Ireland’s Rural Environment:

Research Highlights from Johnstown Castle

Editors:

D. Ó hUallacháin O. Fenton M. Foley

www.agresearch.teagasc.ie/johnstown/ Table of Contents Welcome to Johnstown Castle ...... 5 Nutrient Efficiency Developing an On-line tool for nutrient management planning ...... 9 Fertiliser Nitrogen Source, Urease and Nitrification Inhibitors: Tools for Increasing Nitrogen Use Efficiency...... 11 Using a novel geo-computational system to facilitate better Nutrient Management Planning ...... 13 Increasing the efficiency of phosphorus fertilizer use in grassland ...... 15 Developing soil based nitrogen tests for grassland soils...... 17 The importance of plant-soil interactions for N mineralisation in different soil types...... 19 Fate and transport of fertilizer nitrogen under spring barley cultivation on contrasting soils...... 21 Strategies for controlling cadmium contamination in Irish food production...... 23 Mitigation of N losses with nitrification inhibitor DCD: limitations and alternative method ...... 25 Gaseous Emissions AGRI-I: The Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Initiative for Ireland...... 29 Assessing Ammonia Volatilization as Influenced by Fertiliser Nitrogen Source, Urease and Nitrification Inhibitors...... 31 Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Emissions from Manure Management ...... 33 Assessing the potential for carbon sequestration in grazed Irish grasslands ...... 35 Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Emissions from Animal Housing ...... 37 Reducing nitrous oxide emissions from grazed grasslands using animal intake of DCD ...... 39 Fertilizer formulation and N2O emissions ...... 41 Nitrogen cycle processes and greenhouse gas balance in wetland in an urban landscape...... 43 Agricultural Ecology The sustainable management of the priority terrestrial Habitats Directive Annex 1 habitats of the Aran Islands ...... 47 Sward diversity benefits yield and weed suppression over 3 years ...... 49 Plant biodiversity hotspot identification in Ireland ...... 51 Payments for ecosystem services: conservation of freshwater habitats through agri-environment schemes ...... 53

1 Using plant biodiversity records to support spatial targeting of agri-environment schemes...... 55 The ecological conservation value of riparian management in an intensive agricultural grassland landscape ...... 57 Development of indicators of farmland wildlife habitats on intensive grasslands ...... 59 The impact of acute and chronic hydrochemical disturbances on stream ecology...... 61 Biodiversity and integrated pest management of eucalyptus foliage and forestry plantations...... 63 Effects of using drought on yield of multi-species mixtures...... 65 Effects of drought on nutrient dynamics in multi-species mixtures...... 67 Cost effectiveness of selected agri-environment measures for habitat conservation...... 69 Ideal-HNV: Identifying the Distribution and Extent of Agricultural Land of High Nature Value ...... 71 Soils Mapping Soils in Ireland ...... 75 Developing and Evaluating Indicators for Biodiversity: The EcoFINDERS Project...... 77 Integrating soil characteristics, land management and soil microbial communities ...... 79 Survival of Bacterial Pathogens in Soil and Sewage Sludge Microcosms...... 81 END-O-SLUDG: Wastewater transformed for good...... 83 Environmental Engineering ...... 85 Unsaturated zone time lags: method development using centrifuge...... 87 Runoff Solutions - Chemical amendments for the treatment of various types of organic fertilizers ...... 89 The Phosphorus Chemistry of Mineral and Peat Grassland Soils...... 91 Water Quality Sequestration of P & N from agricultural wastewaters using natural zeolite amendments and the reuse of phosphorous on nutrient-poor soils ...... 95 Nutrient losses from drained marginal grasslands ...... 97 Permeable Reactive Interceptors ...... 99 AQUAVALENS: Protecting health by improving methods for the detection of pathogens in drinking water and water used in food preparation ...... 101 Analysing persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in groundwater...... 103 Agricultural Catchments Programme The Agricultural Catchments Programme: Evaluating policies on nutrient management and water quality at the catchment scale ...... 107 Nutrient transfer pathways...... 109

2 Nitrogen Attenuation along Delivery Pathways in Agricultural Catchments...... 111 Nutrient delivery to streams, and stream biological quality ...... 113 Socio-economic studies of nutrient management ...... 115 Nutrient Sources in Agricultural Catchments ...... 117 Sediment dynamics in small agricultural catchments...... 119 Defining critical source areas of nutrient transfer in agricultural catchments...... 121 Microbial Source Tracking in Rural Catchments ...... 123 Evaluation of a surface hydrological connectivity index in agricultural catchments ...... 125 Phosphorus load apportionment in the management of eutrophic water-bodies…………127

Acknowledgements ...... 130

3 4 Welcome to Johnstown Castle

Paddy Browne, Head of Crops, Environment and Land-Use Programme, [email protected]

Karl Richards, Head of Environment Soils and Land-Use Department, Johnstown Castle [email protected]

Welcome post graduate students from Irish and international universities avail of We are pleased to welcome you to Teagasc Walsh Fellowships at our Johnstown Castle, Ireland’s leading centre at any one time, and their research centre for soils and the rural studies are an integral part of our environment. Johnstown Castle is one programme. of six research centres in Teagasc, the Irish Agriculture and Food Our mission Development Authority, which conducts agricultural research, The aim of the Teagasc Crops, education and advice in the Republic Environment and Land Use of Ireland. Johnstown Castle is Programme is to develop and transfer responsible for research on nutrient cost-effective sustainable agricultural efficiency, gaseous emissions, agro- production systems along with ecology, soils and water quality. evidence based knowledge to support and underpin the development of a Facilities profitable, competitive and environmentally sustainable agri-food The Johnstown Castle estate covers sector. approximately 400 hectares, of which 190 is farmland, with the balance being Given the current and future forestry, parkland, and lakes. Our challenges to our food supply and to centre consists of three research farms the environment, sustainable on the estate: a dairy farm and two intensification of agricultural production drystock farms. These enterprises is emerging as a national and facilitate field experiments and international priority. Sustainable component research on solutions for intensification is defined as producing sustainable farming. more from the same area of land while reducing negative environmental Johnstown Castle boasts state-of-the- impacts and increasing contributions to art laboratories to support the research natural capital and the flow of programme with water, air, soil, plant, environmental services. microbiology and ecology facilities. The research programme includes ten The Teagasc Crops, Environment and permanent researchers, eleven Land Use Programme is at the heart of contract researchers and 16 technical the sustainable intensification of the staff. In addition, between 10 and 15 Irish agri-food sector. Land use in 5 Ireland is facing a complex array of 4. Soil Quality and Classification: aims challenges. Harvest 2020 sets out to develop soil management strategies challenging production targets, whilst tailored to maximize soil functions (e.g. there is ever increasingly stringent food & fibre production, C- environmental legislation coupled with sequestration, water purification), and consumer demands for sustainably to avert threats to soil quality. This is produced agricultural goods. The main underpinned by the recently developed challenge is to reconcile the imperative Irish Soil Information System. of economic sustainability with the demands of minimising impacts of 5. Water Quality: aims to understand agriculture on the wider environment. the hydrological and biogeochemical Our mission at Teagasc, Johnstown processes that govern the transport of Castle is to develop technologies and pollutants to water. This understanding management strategies that facilitate underpins the development of new farmers to combine economic technologies to reduce losses. sustainability with environmental Research Infrastructure sustainability. Continuing investment in our research Environmental Research facilities ensures that we are nationally The key to combined economic and and internationally recognised as a environmental sustainability is to centre of excellence for sustainable develop technologies and strategies agricultural production. Our facilities that reduce losses to the environment include highly instrumented agricultural and save farmers money. To achieve research catchments, environmental this, Johnstown Castle operates 5 agri- control laboratories, soil monolith environmental research programmes: lysimeters, and advanced environmental research laboratories. 1. Nutrient Efficiency: aims to We are highly pro-active in maximise the utilisation of nutrients in collaborating with universities and soil, organic manures and inorganic research institutes in Ireland, the EU fertiliser. Its primary output is the and around the world. This is facilitated National Nutrient advice “Green Book”. through joint projects and Teagasc’s Walsh Fellowship Scheme 2 Gaseous Emissions: aims to (www.teagasc.ie). understand and mitigate losses of greenhouse gases and ammonia. Our Our programme is funded by, among focus is on mitigation of nitrous oxide others, the Department of Agriculture, emissions and carbon sequestration; Food and Marine, the National our results feed directly into national Development Plan, EPA, EU and inventories. Global Research Alliance.

3. Agro-ecology: aims to develop Finally synergies between ecology and agriculture by identifying management The primary focus of our research is to practices to enhance biodiversity in provide a strong research programme both high nature value farmland and that facilitates sustainable farming. intensively managed systems. This booklet will give you a flavour of Understanding the positive interactions the current research in our centre and between ecology and productivity is introduce you to the staff involved. important for sustainable production.

6 7 Nutrient Efficiency

8 Developing an On-line tool for nutrient management planning Stan Lalor, Sarah Mechan, Huk Mok, Mark Gibson & Mark Plunkett Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford. [email protected]

Introduction Existing NMP systems A nutrient management plan (NMP) Nutrient management planning consists of an inventory of land, (encompassing cross compliance with cropping, stocking rate, farm nitrates and nitrates derogations) has management and soil fertility data for a been conducted by Teagasc advisors farm, and the customisation of a with the help of a number of fertilizer management strategy based sequentially developed versions of on these parameters. The process of NMP tools developed in MS Excel. preparing a nutrient management plan There have been two types of tools requires the calculation of nutrient used for a number of years: one for recommendations for each parcel or doing NMP for simple non-derogation field on the farm, and the farm scenarios where only whole-farm amalgamation of these fertilizer allowance data was required; recommendations into a summarised and another for giving more detailed nutrient advice plan for the whole farm. field by field fertilizer advice and for This nutrient advice is then cross- preparing derogation fertilizer plans checked, and adjusted where and records. These systems, while necessary, against legislative limits to functional, are user un-friendly and nutrient inputs for the farm (currently really only provide fertilizer plans for controlled under SI 610 of 2010) based cross-compliance purposes. The on the aforementioned parameters. existence of the data in separate Excel files (in a number of different versions) At present, a NMP plan is produced by also poses a risk to with respect to applying a series of calculations to data quality control in cross farm data to estimate fertilizer compliance related advice. An online requirements and ensure Good database system which can maintain Agricultural Practice (GAP) central control over calculations, and compliance. Despite the complexity of which could also be available as a the calculations required which involve resource database for research numerous macros to facilitate lookups, regarding soil fertility trends, fertilizer computations, algorithms, etc., it has and lime advice and usage, etc, would been developed exclusively in MS be a far superior tool to have in place Excel. The outputs currently available for NMP activities within Teagasc. include a tabular summary of the nutrient management advice for the Developing an on-line software farmer, at both a whole farm and field by field level. The process can also The objective of the new on-line include recording of fertilizer purchases software will be to replace the multi- and nutrient applications as the plan is version and non-centrally controlled implemented. MS Excel templates in operation since 2007, and move to a more robust and user friendly platform for producing map and enhanced tabular based the success of NMP activities in outputs. It is envisaged these changes Ireland. The Agricultural Catchments will improve the quality and efficiency Programme at Teagasc has provided a of the NMP planning process by proof of concept to the implementation providing more user friendly outputs for of maps and linkages to additional in- farmers to interpret and implement NM house data sources from both an planning on their farms. Recent work agronomic and technical perspective. through surveys and research focus groups with advisors and farmers has The development of this system will highlighted the importance of how the involve the transfer of existing system functions for advisors; and the calculations into an online database outputs that it produces for farmers. environment that will incorporate These new components of the system relational database and mapping are well beyond the capabilities of functionality. Generating linkages to current MS Excel technologies, further existing data sources of land use, supporting the requirements for a root livestock, soil test results and and branch assessment of the automated reporting of farmer records software Teagasc uses and the for cross-compliance are key elements functionality that it facilitates. to the development process. Potential for future development of SMART System benefits phone applications, additional mapping layers and ‘what if’ functionality are These additional requirements, also being considered in future particularly the mapping functionality, iterations of the software. have been identified as being critical to

Figure 1 Examples of how nutrient advice (lime application (left) and slurry application (right)) may be displayed in a mapping based output format to assist in nutrient management planning adoption on farms.

10 Fertiliser Nitrogen Source, Urease and Nitrification Inhibitors: Tools for Increasing Nitrogen Use Efficiency Patrick Forrestal1, Mary Harty1,2, Stan Lalor1, John Murphy1, Deirdre Hennessy1, Dominika Krol1, Catherine Watson 2,3, Ronnie Laughlin 3 and Karl Richards1. 1Johnstown Castle Research Centre, 2 Queens University, Belfast, 3Agri Food & Biosciences Institute [email protected]

Introduction it under goes the processes of being hydrolyzed, which can be delayed Optimizing nitrogen (N) availability for using urease inhibitors such as N-(n- crop growth is critical for productive butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT), agricultural systems and for minimizing and nitrification, which can be delayed potential negative economic and by nitrification inhibitors such as environmental impacts associated with dicyandiamide (DCD). Therefore N loss from agro-ecosystems. fertiliser N source, N source blending, Applying N in synchrony with crop and the use of inhibitors present a demand is a basic strategy for potential opportunity to better attaining high N use efficiency. synchronize NO3-N availability with However, at a practical level this can plant N demand, contributing to present challenges as multiple increased grassland N use efficiency. applications during a growth cycle can By reducing soil NO3-N occurrence be unattractive or impractical for there is potential to reduce N losses producers. through leaching and de-nitrification. In agricultural systems plants primarily Materials and Methods uptake nitrate-N (NO3-N) because This research is being conducted at normally ammonium-N (NH4-N) is three grassland sites, a loam soil at rapidly converted to NO3-N, a process Johnstown Castle, Co. Wexford; a mediated by the action of aerobic sandy loam soil at Moorepark, Co. nitrifying bacteria. Cork; and a clay loam at Hillsborough Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) is in Northern Ireland. The experimental the most widely used straight N source design is a randomised block, with five in Ireland and provides rapidly replicates. The fertiliser N sources available NO3-N for plant uptake. being investigated are CAN-N, Urea- However, NO3-N is vulnerable to N, and a CAN-N + Urea-N blend. The leaching and de-nitrification loss N inhibitor treatments being pathways under the cool humid investigated are NBPT, DCD, and conditions of Ireland. NBPT + DCD in combination with Urea-N. The total annual N rates An alternative N source is urea-N examined are 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, which is less expensive than CAN per and 500 kg ha -1 applied in five equal unit N. Before Urea-N reaches NO3-N

11 splits following five grass harvests in a simulated grazing rotation.

Figure 2. Grassland plots.

Expected Results Utilization of N source and N inhibitor combinations are expected to reduce N costs for agriculture whilst improving Figure 1. Visual Response to N (May N use efficiency, reducing potential 2013). environmental loss of N from agro- ecosystems and sustaining or Dry matter yield, grass yield and N increasing productivity. This research uptake for each treatment will be will play an important role in meeting measured by mowing to 5 cm to the agricultural productivity goals set simulate grazing at five times annually. forth in Food Harvest 2020 whilst Nitrogen use efficiency will be protecting the environment and assessed for N source, rate, and meeting future greenhouse gas and air inhibitor treatments. quality targets.

Acknowledgements This work is funded by the Department of Agriculture Research Stimulus Fund.

12 Using a novel geo-computational system to facilitate better Nutrient Management Planning Sarah Mechan, Stan Lalor, Oliver Shine & David Wall Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction attributes, livestock type & numbers, soil nutrient status, organic manure Food Harvest 2020’s ambitious targets production etc from a number of for agricultural production will demand disparate sources. Good Agricultural superlative nutrient management on Practice (GAP) compliance is ensured Irish farms as the requirement for by applying a series of calculations to nutrient inputs intensifies. these data to estimate fertilizer Soil fertility and nutrient management requirements. An in-house MS Excel underpins all successful farming Tool (Lalor, S., 2007) has been enterprises. Getting the “balance right” developed and is used extensively to and responding to agronomic, assist with these complex calculations. environmental, legislative and financial However the outputs as well as the constraints is a real challenge. inputs are hugely restricted to the confines of MS Excel functionality (Fig. Data management has the opportunity 1) and limit flexibility to display tabular to play a pivotal role in facilitating the summaries of the nutrient generation of a legally sound and management advice for the farmer, at agronomically workable nutrient both a whole farm and field by field management plan for farms by level. removing some of the cumbersome administrative tasks from the farm manager or advisor. The Agricultural Catchments Programme (ACP) (Fealy et al., 2010), has developed a novel geo- computational information management system based around geographical information systems (GIS) for coordinating nutrient management planning on farms. The Figure 1. Tabular one-page output ACP has implemented this innovative from an existing NMP; including technology across their six soil test P and K indices, organic & catchments, each involving approx. chemical fertilizer advice on a per 35-80 farms (Wall et al., 2011). field basis.

Traditional NMP Development ACP GIS approach To date, developing a nutrient The ACP has developed a more management plan (NMP) has involved automated system that not only offers piecing together data including farm a farmer a NMP but also the facility to

13 create maps representing the With such systems in place, ACP numerical data outputted from these farmers are better equipped to plan plans. their nutrient management strategies for the future, and also to track their The fields and land management units progress and make informed changes within each farm were digitized using to their plans when needed. ArcGIS 9 ArcInfo version 9.3. Fields were coded spatially to identify soil Providing solutions do not always test sample areas (~2 ha) and related require lengthy development geodatabases were developed. The downtime. Examining existing soil analysis results were retrieved technologies and joined up thinking using a laboratory information can arrive at workable solutions. management system (LIMS) and linked with the geodatabase and Conclusions existing nutrient management planning The development of this geo- software (MS Excel) to develop computational information nutrient management plans. management system has enabled The ACP also developed a facility to ACP farmers, advisors and capture day-to-day management researchers to maximize the usage of events (e.g. fertilizer applications) on available datasets. every farm within the catchments It facilitates integration for geospatial using a Nutrient Management analysis and other research against a Recorder. All the data collected are wide variety of other datasets whilst stored centrally using a Document maximizing the integrity of the data Management System (DMS – MS SharePoint). This provides a secure This technology can be used to data warehouse and facilitates the overlay many years of data, enabling development of a relational database. researchers and advisors to track temporal changes in soil fertility and Results and Discussion nutrient management. Maps can facilitate spatial It delivers a workable ICT solution that representations of soil test (e.g. is cost effective. Morgan’s P) results and application rates for individual fields on a whole- Acknowledgements farm basis in accordance with a soil This work is funded by the Department census reports simultaneously (Fig. 2). of Agriculture Food and the Marine.

References Fealy R.M., Buckley C., Mechan S., Melland A., Mellander P.-E., Shortle G. and Jordan P. (2010). Soil Use and Management, 26, 225-236. Wall D.P., Jordan P., Melland A.R., Figure 2. Colour coded spatial Mellander P.-E., Buckley C., Reaney representation of crop & soil test S.M. and Shortle., G (2011). specific P indices including Environmental Science and Policy, 14, chemical and organic application 664-674. advice. Lalor, S. unpublished

14 Increasing the efficiency of phosphorus fertilizer use in grassland Tim Sheila,b, Stan Lalora, David Walla, Rioch Foxa, John Murphya, Christy Maddocka and John Baileyc a Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford b Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast c Agrifood and Bioscience institute, Belfast [email protected] Introduction Long term P field trial A phosphorus field trial was set up in Irish grassland swards have the 1995 to investigate the effects of three potential to yield in excess of 15 t DM -1 -1 rates of P fertilizer (triple super ha yr . To sustain this growth, phosphate) application on herbage fertilizer inputs are needed to match yield and mineral content on two the nutrient requirements of grass contrasting soils types: heavy and light. crops and to sustain soil fertility levels. Phosphorus fertilizer was applied at However, declining levels of rates of 0, 15, 30 and 45 kg P ha-1 yr-1 phosphorus (P) fertilizer use in Ireland in the spring of each year, and plots and a recent increase in soils with a where harvested on average 6-8 times low soil test P (STP) value (Index 1 a year. and 2) may have a negative effect on grassland productivity. Lower STP Nitrogen, P and Lime interactions values will potentially lead to lower A new field trial was set up in early herbage yield and lower herbage P summer 2011 to look at the interactive content. As reserves of phosphate rock effects of N, P and lime on herbage are finite, it is important that farmers yield and mineral content at two sites make best use of this dwindling and with contrasting STP and soil pH increasingly expensive resource. levels. Fertilizer N (CAN) was applied after each harvest to give annual Improved understanding of P cumulative rates of application of 0, adsorption characteristics, its 150 and 300 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (half these interactions with nitrogen (N) and lime, rates were applied in 2011 as the and the role of organic P in crop experiment began in June). nutrition, is necessary if the efficiency Phosphorus at rates of 0, 20, 40, 60 kg of P use at farm level is to be P ha-1 yr-1 (triple super phosphate) improved. where applied at the start of the trial The overall aim of this study is to and in the spring of subsequent years. Lime (ground limestone) at rates of 0 examine results from existing and new -1 experiments in order to find ways of and 5 t ha was applied at the start of increasing P use efficiency and of the trial but not in subsequent years. making P fertilizer recommendations Plots where cut four times in 2011 and more soil specific and sustainable. 8 times in 2012. Soil organic P speciation Materials and Methods 15 Organic P is a significant component of conducted to analyse the results of this total P in soils, and is present in experiment, which will continue for a various forms including microbial number of years. biomass P. NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy was used to identify and quantify different organic P species, and microbial biomass P was assessed using the fumigation method. Using these techniques differences in the organic P composition of different soils were investigated. Figure 1. Nitrogen, P and lime (Both of these methods where carried interactions are being studied in out with the assistance of Dr Martin field plots. Blackwell at Rothamsted Research, North Wyke, Devon, UK) Soil organic P identification Results from P NMR analysis highlight Soil test P response to phosphorus the large variation exists in the amount and lime of organic P that is found in Irish soils. An experiment was set up to examine Phosphate mono-esters are the the fate of P and lime additions to 16 dominant group in the soil, with different un-vegetated soils in a phosphonates and DNA also being controlled environment facility. The -1 present in significant quantities. Work treatments consisted of 100 kg P ha -1 is being conducted to relate the (super single phosphate), 5 t lime ha abundance of the different organic P (ground limestone), P and lime forms to soil fertility and grass growth. together (same rates) and a control. The treatments where mixed with the Soil test P response to phosphorus soil in pots and placed in a controlled and lime environment facility which was Results from the 3 month sampling maintained at a constant humidity period have shown that large variation (80%) and temperature (15°C) and in exists in the response to P fertilizer. darkness. The soils were sampled after Soils that have low initial STP levels 3 months and 12 months incubation. had the lowest rise in STP which suggests that these soils have a high Results and discussion capacity to fix P. Long term P field trial Results from the long term field trial Conclusion showed that maximum yield for both While these results are preliminary, sites was obtained at a P rate of 15 kg they show that there is large variability =1 -1 ha yr . The P concentration in in inorganic and organic P forms in herbage was significantly affected by P Irish soils, and that there is a potential fertilizer, with the response being to increase P fertilizer efficiency by highest in spring. developing soil-specific P fertilizer Nitrogen, P and Lime interactions recommendations. Nitrogen fertilizer rate had the largest effect of herbage yield at both sites, Acknowledgements with responses to P also being This work is funded by the Teagasc observed. Further work is being Walsh Fellowship Scheme. 16 Developing soil based nitrogen tests for grassland soils Noeleen McDonald 1,2, Catherine Watson 2,3, Ronnie Laughlin 3, Stan Lalor 1 , David Wall 1 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast 3 Agrifood and Bioscience institute, Belfast [email protected]

Introduction 2. Microcosm study: (to validate lab findings) 30 soils from across Ireland Current nitrogen (N) advice is based were potted and seeded with ryegrass on a “one size fits” all system. Varying (Lolium perenne L). The microcosms levels of soil N supply from different were laid out in a randomised soil types through the process of N complete block design (RCBD) in a mineralisation (No) is not taken into controlled environment research account. This increases the risk of facility (Figure 1) at 15oC, 80% relative under- or over-supply of N fertilizers to humidity, 16 h daylight and soil many fields, resulting in poor moisture at 65% field capacity. The economic returns for the farmer and soils received zero N fertilizer over the unnecessary losses of N to the duration of the experiment. Soil environment. The aim of this project is samples were collected at the to develop a practical soil N test to beginning of 3 successive 5 week predict soil N supply across a range of growth periods and analysed for soil Irish soils types. This soil N test could mineral N, No (using ISNT) and total C then be used as a basis for developing & N. Grass was harvested at the end soil specific N advice on farms in the of each growth period and analysed future helping to increase N fertilizer for dry matter (DM) yield and N use efficiency (NfUE). uptake. The soil N supply and recovery by the grass was investigated Materials and Methods using regression analysis. Series of experiments were established: 1. Laboratory study: (to identify suitable soil N tests) 35 soils were sampled (10cm) across Ireland. Soil samples were analyzed for potential No using a standard biological 7 day anaerobic incubation test (AI-7) and also 7 rapid chemical tests, including the Illinois soil N test (ISNT). The best rapid soil N test for estimating No was then identified by exploring the relationships between the standard AI- Figure 1. Controlled environment 7 and rapid tests. pot experiment

17 3. Field study: (to assess the temporal 65%) on this soil type compared to the variability of soil N pools) Nitrogen Well-D soil (NfUE 124%) for the 300kg fertilizer response experiments were N ha-1 yr-1 treatment. set up in a RCBD with 4 reps and 6 treatments (0, 150 and 300 kg N ha-1 yr-1, 33m3 and 66m3 slurry ha-1 yr-1, and a lime treatment) on a well drained loam (Well-D) and a moderately drained clay loam (Mod-D) soil type. Soils were sampled every 3 weeks (10 cm) from Oct 2011 to Nov 2012 and analyzed for mineral N, No (ISNT) and total C & N. Climatic data was recorded between each soil 700 Grass N uptake Zero N MP 1050 Grass N uptake 300N mp 950

) Grass N uptake 300N JC 1

- 600 sampling point. Grass was harvested a Grass N uptake Zero N JC )

h 850 Rainfall MP g m

k Rainfall JC ( 750 m

500 (

e l between Feb to Oct and analyzed for l k a

a 650 f t n i p 400 a u

550 r DM yield and N uptake. The temporal N e

v s 450 i t s 300 a a l r trends in soil N supply and grass yield u G 350

m e u

v 200 i

250 C t a uptake were then examined. l u 150

m 100

m 50 u Results and Discussion C 0 -50 11 -11 11 12 12 2 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 -12 t- v c- n- b- r-1 r- y- n- ul- g- p- t- v Oc No De Ja Fe Ma Ap Ma Ju J Au Se Oc No 1. The soil N supply potential ranged Grass Harvests Dates from 93 - 403 mg N kg-1 (measured by AI-7 test). The ISNT was the best Figure 2. Cumulative grass N rapid chemical soil N test for predicting uptake and rainfall for the well No ,as it displayed the best relationship drained and moderately drained with AI-7, (R2=0.68, p<0.0001). soils over a growing season 2. Large differences in the production Conclusions potential of grass were observed This study emphasises the need to across the 30 soil types (511 - 3288 kg account for soil N supply when making grass DM ha-1 and 11.8 - 131.1 kg N N fertilizer advice in order to increase ha-1). When soil ISNT (N ) was o N UE on farms. Variability in soil N combined with soil mineral N f supply and grass N recovery exists (accounting for residual levels of N) between different grassland soils. and C/N ratio (regulating N ) grass DM o Weather conditions may have a large yield and N uptake could be predicted influence on soil N supply and needs (model of R2=0.58 & 0.78, p<0.0001, to be considered when quantifying net respectively). N supply for grass uptake. The ISNT 3. The Mod-D soil had higher No was the most suitable rapid test to throughout the growing season (mean: predict No in grassland soils, and 393 mg N kg-1) compared to the Well- shows potential to aid farmers when D soil (mean: 378 mg N kg-1). Both making N fertilizer application soils received similar total cumulative decisions. rainfall over the season, however, high rainfall between June and July 2012 Acknowledgements (Figure 2) caused soil saturation and Funding provided by the Department high N losses through denitrification on of Agriculture Food and the Marine the Mod-D soil. This is reflected in the through the ACP. lower NfUE levels achieved (NfUE

18 The importance of plant-soil interactions for N mineralisation in different soil types Conor Murphy1,2,3, Erik Paterson2, Elizabeth Baggs3, Nick Morley3, Rogier Schulte1, & David Wall1 1Teagasc, Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, UK 2School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Scotland [email protected]

Introduction To investigate if these effects are soil specific, independent of N-availability. An increase in global food demand coupled with the need for sustainable Experimental Methods farming has increased the need to Experiment 1 understand the mechanisms and drivers involved in soil organic matter Soils of different N mineralization (SOM) turnover and N mineralisation. capacity were investigated using Priming effects (PE) can be defined as incubated soil microcosms. the increase/decrease in SOM Labelled 13C(glucose) and turnover due to substrate addition. PE 15 14 couple the growth of plants with SOM ammonium-nitrate tracer ( NH4 N03) and nutrient dynamics via the were added to the microcosms. microbial biomass. 13 Soil CO2 efflux was measured and C The mechanisms, that control how the isotope partitioning was applied to PE affect N availability and gross N quantify the added C and SOM- mineralisation is not well understood. derived components (Fig 1). The aim of this project is to build new Gross N mineralization from soil knowledge on the impact of root organic matter (SOM) was quantified exudates on turnover of C and N in by 15N isotopic analysis of the 14-d soil, as mediated by the microbial incubation period. community.

