CompSci 356: Architectures

Lecture 8: Spanning Algorithm and Basic Internetworking Ch 3.1.5 & 3.2

Xiaowei Yang [email protected] Review

• Past lectures – Single link networks • Point-to-point, shared media – , token ring, wireless networks • Encoding, framing, error detection, reliability – Delay-bandwidth product, sliding window, exponential backoff, carrier sense collision detection, hidden/exposed terminals

– Packet switching: how to connect multiple links • Connectionless: Datagram • Connection-oriented: Virtual circuits • Source routing • Pros and cons • Ethernet switches Today

• Algorithm • Virtual LAN • New topic: how to connect different types of networks – E.g., how to connect an Ethernet and an ATM network Learning Bridges • Overall design goal: complete transparency • Plug-and-play • Self-configuring without hardware or software changes • Bridges should not impact operations of existing LANs

• Three parts to learning bridges: • (1) Forwarding of Frames • (2) Learning of Addresses • (3) Spanning Tree Algorithm (1) Frame Forwarding

• Assume a MAC frame arrives Port x onIs port MAC x. address of destination in forwarding Bridge 2 table? Port A Port C Port B

Not Found? found ?

Flood the frame, Forward the frame on the i.e., appropriate port send the frame on all ports except port x. Danger of Loops • Consider the two LANs that are connected by two bridges. • Assume host A is transmitting a frame F with a broadcast address LAN 2 What is happening? • Bridges A and B flood the frame to LAN 2. F F • Bridge B sees F on LAN 2, and updates the port mapping of Bridge A Bridge B MAC_A, and copies F F the frame back to LAN 1 • Bridge A does the same. LAN 1 • The copying continues Wheres the problem? Whats the F solution ?

host A Spanning Tree Algorithm • A solution is the spanning tree algorithm that prevents LAN 2

loops in the topology d – By Radia Perlman at DEC Bridge 3 Bridge 4

Bridge 1 LAN 5

Bridge 5

LAN 1

Bridge 2

LAN 3 LAN 4 Algorhyme (the spanning tree poem)

• I think that I shall never see A graph more lovely than a tree. A tree whose crucial property Is loop-free connectivity. A tree that must be sure to span So packets can reach every LAN. First, the root must be selected. By ID, it is elected. Least-cost paths from root are traced. In the tree, these paths are placed. A mesh is made by folks like me, Then bridges find a spanning tree.

• —Radia Perlman on spanning tree

• For any connected graph consisting of nodes and edges connecting pairs of nodes, a spanning tree of edges maintains the connectivity of the graph but contains no loops – n-s graph, n - 1 edges on a spanning tree – No redundancy The protocol

• IEEE 802.1d has an algorithm that organizes the bridges as spanning tree in a dynamic environment

• Bridges exchange messages to configure the bridge (Configuration Bridge Protocol Data Unit, Configuration BPDUs) to build the tree – Select ports they use to forward packets Configuration BPDUs

Set to 0 Set to 0 protocol identifier Destination Set to 0 MAC address version Source MAC message type lowest bit is "topology change bit (TC bit) address flags Cost of the path from the root ID ID of root bridge sending this Cost Configuration message to root bridge Message bridge ID port ID ID of bridge sending this message message age ID of port from which maximum age message is sent Time between hello time Time between BPDUs from the root time since root sent a forward delay recalculations of the (default: 1sec) message on spanning tree which this message is based (default: 15 secs) What do the BPDUs do?

• Elect a single bridge as the root bridge

• Calculate the distance of the shortest path to the root bridge

• Each bridge can determine a root port, the port that gives the best path to the root

• Each LAN can determine a designated bridge, which is the bridge closest to the root. A LAN's designated bridge is the only bridge allowed to forward frames to and from the LAN for which it is the designated bridge.

