master‘s Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Swedish. 9) Unicef. (2013). Water in India: Situation and Prospects. New Delhi: United Nations Children‘s Fund.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017

ISSN 2277 – 4858

Identification of Backwardness in Mewat: A Study Based on Socio-Economic Aspects of Development

Shiv Kumar, Research Scholar, Dept. of Geog., Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak. Babita, M.Phil Research Scholar, Dept. of Geog., Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak.

Abstract: Backwardness is a condition that is society-and time-specific. Socio-economic backwardness is not insurmountable, but it does not get eradicate automatically. It can be altered with intervention from within and outside to attack various dimensions of backwardness. Backwardness should be viewed more in terms of failure of people in their economic struggles and pursuits (Myint, 1954).In development debates and discussions, the terms “underdevelopment” and “backward “are generally used almost interchangeably by applying them to aggregate geographical concepts such as “countries”, “areas” and “regions”; or equating them with certain broad indices such as low incomes or capital investments per capita. Mint also tried to distinguish these two terms in terms of “underdeveloped resources” and “backward people”. The central argument of this dissimilarity was that underdevelopment should be understood in terms of utilization of resources, including human resources whereas backwardness should be viewed more in terms of failure of people in their economic struggles and pursuits. Failure of people living in an area or a region may be recognized to a number of reasons and factors including under-utilisation of resources. Critical role of local or regional infrastructure can be associated with this understanding of backwardness. Economic performance and achievement of people of an area may be significantly constrained by deficient infrastructure even when there is same degree of resource utilization. The level of development of a state is likely to be the outcome of a complex set of historical, cultural, and sociological factors. Keywords: Utilization, Development, Disparity, Resource Utilization, National Capital Region THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Introduction: Economic resources such as modern techniques, availability of natural resources and better infrastructure may be helpful in increasing growth rates, but the ability to use these resources well is probably most important in distinguishing regions that develop successfully and those that remains backward (Rajan, 2013). Economic development and social development are mutually reinforcing. Disparities in economic development and social development are also mutually reinforcing. Socially excluded are economically marginalized. Economically marginalized remain socially excluded. The gains of economic development accrue disproportionately to the socially developed groups. The economic gains will help them to further horn up their social skills which in turn will enable them to gain even more from the economic opportunities. On the other hand, socially backward may gain only marginally from economic development which may not be sufficient for them to improve their social skills to enable them to earn more. This vicious circle transcends from generation to generation. There exist several dimensions of economic and social disparities of development in the country (Kurian, (2007). It is important not to challenge the political dimension of local spaces. It aims at in-depth enquiry into the problematic of the determination of backwardness in certain pockets, despite intervention of kinds. Economic performance and achievement of people of an area may be significantly constrained by deficient infrastructure even when there is same degree of resource utilisation. There exists, in fact, a surfeit of literature favouring strong as well as weak linkages between infrastructure and development (Majumder, 2008). Those who suffer from deprivation make efforts to obviate factors responsible for their plight. And, the state takes actions to create conditions whereby socially backward groups and individuals can overcome backwardness. The range of actions and ideologies adopted for reducing social backwardness fall in the political arena also. As the concept of backward given above it is clears that Underdevelopment is a relative concept. Basically, it stems for inequalities of various kinds or the level of development of a state is likely to be the consequence of a complex set of theses different factors like Geographical, Historical, Cultural, Economical and Sociological. Identification of backward regions in India Identification of backwardness has always remained in the forefront of policy makers in India since independence. In light of above in this section an attempt has been made to understand the nature and criteria adopted by various

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committees constituted by Government of India. A number of Committees in the past have gone into the issue of addressing regional- imbalances. The broad approach followed and indicators used by some of the important ones are listed below. Planning Commission Study Group: In the context of the formulation of the Draft Fourth Plan (1966-71), the Planning Commission had requested State governments to devote special attention to the subject of area development. In this connection, backward areas were classified under five categories  Desert areas  Chronically drought affected areas  Hill areas including border areas  Areas with high concentration of tribal population  Areas with high density of population with low levels of income, employment and living etc. For category (e) given above, a Study Group was set up to review some indicators of regional development. The Study Group recommended the following indicators of development.  Total population and density of population  Number of workers engaged in agriculture including agricultural labourers as percentage of total workers  Cultivable area per agricultural worker  Net area sown per agricultural worker  Percentage of gross irrigated area to net sown area  Percentage of area sown more than once to net sown area  Per capita (rural population) gross value of agricultural output  Establishments (manufacturing and repair) using electricity  Number of workers per lakh of population employed in registered factories  Mileage of surfaced roads

 Number of commercial vehicles registered in a district THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER  Percentage of literate population  Percentage of school-going children  Number of seats per million population for technical training  Hospital beds per lakh of population Wanchoo Committee Report (1986) : The Wanchoo Committee was appointed by the National Development Council in 1968 to study the issue of regional imbalance. The objectives of this committee were:  To consider the nature of concessions to be given for encouraging the development of industries in backward regions and in particular to examine procedural, financial and fiscal incentives.  To consider the role of State governments and financial institutions in the development of industries in backward regions  To examine the type of disincentives that should be introduced to avoid concentration in metropolitan or highly industrialized areas. The Committee recommended a package of concessions – procedural, financial and fiscal for encouraging the development of industries in backward regions. The National Development Council, which in consultation with financial institutions evolved a set of criteria for identification of industrially backward districts on the basis of below indicators:  Per capita food-grain /commercial crop production depending on whether the district was predominantly a producer of food-grains/ or cash crops (for inter-district comparisons, conversion rates between food-grains and commercial crops were to be determined by the State Government where necessary).  Ratio of agricultural workers to population  Per capita industrial output (gross)  Number of factory employees per lakh of population or alternatively number of persons engaged in secondary and tertiary activities per lakh of population  Per capita consumption of electricity  Surfaced road or railway mileage in relation to population

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Report of Raghuram G Rajan Committee (2013) In measuring underdevelopment and mapping it to fund allocation, an underdevelopment index proposed by the Committee. The index includes the following ten sub-components. 1. Income 2. Education, 3. Health 4. Household amenities, 5. Poverty rate, 6. Female literacy, 7. Percent of sc-st population, 8. Urbanization rate, 9. Financial inclusion, 10. Connectivity These sub components were further sub divided in different indicators to measuring the index of backwardness. Nature of backward in case of Mewat In the year 1980, Govt. of Haryana with a commitment to deliver social and economic justice to the backward and underprivileged sections of society, constituted Mewat Development Board for this region to regulate developmental and economic activities, aimed at improving irrigated and rain-fed agriculture, flood control, recharging of groundwater, provision of safe drinking water to villages and a host of other activities, viz. crop development, horticulture and livestock improvement. The region comes into existence as a separate Mewat district on 4th April 2005, as the 20th district of the Haryana State. The Govt. of India has declared Mewat District as 90th minority concentrated district. The Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India (GOI), has identified 90 minority concentrated backward districts using eight indicators of socio-economic development and amenities based on 2001 census data. (http://haryana.gov.in/haryana state/ and http://mewat.gov.in/- last accessed on September 09, 2012.) Since, there are changes in those indicators after 2001. A baseline survey has been conducted to provide the multi-sector development plan with the latest deficits and priorities. In order to ensure that the benefits of schemes and programmes of government reach the relatively THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER disadvantaged segments of society, it was decided to identify districts on the basis of minority population of Census 2001and backwardness parameters. Mewat district of Haryana has been identified as one of the Minority Concentrated Districts that severely lags behind in terms of socio-economic parameters of development. Interestingly, it did not lag behind in basic amenities parameters. Minority concentration districts were put under category ‗A‘ & ‗B‘. Category ‗A‘ had districts which had both socio-economic and below national average. Category ‗B‘ had two sub-categories ‗B1‘ and ‗B 2‘. B1 category had districts with socio-economic parameters below national average. Mewat and Sirsa districts of Haryana state fell in this category‘s 2‘sub-category had districts which had basic amenities parameters below national average. http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/upload_files/moma/files/pdfs/MCDs_category.pdf accessed on 9.7.12. Government of India declared that Mewat district is one of the most backward districts in Haryana as well as in country. So, to indentify the nature of backwardness of Mewat it is necessary to worked out upon some basic parameters of development. Therefore a fresh exercise has been carried out based on indicators associated with the development of an area such as agriculture, industry, education, health, demography characteristics, and standard of living that covered in this section. Nature induced backwardness The large proportion of district Mewat is undulating because it is covered with rocky surface of Aravalli Offshoots. The district comprises of hills on the one hand and depressions on the other, forming irregular and diverse nature of topography. These hills are northern continuation of Aravalli hills. The north western part of the district is covered with sand dunes lying in the westerly direction due to south western winds. The extension of the Aravalli hills and the presence of sand dunes collectively form the diverse physiographic of the district. The drainage of the district is typical of arid and semiarid areas. It comprises of large depressions and seasonal streams. Soils of the Mewat district are mostly salt affected. Relatively sandy loam, course loam soils are found in this region. The ground water in the district area is saline, and salinity increases with depth. Potable drinking water is still a

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problem except in the areas at the base of ridges and hillocks of the district (Central Ground Water Board, Haryana, 2012). The climate of the district can be classified as tropical steppe, semi-arid and hot which is mainly characterized by the extreme dryness of the Air except during monsoon months, intensely hot summers and cold winters. Strong dusty winds (Loo) are conspicuous during summer seasons in the months of April to June before the monsoons. Low rainfall plays a curious role for in the district. The average rainfall varies from 34 cm to 45 cm in the area in which the maximum rainfall is experienced during the monsoon season, which reaches its peak in the month of July. (Central Ground Water Board, Haryana, 2012). Thus it is clear that the nature make Mewat as a fundamental cause for its backwardness. These fundamental causes of backwardness also the barriers in the socio-economic development of the district. Agriculture Backwardness Agriculture is the base of socio-economic development in developing countries. In most of developing economies like India agriculture is the major sector providing an occupation to a large proportion of the population, especially in rural areas. Since this sector faces the burdens of underemployment, unemployment and poverty. The growing agriculture and allied sector is expected to contribute vastly to overall growth and poverty alleviation. Increasing the productive capacity of agriculture through higher productivity has been an important goal in developing countries. It has been suggested that due to limited scope for expansion of agricultural-able land there is a need to increase yields to their technically highest levels through suitable investment in basic infrastructure, human development, and research and extension services. Kuznets (1960, 59-60,) made an important exposition that there was no case of successful development of a major country in which a rise in agricultural productivity did not precede or accompany industrial development. (Quoted in K.N. Dubey, 1992) In the condition of agricultural infrastructure is the first requirement as overhead capital in for the agricultural development. The second thing of agricultural development is the improvement in agricultural conditions and the conditions of the people engaged in agricultural work. The provision of agricultural infrastructure and agricultural condition would have great bearing on overall agricultural production. The growth of productivity of both land and workers engaged in agriculture is important. The productivity of land is indicative of richness of agriculture area while productivity of the workers engaged in agriculture is indicate on the conditionTHE KOKANof GEOGRAPHER those people(workers engaged in agriculture). It would be wrong assumed that all parts of Haryana are equally developed in agricultural term. There are rather striking disparities on this matter. Because the northern part of Haryana have better facilities to develop cultivation. But on the other side the south and south-western part of the state remain far behind from the northern parts due to better irrigation and other basic facilities. Mewat is one the backward district in agricultural terms. To understand that which factors of agricultural term made Mewat a backward district in the state. The study looks out the status of agriculture in Mewat in comparison to Haryana for this various indicators related to agriculture are used. In the light of above dimensions of associated with agriculture the appropriate indicators of has been taken to examine the situation of Mewat. Irrigation Irrigation has played a key role in the transformation of agriculture. It helps in enhancing the productivity and stability of agriculture, it also helpful in increasing the intensity of cropping, in recovering the dry agricultural waste land and in changing the cropping pattern. The detail discussion of conditions of irrigation in Mewat is examined with the indicators given below. Sources of irrigation Apart from a typical Indian farmer who looks up to the sky whether the rain gods will favour him this time. Irrigation means to assure the supply of water for crops. Indian farmers generally gain access to irrigation by two sources as surface and ground water. Talking about the sources of irrigation, constructing canals has been one of the several programmes taken by the Government of India to ensure regular water supply for the irrigation. Net area irrigated as percent of net sown area The analysis from the Table No. 2.2, clear that the sources of irrigation in the study area disclose contrasting trends. The average area irrigated by canals in Haryana is 41.65 percent. Contrastingly, in southern Haryana there is low percentage of area irrigated by canals. In Mewat district the irrigated area by canals is only 14.05 percent only. This situation raises a question on the functioning of canals in the southern part of state as well as in the Mewat district. This also shows that that the incidence of burden of irrigation is completely on the tube-well in Mewat. About 86% of net

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irrigated area is completely depend on tube-wells. It puts a downward pressure on the ground water level (Table No. 1). The ground water of most of the area in Mewat is saline (Central Ground Water Board, Haryana, 2012). The proportion of net irrigated area in the state varies from the lowest from around 51 percent to 100 percent. As per table No. 1 the Net area irrigated as percent of net sown area is 56.83 in Mewat is very low as compared to 85.93 % area is irrigated to net sown area in Haryana. This situation expose that there is lack of irrigation sources in Mewat. Table No. 1 Comparative analysis of irrigation facilities of Haryana and Mewat (2012-13) District Mewat Haryana Percent net area irrigated by government canals 14.05 41.65 Percent net area irrigated by tanks 0 0 Percent net area irrigated by wells 0 0 Percent net area irrigated by tube wells 85.95 58.34 Irrigated area as percent to net area sown 56.83 85.93 Diesel sets per thousand hectares of net area sown 72 64 Electric sets per thousand hectares of net area sown 73 146 Total set per thousand hectares of net area sown 144 210 Source: Statistical Abstracts of Haryana, (compiled by research scholar) Tube-wells and Pumping Sets Table 2 sowing the number of tube-well per thousand hectares of net area sown throws further light on the pattern of irrigation. Tube-well irrigation is prominent in most of the districts in Haryana. The average number of tube-well and pumping sets per thousand hectares of net area sown in Haryana in 2012-13 is 210. It is clears from the table that Mewat. Among those districts in Haryana state where underground water is the main source of irrigation Mewat has lowest numbers of sets for irrigation. Fertilizers consumption

Next to irrigation fertilizer constitute the vital role THEas KOKAN GEOGRAPHER a bio-chemical input in agricultural productivity. Because an increasing in use of fertilizers also a sign of development of irrigation and change in cropping pattern. In Haryana the average use of fertilizers is 213.67 kilograms per hectares of gross cropped area. The use of fertilizers varied from 354.09 kilograms per hectares of gross cropped area in Kurukshetra to 88 kilograms per hectares of gross cropped area in Bhiwani. In Mewat in comparison to Haryana and other developed districts this ration is very low, only 128.05 kilograms fertilizers has been used under per hectares of gross cropped area. This clears that there is lack of irrigation facilities, cropping intensity and most of the cultivators use to do their old cropping pattern which show that Mewat is backward a district. Table No. 2 Mewat and Haryana: A Comparative picture of indicators of Agricultural Development (2012-13) Indicators Mewat Haryana Consumption of fertilizers per hectares of gross cropped area (in kg) 128.1 213.67 Consumption of fertilizers per hectares of net area sown(in kg) 195.6 392.5 Tractors per 100 landholdings 6 16 Tractors per thousand hectare of net sown area 41 76 Cropping Intensity 152.74 183.71 Cultivated land per cultivator 1.41 1.88 Source: , . Statistical Abstract of Haryana 2011-12 TO 2013-14, Economic and Statistical Organization, Planning Department: Chandigarh. (compiled by research scholar) Tractorisation In agricultural work tractor is a multipurpose asset. It is also an indication of development in agriculture. In Table No. 3 it clears that the numbers of tractors per thousand hectare of net sown area is 76 in Haryana. In comparison to Haryana Mewat remain far behind with having 41 tractors per thousand hectares of net sown area and get among the last three districts in the state after Panipat and Bhiwani. There is another picture of use of tractors by examine the