Project Objectives To assess if the addition of labile C to soil increases SOM turnover and gross N mineralisation – (PE). To investigate if plant growth stimulates N mineralisation and if this plant mediated priming is soil-specific.

To determine if N availability affects Figure 1. Representation of the C SOM mineralisation and if the and N fluxes investigated in presence of available N reduces plant experiment 1. uptake of SOM derived N. 19 Experiment 2: 25

Glucose & tracer treatment

n Tracer treatment 1

- 20 o i y t

These soils were further incubated in a a d s

i l l i a

o 15 r s microcosms over a 10 week period. e y n i r d m

1 10 - N

Perennial ryegrass was planted in half g s s N

o r g 5 µ of the microcosms and N fertilizer was G

0 added to half of the planted and half of HNS LNS the unplanted. Soil Type Figure 3. Gross N mineralization for Following an initial 2 week incubation the glucose + N tracer and N tracer period the N fertilizer was added twice treatments for the high and low a week and CO2 measurements were nutrient soil types. taken once a week thereafter.  The microbial biomass also Total N in plant biomass was increases. separated into SOM derived and Experiment 2 Results fertilizer derived N.  Plant growth decreased SOM Root and SOM derived C was turnover determined as per Expt. 1.  The LNS supported lower SOM turnover and N uptake relative to HNS.

 Addition of N fertilizer decreased SOM turnover.

Beneficial Outcomes

 The addition of C (representing root exudates) increased SOM turnover and gross N mineralisation in the HNS. The labile C provides energy to microorganisms to mineralise SOM. In the LNS, N is limiting gross Figure 2. Representation of the C N mineralisation. and N fluxes investigated in experiment 2.  Plant growth stimulates N- mineralisation; and the degree of Experiment 1 Results plant-mediated priming is soil- specific. Addition of N fertilizer  Addition of labile C increases the turnover of SOM (positive PE). results in negative priming of SOM but overall, the plant takes up more  The high-nutrient soil (HNS) organic-N.

mineralised more N than the low  This work will increase our nutrient soil (LNS). Gross N knowledge of N dynamics in the mineralisation for glucose amended rhizosphere and how to manage N soils was higher in the HNS fertiliser and C inputs for increased compared to the N tracer treatment; N use efficiency. this was not observed in the LNS (Fig. 3) Acknowledgements Funding provided for this project from Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme.

20 Fate and transport of fertilizer nitrogen under spring barley cultivation on contrasting soils Leanne Roche1,2, Karl Richards2 Elizabeth-Jane Shaw1, Mike Gooding1, Richie Hackett3, Chris Maddock2 and David Wall2, 1University of Reading, 2Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford, 3Teagasc Oak Park [email protected] Introduction  Improve our understanding of nitrogen dynamics in spring barley Spring barley is the most extensively systems. grown arable crop in Ireland, accounting for approximately 50% of  Quantify nitrate leaching and the arable area. The marketability of nitrous oxide emissions from barley grain for malting purposes varying rates of fertilizer N. depends on its quality; grain protein concentration being one of the main  To increase N use efficiency of criteria. Since 2007 grain protein levels spring barley production systems have fluctuated widely in Ireland and and support the development of concern has grown amongst farmers new N fertilizer recommendations. and the malting industry as to the best  Investigate options for mitigating methods to produce consistently high nitrogen loss to the environment in barley yields with optimal protein spring tillage systems i.e. using N concentrations. Nitrogen fertilization is inhibitor technologies. one of the main factors affecting grain protein levels. However, the management of N fertilizer inputs for spring barley crops must balance the varying crop N needs over the growing season with the potential for N loss to the air and water over the year. Maximum fertilizer N inputs to spring barley in Ireland are set out in the European Communities (Good Agricultural Practice for Protection of Waters) Regulations 2009. If changes to the quantities of N fertilizer required for spring barley are identified then we Figure 1.Spring barley trials must ensure that the changes are economically and environmentally Experimental Methods sustainable. Two experimental field sites, with contrasting soil types and drainage Project Objectives characteristics, are being used to The objectives of this research are: conduct N fertilizer rate response experiments on spring barley (Figure 1). These sites are located at Johnstown Castle (poorly-drained clay

21 loam), and Castledockerell (free- draining loam) in Co. Wexford. The experiments are being conducted over three field seasons to capture a range in climatic variability. The N response studies are laid out in a randomized complete block design, with various replicated N fertilizer treatments encompassing multiple combinations of N fertilizer Figure 3. Static chamber used to formulations at different rates. The N measure nitrous oxide emissions fertilizer treatments are designed investigate the potential of nitrification Beneficial Outcomes inhibitor technology dicyandiamide Scientific impact: (DCD) and the urease inhibitor  New understanding of soil N technology nBTPT to reduce N losses. transformations and dynamics for spring tillage systems. Agronomic measurements are collected at harvest each year and  New nitrate leaching and nitrous crop N fertilizer use efficiency and oxide emission data that can be grain protein levels being determined. used for future scenario analysis and Nitrogen emissions from each of the will contribute to future GHG experimental treatments are also being inventory calculations. measured. Static chambers are Impact on industry: deployed to measure N2O emissions (Figure 3) and continuous flow  New N advice will help farmers to chambers are being used to measure produce target spring barley grain NH3 emissions from the different N yields and grain quality. fertilizer formulations. Nitrogen  We anticipate that “fine-tuning” the leaching (mainly as NO3) from the root current recommended N rates used zone (0-90cm) is being monitored by farmers will result in increased N using passive capillary fluxmeters fertilizer use efficiency and savings which were installed at both sites on farms. (Figure 2). Impact on environment:

 New N fertilizer application strategies to mitigate against N loss processes/pathways that prevail in different fields/soils.

 Reduced risks of N loss to water (NO3) and air (N2O and NH3).

Acknowledgements This project is funded by the Department of Agriculture Food and the Marine Research Stimulus Fund. Figure 2. Fluxmeter setup for measuring nitrate leaching

22 Strategies for controlling cadmium contamination in Irish food production David Wall1, Sheila Alves2, Sheila Nolan3, Stan Lalor1, Dan Milbourne2, Mary Canty3, and Denis Griffin2, 1Teagasc Environment Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2Teagasc, Oak Park 3Dept. of Agriculture Food & Marine [email protected] Introduction outcomes from the research above will be used to build a risk assessment Recent mandatory testing has shown model and decision tree, based on soil a proportion of Irish horticultural tests that will allow farmers to assess produce and bovine kidneys to be and avoid risk of Cd accumulation. above European maximum levels (MLs) for cadmium (Cd). Cadmium is a Project Objectives heavy metal and environmental contaminant which is found naturally in The objectives of this research are to: soils and at high levels in north  Provide research based advice to Leinster where much of the ensure food placed on the market horticultural industry is based. in Ireland is safe. Proposals by the European Commission to reduce MLs in  Develop national expertise, potatoes and vegetables (from 0.1 to knowledge, and research capacity 0.075 mg/kg), and in bovine kidneys, in the area of heavy metal creates an urgent need for research. contamination of food. Significant gaps in understanding the  Determine the extent of Cd processes involved will be addressed contamination of Irish food from by fundamental work on how soil the impact area. chemistry influences Cd uptake in  Characterise soil parameters plants and animals and the feasibility which control Cd availability for of using organic amendments to plant uptake. immobilize Cd in soil. The genetics and physiology of Cd accumulation in  Develop and validate risk indexes plants will be investigated in tandem and management strategies to with identifying suitable low Cd guide farmers to minimise Cd accumulating crop varieties. Focused levels in produce. field surveys of animals and plants in  Rank current and future potato the affected regions of the country will and vegetables varieties for Cd quantify the problem and highlight accumulation characteristics. causal soil factors. As part of an overall strategy to support the industry, Experimental Methods it will be necessary to provide guidance on Cd reduction strategies This project will be broken down into and on selection of land for planting the following work packages; and grazing. The quantitative

23 1. Identifying and managing soil 5. Dissemination of results and parameters which control Cd decision support tools to framers availability in Irish soil types and others working in the agricultural industry  Review of the literature pertaining to soil Cd and its availability for plant Beneficial Outcomes uptake Recent decisions to review MLs of Cd  Studies to understand Cd dynamics in foodstuffs could have a detrimental in Irish soil types (Fig 1.) effect on primary producers of potatoes, vegetables and beef in areas  Evaluating the role of organic with elevated soil Cd levels. Currently amendments for reducing Cd Ireland has no specific expertise in Cd availability and heavy metal reduction  Evaluation of results in the field. technologies for crop and animal production. It is likely that other heavy metal contaminants like lead will be on the agenda in the future. This project will ensure that . A competent research capacity exists to advise farmers to reduce and avoid Cd contamination of food and influence policy makers at the highest levels.

Figure 1. Pot studies to assess . Irish produce meets the highest cadmium uptake in potatoes safety standards and maintains its 2. Crop Variety study on Cd excellent international reputation. accumulation The project aims to  Potato variety Cd uptake screening study . deliver a suite of soil tests and a risk index that can predict Cd uptake Fresh vegetables variety Cd  from soils in both horticultural uptake screening study produce and grazing animals. 3. Field survey of soils, crops and herbage in the impact area . screen suitable vegetable varieties with reduced Cd uptake.  Paired potato and vegetable plant and soil survey . support the potato, vegetable and  Paired grass herbage and soil beef product sectors and ultimately survey. generate knowledge significant for the public good. The project will 4. Integration of results and deliver a development of a risk assessment to aid commercial decisions on where Acknowledgements crops and grazing of animals are This project is funded by the produced Department of Agriculture Food and the Marine Research Stimulus Fund

24 Mitigation of N losses with nitrification inhibitor DCD: limitations and alternative method Eddy Minet and Karl Richards [email protected]

Introduction constant (from an exponential decay model) and % nitrification inhibition. Reactive nitrogen (N) losses and Regression analysis was carried out greenhouse gas emissions from for each incubation time. agricultural soils are a source of Chitosan hydrogel beads (Figure 1) concern for animal/human health and were formed by precipitation of a the environment. To mitigate chitosan gelling solution and covalent agriculture’s environmental footprint, a crosslinking with glyoxal (O’Carroll et commercially available nitrification al., 2010). Beads also underwent a inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD) has washing step aimed to minimize the been used with some success to slow - formation of polyglyoxal inside down NO3 production and reduce N2O chitosan. Slow-release of DCD was emissions. However, inhibitors have a tested with twenty beads dropped on limited life-span in soils and repeated compacted soil (equivalent to 15 kg applications are required to maintain DCD/ha). Experimental units (soil + efficiency. The objective of this beads) incubated in triplicate at 5°C for research was i) to estimate the impact 3 times (between 1 and 7 days) were of DCD degradation on nitrification subject to 2 treatments (simulated inhibition across soils with contrasting rainfall, soil moisture) and 3 rates (low, physical and chemical characteristics, medium, high). In the rainfall treatment, and ii) to test the potential of an water was added from above after alternative application method beads addition. In the soil moisture whereby inhibitor DCD is encapsulated treatment (expressed as % of soil in a protective slow-release matrix of water holding capacity (WHC)), water biodegradable polymeric hydrogel. was added to the soil before the beads were dropped. ANOVA analyses were Materials and Methods carried out to estimate the effects of The impact of DCD degradation was treatment, rate and time. studied on twenty-one soil types (Ireland and UK) that received two treatments: 20 kg/ha NH4-N ± DCD (15 kg/ha DCD). Soil units arranged in a randomised block design were incubated in triplicate at 15°C for 6 times (between 2 days and 64 days). Samples were then extracted with 2M Figure 1. Chitosan beads loaded KCl and analysed for DCD (HPLC with DCD analysis) and NO3-N content (colorimetry). Based on these Results and Discussion measurements, two response variables Soils used in the first part of the were calculated: DCD degradation experiment (DCD degradation)

25 contained between 0.89 and 9.4 % release than soil moisture (WHC). This organic C. % sand, silt and clay ranged probably reflected the fact that beads between 21 and 68, 20 and 51, 11 and were wet more quickly and thoroughly 30, respectively. Soil pH varied when water was applied from the top between 4.6 and 7.6. DCD degradation (rain) than when moisture had to was equally variable. A 24 % DCD loss diffuse up in the hydrogel. Finally, was observed after 64 days from the higher rates of rainfall or WHC soil with the lowest constant k (1.8), significantly (p ≤ 0.0001) increased whereas a 93 % DCD loss was DCD bead release. After seven days, observed from the soil with the highest incubation caused the release of 74 to k (18.8). For most soils, % nitrification 98% of the total DCD bead content. inhibition increased sharply until Some of the DCD remaining in the incubation day 8 or 16 and stabilised or beads has been shown to be more slightly decreased thereafter. There durably trapped inside the beads. was a significant (p < 0.05, day 64 not 1 day 4 days 7 days 100% release 98 3.00 88 significant) negative correlation 85

) 2.50 80 80 80 80 80 g 74 m

( 71

l

i 68 67 o

s 63 between DCD degradation constant k 2.00 59 m 56 o r f

d

e 1.50 45 t c and % nitrification inhibition (Figure 2). a 39 r

t 35 x e 1.00 D C In other words, the higher the D 0.50 degradation rate of DCD, the lower the 0.00 Low WHC Medium High WHC Low Rain Medium Rain High Rain % nitrification inhibition. These results (41 %) WHC (48 %) (64 %) (0.1 mm) (1.0 mm) (3.1 mm) suggest that soils with faster DCD Figure 3. Amount of DCD (in mg ±SE) degradation will require more extracted from soil after incubation with frequent/higher rates of application. 20 chitosan beads at 5 °C for up to 7 This could be dealt with more days under varying rates of rainfall or % of water holding capacity (WHC) (figures conveniently (and possibly more over bars represent the percentages of efficiently) if small amounts of DCD total DCD bead content released) were consistently delivered over long periods of time. Conclusions

70 Soil type had a significant effect on the 60 0.26 ≤ R2 ≤ 0.45 8d*** 50

n efficacy of DCD for inhibiting o i t i 31d* b

i 40 h

n 4d*** i

n nitrification through effects on DCD

o 30 i t a c i 16d** f 2d*** i

r 20 t i degradation. For DCD to efficiently n

% 10

0 mitigate N losses to the environment,

-10 0 5 10 15 soil type specific application timings DCD degradation constant k and rates need to be established. Figure.2. Linear regression lines Alternatively, the use of a chitosan between DCD degradation constant and hydrogel has shown some potential to % nitrification inhibition after 2, 4, 8, 16 slowly release DCD in soil under and 31 day-incubations (2d, 4d, 8d, 16d moderate moisture conditions, but and 31d respectively) (*** p ≤ 0 .001, ** p ≤ 0.005, * p ≤0 .05; day 64 not sig.) more research is needed to improve this new technology. In the second part of the study, the incubation of beads in soil resulted in a Acknowledgements delayed release of DCD (Figure 3). We thank the Department of DCD soil release significantly Agriculture Food and the Marine for increased with time (p ≤ 0.0001). funding provided by the Research Treatment also had a significant effect Stimulus Fund Programme (RSF 07 (p ≤ 0.0001): rainfall caused more DCD 545).

26 27 Gaseous Emissions

28 AGRI-I: The Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Initiative for Ireland Gary Lanigan, Karl Richards, Rachel Creamer Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction year. This will allow for the inclusion of mitigation strategies in the inventories The Agricultural Greenhouse Gas such as switching from CAN, altered Research Initiative for Ireland (AGGRI- fertiliser timing and low N dietary I) is an organizational and strategies. In addition, the effect of N collaborative framework designed to a) inhibitors will be quantified for build a critical mass of scientific inventory inclusion. In addition, the expertise in GHG research and b) co- effect of nitrification and urease ordinate uniform measurement inhibitors are also being measured in protocols. order to generate seperate emission facotrs for these chemicals, allowing Aims their inclusion in inventory calculations. The specific aims of the Initiative are as follows: Quantification of grassland C sequestration  Develop Tier 2 nitrous oxide emission factors This project is developing land-use factors (the C sequestration potential)  Quantify C sequestration potential associated with grassland and of managed grasslands across a cropland systems across a range of range of soil types. soil types. This is the first step to pasture management inclusion in  Develop biogeochemical models inventories and also quantifies gross that will allow for a move to Tier 3 sequestration for managed pasture for emission factors. use in Life Cycle Analysis. Further develop mitigation  The project is also quantifying the strategeis for enteric methane effect of pasture management on C emissions from livestock. sequestration. The management In order to achieve these aims, the options being explored include the Initative workplan consists of four core effects of stocking rate, drainage, projects. biochar application and organic manure application. Developing Disaggregated Nitrous Oxide Emission Factors. Biogeochemical Modelling of GHG emissions. This project is developing Tier 2 nitrous oxide emission factors. This project is developing process Specifically, emission factors are being models to simulate GHG emissions at disaggregated between N source both the site and regional scale. (CAN, urea, urine, dung), soil type and Detailed models aid in the temporally for different times of the interpretation of experimental results 29 and alteration of colostrum/milk feeding and weaning strategies. The and identify the consequences of the primary hypothesis is that the initial experimental set-up chosen and the microbial implantation in the rumen key factors underlying the influences the microbial ecosystem observations. Also these models aid in later in life. One aspect of this is pinpointing the difficulties and transfer of the maternal microbiome to uncertainties with inventories of offspring. This may contribute to greenhouse gas emissions on a stability of the rumen microbiome in regional or even higher scale) These later life (e.g. reversion to the original models being useed include RothC/ community after rumen swapping). Ecosse (Smith et al. 2007) as well as The project will extend the work on more complex models such as DNDC stability of the rumen microbiome to (LI et al. 2001) and DailyDAYCENT. important diet transitions in These models allow for country- growing/adult animals, such as the specific climateic conditions to be change from grazing to finishing diets. accounted for, as well as site/region- Work with twins will allow us to make specific management and can be used comparisons against a common as a tool for scenario-testing and genetic background. This proejcy is an policy development and is also international collaborative project also developing the data archive for the being funded by the Joint Initaitive. Programming Initiative (JPI). Understanding the development and control of stability in the Acknowledgements rumen microbiome This initiative has been co-financed by COFORD and the Research Stimulus This project addresses effects of Fund. management history on the interaction between the host and its microbiome and on methane production. This project will investigate the use of natural additives

Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Initiative - Ireland

30 Assessing Ammonia Volatilization as Influenced by Fertiliser Nitrogen Source, Urease and Nitrification Inhibitors Patrick Forrestal1, Mary Harty1,2, Gary Lanigan1, John Murphy1, Ronnie Laughlin2, Dominika Krol1 and Karl Richards1. 1Johnstown Castle Research Centre, 2Queens University Belfast, 3Agri Food & Biosciences Institute [email protected] cover. Generally greater evaporation Introduction results in greater loss and 10 mm Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) is precipitation or more will slow NH3-N the most widely used straight nitrogen loss (Meisinger and Jokela, 2000). (N) source in Ireland. However, nitrate Precipitation is relatively dependable in (NO3-N) is vulnerable to leaching and de-nitrification loss pathways under the the Irish climate. However, cool humid conditions of Ireland. precipitation may not occur for several days following fertilizer Urea-N An alternative N source is urea-N application, the period of greatest loss which is less expensive per unit N potential. Hydrolysis of Urea-N can be compared with CAN. Currently Urea-N delayed using urease inhibitors such use is concentrated in the early spring as N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide with relatively little utilized later in the (NBPT) increasing the likelihood of a growing season. precipitation event to wash urea-N into the soil matrix before loss can occur. A potential challenge with greater adoption of Urea-N potentially This study will evaluate how NH3-N increased ammonia-N (NH3-N) loss via loss potential is impacted by fertilizer N volatilization. Such loss is problematic source, N source blending, and the for several reasons: i) it represents an use of N inhibitors. economic loss of N, ii) it contributes to eutrophication in aquatic and low-N Materials and Methods input ecosystems through atmospheric This research is being conducted at transport and deposition, and iii) three grassland sites, a loam soil at Ireland has committed to reduce Johnstown Castle, Co. Wexford; a emissions of gases including ammonia sandy loam soil at Moorepark, Co. under the Gothenburg Protocol and Cork; and a clay loam at Hillsborough the National Emissions Ceiling in Northern Ireland. Directive (NECD) (2001/81/EC). The experimental design is a Some risk factors for increased randomised block, with three volatilization loss include: i) increasing replicates. The fertiliser N sources temperatures, ii) increasing wind being evaluated are CAN-N, Urea-N, speeds, iii) increasing solar radiation and a CAN-N + Urea-N blend. The N and iv) soil characteristics such as pH, inhibitor treatments being investigated moisture and residue or vegetation

31 Expected Results are NBPT, DCD, and NBPT + DCD in Utilization of N source and N inhibitor combination with Urea-N. combinations are expected to mitigate NH3-N loss potential associated with Urea-N use in Irish agriculture. This work aims to assess N loss potential and mitigation for greater use of Urea- N which is less expensive than CAN per kg N and which as more concentrated N source provides a transport saving.

Acknowledgements This work is funded by the Department of Agriculture Food and the Marine Research Stimulus Fund. Figure 1. Ammonia plot layout. References The total annual rates being examined Meisinger, J. J. and W. E. Jokela, are 0, 200, and 400, kg N ha -1 applied 2000. Ammonia Volatilization from in five equal splits following five grass Dairy and Poultry Manure, in harvests in a simulated grazing Managing Nutrients and Pathogens rotation. Ammonia emissions will be from Animal Agriculture, NRAES-130, measured using a dynamic chamber Natural Resource, Agriculture, and technique for a period of 4 weeks Engineering Service (NRAES), pp 334- following fertiliser N application. 354, Cooperative Extension, 152 Riley-Robb Hall, Ithaca NY, 14853- 5701.

Figure 2. Dynamic chamber.