• A LAN's designated port is the port that connects it to the designated bridge

• Select ports to be included in the spanning tree. Terms • Each bridge has a unique identifier: Bridge ID Bridge ID = {Priority : 2 bytes; Bridge MAC address: 6 bytes} • Priority is configured • Bridge MAC address is the lowest MAC addresses of all ports

• Each port within a bridge has a unique identifier (port ID)

• Root Bridge: The bridge with the lowest identifier is the root of the spanning tree • Root Port: Each bridge has a root port which identifies the next hop from a bridge to the root Terms • Root Path Cost: For each bridge, the cost of the min-cost path to the root – Assume it is measured in #hops to the root

• Designated Bridge, Designated Port: Single bridge on a LAN that is closest to the root for this LAN: – If two bridges have the same cost, select the one with the highest priority; if they have the same priority, select based on the bridge ID – If the min-cost bridge has two or more ports on the LAN, select the port with the lowest identifier Spanning Tree Algorithm

• Each bridge is sending out BPDUs that contain the following information:

root ID cost bridge ID port ID root bridge (what the sender thinks it is) root path cost for sending bridge Identifies sending bridge Identifies the sending port • The transmission of BPDUs results in the distributed computation of a spanning tree

• The convergence of the algorithm is very fast Ordering of Messages • We define an ordering of BPDU messages (lexicographically)

ID R1 C1 ID B1 ID P1 ID R2 C2 ID B2 ID P2 M1 M2

We say M1 advertises a better path than M2 (M1<

• Initially, all bridges assume they are the root bridge. • Each bridge B sends BPDUs of this form on its LANs from each port P:

B 0 B P • Each bridge looks at the BPDUs received on all its ports and its own transmitted BPDUs. • Root bridge is the one with the smallest received root ID that has been received so far – whenever a smaller ID arrives, the root is updated

• Each bridge B looks on all its ports for BPDUs that are better than its own BPDUs • Suppose a bridge with BPDU: M1 R1 C1 B1 P1 receives a better BPDU:

M2 R2 C2 B2 P2

Then it will update the BPDU to: R2 C2+1 B1 P1 • However, the new BPDU is not necessarily sent out • On each bridge, the port where the best BPDU (via relation <) was received is the root port of the bridge – No need to send out updated BPDUs to root port When to send a BPDU • Say, B has generated a BPDU for each port x

R Cost B x • B will send this BPDU on port x only if its BPDU is better (via relation <) than any BPDU that B received from port x. Port x

Bridge B • In this case, B also assumes that it Port A Port C is the designated bridge for the Port B LAN to which the port connects

• And port x is the designated port of that LAN Selecting the Ports for the Spanning Tree • Each bridge makes a local decision which of its ports are part of the spanning tree • Now B can decide which ports are in the spanning tree: • Bs root port is part of the spanning tree • All designated ports are part of the spanning tree • All other ports are not part of the spanning tree

• Bs ports that are in the spanning tree will forward packets (=forwarding state) • Bs ports that are not in the spanning tree will not forward packets (=blocking state) Building the Spanning Tree LAN 2

• Consider the network on the right. •d •D • Assume that the bridges have Bridge5 calculated the designated ports Bridge4 (D) and the root ports (R) as •R •D •R indicated. Bridge3 LAN 5 •R • What is the spanning tree? Bridge2 – On each LAN, connect D ports to •D the R ports on this LAN LAN 1 – Which bridge is the root bridge? •R Bridge1 • Suppose a packet is originated in •D LAN 5. How is the packet •D flooded? LAN 3 LAN 4 Example • Assume that all bridges send out their BPDUs once per second, and assume that all bridges send their BPDUs at the same time • Bridge1 < Bridge2 < Bridge3 < Bridge4 < Bridge5 • Assume that all bridges are turned on simultaneously at time T=0 sec.