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tractors per 100 landholdings we find that in Mewat there are only 6 tractors per 100 landholdings with comparison to 16 in Haryana. Land use efficiency Land use efficiency can be described by different indicators of land capacity. To examine the land use efficiency in Mewat in comparison to Haryana two basic indicators of cultivated land per cultivator and cropping intensity have been worked out. Cultivated land per cultivator In any discussion of agricultural development, the first attention may be given to the cultivated land per cultivator on which the structure of development is raised (Gosal and Krishan 1984). From the view point of development, cultivated land per cultivator is one of the relevant indicators. The table 3 shows the picture of cultivated land per cultivator. The state average is 1.88 hectares of cultivated land per cultivator. At district level the figures varies from the highest of about 2.92 hectares in to only 1.40 hectares in . The cultivated land per cultivator in Mewat is stands at second lowest district in state with only 1.41 hectares cultivated land per cultivator. Cropping Intensity Intensity of cropping reflects the efficiency of land use. It involves the consideration raising more than one crop from the same unit of land in a year. In other words Cropping intensity refers to rising of a number of crops from the same field during one agriculture year. It can be expressed as Cropping intensity = (Gross cropped area / Net sown area) x 100. The index of cropping intensity for Mewat is 152.74 in 2012-13as compared to 183.71 in the state. The index ranges from 201.02 in Faridabad to Gurgaon 135.25. Mewat remain in the backward districts as large area of Mewat is left uncultivated due to unavailability of better irrigation sources and facilities in Mewat in comparison to northern districts of Haryana. Table 4 : Area and Number of Land Holdings by Size Class in Haryana 2010-11 (in Percentage) Area of Land Holdings Number of Land Holdings

Size Class of Holdings MewatTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Haryana Mewat Haryana Marginal 19.27 9.89 65.09 48.11 Small 12.1 12.7 12.54 19.47 Medium 27.64 22.34 14.53 17.55 Large 25.7 32.5 6.6 12.04 Extra large 15.36 22.56 1.24 2.83 Total 100 100 100 100 Average size of Holdings 1.48 2.25 Source: Government of Haryana, Statistical Abstract of Haryana 2013-14, Economic and Statistical Organization, Planning Department: Chandigarh. (Compiled by research scholar). Land holding Pattern Land is one of the basic factors of production in an area that is based on agriculture. It is necessary to understand the class structure of agrarians on the basis of their size and area of land holdings. A closer look at the tables indicate that the dominance of small and marginal farmers in Mewat with about 78 percent. While these landholding covers 31.32 percent area of cultivated land in Mewat. The average size of land holdings in Mewat is also smallest in among all the districts of Haryana. The large number of small and marginal farmers hints that in Mewat the farmers includes in subsistence farming. On the bases of discussion based on the irrigation sources, cropping pattern, Tractorisation, fertilizer consumption and land holding patterns by size and numbers it clears that there is backwardness in Mewat in agricultural terms. Conclusion Mewat district comprises irregular and diverse nature of topography. A large share of land is saline. Rainfall in this region is not enough to provide proper water for irrigation. Availability of Drinking water is also a problem in the Mewat because the underground water is salt effected Mewat has nature imposed backwardness. Not only this, Mewat is also backward in socio-economic terms Mewat. Agriculturally there is lack of irrigation facilities. Due to lack irrigation cultivators could not better production. More than 75 percent land holdings are marginal

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and small size. Thus in employment point this agricultural dominating area remains backward in Haryana. The administration and policy makers could not give attention on the basic infrastructure of this region. Lack of basic structure for the industrial point made this region industrial backward. Due to their customs and law the people the non-awareness in the people of that particular region the area remain backward. Education is also a basic aspect of development. But in the aspect the district is also in the worst conditions because of this Mewat is on the last position among all the districts of the state. The conditions of education in rural areas are raise a question on the authorities work. Other Basic facilities i.e. medical, banking, transport etc are also not sufficient to develop a region. The above discussion about the various socio-economic aspects of Mewat can indentified that in comparison to other districts of Haryana district Mewat remain backward. References:- 1) Sachhar R.(2005) A report on ―Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India‖, by Prime Minister‘s High Level Committee, Cabinet Secretariat Government of India November, 2006, Designed, Processed and printed at Cirrus Graphics 2) Pvt. Ltd., B-261, Naraina Industrial Area, New Delhi [email protected] 3) Gosal .G. S. and Krishan, G. (1984): Patterns of Industrial Development (Chapter 3), ―Regional Disparities in Levels of Socio-Economic Development in Punjab”, Vishal publications, Kurukshetra pp 63 4) Mewat: A region that is turning almost exclusively Muslim at the core) Last assessed on dated 26/12/2016 from http://cpsindia.org/dl/Blogs/Blog%2017%20Mewat.pdf 5) Dubey, K.N. (1992), Process of Agricultural Development, Process of Socio-Economic Development, Rawat Publications Jaipur, pp. 52-78 6) SINGH, A. (1999), Educational Imbalance in India: Transition from School to College, Economic and Political Weekly, 34, (26), pp1675-1679. 7) Dubey, K.N. (1992), Process of Industrial Development, Process of Socio-Economic 8) Development, Rawat Publications Jaipur, pp. 79-104 9) Gosal .G. S. and Krishan, G. (1984): Patterns of Agricultural Development (Chapter 2), 10) ―Regional Disparities in Levels of Socio-Economic Development in Punjab”, Vishal publications, Kurukshetra, pp 32

11) Kurian, N.J., (2007), ―Widening economic & social disparities:THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Implications for India‖ 12) Patil B.D (2013) Regional Disparities in Levels of Agricultural Development in Dhule and 13) Nandurbar Districts, India, Research Journal of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences Vol. 1(5), 14) 9-12, June (2013) 15) Sharma, S.K. (2004), History Geography and Society of Gurgaon, Haryana Past and Present, vol.1, Mittal Publications New Delhi, pages 77-90. 16) Census of India, (2011): District Census Handbook, District Mewat, Haryana, 17) Census of India (1988): Regional Divisions of India- A cartographic analysis, occasional papers, series I, vol.VI, Haryana, pages 144-154. 18) Schwartzberg (1980) Atlas -- Digital South Asia Library http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/ last accessed on dated 05/06/2017 19) Government of India, Planning Commission, Working Group on Identification of Backward Regions, Pande Committee Report, New Delhi, 1969.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Climate Change Strategies and Development

Dr. Sushma Redhu Assistant Professor (Geography), Pt. N. R. S. Govt. College, Rohtak.

Abstract : Climate change is an inevitable and urgent global challenge with long-term consequences for the sustainable development of all countries. The climate change crisis and development needs of the world require urgent need of strategies to cope up with these consequences. The serious environmental problems such as ecosystem disturbance, climate change, water and air pollution, and rising sea levels can be seen as the unintended consequences of the development process. The effects of climate on human society, and our ability to mitigate and adapt to them, are mediated by social factors. The differences are also reflected in the health implications of potential greenhouse gas mitigation policies. For example, inefficient burning of biomass in unventilated homes releases high levels of black carbon, causing approximately 2 million deaths a year, mainly of women and children in the poorest communities in the world. The black carbon from such burning is also a significant contributor to global warming. There are important opportunities to adapt to climate change and to enhance health equity. Approaches to adaptation have evolved from initial infrastructure-based interventions to a more development-oriented approach that aims to build adaptivity to climate hazards. This includes addressing the underlying causes of vulnerability, such as poverty, lack of empowerment, and weaknesses in health care, education, social safety nets and gender equity. These are also some of the most important social determinants of health and health equity.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Keywords : Climate Change, Mitigation, Adaptation, Development. Introduction Climate change will affect, in adverse ways, some of the most fundamental determinants of health: food, air, water. Climate change could vastly increase the current huge imbalance in health outcomes. Compared to developed nations, developing countries are much more effected by climate change due to their low capacity to adapt and their disproportionate dependency on natural resources for welfare. Environmental degradation can only intensify these existing development problems. For example, increased maximum temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are already exerting negative impacts on the agriculture and food security of many low- income communities, while several coastal nations are suffering from damage to their ocean fisheries brought on by ocean acidification Policies to promote mitigation activities that have strong co-benefits in health and other development needs provide a potential political bridge across the ―development gap‖ between rich and poor countries. Specific policies need to be carefully designed and assessed. Integrated assessment methods that consider the gendered range of effects on health and health equity can maximize synergies and optimize trade-offs between competing priorities. Strategies for Climate Change : Mitigation - There are two ways to stop increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in atmosphere. You can stop putting so many greenhouse gases into the atmosphere or you can also invent ways to get greenhouse gases out of .atmosphere. Reduction of the amount of greenhouse gases put in to atmosphere is usually accomplished through reducing energy use and switching to energy sources that do not reduce greenhouse gases. Technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells, solar power, tidal energy, wind power are aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions directly. One of the main responsibilities of women in developing countries is ensuring energy supply and security at the household level. It is therefore crucial to involve women in the design, negotiation and implementation of clean energy choices that have the potential to improve health and well- being, both through reduced risks to health and through savings in time and financial resource (Aguilar, 2009).

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Lessening the reliance on coal-fired generation of power will reduce air pollution and associated respiratory and cardiopulmonary disease and death (Von Hilderbrand, 2009). More energy-efficient cooking stoves are becoming increasingly available in a number of countries and can substantially cut the use of biomass fuels, with subsequent health, environmental and economic benefits (Haines et al., 2006). Sources of renewable energy such as photovoltaic, solar, thermal, wave and wind power do not appear to have any important adverse effects on health, and their overall impacts are likely to be overwhelmingly beneficial (Haines and Kammen, 2000). Transport is currently responsible for about 23% of world energy-related greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2007a). Transport is projected to create the fastest proportional growth in greenhouse gas emissions of any sector from 1990 to 2020, with direct connections with urban air pollution, road traffic accidents and physical inactivity. Thus there is urgent need of shifting from road transport to rail and public transport systems. Despite traditional engineering approaches favouring high-cost infrastructure that provides greater speed for vehicles, it has been shown that measures that truly improve urban transport overall are those that reduce speeds and provide a safer environment for pedestrians (Broaddus et al., 2009). Speed-reduction policies have big environmental impacts and also result in great public health benefits. Adaptation - Adaptation involves developing ways to protect people and places by reducing their vulnerability to climate impacts. Adaptation helps to build resilience. The term "resilience‖ can be considered a synonym of adaptive capacity. Adaptive capacity is the ability of a human or natural system to adapt – that is, to adjust to climate change, including to climate variability and extremes; to prevent or moderate potential damages; to take advantage of opportunities; or to cope with the consequences. The adaptive capacity inherent in a human system represents the set of resources available for adaptation (information, technology, economic resources, institutions and so on) and the ability or capacity of that system to use the resources effectively in pursuit of adaptation. Adaptation measures in urban areas can improve opportunities for social interaction and physical activity, and increase resilience to flooding. Similarly, improved building standards can reduce energy consumption, provide greater THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER resilience to extreme weather, and reduce opportunities for infectious disease transmission (Campbell-Lendrum and Corvalan, 2007; Bloomberg and Aggarwala, 2008) However ability to adapt is not equal between all people. For example developing Nation with limited resources are less able to adapt climate change. There are often technological and financial limits that prevent scale of adaptation that we would need. Sustainable Development Goals : The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity. These 17 Goals build on the successes of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), while including new areas such as climate change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace and justice, among other priorities. The SDGs cover a range of topics, but climate change is much talked about. From India‘s point of view SDGs need to bring together development and environment into sets of target. Government of India has launched various programmes such as Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Clean India etc. for implementing SDG agenda. The thirteenth goal in the SDGs aims: ―Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.‖ It focus on the integration of climate change measures into national policies, the improvement of education, awareness-raising and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warnings the continuous rising of the emissions of greenhouse gases and about the vulnerability of all countries, particularly developing countries, to the adverse impacts of climate change, and called for the widest cooperation and participation of all countries in an effective and appropriate international response to climate change. There is also a goal dedicated to energy. Which emphasize to ―Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.‖The first goal, for instance, is to end poverty. But this includes a target to reduce the exposure and vulnerability of the poor to climate-related extreme events. The second goal is to end hunger. One of the targets involves ensuring that food production systems are able to adapt to climate change.

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The goal relating to education includes a target that all learners should be educated in sustainable development and how to live a sustainable lifestyle. These are just a few examples of the many places in which climate change is focused throughout the SDGs. India is focusing on various areas of SDGs to obtain sustainable development. Conclusion : Climate change as ―one of the greatest challenges of our time‖ and worries about ―its adverse impacts undermine the ability of all countries to achieve sustainable development. Policies to promote mitigation activities that have strong co-benefits in health and other development needs provide a potential political bridge across the ―development gap‖ between rich and poor countries. A warming climatic system is expected to impact the availability of basic necessities like freshwater, food security, and energy, while efforts to redress climate change, both through adaptation and mitigation, will similarly inform and shape the global development agenda. The links between climate change and sustainable development are strong. References : 1. Aguilar, L. (2009). Training manual on gender and climate change. San Jose, Costa Rica, International Union for Conservation of Nature, United Nations Development Programme, and Global Gender and Climate Alliance 2. Bloomberg, M. R., and Aggarwala, R. T. (2008). Think locally, act globally: How curbing global warming emissions can improve local public health American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 35: 414-423. 3. Broaddus, A. et al., (2009). Transportation demand management Chekear, GTZ. 4. Buvinic, M. et al., (1999). Hurricane Mitch: women‘s needs and contributions New York, Inter-American Development Bank. 5. Campbell-Lendrum, D. and Corvalan, C. (2007). Climate change and developing-country cities: implications for environmental health and equity. Journal of Urban Health. 84(Suppl. 1) 009. 6. Haines, A. and Kammen, D. (2000). Sustainable energy and health Global Change and Human Health. 1: 2–11.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 7. Haines, A. et al. (2006). Climate change and human health: impacts, vulnerability, and mitigation . Lancet. 367: 2101-2109. 8. IPCC ( 2007a). Climate change 2007: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III to the 4th Assessment Report of the IPCC Geneva, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 9. Von Hilderbrand, A. (2009). Protecting our health from climate change: An urgent matter! Indian Journal for the Practising Doctor. 5: 6.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

The Need of Hour: Balance Between Development and Environment

Sanjeev Kumar Chaudhary Assistant Professor, Government College, Sidhrawali, Gurugram

Abstract : On the one hand, every country is trying to increase economic growth to alleviate living standard of their people and on the other hand, environmental problems are becoming complicated due to excessive use of resources. It is important to create awareness about this relationship between our development and environment degradation. In this article, we analyze the relationship between development and environmental conservation. Effort has also been made to study how to achieve sustainable development and control environmental degradation. Environment is the natural surroundings which is necessary for the existence of organisms including human beings. The definition or our understanding of development has evolved a lot over last few decades. Still there is no particular consensus on opinion about development. Despite of a lot of stress on the concept of sustainable development, still environment conservation is a neglected sector and emphasis is on 'growth' rather than on 'development'. Thus, it is the need of the hour to understand the significance of a balance between development and environment. Then only we can think of inclusive and sustainable development. Keywords: Environment Degradation, Sustainable Development, Inclusion, Population Explosion. Introduction THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Environment includes all living and non-living objects. We are part of it and utilizes its components like air, water and plants for our betterment. Development means to grow positively by meeting the needs of the people. But with population explosion these needs are always growing and exert ever-growing pressure on our environment. When this pressure crosses the threshold level then it leads to destruction of our environment and is termed as environmental degradation. There are two types of components of the environment- Renewable and Nonrenewable. If our needs crosses the replacement level of the renewable components of the environment there is a threat of losing it forever like nonrenewable components. Therefore, it is important to create awareness about this relationship between our development and environment degradation. Apart from efforts at National and international levels, it the duty of every individual to be sensitive to environment while meeting their respective needs from it. Environment is precious for us and without environment all our development is meaningless. In this article, we analyze the relationship between development and environmental conservation. Effort has also been made to study how to achieve sustainable development and control environmental degradation. Objectives The objectives of this article are to:  Analyze the relationship between development and environmental degradation.  Study how sustainable development be achieved and environmental degradation be controlled. Literature survey Gandhiji has clearly stated that "Nature produces enough for our needs and if one does not take more than what is required for himself, there would be no pauperism and starvation in this world." The degraded inner spiritual growth and values are responsible for such situations. Efforts have been made in past few decades in this direction through education and religious movements but results are not impressive. The environment has continuously degraded. The government as well as people have stressed more upon achieving worldly comforts in the name of development and have neglected the environment. In short, Gandhiji have also emphasized upon need for a positive relationship between development and environment.