32 Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Emissions from Manure Management Nicola Rochford, Stan Lalor, Gary Lanigan Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction Materials and Methods Animal production systems are the Two incubation experiments were largest contributors to greenhouse gas conducted to assess the effect of (GHG) and ammonia (NH3) emissions. temperature, diet and retention time on In Ireland, the contribution to GHG a range of different slurries during emissions from agriculture are 70% as storage. methane (CH ), 28.5% as nitrous 4 Slurry collection oxide (N2O) and 1.5% as carbon dioxide (CO2). Manure management Slurry was collected from four different represents 20% of methane emissions. animal types, each fed three different The emissions from manure diets. The animals were two dry dairy management are approximately 12.5% cows, two dry suckler cows, two 13 of Ireland’s total agricultural GHG month old steers and two eight month emissions. old heifers. The diets were i) 100% grass silage, ii) 50% grass silage and Approximately 98% of Ireland’s NH3 emissions come from agriculture with 50% concentrates and iii) ad lib 82% coming from cattle systems. concentrates and straw. The diets Ammonia is released from many were fed for 10 days prior to collection. different farm activities: landspreading Collection period was for seven days (39%), manure storage (4%), animal or until 200 litres were collected from housing (40%) with the remaining 17% each animal-diet pairing. coming from grazing animals. Nitrous Experiment 1 - 14 day storage period oxide emissions are lower from liquid manure storage systems than from The experiment was conducted in four solid manure stores (FYM). controlled environment rooms, with slurries incubated in a randomised In theory, gaseous emissions from block design with four replications for a manure storage are governed by the two week incubation period. Each storage temperature, the length of the room was randomly assigned storage period, and the slurry temperatures of 5°, 10°, 15° and 20°C, characterisitics and composition. with a relative humidity of 80%. The The objective of this study was to manure was defrosted, then mixed and assess the impact of manure storage 4 kg of homogenised slurry was placed temperature, animal type, diet and into 5 kg open chambers, labelled and duration of storage on the emissions of placed into each room. Each animal - diet pairing was duplicated. Gas NH3, CH4 and N2O from a range of cattle slurries. samples were taken 33 on days 0, 5, 9, 14 with slurry samples taken on days 0 and 14. Experiment 2 - 16 week storage The manures used in this experiment were subsampled from the manures collected during the initial collection period. The manures were incubated in 5 litre open cylinders at a temperature of 10° C and at 80% relative humidity. Each animal - diet pairing were stored in triplicate within Figure 1. Experimental set-up in the the environmental room. Gas samples environment room were taken on days 0, 5, 9, 14 and then once a week until day 112, with Conclusions slurry samples taken on days 0, 14 and day 112. It was found that temperature had a significant effect on CH4 emissions, Results and Discussion with emissions also decreasing with increasing DM content. Temperature Temperature had a significant effect did not effect NH3 or N2O emissions. on log-transformed CH4 emissions at Ammonia emissions were significantly temperatures greater than 10°C. It was affected by TAN and DM content and found that increasing TAN and DM N2O emissions were unaffected by content within manure increased NH3 slurry characteristic, temperature or emissions but reduced CH4 emissions. retention time. Methane increased over the first nine days of storage, NH3 decreased over Acknowledgements the same period, with no effect of storage time on N O emissions. This work has been co-financed by 2 BATFARM Interreg-Atlantic Area Diet three appears to have lower Project (2009-1/071) with support from emissions associated with it. The the European Union ERDF – Atlantic younger animals had higher average Area Programme and the Teagasc CH4 emissions across diet one and two Walsh Fellowship Scheme. but were lower on diet three. However, the older animals had higher average NH3 emissions on all three diets when compared to the younger animals. Diet had varying effects on N2O emissions. Agitation of the manures on day 112 caused a spike effect on CH4 emissions and increased NH3 emissions slightly, but had little effect on N2O emissions.

34 Assessing the potential for carbon sequestration in grazed Irish grasslands Órlaith Ní Choncubhair and Gary Lanigan Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction gleys (90%) and grey brown podzolics (10%). The grass-clover swards were Climate change policy demands that rotationally grazed at a stocking rate of environmental sustainability underpins 2.4 cows ha-1. The second site at future growth in the agricultural sector. Johnstown Castle has sandy loam Concerns about the impact of global textured soil and moderate to good climate change have led to the drainage. The annual stocking rate is adoption of demanding emission 3.2 cows ha-1 and the herd is reduction targets at an EU level, which managed under an intensive rotational include curbing greenhouse gas grazing system. Both sites were (GHG) emissions in the agricultural instrumented with open-path eddy sector by 20%. The future expansion covariance systems which enabled and intensification of the beef and spatially integrated measurement of dairy sectors envisaged in the Food CO2, water and energy fluxes over an Harvest 2020 Report (DAFF, 2010) area of one to several paddocks must therefore be accompanied by a (depending on atmospheric reduction in the GHG intensity of turbulence) (Figure 1). Ireland’s agricultural activities and an enhancement of natural carbon storage. Grassland ecosystems in temperate climates are generally net carbon sinks, however grazing management, fertiliser input and climatic variability can have a significant impact on ecosystem Figure 1. Components of the eddy carbon dynamics (Soussana et al., covariance systems consisting of a 2004). The aim of this research was to 3-D sonic anemometer and fast investigate the potential for carbon response CO2 infra-red gas sequestration in grazed grasslands analyser. and to gain an understanding of the The raw 10Hz data was averaged over main drivers of carbon cycling in these 30-minute intervals and daily and long- ecosystems. term cumulative values were Materials and Methods determined following quality analysis and gap-filling procedures. Footprint The research was conducted on two analysis, based on the analytical dairy farms with contrasting soil types model of Kormann & Meixner (2001), and grazing intensity. The Solohead was employed to eliminate Research Farm in Co. Tipperary is contributions from areas outside of the characterized by low permeability soils investigated paddocks. Plant biomass and is dominated by poorly-drained yields were determined prior to grazing

35 and sward height was measured on a and Johnstown Castle. C assimilation weekly basis. by the ecosystem through photosynthesis outbalanced Results and Discussion respiratory release for all months up Daily totals for net ecosystem until December. exchange (NEE) of carbon at the Solohead site are shown in Figure 2, in addition to cumulative values for gross primary productivity (GPP), total ecosystem respiration (Reco) and NEE. Assimilation of carbon by the grassland ecosystem exceeded total respiratory losses for the 9-month interval from April to December leading to a net uptake (negative Figure 3. Monthly-averaged daily cumulative NEE) of -247 g C m-2 over fluxes of Reco and GPP at (a) this period. Intensive grazing led to a Solohead and (b) Johnstown Castle. decrease in leaf area and, in turn, a clear reduction in GPP, the magnitude Conclusions of which was dependent on the Net ecosystem uptake of carbon was intensity and duration of grazing. observed at both grassland sites, with net C assimilation occurring even in the less productive winter months and at comparable rates. Grazing had an influence on the rate and direction of carbon flux, highlighting the importance of management effects on the overall carbon balance. Figure 2. Daily totals of net Measurements continue to assess the ecosystem exchange (NEE) (grey annual carbon balance of grazed trace) and cumulative sums of grasslands and to elucidate further the gross primary productivity (GPP), drivers of C dynamics in these total ecosystem respiration (Reco) systems. and NEE for the Solohead site. Acknowledgements C uptake also outweighed C release in This work was undertaken as part of the Johnstown Castle grassland, the EU-FP7 AnimalChange project resulting in a net C sink over the 5- (Grant Agreement 266018). month period from August to December of -93 g C m-2. References Comparison of cumulative ecosystem DAFF (2010) Food Harvest 2020. fluxes in both sites for the same time DAFM, Dublin. period showed very similar patterns, with the Solohead site providing a Soussana, J.-F., Loiseau, P., comparable net C uptake of -107 g C Vuichard, N., Ceschia, E., Balesdent, m-2. J., Chevallier, T. & Arrouays, D. (2004) Soil Use Manage. 20: 219-230. Figure 3 shows daily Reco and GPP values averaged for each month of the Kormann, R., & Meixner, F.X. (2001) measurement campaigns at Solohead Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 99: 207- 224. 36 Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Emissions from Animal Housing Nicola Rochford, Stan Lalor, Gary Lanigan Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction differing in slatted surface, with one tank having concrete slats, and the In Ireland, methane emissions account other having curved slat mats fitted for 70% of our National greenhouse with valves designed to restrict air gas (GHG) emissions, with 80% of CH4 passage from the under-slat to the coming from enteric fermentation. above-slat air space. Approximately 98% of Ireland’s ammonia (NH3) emissions come from Housing on the first dairy farm (DFa) agriculture with 82% coming from consisted of a naturally-ventilated shed cattle, 40% of which come from animal with four separate tanks that were housing. There are currently few aerated four times daily. The second empirical gaseous emissions studies farm (DFb) had cubicle housing with on housing and storage systems in slurry being removed by regular Ireland, and emissions inventories are scraping into an outdoor open tank currently generated using Tier 1 adjacent to the shed. methodologies. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate two beef farms (BFa, b) and two dairy farms (DFa, b) in Ireland with differing manure management systems and report on the CH4 and NH3 emissions associated with housing and storage from each management system.

Materials and Methods

Ammonia and CH4 emissions were measured on four farms in Ireland. These comprised two beef farms and three dairy farms with varying diets, Figure 1. Diet and manure slurry management systems and management system having an animal types. One beef farm (BFa) had effect on ammonia emissions. three under-floor slatted slurry tanks in naturally ventilated sheds. Emissions on the second beef farm (BFb) were measured from two separate tanks within the same naturally ventilated slatted shed, with each tank having the same animal type and diet, but

37 Results and Discussion -1 -1 Ammonia emissions were observed to LW d for steers on BFb. The highest be highly variable across all farms, with emissions on farm BFb may be due to daily mean fluxes ranging between 4.5 the fact that the measurement period -1 -1 encompassed several agitation events g NH3-N 500 kg LW d and 33.1 g -1 -1 resulting in ebullition of methane from NH3-N 500 kg LW d . The mean ammonia emission across all farms the slurry tank. Despite these high -1 - levels, slat mats and valves were was 16.6 ± 8.4 g NH3-N 500 kg LW d 1. The lowest emissions were ssociated with reductions in methane associated with beef cattle housing emissions of 35%. Methane emissions that had employed slat mats with from dairy cows fed a predominantly valves, where ammonia emissions maize diet were 41% lower compared were 60% lower than from the adjacent to cows on a grass silage-based diet tank with no mats and valves. on Farm DFa. Emissions associated However, there were no differences in with a predominantly maize silage diet emissions associated with either are likely to have resulted in reduced grooved or curved mats on farm BFa. emissions due to changes in slurry C:N ratio. Comparably low methane values Emissions from the outdoor lagoon on -1 -1 dairy farm DFb were 70% lower than (45 - 47 g CH4-C 500 kg LW d ) were recorded on beef farm BFa and these the mean NH3 emission rate at the other dairy farm and this may be emissions were independent of animal related to lower air temperatures type. The effect of aeration on associated with outdoor storage. In methane emissions was inconclusive. contrast, some of the highest ammonia Conclusions emissions were associated with housing that had employed automatic Emissions were highly variable across aeration systems to agitate the slurry all farms, with animal typre, diet and (DFa) as aeration promoted manure management system having volatilisation. an effect on emissions. The mean methane emission rate Acknowledgements across all farms and cattle type was -1 -1 This work has been co-financed by 112 ± 93 g CH -C 500 kg LW d with 4 BATFARM Interreg-Atlantic Area mean daily fluxes ranging from 44 g -1 -1 Project (2009-1/071) with support from CH -C 500 kg LW d for steers and 4 the European Union ERDF – Atlantic heifers on BFa to 300 g CH -C 500 kg 4 Area Programme and the Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme.

38 Reducing nitrous oxide emissions from grazed grasslands using animal intake of DCD Karl Richards , Gary Lanigan Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected] emissions. The project is comprised of Introduction 3 tasks: Nitrogen (N) losses from grazed pasture systems can be relatively large 1. Quantify the field deposition of and in Ireland this is an important DCD in urine from cows treated contributor to agricultural impacts on with DCD-amended feed. This will water quality and on greenhouse gas also include determination of the emissions. The main source of the N variability in rate of DCD deposited loss, via nitrate leaching and nitrous in urine patches in the field. The frequency distribution of the range oxide (N2O) emissions, is urine excreted by grazing animals in small of DCD rates in urine patches will localised patches at very high N rates. be use in determining the optimum One of the few mitigation options rate of administration to animals available to farmers to decrease these for subsequent studies N2O emissions is use of the nitrification 2. Quantify the efficacy of DCD inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD). excreted in urine on N2O Previous research in Johnstown castle emissions across a range of has shown that DCD can significantly conditions. This data will be reduce N2O emissions by up to 70%. included in modelling the However, the current expensive implications for grazed systems in recommended practice is to broadcast Ireland, New Zealand and DCD over grazed fields within 7 days Australia. of grazing. Potentially this can be greatly simplified and the costs 3. Modelling of data arising from the reduced markedly by providing the experiments using a range of DCD (which is non-toxic) directly to national models from Ireland, New animals which is excreted in urine in an Zealand and Australia. unaltered form. The proof-of-concept for this potential technology has been Methodology carried out and studies have shown DCD will be mixed with different animal that over 90% of the DCD ingested is feedstuffs and fed to dry cows. excreted in urine and effectively Approximately 50 urine patches will be inhibits nitrification of urine-N in soil. identified in the field and sampled over a one-day period. The soil samples will Project objectives be extracted and analysed for DCD The overall aim of the project is to concentration by HPLC. These data investigate the efficacy of including will be used to calculate the rate of DCD in cattle feed on DCD excretion in DCD in the individual urine patches urine and the impact on reducing N2O and develop a frequency distribution to determine the variability. Daily urine 39 patch sampling and analysis will be repeated on several occasions so temporal variability can be examined. Average data for the DCD rate in urine, in conjunction with data on patch size and number of urinations, will be used to obtain an estimate of the proportion of the DCD provided in feed that is excreted in urine.

Figure 2 Field measurement of N2O using static chambers.

Expected results This project will investigate the potential use of DCD in animal feed as a cost effective mitigation method for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The project will identify if there are any potential negative effects of DCD Figure 1 Efficacy of DCD fed to feeding on food quality. cows will be quantified using urine DCD application rates and Acknowledgments emissions of nitrous oxide. This work is co-funded by Ministry of Primary Industries under the New The potential of residual DCD Zealand Fund for Global Partnerships contamination of the animals will be in Livestock Emissions Research. investigated through analysis of tissue, blood and milk will be conducted. Urine will be collected from cows fed DCD and control cows with no DCD feeding. The urine will be applied to grassland plots and N2O emissions will be quantified using the static chamber method (Fig. 2). Headspace samples will be analysed for N2O using standard methods by gas chromatography. Modelling will be used to examine a range of scenarios related to different rates and timing of DCD use in feed to grazing animals to develop optimum strategies for reducing N2O emissions. Similar modelling of beef cattle systems will also be carried out. The existing Moorepark dairy model and Grange beef model will be used.

40 Fertilizer formulation and N2O emissions Mary Harty1,3 Karl Richards1, John B. Murphy1, Gary Lanigan1, Patrick Forrestal1, Dominika Krol1, Ronnie Laughlin2, Catherine Watson2 and Chris Elliot3 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2 Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute 3 Queens University Belfast [email protected]

Introduction with a urease inhibitor on nitrogen use efficiency, reducing fertiliser costs and Fertiliser use is the largest variable nitrous oxide emissions. The project cost on Irish farms, currently will also provide emission factors for accounting for over €400m annually. different fertiliser types and application Nitrogen fertiliser is an important timings. source of national greenhouse gas emissions, currently accounting for Materials and Methods 2.9% of total annual emissions. Increasing nitrogen efficiency is also This experiment is taking place on an important target for achieving the permanent pasture at 2 sites: Food Harvest 2020 targets to ensure Johnstown Castle, Co. Wexford and sustainability both in financial and Moorepark, Co. Cork. The environmental terms. The use of experimental design at each site is a nitrate based fertilisers, under wet randomised block, with each block temperate conditions in Ireland, can replicated five times. Fertiliser formulation treatments investigated result in fertiliser nitrous oxide (N2O) emission factors of >10% compared to include: 5 rates each of (a) CAN, (b) the default value of 1% (Watson et al. Urea and (c) Urea + Agrotain, at 100, 2009). Switching from nitrate to 200, 300, 400 and 500 kg N Ha -1, ammonium based fertilisers has the one rate each of (d) Urea + DCD and (e) Urea + Agrotain + DCD at 200 kg N potential to decrease direct N2O emissions by up to 60%, improve Ha -1 and (f) a control with no fertilizer nitrogen efficiency and reduce direct applied. There are eighteen plots per fertiliser costs. Whilst increased use of block, each corresponding to one ammonium-based fertilisers could treatment. increase our national ammonia (NH3) Both the N2O production and the emissions, the use of urease inhibitors Agronomic yields for each fertiliser can decrease NH3 emissions by up to formulation are measured. N2O is 70%. Reducing national CAN use by measured using the static chamber 36%, by substitution with urea and method (Figure 1). inhibitors, could ultimately save Irish farmers €9.5m annually, representing N2O will be measured for each a win-win solution for Irish farmers in treatment over a 12 month period in reducing both costs and greenhouse compliance with IPCC guidelines. gas emissions. The objective of this Ammonia emissions also will be project is to evaluate the effect of quantified using a dynamic chamber switching from CAN to urea and urea approach (see Figure 2). 41 increase the unit cost of N, the current price differential between straight urea and CAN fertilisers would allow potential for an urea+inhibitor formulation to offer costs saving compared with CAN.

Figure 2. Dynamic Chambers Figure 1. Static Chambers Examples of these products are Agronomic measurements of dry becoming commercially available in matter (DM) yield and N uptake will be Ireland. Information on relative value measured and used to quantify the of these products based on N nitrogen use efficiency of the different efficiency will be required by farmers fertiliser treatments. The N2O and advisors. The data from this emissions data will also be used to project will provide this information and calculate the N2O emission factor for advice. each fertiliser treatment. Acknowledgements Expected Results This work is funded by the Walsh Considering the opportunity to expand Fellowship Scheme and the agricultural production, as forecast in Department of Agriculture, Food and Food Harvest 2020, and the the Marine Research Stimulus Fund. requirement to meet future GHG and air quality targets, there is an urgent References need to quantify strategies that will Watson, C.J., Laughlin, R.J & reduce reactive N emissions. In McGeough, K.L. (2009). Modification addition, strategies that optimise the of nitrogen fertilisers using inhibitors: use of N fertilisers will improve farm Opportunities and potentials for profitability whilst reducing the carbon improving nitrogen use efficiency. footprint of agricultural produce. Proceedings No 658. 40pp. Although the addition of an inhibitor in International Fertiliser Society, York, the formulation of urea fertilisers would UK.

42 Nitrogen cycle processes and greenhouse gas balance in wetland in an urban landscape Mohammad M.R. Jahangir1,2, Karl G. Richards2, Owen Fenton2 and Paul Johnston1 1Trinity College Dublin; 2Johnstown Castle Environ. Res. Center [email protected]

Introduction Moreover, wetland ecosystems services require better understanding Reactive nitrogen (N) emissions to air of N cycle processes to estimate and and waters greatly contribute to mitigate reactive N deliveries to climate change and environmental ground and surface waters. The pollution (Schepers and Raun, 2009). research proposed here will measure Researchers have measured surface N cycle processes and will estimate emissions of N2O, CO2 and CH4 in losses of C and N via groundwater terrestrial ecosystems and have along with surface and subsurface estimated watershed-scale GHGs emissions. The data obtained greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. will be used to estimate wetland C and However, they have not incorporated N dynamics, refine Irish GHG indirect emissions of dissolved N2O, inventories and C and N balances and CO2 and CH4 in groundwater which suggest appropriate mitigation options adds significant uncertainty to their for optimization of wetland ecosystem greenhouse gas assessments. Upon services. discharges to surface waters GHGs have significant effects on aquatic Materials and Method biogeochemistry and ocean acidification. The N cycle processes The experiment will be conducted in a have been studied in agricultural and wetland in urban landscape (Co. forest ecosystems but there remains a Waterford, Ireland). Rates of potential dearth of information on these net N mineralization and nitrification, processes in wetland in urban denitrification, and respiration will be ecosystems (Figure 1). measured in 10-day incubations of soils after treating with and without C sources. Soils will be placed in 946 mL “mason” jars with lids fitted with septa for gas sampling (Figure 2). After 10 days, the headspace of the jars will be sampled by syringe, and the gas samples will be analyzed for GHGs by gas chromatography with electron capture (N2O) or thermal conductivity (CO2) or flame ionization (CH4) detection. Soil- atmosphere fluxes of Figure 1. A typical wetland (R. GHGs will be measured using the in Harrington) situ chamber method at a week intervals in two different seasons: winter and summer. 43 The wetland site under study has high ammonium conc. in groundwater (Table 1), indicating a potential threat to water quality. Study of C and N dynamics will elucidate the production processes and fate of ammonium and thus develop possible mitigation options of hazardous effects of the reactive N for an improved ecosystem Figure 2. Gas sampling from an air services for wetland ecosystem. tight jar with soil core inside Expected Results Gas samples will be transferred to Quantify the effect of using evacuated glass vials, which will be constructed wetlands for the treatment stored at room temperature before of contaminated water. Estimation of analysis by gas chromatography. - indirect N2O, CO2 and CH4 emissions Leachate samples for DOC, HCO3 , - in wetland will reduce the uncertainty dissolved CO2,N2O, and CH4, NO3 , + in regional and global GHG budgets. NH4 , DON, TN will be collected using The work will also increase our basic zero tension lysimeters installed at 50 science understanding of how cm depth. Dissolved GHGs will be greenhouse gas fluxes are linked to extracted using headspace extraction soil C and N cycle processes and of (Figure 3). how the biogeochemical dynamics of + - reactive N (NH4 , NO2 ,N2O, - denitrified N2, NO3 ) in soils/subsoils regulate delivery to surface waters.

Acknowledgements This work is funded by the Irish Research Council and Teagasc through the Enterprise Partnership Postdoctoral Fellowship Scheme.

References Figure 3. Extraction of dissolved Schepers, J.S., and Raun, W.R. 2008. gas Nitrogen in agricultural systems. p. 964. Agronomy monograph no. 49. Denitrified N2 in leachate will be Amer. Soc. Agron., Crop Sci. Soc. analyzed using membrane inlet mass Amer., Soil Sci. Amer., Madison, WI. spectrometer (MIMS). Soil solution chemistry will be analyzed using standard methods and facilities available in Teagasc Environment Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Ireland. Estimation of annual leaching losses will be calculated by using the volume of effective rainfall, estimated for the experimental site.

44 45 Agricultural Ecology

46 The sustainable management of the priority terrestrial Habitats Directive Annex 1 habitats of the Aran Islands Daire Ó hUallacháin, John Finn Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]; [email protected] This LIFE project represents the only Introduction large-scale, action-based nature The Aran Islands are an extremely conservation initiative ever to have important site for a number of priority been planned for the Aran Islands. terrestrial habitats under the Habitats Directive (Annex 1). Since the 1970s Objectives the Aran Islands have come under a 1. Demonstrate best management succession of national and EU techniques to both maintain, and environmental designations, such that bring sites to, favourable condition over 75% of the total land area of the by addressing the threats of land Aran Islands is now designated as abandonment, under-grazing, Natura 2000 sites. intensification, loss of traditional However, changing agricultural management systems and practices threaten the conservation associated loss of knowledge. value of the islands’ habitats. The 2. Improve the conservation status of area’s farms have a highly fragmented priority habitats on the islands e.g. and small structure. Herd size is low, Limestone pavement, Orchid-rich with most herds numbering less than calcareous grasslands and Machair. 10. Poor economic return from such 3. Enhance understanding, and small holdings is leading to a reduction appreciation of the key stakeholders of farming on the islands. The Dept of with the conservation of priority Agriculture estimates that the number habitats on the Aran Islands. of farms on the islands has decreased by more than 30% in the last 15 years. 4. Recommend appropriate support This is a result of abandonment and mechanisms for farming on the Aran consolidation. Islands that will address the issues that threaten the status of the The main threats to the habitats on the priority habitats of the islands. islands are land abandonment, under- grazing, inappropriate management practices, loss of traditional farm knowledge and skills and lack of understanding and engagement among key stakeholders. Despite the wealth of information on the natural history of the islands there has been no targeted conservation effort in the Figure 1. Orchid-rich calcareous project area. grassland on Inis Oirr 47 Materials and Methods ecologically sensitive management A range of complementary actions will of priority habitats. be required to meet these objectives,  A raised awareness and including: appreciation amongst the island community and other stakeholders  Demonstrating the best of the conservation importance of management techniques for the the natural heritage on their sustainable management of priority farmland. habitats, through the maintenance of optimal grazing on the grazed land  Upskilling of up to 220 farmers on of the Aran Islands. the conservation techniques required in order to maintain and  Reintroducing specific management further enhance condition of priority systems that are integral for the habitats within their farms. sustainable management of the priority habitats, such as targeted Acknowledgements optimal grazing and scrub and bracken control. This work is funded by EU LIFE+  Awareness-raising, education and outreach programmes.  Submission of recommendations on optimal management practices for the target habitats to relevant Government Agencies and Departments, for their use in the formulation of all relevant national and local policies.

Expected benefits  An improvement in the conservation Figure 2. Small fields on Aran status of priority habitats comprised Islands of Limestone pavement, Orchid-rich calcareous grasslands and Machair.  Tested and evaluated methodologies for the sustainable management and utilisation of priority terrestrial Habitats Directive Annex 1 habitats of the Aran Islands.  The sustainable management of priority habitats on the Aran Islands, with the demonstration of the above techniques to up to 220 farmers on the Aran Islands.  The distribution of best practice Figure 3. Scrub encroachment as a guides to encourage more effective result of land abandonment on Aran Islands.

48 Sward diversity benefits yield and weed suppression over 3 years John Finn1, Laura Kirwan1,2, Caroline Brophy3 Alan Cuddihy1, John Connolly4, Andreas Lüscher5 1Teagasc, Johnstown Castle, 2Waterford Institute of Technology, 3National University of Ireland, Maynooth, 4University College Dublin, 5Agroscope, Switzerland [email protected] exceeded the average yield of Background monocultures, and transgressive There is increased interest in the overyielding (better than best- agronomic and environmental benefits performing monoculture) occurred at of multi-species mixtures. We 70% of sites with a ratio of mixture to investigated a number of basic best-performing monoculture = 1.18 questions about the relationship (Fig. 3). between diversity and ecosystem functions in an agronomic model system. It was hypothesised that (a) multi-species mixtures can outperform monocultures both in terms of productivity and weed suppression, (b) the diversity benefits will be persistent through time, and (c) the diversity benefits will be consistent across a wide geographical scale.

