Chapter 5

Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian

Background of the historical writings among the go back to the 7“' century. But the meaning of historiography amongst them were focused on subjects such as history of kings and prophets, and afterwards used in the other historical figures in the Islamic Civilization. Then, the contents of history until the 10'^ century, were most often applied only to political and military history. Many famous Islamic historians were living before Biruni. But, he did not advocate/follow the methodology of the former historians. Since, he has systematized new approaches, which is acknowledged as the ‘modem study of history’, that is a significant revision in the construction of the historical works. In this chapter, the views of Biruni are dealt with in three sections: I') Section I: History, 2^) Section II: Philosophy of History, and 2}

Section III: Historiography.

Section I: History:

Introduction:

History (from Greek historia, meaning “inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation”) is the study of the past, specifically how it relates to humans. It is an umbrella term that that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians. Events occurring prior to written record are considered pre-history. History can also refer to the academic disciphne which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them. Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modem study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of

260 specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in University studies.'

The Islamic World and the Meaning of History:

Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the?* century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet ’s life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting information/ descriptions regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify, which sources were more reliable and authentic. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the “science of biography”, “science of ”^ and “Isnad”^ (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition were: Urwah (d. 712 A.D.), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728 A.D.), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761 A.D.), Al-Waqidi (745-822 A.D.), Ibn Hisham (d. 834 A.D.), Muhammad al- Buhkhari (810-870 A.D.) and Ibn Hajar (1372-1449 A.D.). Historians of the medieval Islamic world also not only the Islamic world restrict also in very but developed an interest in world history. The historian Muhammad Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 A.D.) is known for writing a detailed and comprehensive chronicle of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern history in his 'History o f the Prophets and Kings’, in 915 A.D. But the primary point is that, until the 10"’ century, history most often was meant political and military historyBut, Biruni did not has tendency to follow the methodology of the former historians. Since, he has systematized new approaches, which is acknowledged as the ‘modem study of history’, that is a significant revision in the construction of the historical works. For understanding his contribution of innovative ideas, it is essential to go through the methodology of Biruni in his historical work. ’

261 Section II: Philosophy of History:

The term philosophy of history refers to the theoretical aspect of history, in two senses. It is customary to distinguish critical philosophy of history from speculative philosophy of history. Critical philosophy of history is the “theory” aspect of the discipline of academic history, and deals with questions such as the nature of historical evidence, the degree to which objectivity is possible, etc. Speculative philosophy o f history is an area of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological end to its development - that is, it asks if there is a design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in the processes of human history. Part of Marxism, for example, is speculative philosophy of history. Another example is “historiosophy”, the term coined by Gershom Scholem (1897-1982 A.D.) to describe his understanding of history and metaphysics. Though there is some overlap between the two aspects, they can usually be distinguished; modem professional historians tend to be sceptical about speculative philosophy of history.

Sometimes critical philosophy of history is included under historiography. Philosophy of history should not be confused with the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time.

Speculative philosophy of history asks at least three basic questions:

What is the proper unit for the study of the human past - the individual subject? The family, polls (‘city’) or sovereign territory? The civilization or culture? Or the whole of the human species?

Are there any broad patterns that we can discern through the study of the human past? Are there, for example, patterns of progress? Or cycles? Is history deterministic? Or are there no patterns or cycles, and is human history regulated by irregularity? Related to this is the study of individual agency and its impact in history, functioning within, or opposed to, larger trends and patterns.

262 If history can indeed be said to progress, what is its ultimate direction? What (if any) is the driving force of that progress.*

Attitudes of Biruni towards Philosophy of History:

As it was mentioned above, the term philosophy of history connects with the theoretical aspect of history, in two senses. (1) Critical philosophy of history, and (2) Speculative philosophy o f history. And also the implication of ‘critical philosophy of history’ is dealing with (i) the nature of historical evidence, and (ii) its objectivity. Based on these two essential definitions, the historical views of Biruni can be categorized in the field of ‘Critical philosophy of history’. For, Biruni as a philosopher of history systematized new perspective in history, which is known as the ‘modem study of history’. And Biruni by means of his new observations has refined the structure/formation of the historical works, so that there are both the nature of historical evidence and its objectivity in his views.

Section III: Historiography:

Introduction:

Historiography refers to both the study of the methodology of historians and the development of history as a discipline, and also to a body of historical work on a particular subject. Scholars discuss historiography topically - such as the “Historiography of early ”, or the “Historiography of the British Empire” or the “ Historiography of China” - as well as different approaches and genres, such as political history or social history.^ During the Age of Enlightenment, the modem development of historiography through the application of scmpulous methods began.* The most important pioneers of the Western Enlightenment were; Voltaire (1694-1778 A.D.), David Hume (1711-1776 A.D.), Edward Gibbon (1737-1794 A.D.), Adam Smith (1723- 1790 A.D.), Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881 A.D.), Thomas Macaulay (1800-1859 A.D.), Jules Michelet (1793-1874 A.D.) and Hippolyte Taine (1828-1893 A.D.). But, the background of pre-modem historiography between ancient Greek, Roman, ancient China, Christendom, Islamic world goes back to so long time ago.^

263 Since, Biruni is known as the Persian - Muslim historiographer and chorologist of the Islamic world, therefore, our discussion exclusively relates to the historiography in the Islamic world era.