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R. Venkataraman, in his article 'Need for Ecological Balance' (2002), stated, 'modern civilization has brought in it trail, many ill effects caused by our failure to respect and preserve the balance of ecological factors in the human environment'. In most of the spheres of our life we have blindly followed the western models of development. These models are not environmental sensitive and have therefore led to severely harm our environment in the name of development. Khanna (1982) stated that with increased urbanization and rapid industrialization, the contamination of air poses a big menace. Rama Krishnan (2001) in his study highlighted that the most significant factor that causes deforestation is the human and livestock population increase that exerts direct and indirect pressure on the forests, leading to their destruction of deforestation. The proclamation made at United Nations Conference on Human Environment in 1972 had stated that Man is both creature and molder of his environment which gives him physical sustenance and gives him the opportunity of or intellectual, moral, social and spiritual growth. In the long and tortuous evolution at the human race on this planet a stage has reached when through the rapid acceleration of science and technology man has acquired the power to transform his environment at an unprecedented level. Sunderlal Bahuguna (1989), truly mentions that "There are two opinions on this that our planet is dying. The threats are from our materialistic 'Civilization', which has defined development as affluence." In the name of development, man has become a killer of the nature. Forgetting the traditional pro-environmental ways of life we are blindly cutting our trees, killing our rivers and flowing away our soils down into the sea and polluting the environment. Swaminathan (1996) expressed the impacts of environmental degradation on our future. This is going to hamper human health, reduce economic productivity and may lead to loss of amenities. Concluding in the words of Henrik Tikkanen (2004) "If we don't think about future generations, they will never forgive us". Statement of the problem - Inclusive development is not possible without harmony between development and environment. The later two are usually considered antagonistic to each other, that is, anyone of these can only take place at the cost of other. In the greed of advancement mankind is blindly pursuing for development without concerns for environment. The development and environment are rather complementary to each other, both of them together, can bring in sustainable development. After all, if there is no earth left, where will development take place? THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER The issue like global warming, climate change, depletion of resources are a matter of concern but still we are going for growth rather than development, not to talk of sustainable development. The matter is of paramount concern for developing countries like ours, as environmental degradation can severely level our developmental efforts and improvements achieved by economic prosperity. This unbalance between development and environment can have serious implication for distributive justice. This has given birth to a number of problems like mounting pressure on already scarce and depleting resources, poor waste management, etc. Thus, it is the need of the hour to understand the significance of a balance between development and environment. Then only we can think of sustainable development. Relations between Development and Environment - Environment is the natural surroundings which is necessary for the existence of organisms including human beings. It is considered necessary for the further evolution of all living beings. There are two components of environment- biotic and abiotic. The abiotic components includes the non-living features like atmosphere, water, minerals, energy etc. The biotic components includes all living beings. Environment as per ecological approach, is a set of all factors with which living beings interacts and all factors with which living beings interacts and all external surroundings around them. Biologically, the environment is almost a synonym to the biome, as it is the surrounding of an organism, eventually the ecosystem with which the species or organism interacts. The definition or our understanding of development has evolved a lot over last few decades. Still there is no particular consensus on opinion about development. Up to 1980's the economic growth was considered as the central to the developmental understanding. Gradually the multidimensional approach of development including social, environmental, material, political and cultural along with economical aspects have begun to evolve. Therefore developed the concept of sustainable development, which emphasizes the questions related to demographic process, considerate use of natural resources and mutual influences between a human and his living environment. Sustainable Development - The term development is generally used to denote growth or progress. However the term, particularly in last two centuries, has become synonym to economic growth in terms of gross domestic product or the per capita income of

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the nation. This definition has created a rat race amongst the nations to attain and retain development goals. These goals are often contradictory to the idea of preservation or sustenance of environment. In order to re-build the harmonious relationship between man and nature, world organizations like UN, has began the campaign to have a sustainable development. The Concept of Sustainable Development: The most frequently used definition of Sustainable development is from the Brundtland Report ―Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present (people) without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs‖. In other words it is improving the quality of life of the present generation without excessive use or abuse of natural resources, so that they can be preserved for the next generation. The term was first coined in 1972 at the United Nations Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm. The most important piece of writing on Sustainable development is in the publication by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987 titled „Our Common Future‖. In 1992 at the Earth summit at Rio-de- Janerio, 170 countries signed many important documents on sustainable development pledging preservation of environment. Sustainable development is often referred as the marriage of economy and ecology. i.e. to attain economic development without compromising the ecological balance. It can be attained by rigorous policy change, taking action and altering practices. There are three aims of sustainable development:- a) Economic- to attain balanced growth b) Ecological- to preserve the eco system c) Social-guarantying equal access to resources to all human communities. The impact of development on environment is primarily determined by the approach we have about development. If we have a narrow viewpoint about development, for example, if we consider development as similar to economic growth only then the quality of environment is generally not that important as the abundance, quality and accessibility of raw materials and energy central for the economy. On the other hand, if our viewpoint for development is broader, that is we consider multidimensional approach for development (as sustainable development) then the quality of environment and its sustainable condition finds greater priority then the quantity of raw materials alone. For long term preservation of environment's inhabitability or eventually the betterment of its conditions will be the priority area. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER The process of development of a country involves a number of activities which includes construction of dams, establishment of transport infrastructure, increase in size and number of settlements especially due to urbanization. The development process may include reaping and extracting maximum possible natural resources in the form of raw material in order to meet the needs of the increased population. This lead to problems like deforestation, land degradation, soil erosion etc. In the process a large amount of waste is generated that is generally thrown into the environment and the environment gets polluted. The infrastructure established under development process leads to the fragmentation of natural habitats that leads to fragmentation of natural habitats, which leads to reduction or extinction of various species of flora and fauna. The developmental activities can have positive effects too on the environment. The programs like construction of smaller water dams, application of environment friendly technologies etc. Such activities as a part of development can have positive impact. The positive effect on environment due to developmental activities includes- increase in biodiversity, enrichment of landscape by cultural features, enrichment of landscape by cultural features, enrichment of landscape by cultural features etc. This is possible mainly when we look development with a multi dimensional approach. The environment too can have impact on development. The level of development is also influenced by environmental conditions. The environmental factors includes climate zone, basic physical geographic factors and the living environment quality that includes degree of pollution, population density, expanse of deforested areas, the level of soil degradation and deforestation. Analysis - During past 20 years, Environment has become a hot topic for scientists, researchers, politicians and even for laymen in many parts of the world. There has been more sensitization for issues such as depletion of natural resources, wildlife, danger to plants and animals, famines, droughts, floods, pollution of various types etc. All are becoming more aware of the necessity to conserve the natural environmental resources such as air, water, soil, Flora and fauna which are very much important for human beings. A need of hour is to find out new methods to conserve these resources,

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otherwise future generations will suffer depletion. Human needs are increasing and the supply of these resources is limited. So, a sustainable development is required for this fragile environment. China, India and some other south-Asian countries which constitute nearly 45 percent of world population, are in stiff competition for becoming industrialized or developed nations. People are more interested in accumulation of material goods. This type of thinking can lead to environmental degradation. Trees are to be cut to satisfy their demands. Pollution of all types are increasing day by day. Number of vehicles are increasing tremendously, which further enhance the environmental pollution directly or indirectly enhance the environmental pollution. Tim Jackson, in his book Material concerns suggests a radical approach that calls for ―Dematerilization of the Economy‖. This approach discuss more concretely about ―Preventive environmental management‖ which may lead to reduction in use of environmental resources. Further it says, that it would be better to prevent pollution instead of trying to clean up pollution through various methods. The need of hour is to turn to service based economy instead of goods based economy through commercial innovation of the service economy. This requires sophisticated technology and research and development. Moreover peoples over centuries are more customized to material based economy rather than the service based economy. Corporate leaders, politicians and Government can play a major role. Profit maximization is main aim of these industrial houses. For this, governments of all countries can play major role for curbing the environmental degradation by enacting various laws and penalty. This has to be done instantly otherwise it will be too late and health of the planet Earth and human beings will deteriorate further. It is the need of the hour to understand the significance of a balance between development and environment. Then only we can think of sustainable development. Suggestions –  Judicious utilization of resources available to us. The task of maintaining a balance between economic growth and environmental degradation is though an uphill task but is must for a developing country like India.  The poor and deprived sections of the society must be supported by the government as they shall be at the suffering end of any negative consequences out of trade off between economic growth and environment.  Government intervention is advisable in initial phase. All the government backed developmental project must be

environmental friendly. The policy design for managingTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER the developmental activities of private sector can also be done.  Developed countries should take lead in establishing balance between development and environment. These countries consume over 70 percent of the total available Earth's resources.  The developed countries should proactively take steps as following:  Voluntarily reduce their harmful emissions.  Develop green technologies and must pass on them to undeveloped countries.  Change their own environmentally harmful pattern of demand.  Prevent bullying underdeveloped countries for shifting polluting industries over there.  There is need for international coordination at regional and global level to prevent and mitigate harmful consequences generated out of unbalance between development and environment.  Government at national and state level must come up with suitable policy framework.  An effective Environmental Management System (EMS) is necessary to identify the causes of environmental problem and then the suitable steps must be taken to deal with them.  There is a need for a change in the mindset of the people towards eco-protection and environment friendly development.  Unjust exploitation of resources should be prevented and the vast biodiversity and available rich traditional knowledge should be made to benefit mankind. Thus all possible efforts must be done to strike a balance between economic development and environment. Conclusion - Despite of a lot of concept of sustainable development, still environment conservation is a neglected sector and emphasis is on 'growth' rather than on 'development'. It‘s the need of the hour to spread awareness and sensitivity towards this increasing imbalance between development and environment. It is crucial for the government to 'walk the talk'. Along with this at the local and micro level each individual must contribute towards betterment of the environment by following the principle of 3R's - Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. Small but intelligent steps taken in this direction by millions of us can have profound impact and the sooner we realize this, the better it will be for the earth and for our coming

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generations. Mahatma Gandhi had concluded our theme by one statement -"Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed." References -  Carson, R. 1962. Silent Spring. New York, Houghton Mifflin.  Elliott, J. A. 1994. An Introduction to Sustainable Development: The Developing World. London, Routledge.  Khosla, A. (1976) ―Population and Environment‖, Ashish Bose (ed.), Population and India's Development, 1974-2000, New Delhi: Vikash Publishing House.  Meadows, D. H.; Randers, J.; Behrens, W. W. 1972. The Limits to Growth. London, Earth Island.  Sunderlal Bahuguna (1989) ―Environment Conservation for Survival‖, Indian Journal of Public Administration, July- September, New Delhi.  Swaminathan, M. S. (1996) " Sustainable agriculture: towards an Evergreen Revolution''.  UNCED. 1992. Earth Summit ‘92. London, Regency.  World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). 1987. Our Common Future. The Brundtland Report for the World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford, University Press.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Farmers Suicide in India: Causes and Remedies

Sajjan Kumar Research Scholar Department of Geography, MD University Rohtak

Absract : India is an agrarian economy where more than 60 per cent population either directly or indirectly depends on agriculture & its allied activities. But in the race of development of Industrial and Service sector, India has totally neglected the agriculture sector and its allied activities. Farmers‟ suicides have become an important socio-economic concern in India that has profound implication on the quality of life of farmers and their families. This negligence resulted to increase in cost of production and losses also. Especially after Globalization, Indian farmers are in financial trouble. The negligence of politicians and socialist towards rejuvenation, relaxation & Development of farmers and Agriculture, forces farmers to commit suicide. The paper tries to examine the causes of farmers‟ suicide in India from different perspectives and also analyses the Agrarian crisis in India. Further it focuses on state-wise quantitative data of farmer‟s suicide in India and reasons of the same with effective remedies. Keywords : Agriculture, Farmers Suicide, Agrarian, Financial Trouble. Introduction: It is estimated that more than a quarter of a million Indian farmers have committed suicide in the last 16 years— the largest wave of recorded suicides in human history. A great number of those affected are cash crop farmers and cotton farmers in particular. In 2009 alone, the most recent year for which official figures are available, 17,638 farmers committed suicide—that‘s one farmer every 30 minutes.THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER While striking on their own, these figures considerably underestimate the actual number of farmer suicides taking place. Women, for example, are often excluded from farmer suicide statistics because most do not have title to land—a common prerequisite for being recognized as a farmer in official statistics and programs. India is a developing country and After China it is considered as one of the fastest developing nation of the world. While measuring development of nation, development of Industrial and service sector is considered with development of basic infrastructural facilities & increased in employment opportunities. But for the sustainable development of any nation only development of Industrial and service sector is enough. In addition to this growth and development of Agriculture sector is also important. In India, more than 60% of total population of nation is resides in rural area and Agriculture and its allied activities are the main source of their Income. Their overall development is depends upon development and growth of Agriculture sector. But government of India and concern state governments wilfully neglected to Agricultural sector. This not only affects on standard of living of rural Indians but also affects on economic development of country. Simultaneously it affects on overall development of India. India is an Agrarian economy where Agriculture is the main source earning of majority of people of the nation. But Politicians, Industrialist and Manufacturers/Producers willfully neglected qualitative and quantitative growth & development of the same. Government of India has always given preference to Industrial and service sector and collateral led Agricultural sector in all levels of development. Due to this attitude of Indian government, Agriculture sector facing many problems in last two decades. After 1991, in the era of Globalization this problem becomes more critical. After 1991, government of India adopted policies of WTO and signed GATTS, which was totally in favour of Developed nations like USA, UK, Japan and other European counties but totally harmful for Developing and underdeveloped countries. These new changes had adversely affected on Agricultural sector of developing and underdeveloped countries. Manufactures of food and industrial raw material (i.e. Farmers) facing financial problems due to this International and national policies. The success of Agriculture sector is also depends on natural conditions also. If natural condition is favorable, production is also good but unfavorable natural condition badly affects on quality and quantity of the goods produced by farmers. Even if natural condition is favorable and production is good with high quality, farmers are not ensuring that they will get good return of their products. Because high production also reduces their income as prices in the market are fall down due to heavy supply of goods. The above conditions focused on the various problems facing by Indian farmers.