Materials and Methods A common experiment was Figure 1. Harvesting of plots. established at 31 sites across Europe and Canada. At all sites, mixtures Within each year, there was a highly consisted of two legumes (L1 and L2) significant relationship (p<0.0001) and two grasses (G1 and G2); with between sward evenness (quadratic the species chosen for each location relationship) and the diversity effect from one of four standard species- (excess of mixture performance over groups. Using a simplex design that predicted from the monoculture (Kirwan et al. 2007), 15 communities performances of component species) were sown with systematically varying (Fig. 2). At lower evenness values, proportions of two fixed levels of increases in community evenness overall initial abundance (seed resulted in an increased diversity biomass) of the four species (Fig. 1). effect, but the diversity effect was not significantly different from the Results maximum diversity effect across a wide range of higher evenness values. The yield of the sown species (excluding weeds) in mixtures typically

49 In mixtures, median values indicate Conclusions <4% of weed biomass in total yield Four-species mixtures generally (sown species + weeds), whereas the yielded more than the best-performing median percentage of weeds in monoculture at each site. Mixtures monocultures increased from 15% in maintained a resistance to weed year 1 to 32% in year 3. invasion over at least three years. The relationship between the diversity effect and sward evenness indicates the robustness of the diversity effect to changes in species’ relative abundances. Acknowledgements Supported by the EU Commission through COST Action 852. L.K. supported by an award from Science Foundation Ireland Figure 2. Predicted diversity effect (09/RFP/EOB2546). (yield of sown species) from quadratic evenness model over References three years and across all sites. Finn, J.A. et al. 2013. Ecosystem Horizontal lines below the function enhanced by combining four regression curves indicate the functional types of plant species in range of evenness over which the intensively-managed grassland diversity effect was not mixtures: a three-year continental- significantly (p > 0.05) smaller than scale field experiment. Journal of the maximum diversity effect. Applied Ecology 50: 365-375.

Figure 3. (Below) Average annual yield (dry matter) of sown agronomic species (excludes weeds) at each of 31 sites. Open circles represent the eleven mixture communities that differed in their relative abundance at sowing; horizontal bars represent the yield of the best-performing monoculture; boxes represent the mean monoculture performance. Significant transgressive overyielding indicated by the * symbol over a site at the top of each panel.

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50 Plant biodiversity hotspot identification in Ireland Caroline Sullivan1, John Finn1 and Matthew Jebb2 1Teagasc Environment Research Centre, Johnstown Castle 2 National Botanic Gardens, Dublin [email protected]

Introduction overall coverage so analyses focused on this area. From a conservation point Halting the loss of biodiversity is an of view all plants are not equal. We important goal for the European Union focused on native plants for our (EC, 2008). In the UK statutory analysis (Figure 1). protected areas cover less than one third of the total number of occurrence records for Red List plant species ¯ (Jackson and Gaston 2009). This shows that in the wider countryside there are areas that are important for plant biodiversity. However, in Ireland Number of native plants 0 - 100 there is a lack of knowledge on the 101 - 150

0 5 10 20 Kilometers 151 - 200 distribution of plant biodiversity outside 201 - 259 of protected areas. Knowing the Figure 1. Number of native plant current distribution of plant biodiversity records per tetrad for County would allow more effective monitoring Waterford. and targeted plant conservation measures (Balmford et al, 2005) e.g. We assigned a conservation value to through agri-environment schemes. A each native plant by applying the national map would allow easy following criteria; if the plant was native identification of high biodiversity areas it received a value of one, if the plant that may need to be taken into account was a semi-natural habitat indicator it when making planning or land- received a value of two, if the plant management decisions and areas of was an Annex I habitat indicator it low biodiversity that should be targeted received a value of three and finally, if for restoration or specific conservation the plant was rare it received a value of measures. This research aims to four (Table1). create a national map of plant We also took into account the plant biodiversity at a tetrad (2x2km) scale. distribution across the country assigning values between 1 and 6.This Materials and Methods was done using BSBI hectad level Plant species distribution records were (10x10km) data. For example, plants obtained from the Botanical Society of that occurred in more than 80% of the the British Isles (BSBI). The records hectads in the country were considered were digitized using ArcInfo 10.0. common and received a low There are records for over 2000 plants distribution score (see Table 1). A in the database for Ireland. County matrix was created and the final values Waterford had the most ranged from 1 (lowest plant comprehensive records per tetrad and conservation value) to 24 (highest

51 plant conservation value). Using these areas is quite clear. The next objective values and the detailed data for County is to identify the environmental factors Waterford we calculated an average that are influencing the different plant conservation value per tetrad for conservation values in Waterford using the county. modelling techniques and to use these data to create a national map of plant Plant status Plant dist conservation values.

Rare 4 0.07-10% 6 Conclusions Using plant conservation values for Annex I ind 3 10.1-20% 5 County Waterford and modelling Semi-natural ind 2 20.1-40% 4 techniques a national plant biodiversity map can be generated. Native 1 40.1-60% 3 This map will aid decision making for policy-makers and land managers. It 60.1-80% 2 will also highlight areas of low 80.1-100 1 biodiversity that should be targeted for restoration or specific conservation Table 1. Criteria used to evaluate the measures such as agri-environment conservation value of the native schemes. plants in Ireland. Acknowledgements Results and Discussion This work is funded by the Irish The average plant conservation value Research Council. Data was provided per tetrad for County Waterford can be by the BSBI. In particular, we would seen in Figure 2. These results show like to acknowledge Paul Green’s that the coastal areas have high dedication to plant recording. average conservation values. References ¯ European Commission, 2008. The European Union's biodiversity action plan "Halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010 - and beyond". Office for Offical Publications of the European

Average conservation value 0.0 - 3.4 Communities, Luxembourg. 3.5 - 4.0

0 5 10 20 Kilometers 4.1 - 5.2 5.3 - 8.7 Balmford, A., Crane, P., Dobson, A., Green, R.E., Mace, G.M., 2005. The Figure 2. Average plant 2010 challenge: data availability, conservation values per tetrad for information needs and extraterrestrial County Waterford insights. Philosophical Transactions of This would be expected as the coastal the Royal Society B: Biological areas have many semi-natural habitats Sciences 360, 221-228. such as sand dunes and slacks. The Jackson, S.F., Walker, K., Gaston, green tetrads in the middle of K.J., 2009. Relationship between Waterford correspond to the Comeragh distributions of threatened plants and Mountains. Despite a lower number of protected areas in Britain. Biological plant species per tetrad the Conservation 142, 1515-1522. conservation value of these upland

52 Payments for ecosystem services: conservation of freshwater habitats through agri-environment schemes Daire Ó hUallacháin1, Helen Sheridan2, Diane Burgess3, Phil Jordan4 and Donnacha Doody2 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2 University College Dublin, 3Agri-food and Biosciences Institute of Northern Ireland, 4Univeristy of Ulster [email protected] Introduction implementation of agri-environment measures. Biodiversity contributes to human well- being through the delivery of The aim of this project is to develop a ecosystem services. In addition to the framework for targeting payments for ‘provisioning services’ (e.g. food and ecosystem services to address the fuel), ecosystem services include favourable conservation status of key ‘regulatory services’ (e.g. flood freshwater aquatic habitats and mitigation, water purification), species ‘supporting services’ (e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling) and Objectives cultural services (e.g. aesthetic, 1. Identify the main regulatory and recreational). Many of these non- supporting ecosystem services and provisioning ecosystem services have functions underpinning the no market price to indicate their maintenance of freshwater biodiversity economic value to society, therefore in selected catchments. payment for ecosystem services (PES) has been proposed as an effective tool 2. Through expert focus groups, for the delivery of Agri-Environment determine the management required Schemes (AES) to maintain or provide favourable conditions for priority aquatic habitats The majority of EU protected and species in a sub-sample of freshwater habitats and species in catchments Ireland are considered to be of poor or bad conservation status. Changes in 3. Determine the spatial relationship farming practices, to increase the between ecosystem services and supply of agricultural produce have hydrological connectivity in a sub- impacted on the landscapes, water sample of representative catchments. quality and quantity and soil process such as nutrient cycling An ecosystem service approach to Agri-Environmental Schemes would provide farmers with payments based on the value to society of cultural, regulatory and supporting ecosystem services as opposed to the current Figure 1. Freshwater aquatic approach which bases payments on habitats play an important role in the cost and loss of income due to the providing ecosystem services.

53 Materials and Methods connectivity analysis within a GIS The research approach to be used in framework to develop a risk-based this study is based initially on the approach for the targeting of payments detailed characterisation of for ecosystem services through AES. catchments with priority freshwater Expected benefits aquatic habitats or species, through gathering and mining of existing To date, the focus on farm-scale national datasets on land-use, implementation and the voluntary hydrology and economic parameters. nature of Agri-Environment Schemes A Geographical Information System has limited their potential effectiveness (GIS) multi-criteria decision analysis in maintaining the health of freshwater will then be used to select a number of ecosystems as this is predominantly a representative catchments for more function of processes occurring at the detailed case studies of how best to landscape scale. Therefore, to target payments for ecosystem increase the environmental benefits services in AES designed for the and cost effectiveness of AES, there is conservation of key freshwater aquatic a need to target payments at areas habitats and species. within catchments where landscape processes control the response of An expert focus group approach will waterbodies to land-use practices. A be utilised to identify measures and key question is how can payment for management strategies required for ecosystem services be effectively the conservation of the freshwater targeted so as to maximise the ecosystems within the representative economic benefits and cost catchments. effectiveness of AES? Using high resolution digital terrain model data, this study will investigate Arising from the outputs of this how to spatially target payments for research, recommendations on ecosystem services based on their institutional structures, mechanisms hydrological connection to freshwater for implementation and a list of policy ecosystems within selected measures will be proposed. catchments. Acknowledgements The outputs of valuation analysis of This work is funded by the key ecosystems services will be integrated with the hydrological Environmental Protection Agency.

Figure 2. The focus on farm-scale implementation and the voluntary nature of Agri-Environment Schemes has limited their potential effectiveness in maintaining the health of freshwater ecosystems

54 Using plant biodiversity records to support spatial targeting of agri- environment schemes Aidan Walsh1, 2, Caroline Sullivan1, Matthew Jebb3, Steve Waldren2, John Finn1 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford. 2Department of Botany, Trinity College Dublin. 3National Botanic Gardens Dublin. [email protected]

Introduction Botanical Society of the British Isles (BSBI). These were collated into a Protected area networks and agri- single plant distribution database. Plant environment (AE) schemes are species that are on the Flora important conservation instruments Protection Order of Ireland (FPO), the within the European Union. The Irish Red Data Book (RDB), the European Commission has Northern Ireland Wildlife Order (WO), recommended better targeting of AE and the Northern Ireland Priority measures and the European Court of Species List (PS) are considered to be Auditors has identified the geographic rare and threatened (See Figure 1 for targeting of AE funds as a necessary examples). requirement for improved justification of AE expenditure (Auditors, 2011; Commission, 2010). Important areas of biodiversity outside of protected areas are a potential target for AE schemes. However, there is a lack of information on the location of Important Areas of Plant Diversity (IAPD) in Ireland. This project aims to identify these areas. The work outlined here represents the preliminary steps in identifying IAPD by first mapping areas that contain rare and threatened Figure 1. Examples of rare and plant species. The aim of the study threatened plant species. Left: was to assess the occurrence of rare Gymnocarpium robertianum plants in relation to the Natura 2000 (Limestone fern). Right: Pyrola (N2K) network of protected sites. rotundifolia (Round-leaved Wintergreen). Material and Methods Tetrads containing these plant species Distribution records of rare and were mapped and their location with threatened plant species for the island respect to the N2K network of of Ireland were obtained from the protected areas was examined (Figure National Parks & Wildlife Service 2). Two different scenarios were (NPWS), the Northern Ireland investigated. Environment Agency (NIEA), and the

55 Scenario 1: only tetrads containing 0% Results and Discussion cover by N2K were classified as being Scenario 1 revealed that a significant outside of the protected areas. percentage of tetrads that contain rare Scenario 2: tetrads with less than 10% and threatened plant species occur cover by N2K were also classified as outside of N2K sites. More than half of being outside protected areas. these tetrads occur within 5km of the N2K network. Analysis of scenario 2 showed marked increases in the percentage values of tetrads found outside of N2K. The development of the IAPD identification method will be a continuation of this work. This research highlights areas that could be targeted through new AE scheme measures that specifically address rare plant conservation.

Conclusions Rare plants frequently occur outside of protected areas. These areas could be targeted through specific AE scheme measures. The analysis also shows that that most of these areas outside of Figure 2. Tetrads containing rare N2K are within 5km of the network’s and threatened plant species in boundaries. For this reason areas in Ireland. proximity to N2K may be more Where a tetrad has only partial desirable targets for conservation. coverage by the N2K network a species can occur within the tetrad but Acknowledgments outside of the N2K site (Figure 3). We wish to acknowledge the BSBI, Finally, the proximity of non-designated NPWS and NIEA for supplying plant tetrads in scenario 1 to the protected records. This project is funded by the area network was also examined. Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme.

References: Auditors, E.C.o., 2011. Special Report no. 7/2011. Is Agri-environment Support Well Designed and Managed? Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Commission, E., 2010. The CAP towards 2020: Meeting the food, natural resources and territorial Figure 3. Example of the challenges of the future. COM (2010) occurrences of rare & threatened 672, 18. species outside of N2k that would be classified as being inside of N2K in Scenario 1.

56 The ecological conservation value of riparian management in an intensive agricultural grassland landscape D. Madden1,2, S. Harrison2, J. Finn1, S. McCormack1, D. O hUallachain1 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2University College Cork [email protected]

Introduction impact of riparian AE measures on instream biotic and abiotic parameters. Reducing the loss of biodiversity and achieving good water quality are important agri-environmental targets in Europe. Riparian habitats can play a significant role achieving good water quality and also in protecting and enhancing farmland biodiversity. The appropriate management of natural riparian zones can provide numerous ecosystem services within Figure 1: Cattle access drinking an agricultural landscape e.g. point protecting water quality, increasing carbon sequestration, reducing Objectives compaction, regulating storm water,  Assess the impact of riparian and enhancing regional biodiversity. vegetation type on carabid, spider and plant assemblages. Riparian margin Agri-Environment (AE) measures are considered important in  Do streamside habitats typical of providing multiple environmental intensive grassland provide a benefits, including halting biodiversity suitable habitat for riparian and decline, maintaining water quality and wetland associated species. combating climate change (DAFF, 2010). As a result, riparian margin  Identify to what extent cattle drinking measures have been included in the access points impact aquatic Rural Environment Protection Scheme macroinvertebrate communities, (REPS), and the more recent Agri- water quality parameters and environmental Options Scheme (AEOS bedload sediment. The aim of the current study was to Materials and Methods assess the conservation value of This study was conducted in the riparian habitats within farmland southeast of Ireland. managed under agri-environment schemes in Ireland; and assess the Riparian margins

57 The work-package was conducted on species for carabids and spiders were ten beef/dairy pasture farms managed low when compared to the national under the REPS scheme in Co. fauna and other studies. Distinct Wexford, SE Ireland. Cattle were assemblages were identified in each excluded from a 1.5m distance from habitat type (grassy, scrubby and the watercourse bank by fencing and woody) for plants and spiders but not chemical fertiliser and pesticide for carabids. There were higher application was prohibited within this abundances of carabids and spiders in zone. All farms consisted of intensively grassland margins while scrub margins managed grassland through which provided the highest regional species flowed streams 1-6m wide. Each farm richness. contained representative plots (20m long and 1.5m wide) of each riparian These results indicate that riparian vegetation type (grassland, scrub and margins in intensively farmed areas woodland), separated from each other may have a low potential for by at least 50m. Intensive invertebrate specialised fauna being dominated by and botanical surveys were undertaken generalist species. at each site. Cattle Access Drinking Points Cattle Drinking Access Points Results in relation to cattle drinking This work-package was carried out on points did not show any significant 40 CDAPs, on tributaries mainly differences in any water chemistry, draining improved grassland. sediment or macroinvertebrate Macroinvertebrate sediment and water parameters between upstream and chemistry sampling was carried out downstream sites. The majority of upstream and downstream of each sampled streams returned a Q-value CDAP. Additional water quality below 4 and has low small Stream Risk samples, local environmental variables Scores (SSRS), with only 10% of and landscape variables within the streams producing good water quality stream catchment were recorded. scores. The majority of streams in our study were of low water quality, irrespective of any local inputs at drinking points. Our results suggest that measures to mitigate potential small local inputs of nutrients and sediment in agricultural catchments (e.g. complete removal of cattle access to watercourses) may not be cost-effective in intensive agricultural grassland systems where streams may be impaired from diffuse catchment-wide inputs. Figure 2: Fenced ‘grassy’ riparian margin Acknowledgements This work is funded by the Department Results and Discussion of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Riparian margins Research Stimulus Fund 2006. Proportional abundances or frequencies of riparian or wetland

58 Development of indicators of farmland wildlife habitats on intensive grasslands Hannah Denniston 1, John Finn 1 and Helen Sheridan 2 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2 University College Dublin [email protected] Introduction grassland farms in Ireland. Studies that have been carried out report that Under the current EU Common Ireland has a greater percentage of Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform and wildlife or semi-natural habitat present the Department of Agriculture Food (up to 15%, Sheridan et al., 2011) Harvest 2020 initiative, there is a drive when compared with other European towards sustainable intensification of countries such as the Netherlands agriculture. Protecting against (5.3%, Manhoudt & Snoo, 2003). biodiversity loss and loss of wildlife Ireland’s intensive grazing systems habitats is one aspect of sustainability have a natural advantage and potential of agricultural landscapes, along with to produce high quality output while efficiencies in use of water, energy, maintaining and improving their fertilizers and pesticides and GHG relatively high proportion of wildlife emissions. Approximately 80% of habitats. This may be harnessed by agricultural land in Ireland is devoted to ‘Brand Ireland’ and Harvest 2020 in grass-based feeding systems including promoting Ireland as a leading dairy, beef and sheep grazing as well producer of ‘green’ food and as silage and hay production. sustainable agricultural practice. Intensification of these systems has led to losses of biodiversity. This project aims to measure the quantity and quality of wildlife habitats on 80 intensive grazing farms in the south and south east of Ireland. From this benchmark, objective and transparent tools for measuring biodiversity and wildlife habitats at the farm scale will be developed in order to underpin food quality assurance schemes that include measures of environmental sustainability. Methods A review of food branding, labeling and accreditation schemes aimed at Figure 1. Intensive grassland field sustainable agricultural systems and However, very little is known of the biodiversity will be conducted. This will proportion and quality of wildlife inform an overview of the alternative habitats that still exist on intensive

59 methodology used for biodiversity and wildlife habitat indicators. A habitat survey of 80 farms in the south and south east of Ireland will be carried out over spring / summer 2013 and 2014. These farms are located in counties Cork, Tipperary, Waterford, Kilkenny and Wexford and are representative of intensive grazing systems in this region. They consist of approximately 30 dairy farms, 30 beef and 20 sheep farms. A field survey of each farm will be conducted on foot and all semi-natural habitats will be digitally mapped using ArcGIS in order Figure 2. Hedgerow wildlife habitat to calculate the proportional land on an intensive grassland farm cover. More detailed surveys of habitat quality for hedgerows, field boundaries Expected Benefits and semi-improved grasslands will also This project will provide data on the be undertaken including measures of percentage of land covered by wildlife species richness, presence of native habitats on intensive grazing farms in species, presence of rare species or the south and south east of Ireland and species of conservation concern. A on the quality of these habitats. The questionnaire of farmer knowledge of developed practical indicators for and attitudes to biodiversity and wildlife wildlife habitats and measures for their habitats on their own land will be improvement can be incorporated into conducted. Further information on the design of food quality assurance farming methods and farming intensity schemes and will have benefits for such as stocking density and nitrogen biodiversity on intensive farmland. inputs will be collated and used in analyses. Acknowledgements Based on the habitat data collected, This work is funded by the Research the farmer questionnaire and the farm Stimulus Fund through the Department data, a model will be developed, of Agriculture Food and the Marine. calibrated and validated to be used as an indicator of wildlife habitats on References dairy, beef and sheep farms of ranging Manhoudt A. & De Snoo G. (2003). A agricultural intensity. It will incorporate quantitative survey of semi-natural suitable and suggested improvement habitats on Dutch arable farms. measures for improvement of wildlife Agriculture, Ecosystems & habitats and biodiversity on individual Environment 97, 235-240. farms. Sheridan H., McMahon B.J., Carnus T., Finn J.A., Anderson A., Helden A.J., Kinsella A., Purvis G. (2011). Pastoral farmland habitat diversity in south-east Ireland. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 144, 130- 135.

60 The impact of acute and chronic hydrochemical disturbances on stream ecology Daire Ó hUallacháin1, Alice Melland1, Per-Erik Mellander1, Paul Murphy1 and Mary Kelly-Quinn2 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford. 2 University College Dublin, [email protected]

Introduction The study will help identify how stream River regulation, alteration of stream ecological communities react to habitats and degradation of water agricultural and non-agricultural acute quality have had significant impacts on and chronic stressors at different times aquatic ecosystems worldwide. In of the year. By identifying the impact of Ireland, the two main threats to water these stressors, the study will help quality are municipal (point source) inform how agriculture in Ireland can and agriculture (diffuse sources). The be intensified sustainably with respect Water Framework Directive (Directive to implications for water quality in 2000/60/EC) was established as an headwater agricultural catchments. overarching approach to protect Objectives waterbodies in Europe. It requires Member States to achieve or maintain  Investigate the impact of acute at least ‘Good’ ecological and chemical versus chronic inputs (sediment and status in all waters by 2015. nutrients) on stream ecology (abundance, diversity and For the agriculture sector in Ireland, functioning) across a range of land the Teagasc Agricultural Catchments use types and intensities. Programme is identifying links  Assess how the timing of storm between land managed according to events (i.e. at periods of high the National Action Programme (Good ecological activity and low base flow) Agricultural Practice, GAP) measures affects different taxa in riverine and water chemical and ecological habitats. quality. However, the degree to which  Identify whether variations in stream ecological status will improve in hydromorphological factors in stream response to implementation of the ecosystems are a more significant GAP measures requires further driver in determining ecological investigation. Hypotheses emerging community than chemical variations. from the ACP are that a high frequency of storm events that cause  Inform policy expectations regarding overland flow (acute disturbance) the potential for Good Agricultural increases the likelihood of poor in- Practice and other measures to stream ecological status, and that enable stream waters in Ireland to stream hydromorphology can limit reach Good Ecological Status as per WFD ecological status. WFD requirements.

61 Furthermore, the study will help policy- makers target suitable and cost- effective mitigation measures which will help alleviate some of the pressures associated with nutrient and sediment input to watercourses and help Ireland attain its targets under the Water Framework Directive and the Habitats Directive. This project will directly address one of Figure 1. Freshwater aquatic the goals of Pillar 3 (Agri- habitats play an important role in environmental Products and Services) providing ecosystem services. of the Teagasc Foresight 2030 Report (p. 63) to: provide evidence-based Materials and Methods knowledge to support policymakers in designing, implementing and The study will examine the stream evaluating programmes for agri- ecological response to acute and environment products and services. chronic stress. Furthermore, the temporal impact of stress (including at periods of high ecosystem activity) on stream ecological community structure and the implications for the WFD will be examined. The study will be a combination of literature review, controlled environment experiments and Figure 2. Farm-scale implementation catchment scale field studies along and the voluntary nature of AE with some conceptual modelling. Schemes has limited their potential effectiveness in maintaining the Expected benefits health of freshwater ecosystems This research will provide information to policy-makers in relation to the A greater understanding of the major impact of agricultural and non- stressors and processes of stress that agricultural nutrient stresses on the impact aquatic ecosystems will help ecological status of watercourses. By address some of the key objectives of having this knowledge, mitigation Food Harvest 2020, i.e. protect water measures and schemes can be better resources and protect biodiversity. targeted such that Ireland fulfils its Furthermore if agriculture is to achieve obligation in relation to the Water its production targets (set in Food Framework Directive. Harvest 2020) in a sustainable manner, greater knowledge in relation to the The proposed study addresses some impact of episodic and sustained of the priorities under the Strategy for events on the ecological status of science, Technology and Innovation aquatic systems is required. (Anon, 2006) which aims to provide a scientific foundation and support for a Acknowledgements sustainable, competitive, market- This work is funded by the Teagasc oriented and innovative agriculture, Walsh Fellowship Scheme. food and forestry sector.