LAN 1 Brige1 LAN 3 A B Brige3 Brige4 A A B LAN 2 B B B A Brige2 A Brige5 LAN 4 Example: BPDUs sent

Bridge1 Bridge2 Bridge3 Bridge4 Bridge5

T=1sec Example: BPDUs sent

Bridge1 Bridge2 Bridge3 Bridge4 Bridge5 T=2sec Example: BPDUs sent

Bridge1 Bridge2 Bridge3 Bridge4 Bridge5 T=3sec Example: BPDUs sent

Bridge1 Bridge2 Bridge3 Bridge4 Bridge5 T=1sec Send: Send: Send: Send: Send: A: (B1,0,B1,A) A: A:(B3,0,B3,A) A:(B4,0,B4,A) A:(B5,0,B5,A) B: (B1,0,B1,B) (B2,0,B2,A) B:(B3,0,B3,B) B:(B4,0,B4,B) B:(B5,0,B5,B) Recv: B: (B2,0,B2,B) Recv: Recv: Recv: A: Recv: A: (B5,0,B5,B) A: (B3,0,B3,B) A: (B2,0,B2,B) (B5,0,B5,A) A: (B4,0,B4,B) (B1,0,B1,B) (B1,0,B1,A) (B2,0,B2,B) B: (B1,0,B1,A) B: (B1,0,B1,B) B: (B3,0,B3,A) B: (B3,0,B3,A) B: (B5,0,B5,A) (B4,0,B4,A) (B5,0,B5,B) (B4,0,B4,B) (B3,0,B3,B) (B4,0,B4,A) Example: BPDUs sent

Bridge1 Bridge2 Bridge3 Bridge4 Bridge5

T=2sec D-port: A,B R-port: B R-port: B R-port: A R-port: A Send: D-port: A D-port: A D-port: B D-port: B A: Send: Send: Send: Send: (B1,0,B1,A) A: A: B: (B1,1,B4,B) B: (B1,1,B5,B) B: (B1,0,B1,B) (B1,1,B2,A) (B1,1,B3,A) Recv: Recv: Recv: Recv: Recv: A: A: A: A: (B1,0,B1,B) (B1,0,B1,A) B: (B1,1,B4,B) B: B: (B1,0,B1,A) (B1,1,B5,B) (B1,1,B3,A) (B1,1,B3,A) B: (B1,1,B5,B) (B1,1,B4,B) (B1,0,B1,B) Example: BPDUs sent

Bridge 1 Bridge 2 Bridge 3 Bridge4 Bridge5 T=3sec D-port: A,B R-port: B R-port: B R-port: A R-port: A Send: D-port: A D-port: A Blocked: B Blocked: B A: Send: Send: (B1,0,B1,A) A: A: Recv: Recv: B: (B1,1,B2,A) (B1,1,B3,A) A: A: (B1,0,B1,B) Recv: Recv: (B1,0,B1,B) (B1,0,B1,A) Recv: A: A: B: B: B: B: (B1,1,B3,A) (B1,1,B3,A) (B1,0,B1,A) (B1,0,B1,B) Example: the spanning tree Bridge1 Bridge2 Bridge3 Bridge4 Bridge5 Root Port

Designated bridge

Designated ports

LAN 1 Bridge1 LAN 3 A B Bridge3 Bridge4 A A B LAN 2 B B B A Bridge2 A Bridge5 A packet is sent LAN 4 from LAN2 Example: the spanning tree Bridge1 Bridge2 Bridge3 Bridge4 Bridge5 Root Port B B A A

Designated bridge LAN2,3 LAN1 LAN4 Designated ports A,B A A

LAN 1 Bridge1 LAN 3 A B Bridge3 Bridge4 A A B LAN 2 B B B A Bridge2 A Bridge5 A packet is sent LAN 4 from LAN2 Limitations of bridges

• Scalability – Broadcast packets reach every host!