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Whether the environment is favorable or unfavorable, farmers always faces losses. Due to continuation of this condition and failure on state and central government in taking effective measures to protect and help to farmers to overcome on this barriers. Most of them became bankrupt and burden of heavy repayment of Debts and other family responsibilities forces them to commit suicides. Objectives of study: 1. To analysis the farmers suicide in India and selected States. 2. To compare the farmer‘s suicides with total suicides in India. 3. To analyze the relationship between size of landholding and farmer suicide. 4. To find out the different causes behind Farmers Suicide in India. 5. To suggest the Remedies to avoid farmer‘s suicides. Approaches and Methodology: For this research paper most of the data is collected by using secondary sources like Data & records available with NCRB Reports, Magazines, Journals, data published in various National and Vernacular newspapers, Government websites and some extend at primary sources like observation and oral interviews of local farmers. The definition of a farmer has not changed: For the first time this year, the NCRB splits farmers into ‗cultivators‘ and ‗agricultural laborers‘. This is not a new or unusual classification system; the Census for instance uses it as well. For purposes of comparison with previous years, it makes most sense to stick to the overall agriculture category, as was done in past years. State wise farmer suicide in India: According to the NCRB, Maharashtra has the dubious distinction of recording the highest number of farmer suicides in the country for the past few years. At the end of 20th century India accepted Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization policy and as per the norms of WTO and GATTS, reduces subsidies for farmers. Which badly affects on the farmers and cost of seeds, fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides but the selling price or market price of agricultural THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER products are not increased as cost of production increases. Even the government declares minimum reasonable price (MRP) for certain products but these MRPs are also less than the cost of production of agricultural goods. Sometimes Figer-1 State with most Farmer Suicide-2015 The record number of farmer 3500 suicides in 2015 to poor disbursement of credit, which left them at the mercy of 3000 usurious money lenders, the Centre on 2500 Tuesday shared with Parliament grim 2000 statistics highlighting how the situation 1500 remains unchanged in 2016, with as many 1000 as 116 suicides during the first three months. Maharashtra continues to be the dark spot, 500 recording the highest number of farmer 0 suicides. Figer-1 showing the Maharashtra top in farmer suicide in which 3030 farmers committed suicide in 2015 flowed by Telangana(1358), Karnataka(1197), Chhattisgarh(854), Madhya Pradesh(681), Andhra Pradesh(516).The figures for farmers' suicide were shared on a day Union agriculture minister Radha Mohan Singh alleged that dams were constructed in Maharashtra to serve interests of the sugar industry and not farmers. "I demand a discussion on Maharashtra drought so that facts can come to light," he said in Lok Sabha, blaming the previous Congress-led government in the state for the mess. His allegation triggered a war of words with the opposition blaming the Centre for not doing enough to provide relief to the drought-affected states.

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Relationship between size of landholding and farmer suicide: Figer-2 Percentage Share of Farmers’ Suicides by Land Holding Status during 2015 As per land holding status, farmers have been classified in four categories namely 2.30% ‗Marginal Farmers‘ (having less than 1 hectare of land), ‗Small Farmers‘ (having 1 hectare to below 2 hectare of land), ‗Medium Farmers‘ Medium Farmers (having 2 hectare to below 10 hectare of land) 27.90% 25.20% and ‗Large Farmers‘ (having more than 10 Small Farmers hectare of land). This classification is meant for Marginal Farmers statistical purpose only. The land holding status of farmers who have committed suicides 44.50% Large Farmers is presented in Figer-2. Land holding status of farmers who committed suicide revealed that 44.5% and 27.9% of victims were small farmers and marginal farmers respectively, they together accounted for 72.4% (4,095 out of 5,650) total farmer suicides. 53.1% and 14.5% of small farmers who committed suicides were reported in Maharashtra (1,135 out of 2,516) and Telangana (366 out of 2,516) respectively during 2015. Among marginal farmers, 39.7% and 25.5% respectively of farmers‘ suicides were reported in Maharashtra (627 out of 1,579) and Madhya Pradesh (403 out of 1,579). However, 47.3% of well off farmers (large farmers) who have committed suicides were also reported in Maharashtra during 2015. Different causes behind Farmers Suicide in India: Analysis and interpretation of above data shows that the farmers‘ suicide in India for the above mentioned period considerably increased. According to the expert in THEthe KOKAN GEOGRAPHER field of agriculture, farmers‘ suicides in India for the same period are worlds highest. LOCAL MONEYLENDERS are usually portrayed as the villains in India‘s farmer-suicides narrative, but government data shows that 80 per cent of farmers killed themselves in 2015 because of bankruptcy or debts after taking loans from banks and registered microfinance institutions. According to National Crime Records Bureau‘s latest farmer-suicides data, of the over 3,000 farmers who committed suicides across the country in 2015 due to debt and bankruptcy, 2,474 had taken loans from banks or microfinance institutions. It‘s for the first time that the NCRB has categorized farmers‘ suicides due to debt or bankruptcy based on the source of loans. The figures (see page 2) show that only 10 per cent farmers had committed suicide due to debts caused by loans taken from both banks and moneylenders — the share of loans from moneylenders under this section was 9.8 per cent. As first reported by The Indian Express on August 19, 2016, farmer suicides saw a spike of 41.7 per cent in 2015 from 2014. The year 2015 saw 8,007 suicides by farmers compared to 5,650 in 2014, according to NCRB data. Figer-3 Percentage Share of Major Causes of Suicides among Farmers/Cultivators during 2015

Analysis of varies data focused on 2.00% 1.10% 1.10% following reasons of farmer’s 4.10% Bankruptey suicide: Financial reasons: As an agrarian economy 10.50% Farming Related more the 60% population of India 38.70% issues depends on agriculture and its allied 11.70% Family Problems activities. But for the successful running of agriculture and its allied activities requires capital. More than 80% of the 19.50% IIIness Indian farmers are marginal land owners and they are economically poor. So they are facing economical 88 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 18

problems for successful running of agricultural activities. At the same time nationalize banks are not willing to lend funds to farmers as there is no surety to return it. Even the private money lenders don‘t lend funds to them as they don‘t have any mortgage except their land. Even they lends funds to farmers they charges high rate or compound rate of interest. In addition to this, the farmers has their family responsibilities like education, marriages and health provisions of their family members and children, which requires huge money. Even the Government of India (GOI) and concern state government also fails to give economic relief to farmers. The government always declares various packages in crore of rupees to farmers for relief but due to corruption in distribution, wrong criteria‘s of assigning aids, unwillingness about farmers problems needy farmers don‘t get benefits of government help. The burden of these entire things turns them towards suicides. Natural Calamities: In addition to economical reasons natural calamities are also responsible for farmer‘s suicides. The effective agricultural production is mostly depends on favourable weather condition. Due to the global warming, deforestation and other manmade reasons natural condition has become more worsen and reasons like heavy raining, floods, droughts, delay in raining, heavy cyclones, and manmade reason like reduction in subsidies, fire, accidents and so on, farmers are not able to take qualitative and quantitative production from their farm. Even all the condition are in favour of farmers and production is good in quality & quantity farmers don‘t get proper return of their product in the market, as more supply of goods reduces demand and reduction in demands automatically reduces price of the same. Most of the time farmers are not able to recover cost price of their product. The State governments declare MRPs of the agricultural product every year. But the MRPs declared by government are less than the total cost incurred for production. Due to these reasons agriculture becomes an assured loss making business. But the marginal & small farmers of India don‘t have another option for earning. And they again & again put their all efforts in the agriculture. Continuous losses turn them to become insolvent and frustration of the same forces them to commit suicides. Increase in cost of production: In addition to the above reasons increase in cost of production also forces to the farmers to commit suicide. Agriculture sector in India requires huge manpower for ploughing, digging, soil maintenance etc., for insecticides, pesticides, cutting, transportation and selling of products requires funds. In addition to this hybrid seeds are also requires for good quality & quantity of product, which are very costlyTHE KOKANand GEOGRAPHER not affordable to marginal and poor farmers of India. The following table no. 4 shows that the cost incurred for per hectare of wheat production and income from the same: Political reasons: Politics in India is one of the main reasons for farmer‘s suicide in India. For the success of any business & profession, in addition to favourable economical and weather condition, political environment also plays important role. The Indian politicians who plays important role in policy making and decision making are totally shy and neglected agriculture sector. They are failing to take effective measures for soundness of agriculture. The politician has totally neglected agriculture sector and always gives preference to Industrial and service sector. While deciding MRPs of agricultural produces they don‘t consider the cost incurred for the production of same. They frequently declare various relief packages for farmers but failing to take effective implementation of the same. So the needy farmers don‘t get the benefits of such packages. The government also frequently bans export of agricultural products as per terms & conditions of WTO & GAATs. This is harmful for the exportable agricultural produces. at the same time most of the small and marginal farmers are belongs to backward communities like SCs, STs, OBCs and Muslims (Inferiors in Indian Politics) and even today politics is the monopoly of self declared superiors. This is resulted in biases in distribution of financial help and subsidies. Global reasons: The GOI has accepted Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG) policy after 1991 and signed GAAT agreement as per the terms and conditions of WTO. Which forced to India To? Accept all the restriction binding on member countries. Even today the GAAT agreement is helpful for the developed countries and developing & Underdeveloped countries facing many problems as they don‘t have freedom while taking various production and sell and export of the same. Patents of certain agricultural products are also troublesome for Indian farmers. E.g. Indian don‘t have patent of B.T. Cotton Seeds. And main product of farmers of Vidarbha region of Maharashtra cotton. Due to GAAT agreement and international patent policies. Even we are capable for B.T. cotton seeds we must import hybrid B.T. cotton seeds from abroad which is very costly due to import duties and all other charges. These restrictions support to increase in cost of production. And in addition to this, if above four factors are against to the farmers, they don‘t have any other option than suicide.

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Illiteracy, Traditions & Culture: In addition to above factors Illiteracy, Tradition and Culture also forces to farmers to commit suicide. Due to illiteracy and inadequate knowledge, farmers do not believe in importance of education. Lack of education skills their decision making skills. Lack of money and perception capacity, they turn to rights and rituals of orthodox and other religious activities which again requires more money. And sometimes, to perform these activities they use to take heavy loans from private money lenders with high rate of interest. In addition to this, a marriage of daughters, farmers requires to give huge fund and gold to their son in law (Known as ‗Hunda‘). If the farmers fails to perform all these traditions and cultural activities they become frustrate and turn towards suicide. New changes: After the green revolution and innovation of new technologies new hybrid seeds, insecticides, pesticides and farm cultivation technologies makes farming more easier and production is increased considerably. But these technologies and innovations are so costly and not affordable to poor small and marginal farmers. Marginal farmers have small piece of land which might be less than a hectare e.g. the Vidarbha, a highly farmer suicide region of Maharashtra has three district namely Wardha, Yawatmal & Washim has highest number of marginal farmers i.e. 33.30, 46.70 & 27.60% respectively. And number of small farmers was 23.80, 17.20 & 10.00% respectively in 2006. This data is enough to focus on condition of farmers in India. Other reason: In addition to the all above reasons lack of basic infrastructural facilities like safe drinking water, inadequate health facilities, transport facilities, proper food, cloth and shelter affects on psychological and physical condition of the farmers. Sometimes they become drug addicted and drunker. All these things attracted heavy diseases and turn them to die. Remedies to avoid farmer’s suicides The above natural and manmade calamities forces farmers to commit suicides. We cannot avoid natural calamities but we can give relief & control on manmade calamities by taking following measures:

Financial Help: THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER To avoid farmer‘s suicide Government of India and concern state governments must give subsidies to the farmers. While delivering these subsidies preference must be given to marginal and small farmers. They should get free of cost hybrid seeds as they have small piece of productive land. If they have given subsidies for the same. It should be given in cash and before the sowing seeds. Which will help to avoid malpractices and corruption in distribution of seeds and subsidies? In addition to this while deciding small and marginal farmers farming of total family is taken into consideration instead of single landholders of each family. Effective loan schemes: The government should establish special system while providing loan to farmers. Every Nationalize and co- operative bank including Agriculture co-operative credit societies must setup this system in their banks to provide loan to the farmers on time and as per their requirements. At the same time loans should be provided at low rate of interest. So that farmers should not be exploited and not discriminated by private moneylenders and creditors. Effective loan waiving scheme: After consideration of high numbers of farmer‘s suicides; In 2004, government of India and concern states also declared packages of thousands of crore rupees for relief to farmers & avoid their suicides. But the benefits of the same were not reached to families of suicide affected farmers. So their condition is remaining the same. And farmer‘s suicides are continued and even increasing day by day. E.g. according to the data of year 2007, out of the total 34 lacs farmers of Vidarbha region 95% of farmers of B.T. Cotton were in debt. Which means needy farmers didn‘t get the benefits of such relief packages. And package of 1075 crore from chief minister of Maharashtra and 3075 crore from Prime Minister of India, failed to control farmers suicides in Maharashtra. So instead of giving packages concern governments should directly deposits money to the bank accounts of the farmers instead of waiving loans.

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Export policies: The Government of India and Concern state governments always make bias and takes irresponsible decision in export of Agricultural products. They use to ban on export of agricultural products when their prices are high. This is resulted to more supply in local market and falling in prices. So farmers don‘t get proper return of their produces. So, the government should implement quota system for every farmer for export, to avoid these practices while framing export policies. Irrigation facilities: Indian farmers facing problems of irrigation. Geographical condition in India is varied for every region. Some regions facing problem of heavy rainfall and some regions are comes under drought prone area. Due to failure of water management heavy rainfall area and drought prone area also facing problems of irrigation in rainy as well as off rain season like summer. Indian agriculture policy makers intentionally neglected this important fact. Farmers in India are using traditional methods for irrigation, which consumes more water than actually requirements and farmers don‘t get water for irrigation as per their requirements in off rain seasons & in droughts. So methods like Drip irrigation must be used to overcome on saving & fulfilment of required water for agricultural productions. Policy about MRPs: According to the Agricultural policy of GOI, it is binding on concern state government to declare MRPs of all agricultural products before the agricultural production comes out. But till 2010, all state governments have declared MRPs less than the cost of all agricultural products. So, GOI and concern state governments must declare MRPs which at least gives minimum profit or follow a policy of MRP which is Cost of Production + 30%. Other Remedies: In addition to above measures GOI and all concern state governments must help to farmers for development of allied activities of Agriculture and support for farmer‘s oriented small scale and agriproducts industries. This helps to increase standard of living, solve financial problems and fulfil their basic, safety and prestigious needs.

Conclusion THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER An analysis and interpretation of the above data shows that, the GOI and concern state governments have totally neglected agricultural sector and its allied activities. It also fails to take effective measures and its effective implementation, which is resulted in farmers suicides, which are continuously increased in last 15 years and rate of farmer‘s suicides is considerably increased for the period 2006-2015. References: 1. Jodha, N. (1978) Effectiveness of Farmers' Adjustment to Risk, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 13, No. 25, pp. A38-A48. 2. Sen, A. and M. S. Bhatia (2004) Cost of Cultivation and Farm Income, Vol. 14 in State of the Indian Farmer: A Millennium Study, Academic Foundation, New Delhi. 3. Wakude, S. M. (2005), Farmers suicide in Maharashtra - causes and Remedies. 4. Mishra, S. (2006a) Suicide of Farmers in Maharashtra, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai. 5. Mishra, S. (2006b) Farmers‘ Suicides in Maharashtra, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 41, No. 16, pp. 1538- 1545. 6. Singh, J. P. (2006) Changing Agrarian Relationship in Rural India, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 61, No. 1, pp.36-64. 7. Government of India. Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness. (Chair: R Radhakrishna). New Delhi: Ministry of Finance. 2007. 8. K. Nagaraj, (2008), Farmers‘ Suicides In India: Magnitudes,Trends And Spatial Patterns. 9. Nagaraj K., (2008), ‗Farmers suicides in India: Magnitudes, Trends and Spatial Patterns, Madras Institute of Development Studies. 10. Patel V, Ramasundarahettige C, Vijayakumar L, et al. Suicide mortality in India: a nationally representative survey. Lancet 2012; 379. 11. Mishra S. Suicide mortality rates across states of India, 1975-2001: a statistical note. Economic and Political Weekly 2006; 41(16): 1566-1569.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Development and Environment

Poonam Research Scholar, Dept.in Commerce, Goila-Kalan, Teh: , Dist. Jhajjar (Haryana)

Abstract – Natural environment faces a lot of stress due to development activities in general and that of infrastructural development in particular. Such infrastructural activities involve clearing of forests. Cutting off hill mountain sides and encroaching on cultivable or cultural land. Use of patricides in agriculture. The article is based on observation . Keywords : Development, Environment, Stress Introduction : Echnomic expansion in the race for development has had harmful effects existing ecosystems. Man‘s capacity for destructiveness is not just the reivit of modern technology. Traditional as well as modern societies have had devastating impacts on the ecosystem. However ,the scale and rate of such devastating have never been as tremendous as at present when modern men armed with modern technology have brought mass destruction of ecosystems. Transportation and expansive of transport network has been responsible to a large extent in bringing about environment damage. Thus, the natural habitats and wildlife are disappearing or are under threat of disappearing in the course of development. Objectives: The main objectives of the present study is to focus on the conflict between development and the consequent THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER environmental damage. Methodology: The Study is based on secondary data taken from various journals and reports. Environment and Sustainable development : There is close link between environment and sustainable development which is used in the board perspective and the overall development of human beings without any distinction. The world conservation Strategy initiated by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),the world wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and international Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN),provided the platform for international debate on sustainability. The most noteworthy step towards sustainable development is the publication of an international report titled ―Our Common Future‖ by word Commission on environment (WCED) in 1987. This is commonly known as ―The Brundtland report‖. The report defined sustainable development as ―Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖. According to this report. The major objectives of development should be to ensure the satisfaction of human needs and aspirations of a material kind. It emphasized the fact that over exploitation of resources may compel human societies to compromise their ability to meet the essential needs of their people in future. Settled agriculture, the diversion of watercourses, the extraction of minerals, the emission of heat and noxious gases into the atmosphere, commercial forests, and genetic manipulation, were all mentioned in the report as examples of human intervention in natural system during the course of development. It called upon all countries to adopt the objectives of sustainable development as the overriding and test of national policy and international cooperation. Three Earth Summits were held under the auspicious of United Nation Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992, 1997 and 2016. Over 170 countries participated in these Summits renewed their commitment to sustainable development aiming at ―giving special attention to the worldwide condition that pose serve threats to the sustainable development of the people , which include : chronic hunger ;malnutrition; armed conflict; illicit drug problems; corruption; natural disasters, communicable diseases, in particular HIV/AIDs, malaria and tuberculosis‖.