62 Biodiversity and integrated pest management of eucalyptus foliage and forestry plantations Dorothy Hayden1,4, Andy Whelton2, Jane Stout3, John A. Finn4, Jan-Robert Baars1. 1BioControl Research Unit, SBES, UCD., 2Teagasc, Clonakilty College, Co. Cork., 3Dept. of Botany, School of Natural Sciences, TCD., 4Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford. [email protected]

Introduction below the economic injury threshold in these three crop situations. The genus Eucalyptus is a fast growing exotic, selected species of which are This study proposes to (a) assess the proving useful in the timber, biomass suitability of the egg parasitoid and florist foliage industries in Enoggera nassaui as a biocontrol temperate Europe. Ireland's climatic agent of the leaf beetle P. selmani in advantage, coupled with its proximity commercial eucalyptus foliage, to mainland European markets has biomass and forestry plantations in enabled a fledgling foliage industry to Ireland, (b) determine the extent of the expand into an economically rewarding host range of the egg parasitoid, sector with projected future growth. testing native fauna, to fulfill the risk assessment required prior to a release The accidental introduction of the leaf application, (c) examine how the use of beetle pest, Paropsisterna selmani into insecticides affect the biological control Ireland from south Australia, seriously of the blue gum psyllid, (d) investigate threatens these industries. This is the the invertebrate diversity of Eucalyptus first paropsine leaf beetle to become plantations comparing it to native established in Europe. In the absence woodlands to establish the impact of of any natural enemies, foliage managed exotic crops on native fauna growers are forced to resort to in Ireland. insecticidal applications. These chemicals are disrupting the already Methods and Materials established biological control agent, a parasitic wasp Psyllaephagus pillosus The life history of the egg parasitoid, E. of the blue gum psyllid, Ctenarytaina nassaui, will be examined under eucalypti, necessitating further quarantine conditions using standard insecticidal usage to ensure viable bioassays. The conditions under which economic returns. the eggs of the host, P.selmani are exposed to the parasitoid will be The use of foliar applied pesticide is manipulated to establish the stage not an option for the biomass or specific mortality schedules and thus forestry industries, due to lack of the efficacy of the agent on Eucalyptus access once crops are established. It species relevant to each industry. is therefore desirable to find a suitable In order to determine the potential biological control agent to reduce the establishment of the biological agent in damaging effects of the leaf beetle Ireland, temperature based trials will be conducted at temperatures between

63 15-25 degrees Centigrade using exotic plantations as habitats for native specialised growth chambers. invertebrates. Host specificity screening will be Benefits to the industry will be two fold: carried out by exposing the agent to a. Control of the defoliating leaf the eggs of native beetle species that beetle pest, improving the value of are ecological similar, foliage produce, growth of phylogenetically/taxonomically related biomass and short rotation forestry to the target, beneficial and rare plantations. species utilising choice and no choice b. Resumption of the biological tests control of C. eucalypti, with It is proposed to carry out insecticidal positive implications for the application field trials on formerly environment and value of the unsprayed Eucalyptus plots to product. determine impact on both the pest C. In addition to the benefits to Irish eucalypti and the parasitoid P. pillosus. industries, the establishment of a Blocks of trees will be chosen within natural control agent for the beetle will selected plantations, using a reduce the likelihood of spread of this randomised block design. Sampling pest to the UK and main Europe. In the will take place before and after event of spread, this study will inform pesticide applications to establish pest control strategies considered in these and parasitoid incidence. areas. Invertebrate diversity in managed plantations and native woodland will be examined utilising passive sampling techniques, coupled with the use of interception traps, knock down sampling and timed searches, collecting eggs, larvae and adults. Plantations will be selected to reflect typical management regimes. Figure 1. Eucalyptus foliage

Expected outcomes Acknowledgements This study will determine the suitability This work is funded by a Teagasc of E. nassaui as a biocontrol agent of Walsh Fellowship Scheme the leaf beetle pest P. selmani in Ireland. The research will provide the Related publications necessary information to apply for the Baars J-R. & Fanning, P. (2013) field release of this egg parasitoid, Biology of the eucalyptus leaf beetle, fulfilling the requirements of a risk Paropsisterna selmani ( assessment. This study will also Chrysomelidae: Paropsini) a new pest determine how well the biological of Eucalyptus species (Myrtaceae) in control agent of the psylllid pest, C. Ireland. (In press) eucalypti is doing in Ireland and what effects the chemical control methods Chauzat M-P, Purvis G, Dunne R, currently employed are having on the 2002. Release and establishment of a management of this pest, informing the biological control agent, Psyllaephagus value of biocontrol as a management pillosus for eucalyptus psyllid tool. The biodiversity assessment will (Ctenarytaina eucalypti) in Ireland. provide information on the value of Ann. Appl. Biol. 141, 293-304.

64 Effects of using drought on yield of multi-species mixtures Eamon Haughey1,2, J.C. McElwain2, John A. Finn1 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford. 2Univeristy College Dublin [email protected] Background processes at work (Hooper et al. 2005). Permanent grassland makes up 33% of the total utilised agricultural land in the EU and 76% of utilised agricultural land in Ireland. Further to this 76% of permanent pasture, over 90% of agricultural land in Ireland is used in forage production or rough grazing (O’Mara, 2008). European grasslands produce forage that supports dairy, beef, sheep and goat production. In order to continue to produce this forage in the face of climate change, grassland agriculture needs to adapt. Recent studies have shown that there is potential to increase agricultural Figure 1. Field trial at Johnstown grassland productivity using modest Castle (August 2012), where drought increases in plant diversity in grassland resistance of different grassland swards (Finn et al. 2013; Kirwan et al. mixtures is being tested. 2007). This builds on previous work which showed that higher plant Objectives diversity in semi-natural ecosystems This project aims to examine if modest could lead to increased biomass increases in plant biodiversity in production and increased production agricultural grassland swards can help stability. mitigate the effects of climate change. Biodiversity and ecosystem function Here the focus will be on the research to date has largely focused grasslands ability to maintain on biomass production and its productivity and quality of forage when interaction with species richness. Less subject to drought (resistance). is known about how plant diversity Recovery following a drought event affects ecosystem stability and its (resilience) will also be monitored. interactions with environmental Materials and Methods perturbations, such as climate change. Some studies have shown that higher The main field experiment, located at diversity can lead to increased Johnstown Castle (Figure 1), uses four resistance to climatic perturbations. grassland species that are of However not all agree and more work agronomic importance in European is needed to better understand the forage production; Lolium perenne,

65 Cichorium intybus, Trifolium repens in-depth look at the mechanisms which and Trifolium pratense. The underpin the stabilising effects experiment comprises split plots, with associated with increased biodiversity. mixtures of varying sown species These pot experiments enable better abundances and varying numbers of control of environmental conditions in a species. In order to induce an more rigorous manner than the field experimental drought, ‘rain-out’ scale experiments located near by. shelters will be placed over half of the plots in a random stratified design, in Expected Outcomes accordance with statistical techniques. To fulfil project objectives, mixtures of The effects of induced drought on the four plant species mixtures will be productivity, chemical composition and assessed in their ability to mitigate the physiology of the mixtures will be effects of induced drought stress. This monitored. As well as monitoring initial will lead to better understanding of how resistance to the drought treatment, these effects occur through use of a recovery from the treatment will also combination of long term field and be assessed. Other measurements glasshouse experiments. Further that focus on plant rooting behaviour knowledge in this area will benefit will also be made. agricultural forage production and help inform agricultural management to the most favourable practices in the future. Acknowledgements This work is funded by the Animal Change project in association with the Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme and University College Dublin. References Finn, J. A. et al. 2013. Journal of Applied Ecology. In press Hooper et al. 2005. Ecological Figure 2. Glasshouse experiment Monographs, 75(1): 3–35. located at Johnstown Castle to investigate how different levels of Kirwan, L. et al. 2007. Journal of drought affect plant productivity Ecology, 95(3): 530-539. and physiology. O’Mara, F. 2008. Country Glasshouse based pot experiments are Pasture/Forage Resource Profile. also being conducted (Figure 2). These Teagasc, Ireland (11.2008) smaller scale experiments allow for an

66 Effects of drought on nutrient dynamics in multi-species mixtures Nyncke Hoekstra1, John Finn1 & Andreas Lüscher2 1Johnstown Castle, 2Agroscope ART, Zürich, Switzerland [email protected] Introduction replicates. Using rainout shelters (Figure 1), half of the plots were Benefits of grassland mixtures over subjected to a drought treatment of 10 monocultures are believed to be due to weeks summer rain exclusion. facilitation and niche complementarity among plant species. One potential Tracer method: In 2011, a solution mechanism for which there is little containing Rb+ was injected at 25 evidence in agricultural systems is soil points at 5 and 35 cm depth in two sub niche complementarity between deep- plots (50 × 50 cm) per plot. Plant rooting and shallow-rooting species. material was harvested after four This may be of particular importance weeks, at the end of the drought period under drought stress, when soil and sorted into the four species. The nutrients may be less available in dry proportion of Rb uptake (RbU) from top layers compared to the wetter deep 35cm was calculated as RbU35 / (RbU5 layers. + RbU35). 18 Below-ground niche differentiation can δ O method: In 2012, stem bases be assessed by injecting tracers at were collected for eight tillers of all four different soil depths, and comparing species per plot. Samples were taken the resulting tracer concentrations of from two replicate plots of all the plant species. Additionally, 18O stable monocultures and the 4-species isotope methods allow for the mixture. Three 2 cm diameter soil assessment of the contribution of cores were taken to 40 cm depth per different soil depths to plant water plot and divided into 5 segments (0-5, uptake. 5-10, 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40 cm). Water from the soil and plant samples The objective was to assess the below- was extracted using cryogenic ground niche differentiation of shallow- extraction and the extract was rooting and deep-rooting species in analysed for 18O. The IsoSource stable grassland mixtures and monocultures isotope mixing model was applied, to under benign and drought conditions determine the proportional contribution using both a tracer method and natural 18 of each of the 5 soil layers to the plant abundance O technique. stem water δ18O signature.

Materials and Methods Results and Discussion The experiment was conducted on two Tracer method: The proportion of sites in Switzerland: Tänikon, in 2011 RbU35 was on average 6.6 times and Zürich-Reckenholz in 2012. greater for drought compared to control Monocultures and mixtures of Lolium plots (Figure 2), indicating a shift of perenne (Lp), Cichorium intibus (Ci), nutrient uptake to deeper soil layers Trifolium repens (Tr) and Trifolium under drought conditions. Additionally, pratense (Tp) were sown in 66 plots of the proportion of RbU35 was on 3×5 m in a simplex design with 3 average 1.9 times greater for the deep

67 rooting species Ci and Tp and the shift Lp Tr to deeper layers under drought 1.0 conditions was stronger for these two 0.8 species. Growing the species in monoculture or mixture had no effect 0.6 on the proportion of RbU35, for the 0.4 different species. 0.2 0.5 0.0

5 Control 3 0.4 Ci Tp U

b 0.3 Dry

R Figure 3. Box plots of the

. 0.2

p proportional contribution of 0-10 cm o r 0.1 soil layer to plant water uptake. P 0.0 Lower, middle and upper st th th Lp Tr Ci Tp boundaries are 1 , 50 and 99 percentile. control, Figure 2. The proportion of RbU35 Drought, Mix

Conclusions 18 δ O method: The mean proportional Both methods confirm that the contribution to water uptake of the 0-10 grassland species in this experiment cm soil layer (PC0-10) was on average occupied distinct niches in relation to 0.48. The PC0-10 was larger for the the depth of soil water and nutrient shallow-rooting species Tr and Lp. uptake. These niches changed in 18 Drought reduced the PC0-10 from 0.56 reaction to drought and the δ O to 0.42 on average, confirming that the method also indicated an effect of species shifted their water uptake to whether species were grown in mixture deeper layers under drought or monoculture. The next step will be conditions. The PC0-10 of Tp was lower to determine whether these findings in mixtures compared to monoculture, translate into i) yield advantages of whereas the opposite was true for the deep rooting species under drought other species. stress and ii) yield advantages of 1.0 combining deep and shallow rooting

l species in mixtures. n a 0.8 o n i t o i u

t 0.6

r Acknowledgements b i o r t

p 0.4

n NH was funded by the Irish Research o r o 0.2 c

P Council, co-funded by Marie Curie 0.0 Actions under FP7.

68 Cost effectiveness of selected agri- environment measures for habitat conservation Blathnaid Keogh1,2, Helen Sheridan1, Daire O hUallachain2 John Finn2 1 University College Dublin; 2 Teagasc Research Centre, Johnstown Castle [email protected] Introduction midlands region i.e. Offaly, Laois, Longford and Westmeath where Between the period 1994 – 2011 in drystock production accounts for excess of €3.67 billion has been spent approximately 69% of all farming on REPS in Ireland (DAFM, 2011) systems (CSO, 2010) and where with a further €243 million being spent REPS participation accounted for on AE schemes in 2012 (Irish approximately 9.86% of national Government News Service, 2012). participation across all REPS schemes Under Article 16, EC Regulation No. in 2011 (DAFM, 2011). 746/96, all member states are required to monitor and evaluate the Grassland diversity environmental, agricultural and socio- To assess the type of botanical economic impacts of agri-environment diversity being supported through programmes (Mauchline et al, 2012). current schemes, 20 1 x 1m quadrats It is essential that these schemes will be taken within 20 randomly provide value for money through the selected farms receiving payments for protection and enhancement of the each of the following: natural environment. 1) AEOS payment for Species Rich The aim of this project is to provide Grassland (see Figure 1). evidence-based support for the design, implementation and 2) AEOS payment for Traditional Hay assessment of practical options for Meadow AE measures to support biodiversity goals, and to quantify the benefits of 3) Natura 2000 payment for Species innovative AE measures. The primary Rich Grassland objective of this research is to investigate whether current AE schemes are cost-effective and to identify whether there are alternative ways to achieve biodiversity goals, particularly in relation to grassland and hedgerow habitats, that could potentially be more effective and less costly. Figure 1. Species rich grassland Abundance values will be assigned to Materials and Methods all vascular plants rooted within each Study sites will consist of pastoral, quadrat according to the Domin Scale drystock farms selected from the (Kent and Coker, 1992).

69 Hedgerow Diversity Expected Benefits As management and age both play The implementation of agri- critical roles in determining the environment schemes in Ireland as in potential biodiversity value of many other countries e.g. Switzerland, hedgerows, different growth stages Germany, Sweden, has followed a and management practices will be horizontal approach, unlike other sampled. Hedgerow biodiversity will countries which have followed a more be investigated within each of the targeted, zonal approach e.g. Spain following: and the UK, (Kleijn and Sutherland, 2003). This research will identify 1) Planted young hedge, 5-10 measures that can target the years old expenditure of the limited funds 2) Coppiced hedge that is 8-12 available at areas of highest years old conservation concern. It will identify the biodiversity status of existing and 3) Coppiced hedge that is > 12 newly planted hedges, facilitating the years old comparison of the two and the 4) Control hedges will take the associated costs. form of conventional hedges. These will take the form of two Acknowledgements sub-groups, i.e. stockproof and This work is funded by the Teagasc non-stockproof. Walsh Fellowship Programme.

The floristic composition of 100m of References each hedgerow will be recorded and the percentage cover of each tree and CSO (Central Statistics Office), 2010. shrub species will be recorded Census of Agriculture, 2010. according to the DAFOR scale (Kent DAFM (Department of Agriculture, and Coker, 1992) Food and the Marine), 2011. REPS The hedgerow ground flora will be Factsheet, 2011. surveyed using five randomly selected Irish Government News Service, 2012. 0.5m x 0.5m quadrats along the same http://www.merionstreet.ie/index.php/2 100m stretch. Abundance of all plant 012/payments-proceeding-ahead-of- species within these will be recorded schedule-for-2012/?cat according to the Domin Scale. Kent, M. Coker, P. 1992. Vegetation Invertebrate diversity of the hedgerow Description and Analysis: a practical canopy will be investigated using both approach. John Wiley and Sons, fogging and beating methods. This Chichester, England. will facilitate a comparison of the efficacy and appropriateness of each Mauchline, A.L., et al., 2012. method for sampling canopy Environmental evaluation of agri- invertebrates. The hedge will be environment schemes using beaten with 2m poles for two minutes participatory approaches: Experiences along the selected 100m stretch, to of testing the Agri-Environmental dislodge any arthropods into the Footprint Index. Land Use Policy 29, collecting trays. All biomass collected 317– 328. will be counted for each of the main orders, with spiders being identified to family.

70 Ideal-HNV: Identifying the Distribution and Extent of Agricultural Land of High Nature Value John Finn1, Stuart Green2, Daire O hUallachain1, James Moran3 Caroline Sullivan3 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2Teagasc, Spatial Analysis Unit, Ashtown, 3I.T. Sligo [email protected]  develop bottom-up decision-support Background tools to assist field- and farm- scale High Nature Value (HNV) farmland identification of HNV farmland. has been defined as “those areas in  analyse the socio-economic and Europe where agriculture is a major policy implications of identification of (usually the dominant) land use and HNV farmland. where agriculture sustains or is associated with either a high species Materials and Methods and habitat diversity (See Figs 1 and We will develop geo-spatial methods 2), or the presence of species of to estimate the national extent and European conservation concern, or distribution of potential HNV farming both” (EEA, 2004). The European systems. This methodology will use Community’s ‘Strategic Guidelines for available geo-spatial data on Rural Development 2007 – 2013’ vegetation type, farming systems, includes HNV farming and forestry designated areas, farming intensity systems as one of seven community and land use/cover. priorities. Member States are required to:  identify areas with HNV farming practices in each Member State;  support and maintain HNV farming through Rural Development Programmes, and;  monitor changes to the HNV area over time (CEC, 2006). Here, we describe a new project involving collaboration between Figure 1. Semi-natural habitat on Teagasc and IT Sligo on HNV farming farmland in County Mayo systems in Ireland. The main We will also investigate an innovative objectives of the project are to: methodology that combines new high-  estimate the national distribution resolution satellite imagery with other and extent of potential HNV datasets and will apply this to a case farmland in Ireland. study area (5000 km2) to assess its  examine the use of remote sensing ability to more directly measure the methods to identify HNV areas at nature value of farms. the farm scale.

71 A ground-truthing exercise will provide lesser extent) of HNV farmland and of training data for the GIS-based HNV farming systems as required for models and will assess the accuracy the CMEF HNV farmland results of the project output, based on a indicator. The project can also support combination of manual interpretation analysis of the effects of RDP of colour aerial photography, existing measures (RDP measures and Direct habitat/farm-survey data, and new Payments post-2014) on the changes surveys of selected case study areas. observed under the CMEF HNV farmland impact indicator. This project will develop and apply novel methodology to quantitatively identify the extent and distribution of HNV farmland in the Republic of Ireland. When completed, the project will have addressed an important knowledge gap for policymakers about Figure 2. Wet meadow in County the national scale distribution of Meath potential HNV farmland areas, as well We will develop and validate (using as improved knowledge of their typical field surveys in case study areas) a characteristics and threats. This will decision support system for field- and facilitate policy assessment of the farm- scale identification of HNV extent to which policies have effective farming systems. For representative objectives and implementation, and case study areas, we will describe the extent to which financial supports their primary HNV characteristics and are targeted to HNV farmland. Thus, pressures. We will also analyse the the outputs of the project will help potential implications (positive and achieve national and international negative) of HNV policies from the RDP requirements to identify HNV perspective of farm socio-economics farmland, and can underpin and consequences for other policies. justification of HNV payments in future The results of the project will be CAP schemes and greening disseminated to key stakeholders. measures. The project will provide a Acknowledgements methodology that will contribute to the Supported by the Research Stimulus baseline indicator for HNV farming for Fund of the Department of Agriculture, Ireland under the Common Monitoring Food and the Marine (11/S/108). and Evaluation Framework (CMEF). References Overall expected impact CEC (2006). "COUNCIL DECISION of The project will provide a 20 February 2006 on Community methodology that will contribute to the strategic guidelines for rural baseline indicator for HNV farming for development (programming period Ireland under the Common Monitoring 2007 to 2013)." Official Journal of the and Evaluation Framework (CMEF). European Union. The objective methodology (Task 1) can be repeated in future, and used to EEA (2004). High nature value measure change over time. Thus, the farmland. Characteristics, trends and project will allow for measuring policy challenges. European changes in quantity (and quality, to a Environment Agency, Copenhagen. 72 73 Soils

74 Mapping Soils in Ireland Rachel Creamer1*, Reamonn Fealy2, Gero Jahns1, Steve Hallett3, Jacqueline Hannam3, Bob Jones3, Paul Massey1, Thomas Mayr3, Eddie McDonald1, Brian Reidy1, Rogier Schulte1, Pat Sills1 and Iolanda Simo1. 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2Teagasc, Athenry,3Cranfield University [email protected]

Background Materials and Methods Farming activities have long been The Irish Soil Information System heralded as being a critical developer (ISIS) project will uniquely combine the and shaper of the rural landscape and latest spatial mapping technologies environment which we enjoy in Ireland with tried-and-tested ground-truthing: today. soil pits, at a national scale. Comparison of soil information at a This project has collated, generalized European scale has led to the and harmonized all the available data requirement for the harmonisation and from the An Foras Taluntais soil coordination of soil data across survey of the 1970s and 80s to a map Europe, and, in light of the demands scale of 1:250,000. for soil protection on a regional basis within member states there is a growing need to support policy with harmonised soil information. Critical to the successful development of such strategies is the knowledge on the location of our soils, and their associated properties. To date, Ireland has a national soil map at a scale of 1:575,000, with only half the country mapped in significant detail.

Objectives The Irish Soil Information System (ISIS) project is currently developing a national soil map of 1:250,000 and an associated digital Soil Information Figure 1. Harmonised map of Terra System (SIS), providing both spatial Cognita (1:250,000). Data derived and quantitative information on soil from An Foras Taluntas soil survey. types and properties across Ireland. Both the map and the information Using this data and associate mapping system will be freely available to the datasets such as; satellite imagery, public through a designated website in digital terrain mapping, and other geo- 2014. environmental GIS layers, this project is able to predict soil associations (mapping units of groups of soils

75 occurring in a landscape) into areas which had previously not been surveyed (Terra Incognita) where similar landscapes existed. Geo- statistical inference engine models are used for the prediction process these include; Random Forest, Bayesian Belief Networks and Neural Networks. Three models have been used to assess the most appropriate. The final draft output in the form of a predictive map is currently being validated by field survey data (approximately 12,000 auger records) collected over a 2.5 yr period. The field auger survey took place in 13 counties which had not previously been surveyed in detail. The auger Figure 2. A Gley soil profile survey comprised of an on-the–spot classification of the soil down to a Future Developments depth of 80 cm. It was only possible to This project will form the basis for spend 3 days on each 10 x 10 km map more accurate soil data in Ireland at a sheet, to ensure complete coverage of national scale and will provide to the Terra Incognita. This was public data which to date has not been accomplished over a range of land- accessible. This will provide the uses and landscape types. The auger opportunity for soil specific nutrient survey was completed in October advice and better research 2012 and the data has undergone a opportunities in spatial soil mapping process of data quality checks. and modelling in the future. To assess the accuracy of the predicted maps, the auger bores are spatially mapped over the predicted associations and comparison between expected and observed soil series allows for final map validation. In addition to the auger survey, 300 soil profile pits are currently being sampled and classified to provide a detailed profile description with associated chemical physical data for the main soil types of Ireland. Samples are measured for pH, OC, C/N, Cation Figure 3. Soil map viewer of SIS. Exchange Capacity, Base Saturation, Extractable Fe and Al, Texture and Acknowledgements Bulk Density. These analyses are This project is jointly funded by being completed by laboratory staff in Teagasc and EPA STRIVE funding. Johnstown Castle.

76 Developing and Evaluating Indicators for Biodiversity: The EcoFINDERS Project Rachel Creamer, Dote Stone Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction Materials and Methods The majority of soil processes are Indicators were selected by a vigorous mediated by the soil biota. Soil sifting process known as a logical biodiversity is the engine driving soil sieve which allowed the selection of based ecosystem services such as indicators that would provide food production, nutrient cycling, information meaningful and useful to carbon sequestration, and water end-users, such as policy makers and purification (Wardle et al. 2004). The land managers (Ritz et al., 2009). The European Commission (DG ENV) logical sieve was applied to a large acknowledge the importance of soil pool of indicators culled from the biodiversity in the role of ecosystem literature. This took place at a functioning and the Commission’s soil workshop of experts gathered together strategy is to protect and enhance soil in December 2011 and resulted in a list based ecosystem services, with a view of indicators to be tested (Table 2) to promoting sustainable intensification Table 1. Indicators selected by of agriculture. There is, however, not Logical sieve and assessed by enough information available on soil sampling LTOs and Transect sites biodiversity across Europe to allow informed policy decisions (Creamer et Biodiversity Function al. 2010). TRFLP (DNA) Protozoa (DNA) The EcoFINDERS (FP7) project was set-up in 2011 to identify soil threats, PLFA harmonize methods for measuring Fungi (ergosterol) biodiversity and to generate European FG nitrification (DNA) datasets of soil biodiversity and FG denitrification (DNA) ecosystem function. Teagasc is the Earthworms lead partner in the work package Enchytraeids dedicated to developing and evaluating Micro-arthropods such indicators. Nematodes Both known and novel indicators are Bait Lamina being assessed across a range of Water infiltration land-uses and European climate zones. Large-scale sampling Resilience campaigns are underway to determine Nitrification the normal operating range (NOR) of HW-C & PM-N potential biodiversity indicators and Micro-resp their sensitivity to soil threats. Enzyme Activity FG Supressiveness

77 Using partner owned sites of long standing (Long Term Observatories or LTOs), the sensitivity of indicators to soil threats across 6 sites were assessed. The sites used incorporated different land uses and management practices. In addition, a transect of 81 sites across Europe of varying land use and climatic zone were sampled for the presence of biodiversity indicators. Sites ranged from Mediterranean arable soils to Boreal forest soils and included Alpine pastures and wet Atlantic soils.

Results and Discussion A list of most appropriate to measure indicators selected at the logical sieve workshop can be seen in Table 1 and was used in the Indicator-LTO testing.

The indicator-LTO sampling campaign Figure 1. Transect sample map was successfully carried out in the autumn of 2012. Six LTO sites were Conclusions visited and samples taken from control plots and plots of the most extreme The dataset collected in this large- treatment (Table 2). scale sampling campaign will allow the EcoFINDERS project to recommend Table 2. Indicator-LTO sites specific indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem function to the EU for the Land Treatment Climate zone purposes of policy development. use conv/organi Acknowledgements Arable c Continental Arable till/no-till Atlantic This work is part of the FP7 funded Arable till/no-till Pannonian project EcoFINDERS. Mediterranea References Arable cereal/fallow n Intensive Creamer et al. (2010) Implications of Grass /extensive Continental the proposed Soil Framework Directive Intensive on Agricultural Systems in Atlantic Grass /extensive Atlantic North-west Europe - a Review, Soil Use and Management, 26;198-211 Wardle et al. (2004) Ecological The Transect sampling campaign was linkages between aboveground and successfully carried out in the Autumn below-ground biota, Science, of 2012. 81 sites were sampled over 3 304;1629-33. months and analyses are currently underway across Europe at partner institutions (Figure 1). 78 Integrating soil characteristics, land management and soil microbial communities 1,2 1 1 Andrea Richter , Evelyn Doyle , Nicholas Clipson , Rachel Creamer2and Daire Ó hUallacháin2 1. University College Dublin 2. Teagasc Environment Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected] Introduction phenotypic and functional properties of microbial communities in these Soil ecosystems are highly complex samples. and contain a huge abundance and diversity of microbial species. These soil microbial populations play an important role in numerous ecosystem functions, including, nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition and energy fluxes. However, relatively little is known about below-ground microbial community structures in Ireland. Studies indicate that biotic and abiotic factors including organic matter, soil C Figure: 1. Horizon profiles of 3 and N, moisture content, soil type and different sample sites in Ireland. soil pH along with land-use and management and above ground 1. Phospholipids are essential parts of vegetation influence below ground bacterial cell membranes and they microbial community structures and exist in varied forms. By extracting abundance. these lipids through Phospholipid Fatty Acid analysis (PLFA) specific fatty acid This project aims to correlate soil profiles for each soil sample can be chemical and physical data (collected generated. Different profiles can then on the Irish Soil Information system be compared and assumptions made (ISIS) project) to soil microbial diversity regarding the diversity and abundance and abundance as well as biomass of microbial organisms. This and respiration data. This will help gain phenotypic method is also being used a better understanding of soil to reveal information about total community structure and evaluate the microbial biomass. role abiotic factors and land 2. Functional activity is being management play in determining soil TM community structure. measured by using the MicroResp method. This Community level Materials and Methods physiological profiling (CLPP) method uses a microtiter plate design to asses Soil horizon samples are being catabolic activities of whole soil collected from 250 soil pits throughout samples. A range of 7 carbon Ireland and a variety of methods are substrates differing in complexity are applied to evaluate the genetic, 79 being applied at a concentration of matter are the most active regarding 30mg/g H2O. An indicator dye plate will carbon catabolism. detect CO emissions through 6 hour 2 Further research questions incubation at 25C. Absorbance is being read at 560nm and respiration rates 1. What factors in Irish soils are are calculated (per g dry soil per hour) predominant in influencing microbial by using parameters generated diversity and abundance? through a calibration procedure where gas sample results were directly 2. How does the microbial community related to absorbance readings. change through the soil profile (depth: A-C horizon) and what are the driving forces? 3. Are there distinguishing profiles with regards to the microbial fingerprints for different soil types?