Biruni as an Eminent Figure of Historiography:

The modem study of history, in its real meaning , is commenced by the Western Enlightenment in IS'*' century. But, in Iran, it is started by Biruni in the 11"' century. Biruni is considered the most important figure of historiography, which’s his methodology, was completely different from his predecessors. In fact, he made an important renovation in the structure of the historical books, so that the interests of the later historians after Biruni became quite different, in so far as, it can be said that, they are impressed with Biruni’s methodology. For, Biruni preferred to focus his historical works on ‘culture, religion, and practical information’. In his Ketab Tahqiq Malel- Hind also known as the “Indica”, he did not record ‘political and military history’ in any detail, but wrote more on ‘India’s cultural, scientific, social and religious history’. He expanded on his idea of history in another work, the book on titled on Chronology of the Ancient Nations.'^ This book of Biruni is considered as the primary source in the field of religion, history, customs, culture, festivals, geography, and chronology o f the ancient nations." And it is as well as the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind has been edited by the learned German scholar Edward Sachau. After Biruni, the Arab Muslim, named (1332-1406 A.D.) is considered as the father of modem sociology and economics. Ibn Khaldun is well-known as the pioneer of historiography, cultural history, and the philosophy of history. He is best known for his books The Muqaddimah (translated as Prolegomena) and Ketab al-I'bar' (Book of Advice)”. Methodology of Ibn Khaldun in historiography was under the influence of Bimni. And, in fact, Biruni’s ‘tradition of comparative cross-cultural study’, continued in the Muslim world through Ibn Khaldun’s work in the M"* centuiy'^.

264 Other Works of Biruni on Historiography:

In addition to the two books, wiiich were mentioned above, Biruni wrote five important books and one treatise in the field of historiography. But, none of them, just their names, are not available currently. These historical works of Briuni were; 1] The History o f Kharazjn {Ketab al-musamara fi Akhbar Kharazm)- It is considered to some extent as Biruni’s ‘political history’. 2] The History of Karmatians and Mubayyida, 3] The History o f al-Moqanna, 4] The History o f Mahmud Ghaz/iavid and His Father, 5] Treatise on Christians’ Fasting and Their Festivals, 6] Revision o f Histories.'^

Biruni as a Famous Chronologist:

‘Chronology’ is considered as ‘the science of arranging events, in their order o f occurrence in time.’ Also, it is acknowledged as the part of periodization, and regarded as an important part of historiography and history. In addition of narrating the historical matters, Biruni as a chronologist fixed the exact date of kingdoms’ period towards their prior and posterior kingdoms. Then, after came to this result, which one had preference to the others. Also, he added the exact time of the prophets’ birth such as Christ and Zoroaster and so on. Muslims scholars studied various cultures and religions prior to Biruni’s chronology. And often they could not understand and correspond the time of the events, which occurred in different regions, nor could they accurately track a sequence of event across two or more cultures, because each had its own calendar system.

Methodology of Biruni on the Book Chronology o f the Ancient

N a tio n s :

Biruni, in the preface of the book Chronology of the Ancient Nations explained some essential points about his methodology as follows: “My whole information was exactly according to what I have heard and seen,

265 or based on my cogitation or study of those authentic books.” Then, Briuni put forward, “The best way to understand the history and tradition of the former nations and generations was to have profound knowledge towards their history, customs and institutions. And this object could not be obtained by way of contemplation/speculation of philosophical notions, or of inductions based upon the observations of our senses. But solely by adopting the information of those, who had a written tradition, and of the members of the different religions. And by making their opinions a basis on which afterwards to built up a system. Besides, it must compared with their traditions and opinions among themselves, when we try to establish our system.” Then, Biruni emphatically propounded, “There were some accidental circumstances, which depraved most men. And we must clear out mind from all causes, which were liable to make people blind against the truth, e.g, inveterate custom, rivalry, passions, and the desire to gain influence, etc. For that, which I have mentioned, is the nearest way you could take, that led to the true end. And the most efficient help towards removing all the clouds of uncertainty and doubt, which have encompassed the subject. And it is impossible in any other way to reach the same purpose, notwithstanding the greatest care and exertion.”'^ On the other hand, Biruni confessed, “It was by no means easy to act upon that principle and that method, which we have laid down. And it might seemed to be almost unattainable on account of the numerous lies which were mixed up with all historical records and traditions. And all those lies did not on the face of it appear to be impossibilities, so that they could be easily distinguished and eliminated. However, that which is within the limits of possibility has been treated as true, as long as the other evidence did not prove it to be false. Now the life of man is not sufficient to learn thoroughly the traditions of one of the many nations. How, therefore, could he learn the traditions of all of them? That is impossible.”'® Finally he says, “It is our duty to proceed from what is near to the more distant, from what is known to that which is less known. To gather the traditions from those who have reported them. And correcting them as much as possible, and to leave the rest as it is, in order to make our work