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After these Summits, the sustainable development has become a universal theme to describe the amalgamation of environment opportunities and human wisdom. International trade and environmental problems : Here we study the importance of property rights in the context of international trade. Suppose a model of two identical countries, both with same input and output. And with the same endowments, technologies and preferences .The two countries engaged in free trade in unregulated and competitive market. The countries differ only in the pattern of ownership of an environmental resources used an input to production. We consider in this case demonstrating that lack of property rights alone can create trade and that trade cans itself worse the common property problem. No trade is necessary for efficiency when two countries are indentical. Yet trade occurs when they have different property rights regimes. In this context , we establish two general propositions . first, the country with ill-defined property rights observe the environment as an input to production and these ill-defined properly right by themselves create a motive for trade between two otherwise identical countries. Second, for the country with poorly defined property rights, trade with a country with well-defined property rights increases the overuse of resources and make the miscalculation worse, transmitting it to the entire world economy. Trade equalizes the prices of traded goods and factors worldwide, but this does not improve resources allocation. In the resulting world economy, resources are onder-priced there is overproduction by one country and over-consumption by the other. The debate created after specialize in ―dirty industries‖ and environmentally intensive production. The apparent comparative advantage are not truly comparative advantage because they do not have relative abundance of resources, nor having differences in productivity preference, nor lower factors prices but they just lack of property right for a common property resources, which a historical and institutional phenomenon. In this context, the developing countries produce and exports environmentally intensive goods to a greater degree that is efficient and at prices are below social costs. Thus developing countries are not better off by specializing in ―dirty industries‖ or the world better off if they do. This approach is also against Pareto optimality welfare concept. Economic Growth and Environment : There is tradeoff between economic growth and environment because of desire to high growth and excessive use of resources that cause environmental pollution. PoorTHE KOKAN peopleGEOGRAPHER and poor countries depend on the soil for food, the rivers for water and forests for fuel. Because they need these resources desperately, they have little choice, without assets or income, but to observe them and to destroy their natural environment simply to survive. In doing so, they threaten their health and lives of their children. As the income and consumption levels of the poor increase there is likely to be net increase in environmental destruction. Meeting increasing consumption demand while keeping environmental degradation at a minimum is an uphill task. As the poor countries desire more economic growth is vital for giving more options to poor societies , but their models of development must become less energy intensive and more environmentally sound, for industrial countries , too, stopping growth or even seriously slowing it is not much of an option for protecting the global environment. Their slower growth would imperil growth in the poor nations, which are dependent on the markets of the rich nations. Moreover, their counting growth is needed to generate new environmentally safe technologies and extra margin of resources needed for transfer to poor nations. But the growth models of industrial nations must change drastically. Impact of Externalities on Environment : The moral of the above example is that people tend to maximize their personal welfare, balancing private benefits against private costs. By continuing electricity generation through cheap coal, in fact, is an act of imposing costs on others in the form of air and water pollution. These costs are external to the firm and do not appear on its profit and loss stamen. Those external costs or externalities are not less real, but they are born by society at large rather by the firm itself. Whenever externals costs exist, a private firm will not allocate resource. In fact, society is permitting the power plant to use valued resources, clean water and clean air iat zero cost. The efficiency of this market arrangement can be expressed in terms of a distinction between social costs and private costs. Social costs are the total costs of all the resources used in a particular production process. Private cost, on the other hand costs, external costs exist and are, in fact, equal to the difference between the social and private cost; that is, External cost = social costs-private costs When social costs exist the market mechanism will not allocate resource efficiently and attainment of social welfare will be difficult. In shirt, if pollution costs se external. Firms will produce too much of goods and pollute the environment as much as possible. Thus externalities affect the environmental negatively.

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Conclusion : The finding of the study are robust because the author has found that both development and developing countries are responsible for environment hazards. The developed countries are using excessive resource to produce surplus goods for exports while poor countries are exploiting their existing resources to feed their growing population and end poverty level. The race of resources exploitation has created a dangerous situation all over the world and has made the lives of people and animals vulnerable. The author concludes that judicious use of environmental resources is an imperative need for sustainable economic development. References :  Sinha Dr.K.R and Nongpluh2.Ms.C.L Development and Environment ,IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol.No-19,ISSUE-8, year 2014  Sauer ,C.O.,Plant and Animal destruction in Economics History, Journal OF Farms Economics. 1938 20: 765 – 775.  Gadgil M. and Guha R., Ecological Conflicts and The Environment Movement in India, in Rangarajan, M(ed),Environmental Issues in india –A Reader ,Delhi: Pearson Longman,2007 pgs 385 – 428.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017

ISSN 2277 – 4858

Sustainable Development: Need of the hour

Dr. Manisha Assistant Professor (Botany), A.I.JAT.H.M. College, Rohtak

Abstract Man has been continuously changing his modes of interaction with the environment at an increasing rate. On one hand, population of the earth is growing rapidly; while on the other hand, with the technological and scientific revolution developmental activities have been accelerated to such an extent that they have become a threat to the environment. Natural resources are being utilized at an alarming rate, calling for their conservation. Degradation of environment due to industrial and other wastes being discharged into the hydrosphere and atmosphere has also caused a great concern and now the big question is – what will happen next? Undoubtedly, the natural resources on the earth will exhaust one day if we continue exploiting them indiscriminately. The world is going to face an environmental and social catastrophe. All these questions and warnings have given rise to the concept of sustainable development where all the developmental activities are performed or designed in such a way that ecological balance is maintained. This transition from unsustainable to sustainable development is because now people have realized that natural resources are not unlimited and massive exploitation of these resources would decrease our development rate and can further completely cease the development. Introduction Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER the economy and society depend. The desirable end result is a state of society where living and conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems. While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1987 Brundtland Report, it is also rooted in earlier ideas about sustainable forest management and twentieth century environmental concerns. As the concept developed, it has shifted to focus more on economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations. It has been suggested that "the term 'sustainability' should be viewed as humanity's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium (homeostasis), while 'sustainable development' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end point of sustainability". Concept of Sustainable Development The term ‗Sustainable Development‘ was used at the time of the Cocoyoc Declaration on Environment and Development in the early 1970s but a clear discussion on it emerged at an international level Earth Summit held in Brazil in the year 1992. Thereafter ‗Sustainable Development‘ became the theme of the Second Earth Summit held at Johannesburg (South Africa, 2002). Definitions of this term vary, but the most widely adopted one is “Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (G.H. Brundtlant, Director, WHO) Various UN publications refer sustainable development as a strategy for improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of the supporting ecosystem. Principles of Sustainable Development: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF-N) laid down nine principles for sustainable development: i) Minimize depletion of non-renewable natural resources. ii) Conserve earth‘s vitality and variability. iii) Change the personal attitudes and practices towards nature. iv) Improve the quality of life supporting system of the earth.

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v) Reduce the population to the carrying capacity of the earth. vi) Enable communities to care for their own environment. vii) Respect and care for other communities. viii) Create a global alliance. ix) Provide framework for development and conservation. Measures for Sustainable Development Measures may be different in developed and developing countries according to their level of technological and economic development. But developing countries like India should focus their attention on the following measures:  Ensure clean and hygienic living and working conditions for the people.  Ensure safety against known and proven industrial hazards.  Encourage afforestation.  As far as possible use of environment friendly products should be encouraged.  Ensure environmental education as a part of school and college curriculum. Two aspects of Sustainable Development : a) Inter-generational equality by reducing waste discharge, by controlling the over-exploitation of resources, and maintaining an ecological balance. It is expected to hand over a healthy, safe and resourceful environment to the forthcoming generations. b) Intra-generation equality within and between the nations by such a technological development that will support economic growth of the poor countries so that the wealth gap between the nations can be reduced. Steps for Sustainable Development : 1. Utilization of Natural Resources within the Carrying Capacity of the Environment: The natural resources in the environment are limited, so their indiscriminate utilization can lead to their exhaustion. Therefore, resources must be used within their carrying capacities. There are two basic components of carrying capacity-

a) Supporting capacity (Capacity to regenerate) THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER b) Assimilative capacity (Capacity to tolerate different stress) 2. 4-R’s Approach of Conservation: It advocates refusing the use of things that are harmful for the environment, to reduce the use of non-renewable resources, to reuse the natural resources instead of wasting them and to recycle the materials so that pressure on existing natural resources can be reduced. 3. Adopting Eco-Friendly Technology: The technologies used for the development must be ―designed with nature‖. A technology which uses lesser amount of resources and produces minimum wastes should be preferred. 4. Promote Environmental Education and Awareness: Every citizen of the world should be given environmental education right from childhood so that a child knows the importance of nature and learn to love and protect it. General public must be made aware about the increasing problems in their environment and need of the hour is to prevent further deterioration of the environment. Sustainable development is the need of the present time not only for the survival of mankind but also for its future generation. Unlike the other great revolutions in the history – the Agricultural and the Industrial Revolutions – the ‗Sustainable Revolution‘ will have to take place rapidly, consciously and on different levels and in many spheres, simultaneously.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Irrigation Expansion and Change in Cropping Pattern in Panipat

Partibha Districtand Salesh Kalkal Research Scholar, Department of Geography, M. D. University, Rohtak (Haryana) - 124001

Abstract : Agriculture is the mainstay of Indian economy as around 60 per cent of its population dependent on agriculture for their livelihood and employment. In last few decades lower availability of irrigation facility has made rainfed agriculture a gamble of Indian monsoon. An uncertainty in rainfall is having serious repercussions on the quality (Yield) and quantity (production) aspect of Indian agriculture. Since, land is finite and its supply cannot be raised after a certain limit, therefore to increase production in order to meet the growing demand for food of ever growing population of India, timely and assured supply of agricultural input is the need of hour. Agricultural production can be increased by bringing in newer area under plough or by making agriculture technologically sound. In terms of technological up-gradation the state of Haryana in particular and in general has remained core of Green Revolution. Assured irrigation, supply of HYV seeds along with other technological inputs such as machineries, fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides made Indian agricultural self sufficient in food production. Panipat district the study area for present study is blessed with ample irrigational facilities i.e. surface and groundwater. The major crops of the district are wheat, rice, sugarcane, and fodder. So present paper is an attempt to identify changes in irrigational facilities and how it has brought many and far reaching changes in agriculture of the region and worth mentioning is the changes in cropping pattern. In the present study, secondary data has been used. Change in the cropping pattern due to irrigation development is estimated by regression analysis (SPSS). The area under wheat crop is very high whereas fodder crop is very low. This analysis shows that wheat and sugarcane has positive relation with surface THEand KOKAN GEOGRAPHER groundwater irrigation. But rice and fodder crops have declining trends with the sources of irrigation. Introduction : Agriculture is the mainstay of Indian economy with more than 60 per cent of the population depending on it for livelihood and employment. Rainfed agriculture has become a gamble with uncertainty in rainfall and thus affecting production. Since, the arable land cannot be stretched it becomes essential to increase the production to meet the demand for food due to growing population. Agricultural production can be increased through various inputs like improved seeds, use of fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides and irrigation facilities. Indian government felt the need for irrigation projects as water is one of the most precious and finite agricultural input. India is fortunate that its soil and climate permit year-round agriculture practices. It is estimated that irrigation has contributed about 60 per cent to the growth in agriculture productivity. Irrigation has become a prerequisite for raising second and third crop in a year and influences the cropping pattern. In the irrigated area, switching over to commercial crop from the traditional food crops has taken place all over the country. India with its agro – based economy, largely depend on monsoon rainfall for its economic development. The availability of irrigation facilities determines the success of agricultural development. Thus, irrigation forms important component of current strategy meant for boosting agricultural production. The percentage of net area irrigated to net area shown in Haryana is 76.2 per cent second largest after Punjab in the country. The development of irrigation in Haryana is a remarkable achievement indeed yet the State is still facing the problem of uneven spatial distribution of irrigation. Study Area : Panipat district is situated in the east central part of Haryana State. Administratively, the district is sub-divided into five development blocks namely, Panipat, Bapoli, Samalkha, Madlauda, and Israna. Physiographically, the district is characterized by two distinct features namely, vast upland plain and the flood plain. The major crops of the district are rice, wheat, sugarcane and vegetables. Pulses and oilseeds are still the minor crops. Rice-wheat cropping system dominates the crop matrix. This part of the State was at the forefront of Green Revolution sweeping the State from the traditional to commercial farming. Soils and climate are suitable for various crops in the district. The crops distribution corresponds with the spatial distribution of physical and non – physical variables. Net area sown in the district 97 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 18

contributes nearly 71 per cent of the total area. The area sown more than once is 93,000 hectares bringing the total cropped area (gross area sown) to 186,000 hectares. Paddy is the main kharif crop and wheat is the main crop in rabi season. The introduction of paddy is associated with the significant developmental of tubewells irrigation during the early seventies. Almost the entire production of rice goes to the national pool. Therefore, due to the good supply of water wheat and rice are grown in all the parts during kharif and rabi seasons. Present Dependency in Irrigation Despite of large investments in irrigation in the past, only about 40 per cent of the agricultural area is irrigated in India. The progress on this front has slowed down considerably in recent year, particularly in terms of major and medium irrigated projects. In Haryana, irrigation is important for agriculture. Increase in other inputs like pesticides and chemical fertilizers, use of improved seeds and production of high yielding varieties are also related with the availability of irrigation facilities in the area. Irrigation is not only indispensable for agriculture; it also plays a dominant role in agriculture. In the State, agriculture production is raised by irrigation facility. In the present days also, irrigation development plays a key role in increasing agriculture production in Panipat district during the kharif and rabi seasons. In the district, irrigation is dominant factor for agriculture development. In the both seasons the crops completely depends upon irrigation. During the period of 1990-92, irrigated percentage to net area sown in Panipat district was nearly 80 per cent. During the period of 1999-2002 irrigated percentages to net area sown increased above 80 per cent. During the period of 2008-2010 irrigated percentage to net area sown in Panipat district was nearly 100 per cent. Therefore, the crops of rabi and kharif seasons are totally depend on irrigation sources. The dependency upon irrigation is 100 per cent in the district. Changing Trends in Irrigation Sources In the district, the development of irrigation has a remarkable impact on agricultural production. In the Panipat district crops are to be watered by both type of irrigation sources i.e. groundwater and surface water in both the seasons i.e. kharif and rabi. As far as crops of kharif season under groundwater irrigation are concerned, the groundwater irrigation goes on increasing every year. That is the main reason for the decline of water table depth in this district, it is observed that in the year 1990-1991 area under groundwater irrigation during kharif season is 62,000 hectare, which is the highest area till 2010. And in this span the irrigation through groundwater sources is not significant and in 2009-2010 it declined up to 50,000 hectares, which shows that the groundwater THE irrigation KOKAN GEOGRAPHER is declining. On the other hand area under surface irrigation during kharif season has more shares in irrigated area than groundwater irrigation. In the year 1990-1991 the area is approximately, 10,000 hectare under surface irrigation which increased to 17,000 hectare during 2009-2010. It shows that the surface water irrigation has more significant role to play than the groundwater irrigation in the agricultural practices of this district. Table 1: Panipat: Area under Irrigation (area in per cent) in Various Blocks. Sr. Surface Irrigation Groundwater Irrigation Name of Blocks No. 1990-91 2009-10 Change 1990-91 2009-10 Change 1 Bapoli - - - 100 100 - 2 Samalkha 26.83 36.11 9.28 73.16 63.88 -9.28 3 Israna 36.42 47.32 10.90 63.57 52.67 -10.90 4 Panipat 4.29 7.13 2.84 95.72 92.86 -2.84 5 Madlauda 38.96 51.04 12.08 61.03 48.95 -12.08 Source: Irrigation Department of Panipat Figure: 1 Figure: 2