4. How does the abundance of soil nitrifying bacteria differ between soil Figure: 2. MicrorespTM device types and land uses? 3. DNA based methods including T- Conclusion RFLP (terminal restriction fragment It is anticipated that results obtained length polymorphism) and q-PCR from this research will broaden our (quantitative-PCR) are chosen to knowledge of below-ground microbial visualize microbial diversity and activities and community structures in abundance on the genetic level as well Ireland. Furthermore this study will as investigate the abundances of provide a baseline for future research, genes involved in nitrogen cycling. resulting in the identification of possible All microbial data obtained will be biological indicators of soil types and related to the comprehensive soil quality. physicochemical, soil type and land An improved understanding of soil use data set provided by the Irish Soil microbial communities is imperative Information System. due to their role in carbon and nitrogen Results cycling, ecosystem interactions, ecosystem functioning and global Preliminary results indicate that top-soil climate change. By generating an respiration rates are influenced by soil extensive knowledge base regarding types, physicochemical properties, below ground processes this study will microbial biomass and land-use, play an important informing how to suggesting that individual sample sites maintain and increase soil fertility in a have distinct microbial fingerprints. The sustainable manner (as required under most important driving factors are Food Harvest 2020) whilst protecting currently being identified. soil as a vital resource for future Microbial biomass generally correlates generations. positively with respiration data. Grassland shows the most varied Acknowledgement responses out of all land use types This research is funded by the whereupon horizons high in organic Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme.

80 Survival of Bacterial Pathogens in Soil and Sewage Sludge Microcosms Stephanie Ellis1,2, Sean Tyrrel1, Karl Richards2, Bryan Griffiths3, Emma Moynihan2, Karl Ritz1 1Cranfield University, Cranfield 2 Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 3 SRUC, Edinburgh [email protected]

Introduction sewage sludge within the policies already outlined by the EU. It was Sewage sludge is the accumulated hypothesised that there would be a solids collected during sedimentation in positive correlation between increasing the wastewater treatment process. It is ratios of sludge to soil and the survival rich in nutrients and organic matter of inoculated bacterial pathogens. (OM), which can be utilised as a sustainable substitute for mineral Materials and Methods fertilisers in agricultural systems. Therefore, it provides a cost-effective The top 0-30 cm of loamy, Eutric alternative to chemical fertilisers. Cambisol supporting a pasture used However, it can also contain heavy for silage at Johnstown Castle, Ireland metals, chemical contaminants, (53°20'N, 6°15'W) was sampled pharmaceutical products and following a random sampling method. pathogenic microorganisms. The The sewage sludge, a dewatered cake treatment process which waste water with a dry solids content of 35%, was and its derivatives undergoes aids in provided by United Utilities, UK. reducing the presence of these Aliquots (0.1 ml) of cell suspensions hazardous materials. However, there is containing 2.18x108 CFU/ml E. coli and evidence to suggest sludge-derived 1.18x109 CFU/ml S. Dublin, derived pathogens may survive for extended from overnight culture, were added to periods of time in the natural the sludge and shaken in gently. The environment. Thus, there are sludge was then incorporated into the continuing concerns regarding the soil to establish treatments as follows: potential of these pathogens to persist, 100 % soil; 75% soil to 25% sludge; and subsequently entering the food 50% soil to 50% sludge; 25% soil to chain. 75% sludge; 0% soil to 100% sludge; The research reported here considers sterile control; 100% soil control; 100% the importance of sewage sludge sludge control. The microcosms were loading (i.e. proportion of sludge to then incubated over a 2 month period soil) on the persistence of inoculated at 10 °C. The number of surviving cells model pathogenic bacteria in soil. It is was determined in 3 independent one aspect of the END-O-SLUDG replicates incubated overnight at 37°C, consortium, which seeks to facilitate on successive occasions over two the development and treatment of months. A modified protocol (Troxler, et al, 2012) was followed for the 81 extraction. Quarter strength Ringers Conclusions (10 ml) was added to the microcosms. This work endeavoured to clarify They were then shaken gently by end- parameters affecting the survival of over-end rotation at a speed of 100 pathogens, using environmentally rmp for 30 minutes and vortexed for 10 appropriate conditions. These seconds. Serial dilutions of the extracts conditions include relevant were made up using a 1 in 10 dilution temperatures and unaltered sludge series. Selected dilutions were plated and soil matrices. Overall, there were on to Sorbitol MacConkey agar and no significant correlations between Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate agar. varying proportions of sludge to soil Death rates were then calculated from and the survival of the inoculated the resulting data, which were then pathogens. Thus the initial hypothesis analysed using a Students T-test proposing a positive correlation analysis.Results and Discussion between increasing ratios of sludge to The death rates for both E. coli and S. soil and the survival of inoculated Dublin were reduced when sewage bacterial pathogens was rejected. sludge was present within 25% sludge However, the presence of presumptive to 100% sludge, though the amount of E. coli, apparently indigenous to the sludge used did not significantly alter treated sewage sludge, may have the death rates. The death rate for skewed the results by interacting with 75% sludge, when inoculated with S. the inoculated lab strain of E. coli. Dublin, was significantly lower compared with 100% soil. Data also Acknowledgements indicated that presumptive E. coli We would like to acknowledge End-O- within the sewage sludge may have Sludg and the Walsh Fellowship negatively affected the survival of the Scheme for funding this project, as well inoculated bacteria, as can be seen in as the staff and students within the high variability of death rates for E. Teagasc, Johnstown Castle for their coli (Fig. 1). continued support. We would also like to thank Andrew Sprigings and 0.8 S. Dublin Katherine Miller, from the Process

0.6 Technology Team at Ellesmere Port, who provided us with the sludge cake 0.4 with which this research was

0.2 conducted. e t a r

)

k 0.0 ( E. coli References h t a e D 0.6 For further information on the End-O- Sludg project, visit www.end-o- 0.4 sludg.eu

0.2 Troxler, J., Svercel, M., Natsch, A.,

0.0 e oil ge ge ge g Zala, M., Keel, C., Moenne-Loccoz, Y. S ud ud ud ud % Sl Sl Sl Sl 0 % 10 5 % 0 % 5 % 0 2 5 7 10 & Defago, G. 2012. Persistence of a biocontrol Pseudomonas inoculant as high populations of culturable and non- Figure 1: Death rates for S. Dublin culturable cells in 200-cm-deep soil and E. coli in microcosms profiles. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, containing mixtures of sewage 44,122-129 sludge and soil (n=3, ±SEM).

82 END-O-SLUDG: Wastewater transformed for good Emma Moynihan, Stephanie Ellis, Karl Richards Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction removal from wastewater to reduce surplus activated sludge and energy The EU is responsible for producing consumption. 9.4 million tonnes of sewage sludge each year. The environmental and 2. Improved volatile solid destruction economic costs of sludge disposal are will be sought by augmenting Enzymic significant. Although agricultural Hydrolysis with physical sludge pre- recycling is typically the most treatments. Microbial ecology of sustainable method of disposal, digested cake will be manipulated to currently in Europe only 50% of sludge prevent E. coli resurgence. is recycled. The remainder is thermally 3. Membrane and adsorption destroyed. It is recognized that the processes will be evaluated for amount of sludge produced across nutrient recovery. Demonstration of Europe is set to rise; however our bio-granule and organo-mineral ability to manage the issue is limited fertilizer (OMF) products manufacture by a lack of efficient treatment using waste heat from combined heat processes; poor knowledge of nutrient and power (CHP) system will be management and negative public undertaken. perception. 4. Quality protocols will be developed END-O-SLUDG is a collaborative for new sludge derivatives leading to research project involving 14 the End-of-Waste plus farm-scale European partners drawn from trials of new products along with the industry, academia and Government development of nutrient management establishments. The project addresses protocols for European crops. the challenges by concentrating on the 5. Micro-pollutant and pathogen micro- development of novel processes for pollutant transmission will be sludge volume reduction, more evaluated and risk assessment efficient treatment and downstream models will be devised to promote processing for high quality marketable public health and environmental sludge derivatives together with protection. application protocols and assessment of the risks of pathogen, micro- Methodology pollutants and long term soil impact for 1. A series of planned experiments will greater public confidence. be carried out to investigate factors affecting COD and P removal from Project objectives wastewater. Optimum conditions will 1. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) and be used in a pilot demonstration. adsorption processes will be developed for enhanced COD and P 2. Bench scale fermentation will be used in conjunction with sludge pre- 83 treatment methods to achieve shown by greater demand for sludge enhanced volatile solids destruction. products and better understanding of Suitable bacterial cultures will be the long term risks involved in the raised for the inoculation of digested application. sludge to suppress E. coli growth in the cake product. • Overall reduction in the cost of treating and disposing sludge by at 3. A pilot plant comprising digested least €100/tDS sludge treated. cake granulation, waste heat recuperation, and granule dehydration • A new market for environmental will be designed, built, installed and equipment, worth an estimated €17.5 operated to produce sludge billion to European industry. derivatives for farm-scale trials and • A more informed approach to sludge demonstration. treatment and management. 4. End-of-waste criteria will be established with stakeholders for OMF Acknowledgments products for pan-European This work is funded by the EU acceptance. Plot and farm-scale trials Seventh Framework Programme. will be conducted to provide data for the development of appropriate nutrient management protocols. 5. Fate of pathogens and micro- pollutants in soil and risks to environment and public health will be studied/modelled using soil samples with a wide range of sludge application history. Integrated assessment of sustainability will include life-cycle assessment (LCA), environmental impact assessment (EIA), strategic environmental assessment (SEA), etc.

Expected results Taken together, the numerous project activities will contribute to achieving the goal of sustainable sludge management. Specific results to be expected include: • A reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions due to gains in energy efficiency and conversion of renewable carbon of 4, 490, 870 t CO2e pa for the EU by 2020. • End-of-Waste status achieved for at least one major sludge derivative (OMF). • Greater public confidence in agricultural recycling of sludge as

84 Environmental Engineering Owen Fenton Johnstown Castle, Environment Research Centre [email protected]

the design of engineered solutions to The Big Picture remediate these losses along the Even after best management practice nutrient transfer continuum. In Figure 1 implementation on an agricultural below - the loss pathways and key landscape incidental and critical landscape positions where different nutrient and greenhouse gas losses technologies may be situated on an are inevitable. A sound understanding agricultural landscape are presented. of the physical and chemical controls on such losses is needed. This helps in

Figure 1. A Nutrient and gas losses in runoff, ditch and drainage pathways, B Permeable Reactive Interceptors; C Chemical amendment and sorbing materials; D Landscape position of environmentally engineered technologies; E Time lag

85 Major publications in this area in 2013 are as follows:

1. Lucid, J.D. et al., Estimation of maximum biosolids and meat and bone meal application to a low P index soil and a method to test for nutrient and metal losses. Water, Air and Soil Pollution. 2. Ibrahim, T.G. et al., Loads and forms of nitrogen and phosphorus in overland flow and subsurface drainage on a marginal land site in south east Ireland. Biol.& Environ. 3. O' Flynn, C.J. et al., Chemical amendment of pig slurry: control of runoff related risks due to episodic rainfall events up to 48 hours after application. Environ. Sci Poll.

Figure 2: Picture of pilot scale denitrifying bioreactor test facility (10*4*1.5 m) containing aquifer and woodchip cells. It has the capacity to inject contaminated water, remediate this water and investigate removal in a holistic way.

86 Unsaturated zone time lags: method development using centrifuge Sara Vero1,2, Owen Fenton1, Tristan Ibrahim1, Mark Healy2, Rachel Creamer1 and Karl Richards1 1Johnstown Castle, 2NUIGalway* [email protected]

Introduction will be saturated from the base under vacuum using deaerated 0.005 M Under the European Water Framework CaSO4 (Dane and Topp, 2002). Cores Directive (EU WFD), all surface and are then transferred to bespoke groundwater bodies must achieve ‘at containers and placed in a Sigma 4-15 least good water quality status’ by centrifuge (upper speed = 4500 rpm). 2015 with the implementation of Pore liquid is extracted from the programmes of measures (POM) in saturated soil cores. 2012. In Ireland, the agricultural POM is the Nitrates Directive. It is known The suction exerted on the pore fluid that there is a ‘time lag’ between inside the soil core is calculated implementation of farm practices and according to (Gardner, 1937): water quality change. Assumptions with respect to the effectiveness of  2 2   r  r  [Eqn. 1] POM should not be made until the 2g 1 2 estimates of vertical time lags on vulnerable sites are known. SWCCs, in where ψ is matric suction (kPa), ρ is combination with equations from Van density of the pore fluid (g cm3), ω is Genuchten and Mualem, can be used angular velocity (rads) and r1 and r2 to elucidate soil hydraulic parameters are the radial distance (cm) to a point and hence vertical time lags. within the soil sample and the free Traditional methods such as the water surface, respectively. The cores pressure plate are time consuming, will be subjected to centrifugation at taking up to several months to various angular velocities determine a single curve. An corresponding to matric suctions alternative, which has not been tested ranging from 0 to -1500 kPa (the in Ireland, is the centrifuge method, permanent wilting point). A porous which should only take days to ceramic column will be inserted at the determine a single curve. The base of the soil sample to extend the r2 objectives of this study are to (1) parameter, thereby increasing the examine the suitability of the centrifuge maximum matric suction that can be method as an alternative to the attained. Centrifugation will be pressure plate method, and (2) to conducted until equilibrium is reached, estimate hydrological time-lags for whereupon the weight of the sample various soil types using this method. shall be recorded and centrifugation at the next pressure step will begin. The Materials and Methods SWCCs obtained from both Intact soil cores from different textural methodologies will be compared. classes will be collected in the field. To Finally, Hydrus 1D will use all the avoid air entrapment, which could SWCC data and vertical time lags will potentially distort the SWCCs, cores be estimated for a range of soil 87 profiles. Actual weather data will be used as input to Hydrus. Further developments are expected using the centrifuge technique in combination with nutrient attenuation Future plans will be to roll out this high and soil testing. This will involve a throughput technique to soils in areas much bigger team. presently failing WFD water quality targets. However, this technique due to References its speed has many applications e.g. vertical and lateral unsaturated travel Dane, J.H. & Topp, G.C. (2002). Methods of soil analysis. Part 4; Progress Physical methods. SSSA Book Series No. 3. Work to date includes: 1) literature review; 2) initial method setup Gardner, R. A. (1937). A method of including production of custom-made measuring the capillary tension of soil centrifuge adaptors to achieve moisture over a wide moisture range. appropriate suction and 3) initial field Soil Sci. 43: 277-283 site selection at Johnstown Castle and across Ireland based upon fieldwork and analysis of vulnerability/soil maps.

88 Runoff Solutions - Chemical amendments for the treatment of various types of organic fertilizers Owen Fenton1, Mark Healy2, Tristan Ibrahim1, Con ‘OFlynn2, Raymond Brennan3, Nyncke Hoekstra1, Gary Lanigan1, Paul Murphy1, Jim Grant4, David Wall1. 1Johnstown Castle, 2NUIGalway, 3University of Arkansas, 4Teagasc Ashtown [email protected]

Introduction Results and Discussion Land application of dairy cattle slurry, Taking into account pollution swapping pig slurry and dairy soiled water in conjunction with effectiveness, poly- (DSW) can result in incidental aluminium chloride (PAC) was the phosphorus (P) and sediment losses most successful treatment for dairy to runoff, as well as emissions of cattle and pig slurries, whereas alum greenhouse gases (GHG). Incidental was most effective for DSW. The P and nitrogen (N) losses are effectiveness of amendments, dependent on factors such as: the however, is soil-specific, and is amount and type of fertilizer or manure affected by P buffering capacity and applied, timing of the rainfall event soil composition (O’ Flynn et al., after application of fertilizer or manure, 2012). There was no difference in the volume of runoff generated, GHG emissions (methane, CH4; antecedent hydrologic conditions and nitrous oxide, N2O; carbon dioxide, field position, flow path length, CO2) following land application of vegetative cover and surface slope. either chemically amended pig slurry Such transfers from agriculture to (O’ Flynn et al., 2013) or dairy cattle water can lead to eutrophication of slurry (Brennan et al., 2012) and their water bodies, particularly if rainfall unamended forms. The validity of the occurs within 48 h of land application. 48-h rule (under SI 610 of 2010) was On-going holistic research at also interrogated by applying rainfall at Johnstown Castle uses a combination time intervals of 12 and 24 h after land of batch, laboratory and plot-scale application (O’ Flynn et al., 2013). studies to investigate the effectiveness Elevated concentrations of P and SS and feasibility of chemical at time intervals of less than 48 h amendments in reducing losses indicated that the current 48-h following land applications of various restriction in Ireland is prudent. It is, of types of agricultural wastewater. course, likely that as the time interval between application and heavy rain The overall aim of this research is to widens further, P losses are likely to identify suitable amendments for decrease due to further interaction addition to three types of wastewater with the soil and plant uptake. (dairy cattle slurry, pig slurry and DSW) in order to reduce surface runoff Under the European Union (EU) Water of nutrients and suspended sediment Framework Directive (WFD) (EU WFD; (SS) in runoff. 2000/60/EC, OJEC, 2000), the water quality of surface and ground waters 89 should be of ‘good status’ by 2015. within a catchment and identifying Small amounts of P losses may areas which pose the greatest risk. It contaminate large quantities of water is possible that P mitigating methods, and, therefore, incidental losses are of such as chemical amendment of dairy concern, in particular, for flashy events cattle slurry, may be used strategically during baseflow conditions. Chemical within a catchment to bind P in cow amendment of dairy and pig slurry ad and pig slurries. These preliminary DSW has been shown to be effective experiments have shown that PAC in this regard. Moving from laboratory and alum have potential as to field scales allows incidental losses amendments to agricultural to be simulated using in-situ soil and wastewaters to reduce surface runoff. drainage conditions. The impact of Due to the high cost of amendments, slurry and amended slurry on soil pH, their incorporation into existing infiltration and runoff volumes, management practices can only be concentrations and loads, are all justified on a targeted basis where important when assessing the inherent soil characteristics deem their feasibility of a particular amendment. usage suitable to receive amended slurry. It is prudent for farmers to Due to high costs involved, use of adhere, whenever possible, to the 48- chemical amendments in slurry and h rule (SI 610 of 2010) to reduce the DSW for land application can only be risk of surface runoff of nutrients and justified on a targeted basis, in sediment. particular: (1) soils with high mobilisation potential, STP and References hydrological transfer potential to Brennan, R.B., Healy, M.G., Grant, J., surface water i.e. a critical source area Ibrahim, T.G., Fenton, O. 2012. (CSA); and (2) at times when storage Incidental phosphorus and nitrogen capacity becomes the critical factor, loss from grassland plots receiving i.e. towards the end of the open period chemically amended dairy cattle when unpredictable weather slurry. Sci of the T Env, 441: 132-140. conditions would normally prohibit O' Flynn, C.J., Fenton, O., Wilson, P., slurry spreading. In these cases, the Healy, M.G. 2012. Impact of pig slurry adoption of the use of chemical amendments on phosphorus, amendment of slurry as part of a suspended sediment and metal losses program of measures would be in laboratory runoff boxes under justified. However, chemical simulated rainfall. J of Env amendments should only be used on Management 113: 78-84. soils that are suitable. The difference in removals experienced by O’ Flynn O' Flynn, C.J., Healy, M.G., Wilson, P., et al. (2013) point to future refinement Noekstra, N.J., Troy, S.M., Fenton, O. of areas suitable to receive chemically 2013. Chemical amendment of pig amended slurry within a CSA (the area slurry: control of runoff related risks of which changes due to a due to episodic rainfall events up to 48 modification of infiltration and hours after application. Env Sci and saturation excess areas across rainfall Pollution Res. event magnitudes and time based on O'Flynn, C.J., Fenton, O., Healy, M.G. soil suitability to receive amended 2012. Evaluation of amendments to slurry. control phosphorus losses in runoff from pig slurry applications to land. In future, farm nutrient management CLEAN- Soil Air Water, 40(2): 164- must focus on examining all farms 170.

90 The Phosphorus Chemistry of Mineral and Peat Grassland Soils Karen Daly Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction fertiliser P recommendations for grassland. Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient for the agriculture and food sector. In productive agricultural systems it is Research on the dynamics of soil vital for crop growth and animal health phosphorus in different soil types and is supplied by the soil in a plant- increases our understanding of how available form either through native soil this element behaves in different soils P reserves or fertiliser and manure and how this affects availability of P to additions. Where native soil P levels plants. are low, additional P through phosphate fertiliser is essential for Research Objectives increased soil fertility and maximising crop yields. Farmers need to optimise The objective of this research is to fertiliser use across their farms by further our understanding of applying it to soils where needed so phosphorus chemistry in grassland that they can keep production costs soils so that we can refine our nutrient low, and minimise potential losses to advice for farmers and offer soil water. Essential to optimising fertiliser specific recommendations for nutrient is the soil P test; this is a measure of efficiency. In addition to understanding available P and indicates to farmers how the chemistry works we can use and advisors if additional P is required. out data to looks at differences across Furthermore, farmers rely on soil soil types and identify the soil attributes testing to meet the requirements for controlling the mechanisms of P applying for derogation under the uptake and release in soil. Nitrates Directive. Whilst the soil P test provides an indicative measure of Research Approach available P advice for farmers there is The research approach to this work is now a need for soil and site specific based on exploring the P chemistry advice on to meet the needs of across a range of soil types through sustainable production on Irish farms. laboratory analysis. Analytical Research on soil phosphorus methods that measure rates of P chemistry has shown that soil P adsorption and release from soil help dynamics can vary across soil types us to understand how these depending on factors such as soil pH, mechanisms work within the soil organic matter and exchangeable ions. matrix. General soil characteristics For example, Soils with high organic that can be analysed in the lab such as matter content (>20%) have poor pH, organic matter content and adsorption capacity for P compared to exchangeable ions, can be correlated mineral soils and this research has with P chemistry and when this soil been incorporated into our latest information is combined it can be used to model P dynamics across different

91 soil types. Laboratory based mechanism but begin to delineate out experiments on soils can provide a lot specific soil type to develop out soil of information on soil P chemistry and specific nutrient advice. much of the data that describes the process of P uptake in soil can be Future Developments derived from sorption isotherms. Future research will focus on linking P Sorption isotherms produced over a chemistry of major soil groups with range of soil types can illustrate how P nutrient efficiency on farms. binding energies and sorption Continuing to identify soil attributes capacities differ across soil types. This that affect P chemistry will refine our information helps us to understand predictive models for P sorption and how the rate of P uptake differs in soils release and will contribute to practical and identify the factors controlling this advice for farmers and advisors. mechanism in soil. Our research has Incorporating novel and emerging shown that soil type factors such as pH spectroscopic methods into soil and extractable aluminium and iron are analysis has shown promising results highly correlated with phosphorus and with further research could provide chemistry in mineral soils and with this the basis for more rapid, non- data we not only model the sorption destructive soil P testing methods.

92 93 Water Quality

94 Sequestration of P & N from agricultural wastewaters using natural zeolite amendments and the reuse of phosphorous on nutrient- poor soils Owen Fenton1, Mark Healy2, John Murnane1, Tristan Ibrahim2 1Johnstown Castle, 2NUIGalway [email protected]

Introduction reciprocating shaker for 24 hr at 250 rpm. The supernatant water was Land application of dairy cattle and pig tested for ammonium (NH4-N), ortho-P slurry, as well as dairy parlour (PO4-P) and nitrate-N (NO3-N) before washings (referred to as dairy soiled and after mixing using a nutrient water, DSW) can result in incidental analyser. phosphorus (P) losses to a waterbody (Carpenter et al., 1998), which may Batch studies were carried out by cause eutrophication. This project adding zeolite at varying loading rates examines the effectiveness of natural to 40 ml of the wastewaters. zeolite to adsorb P and nitrogen (N) from three different agricultural Results and discussion wastewaters: dairy slurry, pig slurry Linearised Langmuir adsorption and DSW, as well as synthetic (syn) isotherms were established and wastewater. It will also examine the the results are summarised in Table 1. ability of the amendment(s) to desorb the sequestered nutrients for subsequent reuse. Table 1 Linearised Langmuir Materials & Methods Isotherms characteristics for adsorption of PO4-P and NH4-N. Dairy slurry and pig slurry were collected and stored at 10°C prior to qmax (mg/g) K (mg/l) R2 testing. The wastewaters were fully Slurry Type PO - NH - characterized for a range of water 4 4 PO -P NH -N P NH P N 4 4 4 quality parameters, including total nitrogen, total phosphorus and dry Dairy 0.31 2.68 1.040 0.058 0.76 0.94 matter. The synthetic wastewater was made up using either K2HPO4 or Pig 0.06 7.88 -0.467 0.005 0.73 0.74 NH4Cl. The zeolite was of Turkish DSW 0.18 2.25 0.357 0.014 0.84 0.25 origin, and was sieved to a particle size of less than 2 mm prior to Syn P 0.33 - 0.005 - 0.19 - conducting the tests. Syn - 12.1 - 0.003 - 0.85 Adsorption isotherms were conducted NH4 by adding 4 g of zeolite to 40 ml of varying concentrations of wastewater and placing the mixtures on a 95 The effect of zeolite loading on P and Conclusions N removal was established. Zeolite Zeolite is an excellent adsorbent of was effective in reducing NH4-N NH4-N, but is not as effective in PO4-P (Figure 1), but was not as effective in removal. Preliminary optimum loading PO4-P removal. rates for the various slurries have been established. Desorption studies are required in order to establish regeneration possibilities of the nutrients. Future work will involve incorporation of zeolite into a sequential permeable reactive interceptor to solve pollution swapping in end of pipe solutions.