• Security – Every host can snoop

• Non-heterogeneity – Cant connect ATM networks Virtual LANs • To address the scalability and security issues

• A bridges port is configured to have a VLAN ID

• Each VLAN has a spanning tree

• A VLAN header is inserted to a packet

• Packets are flooded to ports with the same VLAN ID VLAN100 100 VLAN100

5 U B1 5 U B2 VLAN200 VLAN200 Today

• Spanning Tree Algorithm • Virtual LAN • New topic: how to connect different types of networks – E.g., how to connect an Ethernet and an ATM network Inter-networking

• Routers interface different networks • Uniform addressing (IP) • Routers send packets to their destination IP addresses • IP (Internet Protocol) is a Protocol • IP’s current version is Version 4 (IPv4). It is specified in RFC 791. • IPv6 is also deployed

TCP UDP Transport Layer

ICMP IP IGMP Network Layer

Network ARP Access Link Layer

Media IP: the thin waist of the hourglass

• IP is the waist of the hourglass of the Internet protocol architecture Applications HTTP FTP SMTP • Multiple higher-layer protocols TCP UDP • Multiple lower-layer protocols • Only one protocol at the network layer. IP • What is the advantage of this architecture? layer protocols – To avoid the N * M problem Physical layer technologies Application protocol • Routers look at a packet’s IP header and link layer header

Application Application protocol Application

TCP TCP protocol TCP

IP IP protocol IP IP protocol IP IP protocol IP

Data Data Data Data Data Data Link Data Data Data Link Link Link Link Link Link Link Link

Host Router Host A simple network IP Service Model • Delivery service of IP is minimal

• IP provides an unreliable connectionless best effort service (also called: “datagram service”). – Unreliable: IP does not make an attempt to recover lost packets

– Connectionless: Each packet (“datagram”) is handled independently. IP is not aware that packets between hosts may be sent in a logical sequence

– Best effort: IP does not make guarantees on the service (no throughput guarantee, no delay guarantee,…)

• Consequences:

• Higher layer protocols have to deal with losses or with duplicate packets

• Packets may be delivered out-of-order Basic IP router functions

• Things you need to understand to do lab2 – Internet protocol • IP header • IP addressing • IP forwarding – Address resolution protocol – Error reporting and control • Internet Control Message Protocol Fields of the IP header

• ToS (8-bit): specifies the type of differentiated services for a packet

• HLen (4-bit): the length of header in 32-bit words

• Length (16-bit): packet length in bytes, including the header – 65535 bytes – Fragmentation and reassembly Fields of the IP Header • Identification (16 bits): Unique identification of a datagram from a host. Incremented whenever a datagram is transmitted (in some OS)

• Flags (3 bits): – First bit always set to 0 – DF bit (Do not fragment) – MF bit (More fragments) Will be explained laterà Fragmentation

• Fragment offset (13 bits) Fields of the IP Header

• Time To Live (TTL) (1byte): – Specifies the longest path before a datagram is dropped – Role of TTL field: Ensure that a packet is eventually dropped when a routing loop occurs

Used as follows: – Sender sets the value (e.g., 64) – Each router decrements the value by 1 – When the value reaches 0, the datagram is dropped Fields of the IP Header • Protocol (1 byte): • Specifies the higher-layer protocol. • Used for demultiplexing to higher layers. 4 = IP-in-IP encapsulation

6 = TCP 17 = UDP

1 = ICMP 2 = IGMP

IP

• Header checksum (2 bytes): A simple 16-bit long checksum which is computed for the header of the datagram – Function? Fields of the IP Header

• Options: • Record Route: each router that processes the packet adds its IP address to the header. • Timestamp: each router that processes the packet adds its IP address and time to the header. • (loose) Source Routing: specifies a list of routers that must be traversed. • (strict) Source Routing: specifies a list of the only routers that can be traversed. • IP options increase routers processing overhead. IPv6 does not have the option field. • Padding: Padding bytes are added to ensure that header ends on a 4-byte boundary Summary

• Spanning Tree Algorithm • Virtual LAN • New topic: how to connect different types of networks – E.g., how to connect an Ethernet and an ATM network • Looking forward – More about IP