PANIPAT AREA UNDER SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER IRRIGATION (2009-10)

Surf… AREA PERCENT AREA IN BLOCKS

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The percentage of area irrigated by surface water irrigation in the different block in 1990-91 Israna, Madlaunda, Panipat, Samalkha is 36.42 per cent, 38.96 per cent, 4.29 per cent, 26.83 per cent respectively. During 1990 -91, area irrigated by groundwater was 10800 hectares. This area was share by different blocks like Bapoli, Israna, Madlauda, Panipat and Samalkha. The highest area under tubewell irrigation was in Bapoli block i.e. 26996 hectares and which constituted 100 per cent of total irrigated by tubewells. The lowest irrigated area through tubewell was in block Madlauda i.e. 23497 hectares which was nearly 61.03 per cent. It is clear from the table that block Madlauda has highest irrigated area under surface irrigation and Panipat has the lowest irrigated area. During 2009-10 area under surface irrigation was 34900 hectare and this area was approximately 32 per cent of the total irrigated area in the district. The percentage share of the different blocks namely, Israna (47.32 per cent), Madlauda (51.04 per cent), Panipat (7.13 per cent), and Samalkha (36.11 per cent). During the 2009-10 the total area irrigated by groundwater was 70000 hectares which constituted 30 per cent of the total irrigated area. Again, Bapoli was the first ranking block and Madlauda was the lowest ranking block in terms of tubewells irrigated area. Bapoli constituted 100 per cent area and Madlauda 48.95 per cent area irrigated by groundwater. It is observed that during 1990-91 to 2010-11 all the administration blocks experienced some change in surface water and groundwater irrigation. It is found that some blocks experienced highly increase in the surface irrigation and groundwater irrigation experienced decline in all blocks. Figure: 3 PANIPAT CHANGE IN AREA UNDER SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER IRRIGATION (1990-91-2009-10)

Surface…

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER AREA AREA PER IN CENT

Figure: 4 Figure: 5

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Purpose : This paper has one significant purpose : To find out change in cropping pattern due to irrigation development. Methodology : The related data obtained from statistical abstracts of various years of Haryana State, Handbook on Irrigation Statistics and Irrigation department of Punchkula (Haryana). The time span for the study is from 1990 to 2012. The year 1990 is taken as the base year as this district is carved out during this year from the Karnal district. The study is based on secondary data received from the published, Government Reports, Bulletins and Journals. As the agriculture is such a phenomena which does not remain static each year, in monsoon the rainfall conditions may not be uniform throughout, therefore, the data on agricultural and irrigational pursuits have been taken for two consecutive years i.e. 1990-91 to 2009-10. A change in the cropping pattern due to irrigation development is estimated by Regression Analysis (SPSS).Changes in agricultural pattern and irrigation development since 1990 have been calculated. Analysis of Result Irrigation is the artificial application of water, with good economic return and no damage to land and soil, to supplement the natural sources of water to meet the water requirement of crops. Crops receive water from natural sources in forms of precipitation, other atmospheric water, groundwater and flood water. Since the amount, frequency and distribution of precipitation which is the principal source of water for crops are unpredictable may be insufficient and untimely, and the groundwater may be too deep in the soil profile, irrigation becomes necessary for successful crop growing. Irrigation should however be profitable and applied in times of crop need and in proper amount, the excess or under irrigation may damage lands and crops. Table 2: Bivariate Regression for the effect of Surface Water Irrigation on Wheat Crop. Sr. No. Variable B SE B Beta (B) T Sig T 1 Surface 1.646113 .642052 .828629 2.564 .0829 2 (constant) .90429 .045035 2.008 .1383 2 R = .68663, Correlation coefficient= .828629 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Equation of the fitted Model is = Y= a+bx Y= .090429+1.646113x The correlation co-efficient is .828. This value of ‗r‘ suggests a high positive correlation. Since the value is positive and lies between 0 and 1, it is consistent with the diagram obtained below. Therefore, we see a positive relationship between surface irrigation and wheat crop. It proves that as the surface irrigation increases the wheat crop also increases accordingly. Figure 6 : Regression Analysis of Wheat Crop and Surface Water Irrigation.

Table 3: Bivariate Regression for the effect of Surface Irrigation on Rice Crop. Sr. No. Variable B SEB Beta (B) T Sig T 1 Surface -2.491957 .805880 -.872457 -3.092 .0536 2 (constant) -.133646 .056527 2.364 .0990 R2 = .76118, Correlation coefficient= -.872457 Equation of the fitted Model is = Y= a+bx Y= -.133646-2.491957x

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The correlation co-efficient is -.872. This value of ‗r‘ suggests a strong negative linear correlation. Since the value is negative and close to 1 so the above value of ‗r‘ suggest a strong negative linear correlation. The data are clustered closely to negative slopping regression line. This is consistent with the graph obtained below. Therefore, we see a strong negative linear relationship between surface irrigation and rice crop. Figure 7: Regression Analysis of Rice Crop and Surface Water Irrigation.

Table 4: Bivariate Regression for the effect of Surface Irrigation on Sugarcane Crop. Sr.No. Variable B SEB Beta (B) T Sig T 1 Surface 1.257373 2.872366 .245030 .438 .6912 2 (constant) .273324 .201476 1.357 .2680 R2 = .6004, Correlation coefficient= .245030 Equation of the fitted Model is = Y= a+bx Y= .273324+1.257373x The correlation co-efficient is .245. This value of ‗r‘ suggests a positive correlation. Since the value is positive and lies between 0 and 1, it is consistent with the diagramTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER obtained below. Therefore, we see a positive relationship between surface irrigation and sugarcane crop and it proves that as the surface irrigation increases the area increases more under sugarcane crop. Figure 8: Regression Analysis of Sugarcane Crop and Surface Water Irrigation.

Table 5 : Bivariate Regression for the effect of Surface Irrigation on Fodder Crops. Sr.No. Variable B SEB Beta (B) T Sig T 1 Surface -4.215818 1.523022 -.847721 -2.768 .0697 2 (constant) -.225496 .106829 -2.111 .1253 R2 = .71863, Correlation coefficient= -.847721 Equation of the fitted Model is = Y= a+bx Y= -.225496-4.215818x The correlation co-efficient is -.847. This value of ‗r‘ suggests a strong negative linear correlation. Since the value is negative and close to 1 so the above value of ‗r‘ suggest a strong negative linear correlation. The data are clustered closely to negative slopping regression line. This is consistent with the graph obtained below. Therefore, we see a strong negative linear relationship between surface irrigation and fodder crops.

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Figure 9: Regression Analysis of Fodder Crops and Surface Water Irrigation.

Table 6: Bivariate Regression for the effect of Groundwater Irrigation on Wheat Crop. Sr. No. Variable B SEB Beta (B) T Sig T 1 Groundwater .558148 .521125 .525937 1.071 .3627 2 (constant) -.003210 .056848 -.056 .9585 R2 = .27661, Correlation coefficient= .525 Equation of the fitted Model is = Y= a+bx Y= -.003210+.558148x The correlation co-efficient is .525. This value of ‗r‘ suggests a positive correlation. Since the value is positive and lies between 0 and 1, it is consistent with the diagram obtained below. Therefore, we see a positive relationship between groundwater irrigation and wheat crop and it proves that as the groundwater irrigation increases the area of wheat crop also increases in the same proportion.

Figure 10: Regression Analysis of WheatTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Crop and Groundwater Irrigation.

Table 7: Bivariate Regression for the effect of Groundwater Irrigation on Rice Crop. Sr.No. Variable B SEB Beta (B) T Sig T 1 Groundwater -.909334 .707423 -.595951 -1.285 .2889 2 (constant) .010555 .077171 .137 .8999 R2 = .35516, Correlation coefficient= -.595951 Equation of the fitted Model is = Y= a+bx Y= .010555-.909334x The correlation co-efficient is -.595. This value of ‗r‘ suggests a negative linear correlation. Since the value is negative and close to 1 so the above value of ‗r‘ suggest a strong negative linear correlation. The data are clustered closely to negative slopping regression line. This is consistent with the graph obtained below. Therefore, we see a negative linear relationship between groundwater irrigation and rice crop.

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Figure 11: Regression Analysis of Rice Crop and Groundwater Irrigation.

Table 8: Bivariate Regression for effect of the Groundwater Irrigation on Sugarcane Crop. Sr. No. Variable B SEB Beta (B) T Sig T 1 Groundwater 1.147284 1.437435 .418513 .798 .4831 2 (constant) .174403 .156806 1.112 .3471 R2 = .17515, Correlation coefficient= .418513 Equation of the fitted Model is = Y= a+bx Y=.174403+1.147284x The correlation co-efficient is .418513. This value of ‗r‘ suggests a positive correlation. Since the value is positive and lies between 0 and 1, it is consistent with the diagram obtained below. Therefore, we see a positive relationship between groundwater irrigation and sugarcane crop. Figure 12: Regression Analysis of Sugarcane Crop and Groundwater Irrigation.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Table 9 : Bivariate Regression for the effect of the Groundwater Irrigation on Fodder Crops. Sr. No. Variable B SEB Beta (B) T Sig T 1 Groundwater -1.652640 1.200962 -.622061 -1.376 .2625 2 (constant) .22800 .131010 .174 .8729 R2 = .38696, Correlation coefficient= -.622061 Equation of the fitted Model is = Y= a+bx Y= .22800-1.652640x The correlation co-efficient is -.622. This value of ‗r‘ suggests a strong negative linear correlation. Since the value is negative and close to 1 so the above value of ‗r‘ suggest a strong negative linear correlation. This is consistent with the graph obtained below. Therefore, we see a negative linear relationship between groundwater irrigation and fodder crops.

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Figure 13: Regression Analysis of Fodder Crops and Groundwater Irrigation.

Conclusions : Irrigation is playing an important role in the study area. Wheat and sugarcane crops are positively related to the modes of irrigation (surface and groundwater). On the other hand, there is negative relationship between rice and fodder crops with irrigation. It is being observed that farmers are shifting from intensive crops like rice and sugarcane to the less water intensive crops like wheat and sunflower. The reason of this shifting might be the sunking water table which is creating economical problems and the farmers in terms of increasing cost of tubewell installation in the forms of submersible tubewells. References : 1. Chaterjee, N. (1990), ―Impact of Irrigation on Cropping Intensity in West Bengal‖, Transactions, Institute of Indian Geographers, Vol.12, No.2, pp.111-120. 2. Dhawan, B. D. (1989), “Studies in Irrigation and Water Management”, Common Wealth, New Delhi. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 3. Gupta, S. L. (1977) ―The Geography of Irrigation in Haryana‖, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 32, No.1, pp. 29-40. 4. Jeet, I. (2005) “Ground Water Resources of Indian Occurrence, Utilization and Management”, Mittal Publicatios New Delhi. 5. Jeet, I. (2001), “Water Resource Management” Manisha Publications, New Delhi. 6. Singh, J. (1976), “An Agricultural Geography of Haryana”, Vishal Publications, Kurukshetra. 7. Vaidyanathan, A. (1987) “Irrigation and Agricultural Growth”, Indian Institute of Agriculture Economics, Vol.42, No. 4, pp. 503-527.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Regional Disparity in Availability of Electricity in India

Parveen Kumar Assistant Professor of Geography, Govt. College for Women, Bawani Khera

Abstract : Energy is one of the basic needs of human being. It has been universally recognized as one of the most important inputs for economic growth and human development. There is a strong two-way relationship between socio- economic development and energy consumption. Electricity consumption has been considered as one of the most suitable indicator of economic welfare and improved productivity for both individuals as well as businesses. The economic development of a country significantly depends on the long-term availability of energy from sources that are affordable, accessible and environmentally friendly. The adverse effects on environment caused by the production and consumption of energy have resulted in severe environmental impacts across the globe. The supply of energy is expected to remain adequate in coming years. However, the energy consumption imbalance is prevalent around the world. The consumption of energy is high in most developed countries. On the other hand, the developing countries need to consume more energy to ensure economic growth. The energy consumption in developing countries is estimated to be only one-tenth of that in the developed countries. The economic development of every country depends on the ―energy production‖. Over a few decades the energy demand in India has been growing at a very rapid rate. In the forth coming years the trends in population growth, industrialization, urbanization, growth in national income and energy consumption is expected to increase substantially. Nearly 98% electrification in India are electrified but only 67% of households have electricity connections. This paper attempts to study the historical pattern of energy consumption, and examine inter states regional disparity in availability of electricity. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Keywords : Electricity consumption, Regional disparity, State, India, World Introduction : Electricity is considered as a necessary household infrastructure and has a bearing on the quality of life of individuals in the household. The International Energy Agency (IEA 2011) gives the following universal definition of the term ―energy access‖: ―a household having reliable and affordable access to clean cooking facilities, a first connection to electricity and then an increasing level of electricity consumption overtime to reach the regional average.‖ Despite the widespread acceptance of the importance of energy services, billions of people in the developing world do not have access to electricity facility. For every 10 people, 4 lack access to electricity. More than 1.3 billion people (42 % in South Asia and 40 % in sub Saharan Africa) in the world do not have access to electricity, while 2.7 billion do not have access to clean cooking energies according to IEA. With almost 40% of the global population still lacking access to clean cooking energies, the challenge is daunting. Further, energy access is predominantly a rural problem. Out of1.3 billion, 1.1 billion (or 85%) lacking electricity access are in rural areas. Similarly, out of 2.7 billion, more than 2.2 billion (or 81%) lacking clean cooking energy access reside in rural areas [IEA 2011]. More than 95%of these people are either in sub-Saharan Africa or developing Asia, and84% are in rural areas. [Meghan 2012]The UN Advisory Group on Energy and Climate Change (UNAGECC, 2010) calls on the United Nations system and its member states to commit themselves to two complementary goals: 1) Ensure universal access to modern energy services by 2030. The global community should aim to provide access for the 2-3 billion people excluded from modern energy services, to a basic minimum threshold of modern energy services for both consumption and productive uses. 2) Reduce global energy intensity by 40 percent by 2030 [Blenkinsopp 2013].