References Carpenter, S.R., Caraco, N.F., Correll, D.L., Howarth, R.W., Sharpley, A.N., Smith, V.H. 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorous and nitrogen. Ecological Applications 8, Figure 1 Effect of zeolite loading on 559-568. NH4-N removal from pig slurry, dairy slurry and DSW.

96 Nutrient losses from drained marginal grasslands Tristan Ibrahim1, Owen Fenton1, Mark Healy2, Gary Lanigan1, and Karl Richards1 1Johnstown Castle, 2NUI Galway [email protected]

Introduction systems may be installed to allow for expansion. Such a move may lead to Food Harvest 2020 focuses on increased nutrient losses to aquatic increasing productivity while ecosystems. Thus, a greater enhancing the environmental understanding of the controls (fertilizer sustainability of agricultural land. In inputs and hydrological and chemical 2015, the dairy sector is expected to processes) on nitrogen (N) and expand with the abolition of EU milk phosphorus (P) losses is needed. This quotas. Around 29% of Irish study focuses on grassland used for grasslands have poorly-drained soils, silage, with poorly drained soils, and the water table in floodplains or in shallow glacial aquifers and a low soil- areas of perched aquifers is often P index, for a pre- and post-fertilisation shallow. In these areas, drainage period. Such conditions elucidate the systems may be installed to allow for “baseline” controls on flow and nutrient expansion. Such a move may lead to patterns in grassland systems. increased nutrient losses to aquatic ecosystems. Thus, a greater Results and Discussion understanding of the controls (fertilizer inputs and hydrological and chemical A decrease in plot size (up to 52.2%, processes) on nitrogen (N) and Table 1) and water table depth phosphorus (P) losses is needed. This between Plots 5-6 and Plots 1-2 linked study focuses on grassland used for to an increase in runoff coefficients silage, with poorly drained soils, (ratio of total flow versus rainfall shallow glacial aquifers and a low soil- (Figure 1) for an event, Figure 2) of P index, for a pre- and post-fertilisation 16.9 to 42.5%. Runoff coefficients also period. Such conditions elucidate the increased with increasing amounts of “baseline” controls on flow and nutrient rainfall during and before the events. patterns in grassland systems. Subsurface drain flow patterns were more variable, but plots with shallow Materials and Methods water table had greater increases in runoff coefficients with wetter pre- Food Harvest 2020 focuses on event conditions. increasing productivity while enhancing the environmental Increase in flow induced greater P and sustainability of agricultural land. In N losses. Subsurface drain flow 2015, the dairy sector is expected to usually generated smaller loads of N expand with the abolition of EU milk and P than overland flow (Figure 3). quotas. Around 29% of Irish For N, this linked with a smaller grasslands have poorly-drained soils, volume of water generated by the and the water table in floodplains or in drains. For P, retention in the soil areas of perched aquifers is often possibly enhanced this process. shallow. In these areas, drainage Nitrogen losses were dominated by 97 DON, but the proportion of DIN was higher in the drains. In overland flow, a shallower water table implied a switch from DRP to DUP-dominated water. In subsurface drains, DUP generally dominated with a shallow water table; otherwise PP dominated. Fertilization resulted in DRP being the dominant P fraction in overland flow.

Conclusions An integrated assessment of controls on flow and nutrient patterns in hydrologic paths are important when assessing management impacts. Figure 3. Loads of nutrient losses in overland flow (OF) and subsurface drain flow (DF) for Events 1 and 7.

Acknowledgements We acknowledge the Department of Agriculture and Food Stimulus Fund 07 525 for financial support. Reference Figure 1. Rainfall and SMD Ibrahim et al., 2013. Loads and forms variations for the study period. of nitrogen and phosphorus in overland flow and subsurface drainage on a marginal land site in south east Ireland. Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. In press. Schulte et al., 2005. Predicting the soil moisture conditions of Irish Grassland. Irish Journal of Agricultural and Food Figure 2. Runoff coefficients (ratio Research, 44: 95-110. of total runoff (mm) and rainfall depth (mm)) for the events and plots.

98 Permeable Reactive Interceptors Tristan Ibrahim1, Owen Fenton1, Mark Healy2, Gary Lanigan2, Steve Thornton3, Fiona Brennan4 and Karl Richards1 1Johnstown Castle, 2NUI Galway, 3University of Sheffield, 4James Sutton Institute Scotland. [email protected]

Materials and Methods Introduction A preliminary lab column study (0.8 m long columns, Figure 1) aimed at Food Harvest 2020 has set targets for - sustainable intensification of the Irish testing the NO3 removal capabilities of agriculture. To achieve this goal, a mixture of different carbon media and sediments, by circulating water spiked large range of tools need to be - developed and tested to better control with NO3 at different flow rates and nutrient inputs and losses in farms. In sampling its chemistry at the inlet and the coming years, such a sustainable outlet and at ports along the columns intensification will likely result in an (Healy et al., 2012). Then, a field-scale increase in drained land areas. By semi-controlled bioreactor was reducing opportunities for water to installed at the Teagasc Environment interact with soil and subsoil Research Centre. A 7 x 3 x 1.5 m tank sediments, drainage often increases was divided in seven cells alternatively nutrient losses to water-bodies and filled with fine sand and willow woodchip and open on alternate sides, greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. - Such losses, even if they can be and NO3 spiked water was pumped reduced through better drainage into the tank (Figure 2). This novel design, are often inevitable. This design allowed for manipulating project tackles this issue by developing flowpath lengths to optimize an enclosed remediation technology denitrification with limited pollution (Permeable Reactive Interceptor (PRI), swapping. Variations in hydraulic Fenton et al., 2013) designed to gradients, hydrochemistry (including intercept and remediate mixed- dissolved gases) and GHG emissions contaminant sources. Initially, along flowpaths were monitored using denitrifying bioreactors, where a multi-level samplers, wells and static carbon source is used to enhance chambers. A tracer test using bromide denitrification in water, are tested in lab allowed for water transit times to be and field-controlled environments. This assessed and microbial sampling was provides the basis for the development undertaken. Finally, a PRI is being of a real farm scale PRI design 1) implemented at the outlet of a karstic targeting mixed contaminant sources spring draining >80% of the area of the (i.e. phosphorus (P) in addition to Kilworth farm (Co. Cork), where a high - resolution NO - sensor provides nitrate (NO3 )), 2) producing limited 3 evidence of long-term breaching of pollution swapping (i.e. contaminants - NO3 maximum admissible produced by the PRI) and 3) favoring -1 nutrient and carbon recycling. concentrations (11.3 mg L as NO3-N). A novel inlet design distributes the spring discharge towards a maximum of three PRIs, therefore tackling the

99 issue of temporal variations in spring swapping, additional remediation flow, either following storm events or sequences such as soil capping might across seasons. Zeolite will be used as be needed to prevent N2O losses in an additional remediation sequence to the denitrification area. At the Kilworth + sequestrate any ammonium (NH4 ) or farm, an initial experiment using a P either lost from the spring or small scale bioreactor aims at produced by the PRIs; when saturated assessing denitrification rates using with nutrients, such a media can be willow woodchip to appropriately used as a fertilizer. dimension the full scale PRIs. An - additional NO3 sensor at the outlet of Progress the PRIs, as well as a total dissolved The column experiment showed that all gas probe and manual hydrochemical carbon media performed well in terms sampling, are implemented to assess of nitrate removal, with most of the dynamics of denitrification and remediation occurring in the first pollution swapping. quarter of the columns. Nevertheless, pollution swapping always occurred, either due to solute leaching from the media (e.g. P leaching) or to + biogeochemical activity (e.g. NH4 production through dissimilatory nitrate + reduction to NH4 in areas of high C/N ratios or methane (CH4) production at low redox potential). Similarly, in the field-scale semi-controlled bioreactor, full denitrification in the first two cells was linked to nitrous oxide (N2O) production and losses to the Figure 1. Column study setup atmosphere, while further downgradient, large production of + NH4 , carbon dioxide (CO2) and CH4 was observed. A tracer test allowed for linking horizontal and vertical redox gradients and leaching patterns to variations in water and solute transit times across the bioreactor. These results suggested that even if this novel design can allow for manipulating transit times to achieve full denitrification and low pollution Figure 2. Semi-controlled bioreactor

100 AQUAVALENS: Protecting health by improving methods for the detection of pathogens in drinking water and water used in food preparation 1Karl Richards, 2 Kaye Burgess 1Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford 2 Teagasc, Ashtown

[email protected], [email protected] detection of waterborne pathogens Introduction and improve the provision of Safety of drinking water is critical for hygienically safe water for drinking the protection of human health. The and food production that is Galway city Cryptosporidium outbreak appropriate for large and small in 2007 highlighted the economic systems throughout Europe. Whilst in implications of pathogenic recent years there has been contamination of drinking water. The considerable developments, foodborne outbreak of E. coli especially in molecular technology, O104:H4 in Germany where over 50 very few systems are available that people died, also highlighted the meet the needs of water providers. importance of microbial contamination Consequently, and unless it proves in food processing. Traditionally essential, rather than necessarily microbial organisms indicative of develop new technologies, the key faecal contamination (E. coli) have focus will be to adopt and, where been used by water providers to appropriate, adapt existing identify water unfit for consumption. technologies to develop these Early detection of pathogenic detection systems. organisms in water used as drinking water or in food production is required Project objectives to safeguard human health. This The overall aim of AQUAVALENS is recently funded multidisciplinary to reduce the incidence of waterborne project is the first collaborative project and foodborne infectious diseases between the environment soils and and improve public health for all land use (Johnstown Castle citizens of Europe by developing new Environment Centre) and food safety techniques for monitoring water (Ashtown Food Research Centre) quality that are robust and suitable for departments routine application by those responsible for supplying safe food AQUAVALENS focuses on and water for consumption. developing suitable advanced detection methods that harness the Primarily this will be achieved through advances in new molecular the development, validation and techniques to permit the routine application of quantitative detection 101 and identification technologies for 2. Implementation of developed waterborne microbial pathogens technologies in the ready to eat food based on nucleic acids. industry. Samples of post harvest Teagasc are leading work package processing water (either on farms or 12; the objectives of which are: central processing facilities) will be collected at representative sites 1. Use the technologies across Europe and new technologies developed within other work will be compared against conventional packages for the assessment of methods (source water and water pathogens in irrigation water, post washing). processing of ready to eat fruit and vegetable products and 3. Implementation of developed bottled water technologies in the bottled water industry. Samples will be collected at 2. Obtain knowledge of the the water source and after bottling. occurrence and abundance of pathogens during processing Expected results activities This project will identify which of the 3. Assess the use of results developed technologies would be from the developed platforms to suitable for quantifying a range of inform water quality management pathogenic organisms in water used decisions. for consumption and food processing. 4. Provide methods and tools to It will identify risk factors associated with support control in the bottled pathogen occurrence in different water water industry and for pre and supply types. post-harvest processing of fresh produce Acknowledgments Methodology This work is funded by the EU Seventh Framework Programme. 1. Implementation of developed technologies in assessing irrigation water quality. Irrigation water will be spiked with non harmful strains of key pathogens (pathogenic E. coli and L. monocytogenes). In addition non spiked irrigation water will be analysed at sites across Europe using new technologies over a period of one year.

102 Analysing persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in groundwater Sarah-Louise McManus, Catherine E. Coxon, Karl. G. Richards and Martin Danaher Johnstown Castle Sarah.mcmanus @teagasc.ie A quantitative analytical method was Introduction developed, validated and applied to In 2009 the Stockholm Convention groundwater samples to help achieve listed several organochlorine active the requirements of the WFD and in substances (a.s.) once used in plant accordance with permitted limits protection products (PPPs) as stipulated in EU Drinking Water persistent organic pollutants (POPs). legislation 98/83/EC. The permitted These included the insecticides lindane limits for lindane is 0.1 µg/L and 0.03 and heptachlor which were banned in µg/L for heptachlor and its two TPs. Ireland as PPP in the 1980’s (Figure 1). The physio-chemical properties of Development and validation lindane and heptachlor render them Solid phase microextraction was persistent in the environment for optimized for the choice of fibre, NaCl several years. Whilst in environmental saturation, extraction temperature and compartments, such as water and soil, extraction time. Polyacrylate SPME these a.s can exert their detrimental coatings gave the best recovery for all toxic effects to unintended organisms. four compounds of interest (Figure 2), They can also degrade to more toxic 30% w/v NaCl was the optimum ionic and stable compounds. Heptachlor strength for the four compounds, and a degrades to the transformation SPME extraction temperature of 50°C products (TPs) exo- and endo- and extraction time of 45 min gave the heptachlor epoxide, with exo- best precision for fortified water heptachlor epoxide the more stable samples. and persistent form in the environment. As part of the European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD) all water bodies, including groundwater, must achieve good chemical status by 2015.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. The active substances (a) Figure 2. Fibre choice for SPME lindane and (b) heptachlor. optimization.

103 The method was validated in minutes and then increased to 280°C accordance with EU Directive at 8°C/min. 2002/857/EC. Calibration curves were linear and not forced through the origin with correlation coefficients of 0.9936 or greater. Peak to peak signal to noise ratios for each of the five points along the calibration curve were greater than 10. The retention times of each analyte did not change more than 2.5% during the within laboratory repeatability (WLr) study of 33 samples at three concentrations. Recoveries Figure 3. Fibre longevity following from the WLr study for all four analytes repeated injections of fortified of interest ranged between 96-101%. samples at 0.05 µg/L. Method procedure SIS optimised the MS by using only the dominant ions for each compound Groundwater samples collected using based on their fingerprint. Table 1 low-flow purging techniques were details the quantification ions used and analysed within five days of receipt to the main fragmentation ions. the laboratory. Five mL of sample was transferred into a 10 mL headspace Table 1. Characteristic ions used for vial with 2.5g of NaCl. SIS. Clean up was achieved using SPME Analyte Quantification Main carried out on a CTC Combi-pal auto- ion (m/z) fragmentation ion (m/z) sampler at 50°C for 45 min with Lindane 183 148+109 agitation at 250 rpm. Desorption of the Heptachlor 272 100+237 fibre took place in splitless mode for 4 exo- 353 237+81 min following extraction. The split was hetachlor initially on at a ratio of 10 and then epoxide turned off following injection. After one endo- 253 183+217+13 min the split was turned on at a ratio of heptchlor 5 10 for four min. Following desorption, epoxide the fibre was baked out at 250 °C to Acknowledgements prevent cross contamination. This work was funded by the Disposable PA SPME fibres lasted 51 Department of Agriculture Research injections including a six-point Stimulus Fund 2005 (RSF 07-544). calibration curve (Figure 3). References Detection and quantification was achieved using a GC-MS ion trap in McManus, S-L, Coxon, C.E., Richards, electron impact mode with selective ion K.G. and Danaher, M. (2013) storage (SIS). Chromatographic Quantitative solid phase separation was achieved using a microextraction Gas chromatography Zebron ZB-5 capillary column (30m × mass spectrometry analysis of the 0.25 mm I.D., film thickness 0.25) with pesticides lindane, heptachlor and two Grade A Helium used as a carrier gas heptachlor transformation products in at 1.0 mL/min. The oven temperature groundwater. Journal of was set as follows: 50°C held for two Chromatography A 1284: 1– 7

104 105 Agricultural Catchments Programme

106 The Agricultural Catchments Programme: Evaluating policies on nutrient management and water quality at the catchment scale Ger Shortle and Phil Jordan [email protected] Introduction  minimum manure storage requirements and buffer zones for Prudent use of plant nutrients such as applying organic or chemical nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) is fertilisers along water courses. essential to optimize farm outputs and maximize profits. Farmers must also take care to minimise the risk to water These measures are recognised as quality from potential nutrient losses in the agricultural contribution towards managing their farms. These losses helping to implement the Water can cause eutrophication (over- Framework Directive objectives in nourishment and leading to ecological Ireland. Implicitly, the evaluation changes and decreases in amenity. included an investigation of the Excessive N in drinking water can efficacy of the derogation. render it unsuitable for consumption. The EU Nitrates Directive was On an EU level, it is proposed that the transposed into Irish law in 2006 and NAP in Ireland is a highly regulated regulates the management of N and P and progressive programme of with the aim of maintaining productivity measures to mitigate diffuse pollution whilst reducing the risks of their loss to from agricultural sources. The water. hypothesis tested in the ACP is that the NAP is addressing these issues In order to meet cross compliance satisfactorily. requirements for single farm payments farmers must comply with the package Phase 1 of the Programme of mitigation measures laid out in the National Action Programme (NAP) The first four-year phase of the introduced under the Nitrates Agricultural Catchments Programme Directive. The measures include for (ACP) was completed at the end of example: 2011. It was concerned with the establishment of the experiment, and  an organic N limit of 170 kg ha-1 providing an agri-environmental with a derogation available to baseline of agricultural activity and farm at 250 kg ha-1 N granted water quality response in the years subject to environmental following the implementation of the conditions measures in the NAP.  N and P applications limited to The ACP integrates bio-physical with crop requirement and closed socio-economic processes in the periods for fertilizer and manure evaluation of the impacts of NAP applications measures. Conducted at the catchment scale, the evaluation is more concerned with the water quality 107 response of the package of NAP changes in farm management measures in agricultural catchments, practices on the transfer of nutrients rather than individual measures. from source to water and their impact However, the status of some of the on water quality. Measurements, individual measures, as obligated modelling and socio-economic studies under the NAP, is being investigated. were used to evaluate the efficacy of the measures and aspects of their cost While Phase 1 of the ACP provided a effectiveness and economic impact. project design and base line, Phase 2 is concerned with validation (of Farmer attitudes to implementation of assertions from Phase 1), modelling regulations, adoption of nutrient (key bio-physical and socio-economic management practices, provision of processes) and assessment of policy ecosystem services and the economic impacts. impacts of efficient nutrient management were also investigated. Six catchments were instrumented to monitor nutrient sources and loss Outcomes pathways to surface and groundwater bodies. Intensive biophysical The accompanying articles provide an monitoring was conducted according overview of the results from Phase 1 to a common experimental design with which have been published in a series the aim of evaluating the effect of of peer-reviewed scientific papers.

Figure 1. Location and description of the six catchments 108 Nutrient transfer pathways Per-Erik Mellander Teagasc Env Research Centre, Johnstown Castle, Wexford [email protected]

Introduction 1) with catchment integrated studies in the stream outlet. The focused study Understanding how nutrients may be sites consists of topographical mobilised and transferred via different transects of multilevel monitoring wells pathways from source to receiving equipped with groundwater water bodies is important as this leveloggers. Water from the wells and knowledge will improve management from drains, ditches and streams are strategies and measures to abate sampled for water quality analysis on a nutrient transfer. monthly basis. The catchments outlets The objective of this work is to link are equipped with flat-v weirs, nutrient sources with the movement of leveloggers and bankside-analysers for water through the pathways from field high temporal resolution stream water to streams leaving the catchments in discharge and quality measurements. order to determine the contributions of In each catchment rainfall is measured water and nutrients that reach the at two sites and standard stream via the various pathways meteorological parameters at one site. (surface and subsurface). Another End Member Mixing Analysis was objective is to understand how nutrient applied to baseflow conditions at the transfer pathways may vary over time focused study sites and a and space and in their connection to Loadodgraph Recession Analysis nutrient sources and the potential method was introduced, to identify and effects of temporal changes in water quantify integrated delivery transfer recharge and land management. The pathways for events. challenges are the complexities of scale involved that arise from the spatial variability of soil physical properties and the geology that determine the pathway and residence time, as well as the temporal variability of rainfall, land management and the nutrient transformations that occur in the soil. The output from this task contributes to the scientific evaluation of the effectiveness of the measures through an improved understanding of the pathways and will also provide a basis for any modifications to the measures. Figure 1. Focused study site for Materials and Methods nutrient transfer pathway in Co. This work combines detailed pathway Wexford. studies from focused study sites (Fig. 109 Results and Discussion better long term strategy than those While it was generally found that quick- targeted at overland pathways such as flow P transfer pathways dominated buffer strips and critical source areas poorly drained catchments and below- for runoff. In such catchments, ground N transfer pathways dominated baseflow can deliver substantial loads in well-drained catchments, substantial of both N and P, which may persist into below-ground P loss was found in well- ecologically significant periods and a drained catchments and poorly drained long recession in water flow and catchments produced N loss via nutrient delivery from an event may ephemeral ditches. This suggests that become significant for the ecological below-ground transfer pathways need status of receiving rivers. The to be considered when mitigating both definitions of risk and vulnerability for P N and P loss to receiving waters and delivery in karst systems need further highlights the importance of evaluation considering catchment-specific nutrient Acknowledgements transfer pathways when assessing mitigation measures. In catchments This work is funded by the Irish with permeable soils and geology, Department of Agriculture, Food and measures targeted at nutrient sources the Marine. (soils and nutrient inputs) may be a better long term strategy than those References targeted at overland pathways such as Mellander, P-E., Melland, A.R., Jordan, buffer strips and critical source areas P., Wall, D.P., Murphy P.N.C. and for runoff (Mellander et al. 2012a) Shortle G., 2012. Quantifying nutrient transfer pathways in agricultural For a karst aquifer it was found that high P source and aquifer vulnerability catchments using high temporal resolution data. Environmental Science did not elevate P in the emergent and Policy. 24, 44-57. groundwater due to the attenuation processes within small fissure Mellander, P-E., Jordan, P., Wall, D.P., transport pathways (Mellander et al. Melland, A.R., Meehan R., Kelly C. and 2012b). Shortle G., 2012. Delivery and impact bypass in a karst aquifer with high Conclusions phosphorus source and pathway In catchments with permeable soils potential. Water Research. 46, 2225- and geology, measures targeted at 2236. surface nutrient sources may be a

110 Nitrogen Attenuation along Delivery Pathways in Agricultural Catchments Eoin McAleer1,2, Per Erik Mellander1, Catherine Coxon2, Alice Melland1, Paul Murphy1 & Karl Richards1 1Johnstown Castle, 2Trinity College Dublin [email protected] This PhD research project is being Introduction undertaken from 2012 to 2016 in two Nitrate is regarded as one of the intensively managed catchments in dominant contaminants affecting Co. Wexford and Co. Cork (Figure 1). freshwater quality worldwide. Both catchments are dominated by Increased awareness over the well drained soils and relatively detrimental effects to both human permeable geology but have health and environmental quality has contrasting prevailing land-use. resulted in the implementation of the Nitrates Directive into Irish law. The Objectives directive introduces measures to The focus of this work is to investigate reduce the effect of agriculturally nitrogen attenuation processes within derived nitrogen on the environment. the saturated aquifer and stream The nitrate ion is both highly mobile hyporheic zones of four instrumented and dynamic within a groundwater hill slopes. Each hillslope contains system. In order to evaluate the three multilevel monitoring wells; success of these measures therefore, penetrating various geological horizons it is essential to understand the and spanning the entire length of the evolution of nitrogen as it passes hillslope. The specific aims of the through subsurface pathways from project are to: source to receptor.  Calculate the discharge of groundwater from the top of the hill slope to its base where it insects with the stream hyporheic zone (Year 1).  Describe the nitrogen loads within each hillslope.  Investigate the capacity for denitrification within the saturated zone.  Identify the degree to which hyporheic processes act to attenuate nitrogen.

Methods (Year 1) Groundwater flow Figure1: Study catchments location

111 The groundwater discharge through Cross sectional area of flow (A) will be each well transect will be calculated calculated from geophysical x,y & z numerically using MODFLOW. Figure data, while temporal horizontal and 2 illustrates the basic outline of the vertical hydraulic gradient data is modelling approach. provided by pressure transducers installed within each piezometer. Methods (future work)  Time Domain Reflectometry probes will be installed within the unsaturated zone allowing the response of the aquifer to recharge to be calculated.  Groundwater discharge Figure 2: Input parameters for the grid calculations from year one will be based approach to groundwater combined with monthly low flow modelling physic-chemical data to estimate the nitrogen loads from groundwater. High resolution geophysical data will be  “Push pull” tests will be used to create a 3D groundwater flow undertaken at each piezometer grid (Figure 2c). MODFLOW is a cell transect allowing the nitrogen based approach, where the governing attenuation capacity of the aquifers to equations of groundwater flow are be determined. The method consists of constrained within each model node the pulse type injection of a test (Figure 2b). The model applies finite solution (containing a conservative and difference theory to the partial differential reactive tracer) followed by the groundwater flow equations and extraction of the test iteratively calculates discharge through solution/groundwater mixture from the each cell, i.e. the value of the one cell same well. determines the value in all other cells in contact with it.  A network of multilevel mini- piezometers will be installed in the Figure 2a illustrates the parameters streambed adjacent to the well required for the calculation of transects. Pressure gradient data will groundwater flow through each model be used to map the flow path direction cell. Saturated hydraulic conductivity and magnitude within the streambed. (Ksat) will be derived from a series of slug Nitrogen species data and tests within each geological layer (Figure environmental parameters affecting the 3). rate of attenuation will be interpreted along each flow path. Acknowledgements This study is part of the Agricultural Catchments Programme funded by the Irish Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine and the Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme.