266 helpful to him, who seeks truth and loves wisdom, in making independent researches on the other subjects. And guide him to find out that which is denied to us, whilst we are working at this subject, by the will of God and with His help.”’’

Conclusion:

Biruni, is known as the Muslim- Persian ‘historiographer’ and chronologist. Background of the historical writings among the Muslims goes back to the T* century. Although, many famous Islamic historians were living before Biruni, but the meaning of historiography were totally different among them. For, they had a strong tendency to write subjects such as the history of the prophets and kings, and later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. On the other hands, the concept of history until the 10'*' century most often means political and military history. After Biruni, Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406 A.D.) is regarded as the father of modem sociology and economics. He is well known as a pioneer of historiography, cultural history, and the philosophy of history. He is best known for his books The Muqaddimah (translated as Prolegomena) and the Ketab al-Ibar (Book of Advice)”. Methodology of Ibn Khaldun in historiography was under influence of Biruni. And, in fact, Biruni’s tradition of comparative cross-cultural study, continued in the Muslim world through Ibn Khaldun’s works in the century. It is after visiting India, Al-Biruni learnt that Indians have different mode of counting days and years, and their calendar does not match with Islamic one of Christian/ Western world. Naturally dating the kingdom and regional rulers is very difficult. Rather, following the Indian method of writing thoughts and ideas historically without mentioning the different is very easy. In India right from 2rd Cen. attempts new mode to present history of Ideas and thoughts especially in various fields viz. Mathematics, sciences, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, alchemy, etc. It is the common man who is interested in knowing about the thoughts and ideas in general in any field, and to know the life of mankind is more interesting and important than any other mode especially political and military. This he learnt from Bhavya a well-known Buddhist philosopher and the first historian, who has written a work entitled

267 Tarka-Jwala in which he has presented ‘history of philosophical ideas in ancient India not restrictively only to Buddhism but all Indian philosophical traditions.

Notes and References:

' Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; History, last modified on 12 November 2014; at 18:37.

■ Hadith in Muslim religious use is often translated as prophetic ’traditions’, meaning the

corpus of the reports of the teachings, deeds and sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

The hadith literatuns was compiled from oral reports that were in circulation in society

around the time of their compilation long after the death of Muhammad. Http:// WWW.

Wikipedia; Hadith', last modified on 13 November 2014; at 17:44.

^ Isnad (from sanad, “support”), in Islam, a list of authorities who have transmitted a

report (hadith) of a statement, action, or approbation of Muhammad, one of his Companions

(Sahabah), or of a later authority; its reliability determines the validity of a hadith. The isnad

precedes the actual text (matn) and takes the form, “It has been related to me by A on the authority of B on the authority of C on the authority of D (usually a Companion of the

Prophet) that Muhammad said...”Http://WWW.Britanica; Isnad, last modified on 4 February

2014.

■* Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Historiography; last modified on 14 September 2014; at 18:53.

’ Ib id

‘ Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Philosophy of History; last modified on 3 September 2014 at

19:27.

’ Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Historiography, last modified on 14 September 2014; at 18:53.

* Ib id ^ Ib id

'" Ib id

" This historical work contains twenty one chapters on different subjects as follows: (1)

Astronomy which contains six chapters, (2) History and Tradition contains three chapters.( 3)

Chronology contains only one chapter, (4) Culture and Festive Days contains eight chapters,

(5) Different Religions contains five chapters, and (6) Geography contains just one chapter.

Athar-ai-Baqia; Biruni.A; Alizadeh.A. (tr.).; Diba Pub.; Tehran; 2010; Pp. 1-11.

'* Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Historiography; last modified on 14 September 2014; at 18:53.

Abureyhan-e-Biruni; Azkaee. P; New design Pub.; Tehran; 1997; Pp.25-29.

Al-Biruni: Master Astronomy and Muslim Scholar o f the Eleventh Century; Scheppler. B;

Rosen Pub. Group; New York; 2006; P.98. ” The Chronology o f Ancient Nations; Sachau. E; Pub, William H. Allen And Co, Watello

Palce; London; 1879; P.l.

The Chronology o f Ancient Nations; Sachau. E; P.l.

Ibid; P.4.

268