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Population without ElectricitySectorwise Energy Consumption Pattern (%)

Region In million Sectors International Level National level Asia 512 Domestic 13.9 28 India 244 Industry 51.7 29 Sub Saharan Africa 632 Transport 26.6 30 Latin America 22 Commercial 7.8 8

Developing Countries 1185 Others 0 5 Global 1186

Source: IEA, W E Outlook 2016 Source: World Energy Outlook 2014 There is a clear relationship between poverty and access to electricity. Poverty levels increase the more remote and inaccessible the communities are, while costs for electrification increase due to transport and maintenance. Literature and practical experiences show that improved access to energy services is one of the main steps to the fulfillment of the millennium development goals [Alex Zhand 2009]. World Electricity Consumption/Per Capita Electricity Average power per Rank Country consumption Source capita (wattsper

(MW·h/yr) person)

1 Iceland 16,480,000 CIA 5837

2 Norway 119,500,000 CIA 2603

3 Canada 570,800,000 CIA 2185

4 United States 4,986,400,000 US DoE 1843

5 Finland 83,090,000 CIA 1747

6 Kuwait 42,580,000 CIA 1723

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 7 Australia 229,600,000 CIA 1610

8 Sweden 130,500,000 CIA 1576

9 Qatar 18,790,000 CIA 1525

10 Denmark 32,070,000 CIA 1343 54 World 25,320,360,620 385 72 India 983,823,000 MOSPI [5] 152 1 MW·h/yr = 1,000,000 Wh/(365.25 x 24)h = 114.077116 Watt Source: "COUNTRY COMPARISON:: ELECTRICITY - CONSUMPTION". CIA(The World Factbook (ISSN 1553-8133; also known as the CIA World Factbook). 2013 edgarfeo. Retrieved November 2014. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)

Almost universally, communities with no access to modern energy services identify lighting, cooking, heating and clean drinking water as their main needs for improved living conditions. Lighting, for brighter and cleaner indoor conditions, for reading, studying and socializing usually ranks at the top of the wish list of people without access to electric light. In the view of the poorest of the poor, living in remote mountain communities, electricity, even for minimal lighting services, is one of the most desired energy services. The lack of access to energy services in rural communities in developing countries restricts educational opportunities, leads to negative public health and environmental impacts, and inhibits economic growth. Inadequate access to sustainable forms of energy in developing countries has devastating public health and environmental effects and threatens global energy security. Sustainable provision of energy services to rural communities can alleviate these negative impacts, and encourage development and education. [Meghan 2012]. Developing countries need to expand access to reliable and modern energy services if they are to reduce poverty and improve the health of their citizens, while at the same time increasing productivity, enhancing competitiveness and promoting economic growth. Energy is one of the basic needs of mankind. The economic development of a country significantly depends on the long-term availability of energy from sources that are affordable, accessible and environmentally friendly. The adverse effects on environment caused by the production and consumption of energy have resulted in severe environmental impacts across the globe. The supply of energy is expected to remain adequate in coming years. 106 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 18

However, the energy consumption imbalance is prevalent around the world. The consumption of energy is high in most developed countries. On the other hand, the developing countries need to consume more energy to ensure economic growth. The energy consumption in developing countries is estimated to be only one-tenth of that in the developed countries. The economic development of every country depends on the ―energy production‖. Energy is at the heart of most critical economic, environmental and developmental issues facing the world today. Clean, efficient, affordable and reliable energy services are indispensable for global prosperity. Several local and global factors, including climate change, population increase and future energy security are the driving factors to the desire for universal access to renewable energy technologies. Social attitudes and lack of knowledge and awareness are major challenges to overcome, to successfully introduce low carbon technologies as a sustainable alternative to more traditional means of energy provision. Energy is a fundamental and strategic tool even to attain the minimum quality of life. Sustainable development of a region depends critically on the health of renewable resources like soil, water, vegetation, livestock and genetic diversity. The integrated development of all these components is essential for environmentally sound development. The procurement of energy is also responsible in varying degrees for the ongoing deforestation, and loss of vegetation and top soil. While energy availability is a determining factor for agricultural productivity, traditional use of agricultural residues for energy production leads to soil impoverishment. The currently incident energy use in various sectors is certainly responsible for detrimental impacts on the environment. Hence, sound policy and management decisions must involve three elements: economics, environment and energy, which must be considered in the search for ways to improve current energy supplies. This necessitates promotion of conservation activities among local communities and application of traditional environmentally sound technologies. Economic welfare in a country is conditioned on the political participation of, safety and availability of economic opportunities for the poor. Access to electricity enables each of these fundamental rights. That is, access to electricity is essential for eradicating poverty and per capita electricity consumption could be the most relevant indicator of economic welfare (Joyeux and Ripple, 2007). There is a large literature examining the causal relationship between per capita electricity consumption and per capita income. The direction of causality differs from country to country and depends on the methodology used. In a recent study of more than 100 countries, Chontanawar et al. (2008) observe a causal relationship more often going from energy to GDR However,THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER the evidences are not conclusive and the direction of causality has implications in the design and implementation of electricity policy (Chen et al., 2007). Data : The objective of this paper is to examine the historical pattern of energy consumption and inter states regional disparity in availability of electricity in India. The required information comes from mainly three sources: Data net Pvt. Ltd.'s website www.indiastat.com and Census of India's website www.censusindia.gov.in. and Central Electricity Authority (CEA), IEA World Energy Outlook. Household‘s electricity data for all the states taken from census of India 2011.Seven union territories small in terms of population from rest of the country, therefore not considered in the study.Telangana state created in 2014 is considered of their respective mother state Andhra Pradesh. Data on total electricity consumption is taken from the Indiastat website, which sum of electricity consumption by different consumer sectors of the state like domestic users, commercial users, public lighting etc. The per capita electricity consumption measured in kwh is derived by dividing the total consumption by total population state. Energy Production in India : India’s Energy Production, 1970-71 to 2011-12 The energy mix of India is coal dominant. Around half of the primary commercial energy production depends on coal and lignite. The below figures shows source wise percentage production and consumption of energy in India since 1970-71. India‘s energy production data shows that around 50% of the country‘s energy production is dominated by coal. The second major source of energy is electricity from hydro and nuclear followed by crude oil and natural gas. During 2011-12, around 19.9 percent of total energy production is from coal, 57.6 per cent from hydro and nuclear electricity, 3.8 percent from natural gas and around 18.7 percent from crude petroleum. Source : Energy Statistics, 2013, CSO, Govt. of India. 107 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 18

Since 1970-71 the energy consumption pattern of India shows an inverse pattern to the production. More than half of the energy consumption is from hydro and nuclear electricity followed by coal, crude petroleum and natural gas. Energy Consumption Pattern in India : Among the largest energy consumers of the world, India stands fifth. According to the US Energy Information Administration data, India accounts around 4.05 percent of the world‘s total energy consumption. Its total primary energy demand was 595 Mtoe in 2007 and the projected demand for 2030 was 1287 Mtoe which shows this value is more than double in 2007. Its primary commercial energy consumption in 2008 stood at 19.954 quadrillion Btus and involved coal, oil, gas, and electricity generated from nuclear, hydroelectric, and renewable sources. India‘s commercial energy consumption is expected to be more than double, i.e. 833mtoe in 2030. These figures do not even include the energy that is consumed from traditional sources by 66 percent of Indian households. Estimates of energy use from traditional sources tend to be approximate, but figures indicate that in 2002, 184 mtoe of energy came from such sources as fuel wood, dung, crop residue, biogas, and waste (while 354 Mtoe came from the sources mentioned above). This use is expected to grow to 215 Mtoe by 2030, though as a percentage of the total primary energy consumption, its share will drop from 34 percent to 21 percent. Per capita electricity consumption in India is very low, not only in comparison to developed countries but also in comparison to her counterpart developing countries like China. In 2013, the per capita electricity consumption in India was low as 917 Kilowatt hours (kwh), whereas it was 15145 kwh in Canada and 13361 kwh in USA. In China, the per capita in the consumption in 2013 is 2945kwh. The disparities in consumption of electricity are not confined between countries; within countries the disparities are much prevalent. In India, per capita electricity consumption is 133 kwh in the state of Bihar and 2025 kwh in Goa.(Kumar,2014) Energy Consumption Pattern– India (1970-2012)

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Source : Energy Statistics, 2013, CSO, Govt. of India. Per capita primary energy consumption is still low in the country, i.e 17.0 million Btus (0.429Mtoe) which is less than a third the world average India‘s energy intensity, however, is still high. This is particularly true of its oil intensity, which in 2004 was double the world average. The industrial sector in India is the major energy consumers accounting for about 52 percent of commercial energy Percentage share of consumption. Per capita energy consumption Households by Source of in India is one of the lowest in the world. But, energy intensity, which is energy consumption Lighting in India:2011 per unit of GDP, is comparable to other 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.5 developed and developing countries. 31.4 From the above graph, it was found 67.3 that the per capita energy consumption in India increases steadily. During 1970-71 the per capita was around 1204.39 KWHr and Electricity Kerosene Solar energy increased to 4646.87 KWHr in 2009-2010.

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The energy consumption per capita increased around 2.85-fold (3442.48 KWHr) during the last four decades. The energy intensity was 0.1284 KWHr / Rs during 1970-71 and it increased to 0.1653 KWHr / Rs during 1985-86. There after it decreases to 0.1224 KWHr / Rs during 2009-10. It was noticed that since independence the energy consumption pattern of India has changed. It has increased many folds thus to meet this energy demand the country has tried to harness energy from natural resources including wood, coal, natural gas, hydro, wind, solar etc. Industrialization and technological innovation has led to the over exploitation of natural resources. As people are interested in a high standard of living the energy consumption pattern has increased. The per capita energy consumption in India is one of the lowest compared to world average and it ranks poorly in terms of energy efficiency. Most of the energy generation is based on coal which is again a big contributor towards the greenhouse gas emissions. Electricity is considered as a necessary household infrastructure and has a bearing on the quality of life of individuals in the household. The availability of Electricity facility among Indian households, both in rural and urban areas, for the years 2011 will be discussed here. According to the 2011 census, at the national level, two-thirds (67.2 per cent) of households have access to an Electricity facility with a reasonable rural–urban (55.3 per cent and 92.7 per cent) divide. However, a state-wise analysis indicates a wide variation in terms of access to Electricity. This disparity is largely borne by rural residents. In all the states, except Bihar (66.7 per cent), the proportion of urban households having access to Electricity facility exceeds 80 per cent. In 14 states, the proportion of urban households having access to Electricity facility was more than 90 per cent. Going by Table there has been a considerable improvement in access to Electricity in rural India also during 2001–11. For rural areas, it increased from 43.5 per cent to 55.3 per cent, and for urban areas, from 87.6 per cent to 92.7 per cent. Regarding the differences across the states, it appears that the progress is not uniform across India. The states of Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Gujarat registered better progress during 2001–11 to accomplish coverage of 80 per cent. At the same time, the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and J&K, with more than 80 per cent coverage, do not register significant progress during 2001–11, which could be due to their already better coverage levels. In terms of a percentage point increment, the states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West

Bengal, Rajasthan and Assam also have registered considerableTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER improvements during the decade, but are yet to attain comparable levels of coverage with other states. All these states, except Chhattisgarh (70 per cent) and Rajasthan (58.3 per cent), have less than 40 per cent accessibility to electricity. It is the two most populous states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar which present a very disappointing picture. Both have registered only a marginal improvement in access to electricity facility and remain at the Availability of Households lowest level of accessibility: 23.8 per 9797 93 92 9794 93 85 8791 84 9084 91 cent (Uttar Pradesh) and 10.4 per cent 100 82 75 Electricity67 in66 India:68 68 201167 (Bihar) in 2011. In addition to this 80 61 55 46 misery, Madhya Pradesh, another 60 37 37 43 populous state, registered a decline 40 16 during the 2001–11 decade, by 4 20 0 percentage points. The observations of these populous states, with their gross disadvantage in electricity, indicate the disparity of deprivation across regions.

Conclusions and Future Scenario : Increasing pressure of population and increasing use of energy in different sectors of the economy is an area of concern for India. With a targeted GDP growth rate of 8 percent during the last Five-year Plan, the energy demand is expected to grow at 5.2 percent. Driven by the rising population, expanding economy, and a quest for improved quality of life, the International Energy Outlook projects India‘s gas consumption to grow at an average annual rate of 5.1 percent, thereby reaching 2.8 trillion cubic feet by 2025 with the share of electric power sector being of 71 percent by that time. Coal consumption is expected to increase to 315 MT over the forecast period. In India, slightly less than 60 percent of the projected growth in coal consumption is attributed to the increased demand of coal in the electricity sector while the industrial sector accounts for most of the remaining increase. The use of coal for electricity generation in India is

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expected to increase by 2.2 percent per annum during 2002–25, thus requiring an additional 59 000 MW of coal-fired capacity. Oil demand in India is expected to increase by 3.5 percent per annum during the same time. (Kumar,V M 2016) It is quite apparent that coal will continue to be the predominant form of energy in future. However, imports of petroleum and gas would continue to increase substantially in absolute terms, involving a large energy import bill. There is, therefore, an urgent need to conserve energy and reduce energy requirements by demand-side management and by adopting more efficient technologies in all sectors. Major problem of Indian power sector: Inadequate power generation capacity, Lack of optimum utilization of the existing generation capacity, Inadequate inter-regional transmission links , Inadequate and ageing sub-transmission & distribution network, High T&D losses, large scale theft and skewed tariff structure, Slow pace of rural electrification, Inefficient use of electricity by end consumer, Lack of grid discipline. We should solve these problems for proper power supply Energy is needed for economic growth, for improving the quality of life and for increasing opportunities for development. The direct impact of energy consumption on influence the economic growth of our country, besides it also examined the influence of various forms of energy consumption growth on growth of private consumption and private investment as different components of GDP growth. The study could suggest for reducing oil and natural gas consumption especially in the consumption sectors of the economy, for achieving higher economic growth as these sources are not contributory to economic growth rather the consumption of these could be growth driven, which may have adverse impact on the balance of payment position of the economy in the future. REFERENCES : 1. Alex Zahnd, Haddix McKay Kimber, Benefits from a renewable energy village electrification 2. system, Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 362–368 3. Blenkinsopp T.S., R. Coles, K. Kirwan, Renewable energy for rural communities in Maharashtra, 4. Chontanawat, J., Hunt, (2008), Does Energy Consumption Cause Economic Growth? Evidence from a Systematic Study of Over 100 Countries, Journal of Policy Modeling, Vol. 30, 209-220. 5. Expert Committee on Energy Policy, Draft Report of the Expert Committee on Integrated Energy PolicyIndia Energy Policy 60 (2013)192–199 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 6. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook, 2009 7. International Energy Agency (IEA), 2011. World Energy Outlook 2011. I. P. Khosla, ―Introduction,‖ in Energy and Diplomacy, edited by I. P. Khosla (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 2005). 8. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2004. 9. Kumar, Renjish and Vimala, M. (2016), ―Energy Consumption in India- Recent Trends‖ Asia Pacific Journal of Research Vol: 1 Issue XXXVI, Feb 2016. 10. Kumar, Surender(2014), ―Convergence in Electricity Consumption in India: A State Level Analysis‖ Indian Economic Review, Vol. XLIX, No. 2, 2014, pp. 173-192 11. Meghan Bailey, Justin Henriques, John Holmes, Ruchi Jain, Providing village-level energyservices in developing countries, Malaysian Commonwealth Studies Centre,(MCSC) October 2012. 12. Reji B, Shimi S.L and AnuSingla, ―Energy Elasticity of India: A Perspective Analysis‖, International conference on DEEM-2011at Chitkara University, Punjab, 22nd and 23rd July 2011. 13. UNAGECC- 2010: Energy for A Sustainable Future, The Secretary-General‘s Advisory 14. Group on Energy and Climate Change (AGECC) Summary Report and Recommendations 15. 28 April 2010 New York. 16. http://www.eia.gov/countries/countrydata.cfm?fip s= 17. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_count ries _by_energy_intensity 18. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_elast icity 19. http://planningcommission.nic.in/sectors/index. php?sectors=energy

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Depleting Natural Resources-A Threat to Sustainability

Dr. Pardeep Malik, Department of Geography, Pt. N.R.S. Government College, Rohtak Dr. Anju, Department of English, Pt. N.R.S. Government College, Rohtak

Abstract Earth‘s biosphere is endowed with extremely diverse kind of environment which provides all basic needs to the mankind. Any component of the natural environment that can be utilized by man for his welfare is considered as a natural resource. Natural resources are therefore used for supporting life and human requirement. For example, wood is used for making furniture; yarn obtained from cotton is used for making cloth. It is therefore, possible to obtain valuable items from resources. Some resources are directly available for use like air, forests, rivers, lakes, edible plants, etc. However, most of the resources such as oil, ground water and metals are not directly available. An appropriate technology is required to transform them into more valuable products. Natural resources have been exploited by human since time immemorial. Since the resources were abundant and human population was less, no significant depletion was observed. However, with the increase in human population and advancement in various technologies serious damage has been caused to the natural resources. Introduction : Humans are depleting the earth‘s resources at an ever-increasing rate. This is the sum of an ever-increasing global population multiplied by an ever-increasing level of consumption per person. More people on the planet leads to more: THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER  Sewerage and stock effluent  Fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides  Fossil fuels extracted and burned  Oil leaked and spilled  Land deforested and developed  Soil eroded and degraded  Minerals mined  Waste and toxic byproducts of manufacturing All of these things deplete or degrade the earth‘s natural resources. It is estimated that humanities‘ eco- footprint (a measure of consumption) is one and a half times the earth‘s ability to sustainably provide the resources to meet that level of consumption. That shortfall is being met through the depletion (or degradation) of natural capital – things like fresh water, soil, forest land, wetlands and biodiversity. Natural resources have been exploited by human since time immemorial. Since the resources were abundant and human population was less, no significant depletion was observed. However, with the increase in human population and advancement in various technologies serious damage has been caused to the natural resources. Resources are the materials present in the environment which help in fulfilling the needs of the human being and the objective of the society as well. ---- Encyclopaedia of Social Science. Types of Resources : Classification on the basis of renewability – Depending on the duration and availability of resources, it can be classified into three categories: a) Renewable b) Non-renewable c) cyclic Renewable resources – These types of resources are inexhaustible in nature. They can be regenerated after their utilization or are present in unlimited quantities on the earth and are unlikely to get diminished. Some of the examples are: forests, land, water, etc. 111 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 18

Non-renewable resources - These are exhaustible in nature as they are present in a very limited amount. Once used, these cannot be produced again as millions of years are required for their formation. For example, fossil fuels are non- renewable resources as their formation requires millions of years. Cyclic resources- These are the resources which can be used again and again in the same form or some other form. These resources are replenished and recycled by various natural processes. Water and sun are examples of cyclic resources which are used by man. Classification on the Basis of Origin – Depending upon their origin, resources can be classified into following two types: a) Biotic resources b) Abiotic resources Biotic resources: These are composed of living organic matter obtained from the biosphere. Forests, crops, birds, animals and marine life are some of the examples of biotic resources. Some of these resources are renewable like forests whereas others like coal and oil are non-renewable. Abiotic resources : These are composed of non-living inorganic matter. For example: land, sea, water, soil and some minerals like iron, copper, lead and gold. Classification on the basis of ownership rights - Resources are categorized into three types on the basis of their ownership : (i) National - These resources are confined within the boundaries of a nation (fossil fuels, lakes, forests, etc.). (ii) Multinational – These resources transcend the boundaries of a nation (Rivers like Ravi and Satluj). (iii) International – These are the resources which cannot be confined in any boundary (Air, Sunlight). The wealth and status of any country is decided by its natural resources. Therefore, the use of natural resources should be sustainable so that our future generation can also draw maximum benefits from them. Thus, the need of the hour is to understand the availability, importance and proper management of various natural resources.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER

Vol. No. 18, Oct.-Nov. 2017 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Urban Sprawl: A Critique for Sustainable Development of National

Capital Region (NCR Delhi) Anil Malik (Urban Planner- Architect)

Master of Planning (Urban Planning) – MNIT, Jaipur; Bachelor of Architecture – CRSCE, Murthal

ABSTRACT : Urban sprawl is a process of growth of urban area in an unplanned manner having no regard to social infrastructure, subsequent needs for transport, and other facilities & services. It represents an area which has mixed characteristics of rural and urban land uses. Decay of central areas, cheaper land values in the suburbs, weak administrative controls or fewer restrictions, increase income levels, speculative tendencies, upcoming of economic activities due to foreign investment, poor regional planning etc., are some of the reasons for urban sprawl in the cities. Even legislative provisions and administrative controls fall scanty to control urban sprawl leading to incompatible land uses, unauthorized & illegal constructions, lack of integrated development, lack of basic physical and social infrastructure etc. Planning for the area under sprawl is desperately needed in metropolitan cities and surrounding regions like National Capital Region surrounding NCT Delhi. With the rapid change in the world, urbanization has become a phenomenon that is both a requirement and a necessity. The world is on the brink of a survival crisis and in need of sustainable urban development with ideas from sustainable urban pattern of growth. A pattern of expansion that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that those needs can be met not only in present but also in indefinite future. With progressive development of countries and rapid urbanization of cities, urbanization has lead to issues which demand not just attention THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER preventive measures and a brainstormed, thoughtful planning. 1. INTRODUCTION : Unprecedented urbanization and migration result in multi-fold growth of urban areas. Hence, towns and cities witness land-use conversions along major roads and expansion in their immediate vicinity. Such developments outside of compact urban centres along highways and in rural countryside or surrounding green areas are called urban sprawl. Generally, they present unplanned and haphazard growth, decreasing agriculture land, costly physical infrastructure, no regard to social infrastructure, lack of overall integrated development, etc. Therefore, it becomes imperative to identify the issues for all around development of the city so that liveability conditions in the suburbs are better and cities are compactly developed. A clear understanding of the concept, characteristics, factors and effects of urban sprawl helps in suggesting planning and developmental strategies to develop the cities on sustainable basis. 2. URBAN SPRAWL : Urban sprawl is a multifaceted concept, which indicates spread of city outwards and to its suburbs. It is generally low density residential and commercial development, which is unplanned and presents unexpected expansion of development in natural areas. While defining urban sprawl K. Siddhartha [2000] stated that, it is ―the disconcertion of the urban activity. Urban sprawl is due to the expansion of the city beyond of its city boundary‖. Adding infrastructural dimension to urban sprawl S.K. Kulshrestha [2006] defines it as, ―a process of growth of urban area or suburban area in an unplanned manner having no regard to social infrastructure and subsequent needs for transport and other facilities and services‖. Thus, urban sprawl is basically a process of transformation of the surrounding rural areas into suburban or semi-urban areas as a result of spill over of population or expansion of the city beyond its city boundary or Municipal Corporation boundary, which is largely unplanned. Urban sprawl gets impetus from the market conditions or demand and supply factors. As if there is demand for housing that is not fulfilled by the city centre then people will move to the surrounding areas. Generally, private developers fulfill the demand of housing in these surrounding areas hence, sprawl is the result. Generally, sprawl witness low density or leapfrogged development, which presents sporadic or sparse pattern of spatial growth. As a result, it becomes difficult and costly for the municipal bodies to provide infrastructure in such type

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of developments. Therefore, these areas are usually devoid of municipal services, thus, leading to unhealthy living environment or unhygienic conditions. Thus, market driven forces result in dispersed low density development in the suburbs of the city having disconcerting urban activities and devoid of basic infrastructure required for habitation of human beings. Though urban sprawl is generally considered to be unplanned and devoid of basic amenities, but market forces and rapid urbanization lead to high spill-over from the municipal boundaries of the cities. Multiplicity of development agencies and other legal & environmental concerns also pave way for urban sprawl, especially in fast growing larger cities in NCR like Gurgaon, Faridabad, Noida, Gaziabad, Alwar, Rohtak, Sonipat, Meerut and Panipat etc. 3. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Sustainable development can better be defined as ―the level, a metropolitan city acquires once it is capable to fulfil the requirements of the today‘s generation without dumping the resources of future to meet their self – requirements‖. The main idea is that sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend. The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems. In this context, a sustainable region should possess the following characteristics-  Controlled population for whom efficient basic amenities are available.  Neighbourhood planning with adequate infrastructure like schools, parks, drainage system, local shopping centres & nearby source of employment.  An appropriate public transport system which reduces pollution and emission.  Effective environmental infrastructure taking care of the ecosystem and eco sensitive zones around & water bodies like rivers, canals, lakes and ponds etc.  Adequate governance setup which can meet the needs of the populace and ensures civic responsibilities, community participation, a sense of identity, transparency and equity in local institutions. 4. NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION (NCR DELHI) The origin of the NCR can be traced back to the recommendation of the first Master Plan for Delhi (1962). The

NCRPB was set up with the aim of reducing burden of rapidlyTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER increasing population in Delhi and responding effectively to the growing demand for greater space requirement owing to large-scale industrialization in the district. The NCR consists of the entire NCT Delhi; one district of Rajasthan; nine districts of Haryana and five districts of Uttar Pradesh with a population of over 460 Lacs in 2011. National Capital Region (NCR) is a unique example of interstate regional development planning for a region with NCT Delhi as its core. The National Capital Region as notified covers an area of about 34,144 sq km falling in the territorial jurisdictions of four State Governments namely, National Capital Territory of Delhi, Haryana, UP, and Rajasthan and constitutes about 1.60% of the country‘s land area. In 2011, NCT Delhi had the maximum population at 16787941 and Rajasthan sub-region had the minimum at 3674179. The maximum decadal growth in population in 2001-11 year was seen by Haryana sub-region at 26.99%, closely followed by Uttar Pradesh sub-region at 25.98% and Rajasthan sub-region at 22.78%. The minimum decadal growth in this period was seen by NCT Delhi region at 21.21%. As in 2011, NCT Delhi region had the biggest share of total NCR population by contributing 36.44%. Uttar Pradesh sub-region was not far behind at 31.64%. Haryana sub-region contributed 23.95% and Rajasthan sub-region, a minimal 7.98%.

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5. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR URBAN SPRAWL FORMATION IN NCR: 5.1 Increase in Population: Increasing population of the large urban areas is the basic or root cause of urban sprawl. Large number of migrants from the nearby smaller towns & other distant places of whole country come to Delhi in search of better employment opportunities and later settle there. Also, increasing foreign investment through multi-national companies (MNCs) in the NCR has resulted in increasing employment opportunities. This attracts a large number of migrants from the surrounding areas and adds up to urban sprawl. 5.2. Decaying Central Areas: With the increasing population the central areas started decaying and compelled the residents of the core areas to move outside the city for a better living environment. As the economic activities increase in the cities, most of the development happens to come up in or around their core areas. Hence, density of development increases in the central area and a mismatch with infrastructure occurs. Hence, central area becomes congested and environmentally poor. Therefore, at times some residents preferred to have dual housing, one paternal house and another in the suburbs. As these inhabitants are not able to enjoy the urban gadgets such as bigger car in the central areas, they tend to have their second house in the suburbs, which is bigger as well. 5.3. Higher Property and Business Taxes in the Cities: In the municipal limits of the capital city, the rate of property and business tax are very high. Therefore, to escape from these taxes people try to settle in the peripheral area where such taxes are not applicable, or if applicable then they are meager. Most of the times industrial and bigger commercial development come up in the agricultural lands beyond municipal limits. This, in turn, attracts residential development by the workers of these industries or shops. Hence, patchy development came up in the NCR having no regard to integrated urban / suburban development. 5.4. Increasing Buying Capacity: Increase in income of the urbanites also leads to urban sprawl. As more money comes to the people their wish to live in a bigger house or in a comparatively green and better environment increases. The congested environs of the city core compel the people to move to the outer areas leading to sprawl. Farm houses in the suburbs are contributing to urban sprawl of metropolitan cities Delhi. These farm houses also attract other lavish housing projects of the private colonizers to fulfill the wishes and requirements of environment conscious higher income families. 5.5. Housing Projects of Private Developers: The private developers do not get space in the interiors of the city because they generally required larger areas for their projects.THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Also, they are not interested in the lands in the core areas because of high land values. Private developers offer low prices for large spaces to occupy. Therefore, they move to the out skirts of the cities and add to urban sprawl in NCR like housing and township development projects came up on NH1, NH2, NH8 and NH10 etc. 5.6. Liberalization Policies of Government: Liberalization policies of government promoting the Special Economic Zones, IT Parks and other such large scale economic activities has led to increased demand for bigger space requirement for these activities. As the capital city is not able to provide required space for these activities, therefore, for fulfilling their requirements they moved to the surrounding areas and lead to sprawl on NH1, NH2, NH8 and NH10 etc. 5.7. Lack of Regional Planning Policy Framework: The municipal governments prefer to plan the areas under their jurisdictions and are least bothered about the overall regional planning. In case of NCR, concept of regional planning was lacking. If it was present at certain stage, then it was not efficient enough to control the unplanned growth. Lack of integrated regional planning approach to control and regulate urban and suburban development is the major reasons for urban sprawl in NCR. 6. PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF NCR  Efforts should be made to develop National Urbanization Policy which is based on achieving balanced urbanization to reveal balanced urban system instead of lopsided or clustered distribution of urban population as exists today.  Principle of decentralized distribution should be followed while bringing about urbanization policy. Counter urbanization measures should be suggested to check untoward migration to larger urban centres.  Development of Metro and Regional Centres as powerful growth nodes to attract major activities should be proposed.  Counter urban sprawl policies should be devised to check haphazard growth of urban settlements as a result of unauthorized developments.  Strict peri-urban area controls should be developed to bring planned and orderly development on the peripheries of the city.  Development authorities should be made accountable for uncontrolled growth and development of urban settlements. Regional development plans along with master plan for each & every city should be prepared.

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 Special corpus of funds should be created to improve the infrastructure in the shanty towns and its utilization should be ensured within the stipulated time. The local body responsible for the same should be made accountable.  Land Uses at the Regional level in terms of a harmonious pattern emerging from a careful examination of natural features including susceptibility to natural disasters and socio-economic activities.  Socio – economic development of the satellite cities around capital city should be encouraged to make them independent of each other to stop migration & commuter burden on capital city.  Regional transport linkages and Mass Commuter System and Construction of peripheral expressways and orbital rail corridor around Delhi should be developed.  Urban Planning and Development agencies need complete overhaul to meet the future urban requirements. Capacity building programmes should be implemented in each of them to attain the objectives of good governance.  Good collaboration among local government agencies and informal institutions shall further the cause of sustainable urban development. 7. CONCLUSION: Sustainable development of National Capital Region is critical due to formation of urban sprawl around it. Region is facing various types of challenges and issues, which if left unaddressed in no way be good for the future urbanites. Hence the nature and magnitude of the urban problems will keep on increasing, making the urban settlements in the region further unsustainable. In the present age of rapid urbanization urban sprawl is a reality and is liable to occur. The causes and issues associated with it, need careful consideration from the policy planners to work out pragmatic strategies to control and regulate the urban and suburban development. Regional planning approach for urban areas appears to be the best option to bring about planned and controlled development in the suburbs. Strict enforcement and control by the Development Authorities seems to be the key to check speculative tendencies and development on agricultural land. Sincere planning & development efforts, legal & institutional reforms, and financial mechanism should be introduced in the planning, development and management approaches to develop the future urban settlements on the principles of sustainable cities. REFERENCES :

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER  Kulshrestha, S. K., (2006), Dictionary of Urban and Regional Planning, Kalpaz Publications, New Delhi.  Sidhartha, K. and Mukherjee, (2000), Cities Urbanization and Urban Systems, Kisalaya Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.  Urban Sprawl - En.wikipedia.org/wiki/urban sprawl  Sustainable development - en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable development  Causes, Forms and Issues of Urban Sprawl; a research paper by Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma published in ITPI Journal.  ncrpb.nic.in/policies_strategies.php  ―Planning for the National Capital Region as a strategy for sustainable development of Delhi‖ by B. K. Sundar Ray, Member Secretary, National Capital Region Planning Board.  www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda.../9783642052989-c1.pdf?SGWID...

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