Figure 3: Normalised hydraulic head vs. time from slug test experiment 112 Nutrient delivery to streams, and stream biological quality Alice Melland, Phil Jordan and the ACP team [email protected]

Introduction Results and Discussion In Ireland, the chemical and biological Nutrient loss quality of streams is compared with EU targets. The Agricultural Catchments Annual TP exports were low to Programme is measuring these water moderate and not defined by landuse quality elements and calculating in contrast to models which use export nutrient fluxes in streams to firstly coefficients. For example, two compare with EU standards and to grassland catchments exported 0.541 secondly identify linkages in space and kg/ha/yr and 0.701 kg/ha/yr and the time with farm practice. Where these two arable catchments exported 0.175 links occur, there is potential for farm kg/ha/yr and 0.785 kg/ha/yr (Jordan et al. 2012). Suspended sediments (3 management, including the Nitrates 2 2 Directive National Action Programme t/km to 15 t/km ) were low to (NAP) measures, to influence water moderate despite high rainfall in the quality. two arable catchments. Higher losses of TP and sediment were associated Materials and Methods with higher rainfall and with catchments with less permeable soil State-of-the-art technology was used and geology (Melland et al. 2012). to measure total phosphorus (TP), total reactive phosphorus (TRP), total oxidised nitrogen (TON), turbidity (as NTU), electrical conductivity and temperature continuously at sub-hourly intervals in bankside kiosks (Fig. 1) at the outflows of six catchments. Low profile Corbett V-weirs combined with customised stage-discharge rating curves were used to calculate stream discharge. Figure 1. Water quality is analysed Longitudinal stream sampling was continuously by instruments conducted monthly during baseflow to housed on the stream bank. identify spatial variations in stream water quality. Twice yearly surveys Point and diffuse nutrient sources (late spring and late summer) of benthic macroinvertebrates and Longitudinal stream and multi-depth diatoms as well as fish and groundwater testing identified both hydromorphological surveys were agricultural and non-agricultural conducted by the UCC Aquatic potential point source surface inputs Services Unit. and little groundwater input of TRP to one of the arable catchment streams (Fig. 2, Melland et al. 2012). High TRP concentrations during biologically

113 sensitive summer periods were catchments, the karst limestone attributed to loss of dilution of these catchment was the only catchment (on rural point sources (Jordan et al. average) without trophic impact. During 2012). late spring samplings there was often an improvement in biological health,

Good status P std 0.30 despite these samplings following the Main stream Tributary 0.25 Groundwater winter periods of proportionately

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0.20 L highest nutrient loss to streams, but 50 g m [ 0.15 P - 60% of sites remained ‘at risk’ of not R 0.10 T reaching EU ‘good’ water quality 0.05 targets (unpublished data). 0.00 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Distance upstream [km] Conclusions Figure 2. Spatial trends in average TRP concentrations in stream Further decreasing nutrient and baseflow and in groundwater. sediment losses from each catchment will likely be more successful if nutrient Seasonality and NAP measures and sediment losses during higher Due to a close relationship between flows can be attenuated, as is targeted stream flow volume and stream nitrate by several of the NAP measures. The flux, the nitrate-N flux lost during the summer impact of poor dilution of point closed slurry spreading period sources, however, will not be alleviated (approximately 25% of the year) was under NAP regulations. disproportionately high at 47 to 57 % of the 2009-10 and 2010-11 annual fluxes Acknowledgements in the two arable catchments (Fig. 3). This work is funded by the Irish Similar to TP, the results support the Department of Agriculture, Food and utility of a closed period for avoiding the Marine. The dedication of ACP incidental losses. staff (technicians, technologists, advisors, administration) and 12 40 Hourly mean concentration Slurry closed period postgraduate students, and the 35 ]

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0 0 Jordan, P., Melland, A.R., Mellander, t v c b r y n l p c o e e a a u u e O F M J -J - -N -D - - -M - 4 -S 6 6 8 8 1 2 3 2 4 0 1 2 0 2 0 1 0 P.-E., Shortle, G. and Wall, D. (2012) Figure 3. Temporal trends in TON The seasonality of phosphorus concentration and flux in 2009-10 in transfers from land to water: a partially permeable arable Implications for trophic impacts and catchment. policy evaluation. Science of the Total Environment, 434, 101- 109 Stream biological quality Melland, A.R., Mellander, P.-E., The ‘potential’ WFD macroinvertebrate Murphy, P.N.C., Wall, D.P., Mechan, status ranged from Poor to High (Q- S., Shine, O., Shortle, G. and Jordan, value 3 to 4-5) across sites, seasons P. (2012). Stream water quality in (late spring and late summer) and intensive cereal cropping catchments years. Whilst good status was with regulated nutrient management. attainable in the intensively farmed Env Science & Policy, 24; 58-70. 114 Socio-economic studies of nutrient management Cathal Buckley, Agricultural Catchments Programme [email protected]

Introduction imported feeds by exploring the extent to which application rates may have To-date the Agricultural Catchments exceeded optimum levels using data Programme (ACP) has explored a envelopment analysis and productivity range of socio-economic issues and analysis methodology. The laid the groundwork for longer-term investigation concentrates on specialist studies concerning farmer attitudes, dairy and tillage farms in the Republic economic impacts and uptake of of Ireland, stratified by land use nutrient management practices. potential. Using NFS data and a Research to-date has used data multinomial model the willingness of gathered as part of the ACP as well as the farming population to import pig national datasets, and is outlined and poultry manures was investigated. below. Finally a survey of manure application and storage practices was undertaken Materials and Methods across farms in the National Farm With the ACP framework, Q Survey in 2009. methodology was used to investigate farmer subjective opinions of the Results and Discussion operation of the EU Nitrates Directive Results from Q methodology analysis regulations after the first 4 year indicate 4 main opinion groups. A National Action Programme phase.Q “Constrained Productionists” group methodology also explores the level of remain unconvinced about the acceptance and refutation of measures appropriateness of certain EU Nitrates from the view of farmers own Directive measures from a farm knowledge and experience of land management, environmental and water stewardship. Using data generated quality perspective. A second group, from a survey of catchment farmer with “Concerned Practitioners”, share these land adjacent to a watercourse, the concerned but are generally more willingness of farmers to adopt a positive regarding other farm riparian buffer zone was investigated. management and environmental The research was based on a proposal benefits accruing from the regulations. to install a 10 meter deep riparian A third group, “Benefit Accepters”, buffer zone on a five year scheme and indicated quite an environmentalist the analysis was based on principal position and are generally very positive components analysis, contingent towards regulation implementation and valuation methodology and a associated environmental and farm generalized tobit interval model. management benefits. The final group, Using Teagasc National Farm Survey “Regulation Unaffected”, have some (NFS) data, research was undertaken concerns but are mostly unaffected by to investigate whether there is room to the regulations. Results suggest reduce chemical nitrogen and skepticism remains around the validity phosphorus fertilizer applications and of certain measures, especially, in the

115 area of temporal farm practices, those of larger farm size with greater however, there is acceptance among expenditure on chemical fertilizers per some farmers of environmental hectare and who are not restricted by benefits accruing from the regulations. an EU Nitrates Directive derogation. Results indicated that famers’ An NFS based nationally willingness to supply a riparian buffer representative survey (Hennessy et al., zone depended on a mix of economic, 2009) of manure application and attitudinal and farm structural factors. storage practices on farms in 2009 A total of 53% of the sample indicated estimated that 52% of all slurry was a negative preference for provision. applied between the end of the closed Principle constraints to adoption period in January and April 30th in total include interference with production, volume terms. This contrasts with a nuisance effects and loss of production 2003 survey which found that 35% of in small field systems. Of those willing slurry was applied in the spring season to engage with supply, the mean (Hyde et al., 2008). Across all farm willingness to accept based cost of systems approximately 71 percent of provision for a 10 metre riparian buffer slurry was estimated to be applied to zone was estimated to be €1513 ha-1 conservation ground (hay/silage), 26 per annum equivalent to €1.51 per percent to grazing land with the linear metre of riparian area. remaining 3 percent applied to maize or tillage crops. These figures indicate Results across specialist dairy and a trend toward greater slurry tillage farms in the NFS demonstrate application on land used for livestock some inefficiency in the utilisation of grazing compared to a 2003 survey nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers where 80 percent of the slurry compared to benchmark farms across applications was to hay or silage land these systems. Average over and 16 percent was on grazing land. application of chemical fertilizers The report also indicates an increasing ranged from 22.8 to 32.8 kg N ha-1 and -1 number of farmers are starting to 2.9 to 3.51 kg P ha in 2008. Potential engage with newer slurry application cost savings on chemical fertilizers technologies. A total of 6 per cent of across all systems on average ranged -1 -1 dairy farmers reported using the trailing from €38.9 ha to €48.5 ha . shoe method of slurry application. Additionally, potential cost reductions on imported feeds of €65 to €84 per Acknowledgements livestock were indicated for dairy farms This work is funded by the Department versus efficient cohort benchmark of Agriculture, Food and the Marine. farms. Average excess of imported feedstuffs equated to 5.82-7.44 kg LU-1 References -1 of N and 0.92-1.17 kg LU of P. Hyde, B., Carton, O., and Murphy, W. Based on a nationally representative (2008). Farm Facilities Survey – survey (NFS) between 9 and 15 per Ireland 2003. Teagasc, Johnstown cent of farmers nationally would be Castle, Wexford. willing to pay to import poultry and pig Hennessy, T., Buckley, C., Cushion, manures manure respectively and a M., Kinsella, A., Moran, B., 2011. further 17 to 28 per cent would import if National Farm Survey of Manure offered on a free of charge basis. Application and Storage Practices on Demand is strongest among arable Irish Farms. Teagasc, Athenry, farmers, younger farmer cohorts and Galway.

116 Nutrient Sources in Agricultural Catchments Paul Murphy1, David Wall1, Per-Erik Mellander1, Alice Melland1, Cathal Buckley1, Sarah Mechan1, Oliver Shine1, Phil Jordan1, Ger Shortle1 1Johnstown Castle, 2 University of Ulster [email protected] Introduction Farm nutrient management is primarily focused on increasing farm productivity. However, nutrients can form a source for loss to water or air which can have both economic and environmental implications. Optimising nutrient use can both increase farm productivity and decrease environmental impacts; a win-win Figure 1. Proportion of soils in each scenario leading to more sustainable soil P index. farming. The nutrient SOURCES component of the Agricultural  Nutrient management and flows: Catchments Programme (ACP) is fertilizer use, feed, fertilizer and concerned with assessing the livestock import and export and farm management, magnitude and products exported are recorded at the mobilisation potential of N and P field and farm scale. This information is sources in agricultural catchments, used to calculate N and P balance and assessing how the Good Agricultural use efficiency at the field, farm and Practice (GAP) measures affect these catchment scales (Fig. 2). sources and how this, in turn, affects  Catchment soils: characterized farm productivity and nutrient physically (soil texture, bulk density mobilisation and transport. etc) and chemically (pH, organic matter, P sorption/desorption, etc). Materials and Methods Soil-landscape models are being Some of the SOURCE research areas developed based on field soil survey, are highlighted here. topographic analysis of digital elevation models (DEMs) and other data  Soil nutrient census: characterising sources. the spatial distribution of soil P status (Fig. 1) and also K and pH status at a resolution of < 2 ha. Excessive soil P status can be an indicator of P loss risk. The census is being repeated to assess how soil P status has changed over 3-4 years.

Figure 2. Nutrient balances at the catchment, farm and field scales. 117 Critical Source Areas (CSAs): a range shows the importance of soils and of CSA factors are being investigated hydrology in determining risks of to determine the key factors that would nutrient loss to water. allow mapping of CSAs, e.g. soil P Field-level inorganic P fertiliser inputs status, soil type, slope and hydrologic revealed a large range across fields, connectivity to water receptors. High from zero to maximum rates (55 kg ha- resolution (25 cm) Light Detection and 1 for grassland and 68 kg ha-1 for Ranging (LiDAR) DEMs are being arable crops) in excess of the applied for this purpose. maximum allowed under the NAP. These excessive applications are likely Results and Discussion to increase the risk of P loss. Some of the SOURCE research results Trends in soil P status, fertiliser P are highlighted here (Wall et al. 2013). inputs and surplus P availability can be In 5 ACP catchments, between 6 and misrepresented at larger scales 26 % of soils had excessive P status (national, catchment, farm scale) and (Index 4), showing the legacy of may be better represented at smaller historic P surpluses (Fig. 1). Between scales (field, soil process scale) where 74 and 94 % had optimal P status, or management and soil factors can be lower. For the grassland catchments, considered. soil P status reflected land use intensity with 26 % of soils in Index 4 in Conclusions the intensive dairy catchment, The ACP will continue to monitor decreasing to 16 and 6 % with nutrient sources in the catchments and decreasing land use intensity in the assess the impact of the GAP other two grassland catchments. The measures. Areas of focus will include arable catchments had a similar CSA modelling, changes in soil P proportion in Index 4, at 18 and 19 %. status over time and sustainability of intensive dairy production under Large spatial variability was found in derogation, for example. soil P status both across a catchment and between individual fields on the Acknowledgements same farm (Fig. 1). This indicates that there is plenty of scope to correct This work is funded by the Department nutrient imbalances with better nutrient of Agriculture, Food and the Marine. management and redistribute P to lower status soils, potentially References increasing P use efficiency and Wall DP, Murphy PNC, Melland AR, decreasing P loss risk. Mechan S, Shine O, Buckley C, Mellander P-E, Shortle G & Jordan P Higher P exports from two catchments 2012. Evaluating nutrient source were attributed to lower soil regulations at different scales in five permeability in these catchments, agricultural catchments. Environmental leading to flashier runoff (and P Science and Policy 24, 34-43. mobilisation into fast pathways), more so than to landuse or the magnitude of the P source (soil P status). This

118 Sediment dynamics in small agricultural catchments Sophie Sherriff1,2, John Rowan2 Alice Melland1, Owen Fenton1, Paul Murphy1, Phil Jordan3, and Daire Ó hUallacháin1 1Johnstown Castle, 2University of Dundee, 3University of Ulster [email protected]

Introduction Sediment is an essential component of freshwater ecosystems, providing many key nutrients for good ecological functioning. Excessive sediment delivery to rivers and high suspended sediment loads during flood events can however cause degradation of habitat quality through blocking of spawning gravels, resulting in decreased Figure 2. Poaching of channel bank. biodiversity. This study aims to address the need to Accelerated delivery of sediments to better understand sediment transport streams is commonly caused by in intensive agricultural catchments intensive land uses such as forestry across a range of land uses. and agriculture. Bare soils (Figure 1) Specifically the study addresses the and/or poaching of river banks (Figure following issues: 2) destabilize soils, increasing erosion risk during rainfall events. Further  Does land management impact intensification as suggested in the the magnitude and duration of Food Harvest 2020 strategic initiative sediment events in rivers? may implicate the achievement of  How much sediment is transferred Water Framework Directive water from the land surface to quality targets (2000/60/EC). WFD watercourses? aims to achieve “good” ecological and chemical water quality by 2015,  Can sediment fingerprinting be prevent longer term degradation of used to quantify the relative water quality and consequently contribution from upstream prioritize the management of sediment sources on the basis of hillslopes inputs from agriculture. versus channel banks or according to land use patterns  How does the contribution from sediment sources alter seasonally?  Do non-agricultural sediment sources contribute to in-stream sediments? (e.g. road and fluvially Figure 1. Bare arable soil after eroded channel bank sediments) ploughing.

119 Materials and Methods Results and Discussion High resolution sediment flux data are Better quantification of in-stream collected by the Agricultural sediments using high-resolution data Catchments Program, Teagasc in six will highlight the impact of land-use on intensive agricultural catchments in the transfer of particles to Ireland. The current project focuses on watercourses. Our research on three catchments, over a gradient of sediment fluxes, loads and yields will land-use. provide event, seasonal and annual data for national and international Sediment quantity comparison of water quality status. Sediment quantity is assessed through Land-use specific soil loss data will high-resolution sediment flux provide important information on the monitoring using calibrated proxy key erodible areas and additionally, the turbidity readings. The event, seasonal ability of the landscape to retain and annual responses at multiple eroded particles in interception and catchment positions provides data buffering features. This is achieved regarding the spatial availability, through comparison of soil loss from magnitude and duration of events. the land and receipt of sediment in- Soil loss stream. Radionuclide assessments of soil Identification of sediment sources (both cores from catchment fields using spatially and seasonally) will provide caesium (137-Cs) indicate medium key data relating to ‘at-risk’ periods for term soil loss rates. Comparison of specific land-uses and additionally core transects from contrasting land allow consideration of field-based uses will indicate affects of land-use sediment losses compared to non- type on soil loss. agricultural sources. These data will help inform sediment mitigation Source tracing/ sediment fingerprinting measures. Characterization of all potential sediment source areas through Conclusions geochemical, magnetic and Integrated analysis of soil loss, radionuclide analysis create distinct sediment quantity and source tracing in fingerprints for each source type, i.e. multiple agricultural catchments will land-use, bank. Assuming in-stream create sediment budget assessments sediment are a mixture of these over a gradient of land use types. This sources, analysis of multiple passive will improve knowledge on the land to sediment samplers (Figure 3) provide water sediment dynamics from soil loss spatial and temporal source area to the efficacy of transport to information. watercourses and subsequent downstream transport. These results will inform how soil loss and sediment mitigation can be better targeted for protection of water quality.

Acknowledgements This work is funded by the Teagasc Figure 3. In-stream suspended Walsh Fellowship Scheme. sediment samplers.

120 Defining critical source areas of nutrient transfer in agricultural catchments Ian Thomas1, Paul Murphy1, Phil Jordan1,2, Paul Dunlop2, Alice Melland 1, Cathal Buckley 3 and Owen Fenton 1 1Teagasc Johnstown Castle, 2University of Ulster, 3Teagasc Athenry [email protected]

Background are first mobilised and transferred to surface waters, and are therefore crucial Critical source areas (CSAs) of for accurate CSA identification. This phosphorus (P) are defined as project investigates the application of hydrologically active zones within a high resolution (25 cm) Light Detection catchment where P sources, and Ranging (LiDAR) DEMs for mobilisation and hydrological modelling CSAs. connectivity to surface waters coincide, resulting in areas exporting Runoff flashiness has been found to disproportionate quantities of P that can be a controlling factor for P transfers lead to eutrophication. during the closed period for fertilizer spreading. As soil properties will As Food Harvest 2020 is promoting influence runoff flashiness, this will increased Irish agricultural production, also be investigated and incorporated intensification in some areas is likely. At into a CSA definition. the same time, Water Framework Directive (WFD) water quality The potential applications for an obligations must be met. A tighter improved CSA definition include definition of CSAs of P, founded on an targeted mitigation measures. These integrated CSA metric based on could be used as an alternative to catchment science precepts (Figure 1), supplementary WFD measures such may be useful to target mitigation as riparian buffer zones which farmers measures in an efficient and effective may be reluctant to adopt and which manner. This PhD project aims to may be prone to hydrochemical develop such a CSA model for Irish bypassing and pollution swapping. catchments, and is integrated in the The acceptability and cost of adopting Agricultural Catchments Programme CSA measures as apposed to riparian (ACP) evaluating the efficacy of the buffer zones will therefore be Good Agricultural Practices measures explored. aimed at reducing nutrient losses. Defining hydrological connectivity and CSAs must include the influence of sub- metre scale ditch networks and runoff producing features that are not effectively captured in conventional, coarser resolution Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). These networks and features are where nutrients from CSAs Figure 1. CSA conceptual diagram

121 Objectives other topographic algorithms. Differences in modelled mobilisation, Research questions that will be flow path, and hydrological addressed include: (i) are only sub- connectivity risks will be compared to metre DEMs suitable for defining determine if predictions of P transfer hydrological connectivity and CSAs of risk improve using the sub-metre P transfer in agricultural catchments? DEM. Risk metrics of hydrological (ii) do catchments with lower connectivity, runoff flashiness, P hydrological connectivity and runoff source pressures (loadings and soil P flashiness have a reduced risk of P status), topography and soil properties transfer even in circumstances of high will be created and integrated into a P source pressures? (iii) will adoption metric of CSAs. Calibration and of CSA mitigation measures be more validation of metric weightings will be acceptable to farmers and less undertaken to determine the influence expensive than adoption of riparian of metric components such as buffer zones? hydrological connectivity or mobilisation risk on P transfers in Materials and Methods catchments experiencing different Five intensively monitored agricultural nutrient source pressures. An catchments from the ACP have been improved CSA definition will be selected, namely Timoleague, created on the basis of this CSA Castledockrell, Ballycanew, Dunleer, metric. and Corduff-Sreenty. These Survey data on adopting CSA catchments represent typical land mitigation measures will be collected use, soil-landscape and from farmers. Questions will include environmental conditions found in level of participation, attitude, peer Ireland. Existing data from the ACP group factors and a contingent geodatabase will be used for this valuation willingness to accept (WTA) research, including surface water question to establish the minimum discharge and P concentrations, P amount of compensation the farmer fertilizer application records and soil P would be prepared to accept (in € ha-1 status at the field scale, precipitation, equiv. per annum) for the change of soil types and properties, a 5m land use to a CSA buffer zone. INTERMAP DEM and a new state-of- Results will be compared with the-art 0.25m LiDAR DEM (Figure 2). previous ACP attitudinal surveys on riparian buffer zones (Buckley et al., 2012), to determine if the adoption of CSA measures would be more acceptable and less expensive.

Acknowledgements This work is funded by the Teagasc Figure 2. LiDAR DEMs (a) with Walsh Fellowship Scheme. vegetation and (b) without vegetation References Buckley, C. et al, 2012. Supply of an Mobilisation risk and hydrological ecosystem service-Farmers’ connectivity will be modelled from the willingness to adopt riparian buffer 0.25m and 5m DEMs in SAGA GIS, zones in agricultural catchments. Env using TOPMODEL, SCIMAP and Science & Policy, 24: 101-10 122 Microbial Source Tracking in Rural Catchments S. Murphy12, N. Bhreathnach1, P. Jordan2, S. Wuertz3, V. O’Flaherty1 1 Microbial Ecology |Lab., Dept Microbiology &ECI, NUIGalway; 2 Agricultural Catchments Programme, Teagasc, Johnstown Castle, Wexford; 3 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California [email protected] Introduction landscape is subject to hydrologic In Ireland, bacterial pathogens from movement via groundwater pathways. continual point source pollution and The Dunleer catchment is more intermittent pollution from diffuse influenced by surface flow pathways sources can impact water. (Melland et al 2012). Cregduff is Establishing the source of faecal predominantly livestock farming with pollution is imperative for the little tillage. Dunleer has both protection of water quality and human considerable tilled land (30%) and health. Microbial source tracking, an livestock farming (50%). important emerging molecular tool, is applied to detect host-specific markers Large (5-20L) untreated water in faecally contaminated waters. The samples were collected from outflows aim of this study is to detect the from the two catchments sites during presence of ruminant and human- storm events and non-storm periods. specific faecal Bacteroidales and An autosampler (Hach Sigma 900 Max Bacteroides 16S rRNA genes within Portable Sampler) also collected a 1L rural river catchments in Ireland. sample every 2 hours for a 36-96 hour Monitoring for bacterial pathogens period. Samples were filtered through during storm and non-storm periods 0.2µm nitrocellulose filters which then will help to investigate hydrological underwent chemical extraction of total transfer dependencies. nucleic acids. Aquifer response to rainfall events was assessed by Methods monitoring coliforms and E. coli occurrence using the IDEXX The two catchment areas selected and Colisure® Quanti Tray®/2000 system monitored for this project are located in conjunction with chemical and in Cregduff, Co. Mayo and Dunleer, hydrological parameters. A qPCR Co. Louth. These two sites differ on assay targeting universal numerous levels. Cregduff is underlain Bacteroidales (BacUni-UCD); a with well-drained soil on karstic ruminant specific Bacteroidales qPCR bedrock. Dunleer, however, consists assay (BacBov-UCD); and a human of mostly poorly drained tillage soils in specific Bacteroidales qPCR assay 70% of the catchment. This results in (BacHum-UCD) were then applied to high nutrient losses both of the faecal and water samples. phosphorus via overland flow in poorly drained soils and nitrogen leaching on Results & Discussion the more freely drained soils. There is little surface runoff in the Cregduff Positive amplification was achieved by catchment as this type of karstified BacUni-UCD and BacBov-UCD from 123 water samples taken from the Dunleer summer non-rain periods (Results not outlet over a 44 hour non-storm period shown but available on request). (Fig.1a). No human faecal Phosphorus concentrations were an contamination was detected. The order of magnitude higher in Dunleer concentration of the universal assay than in Cregduff. In Dunleer the peaked at 3.36 x 103 gc/ml. The concentrations exceeded the Irish concentration of the bovine assay Environmental Quality Standard of peaked at 1.79x 103 gc/ml. BacHum- 0.035mg mgL-1. When comparing non- UCD was not detected during this rain periods in both catchments, it can period. For the storm event (Fig. 1b), be seen that the level of pollution was the concentrations of the BacUni- higher in Dunleer. UCD, BacHum-UCD and BacBov- UCD were much lower suggesting a Conclusions possible dilution effect of faecal Host-specific assays and the chemical pollution due to rainfall. It can be seen parameters of the water may that that values of all three assays complement E. coli as a faecal change over both of these indicator. It is necessary to determine Spring/Summer (2011) 44 hour the relationship between the periods. None of the assays have occurrence of faecal pollution, detected contamination in the water pollution source and hydrology in samples taken from Cregduff. order to create an accurate representation of contamination in environmental water. The microbial source tracking techniques and hydrodynamic model that will be designed by this project will be of importance for water quality control in Ireland.

Acknowledgments (a) This project is funded by NUI Galway and the Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme.

References Kildare B. J., Leutenegger C. M., McSwain B. S., Bambic D.G., Rajal V. B., and Wuertz S. (2007) 16S rRNA- based assays for quantitative detection of universal, human-, cow-, (b) and dog-specific fecal Bacteroidales: A Bayesian approach. Water Figure 1. BacUni-UCD, BacHum-UCD Research 41:3701-3715. (only (b)) BacBov-UCD amplicons of Melland AR, Mellander P-E, Murphy water samples from Dunleer outlet PNC, Wall DP, Mechan S, Shine O, et during a 44 hour spring/summer non- al. Stream water quality in intensive rain period (a) and rain event (b). cereal cropping catchments with Coliforms and E. coli peaks were regulated nutrient management. higher in Dunleer, than in Cregduff, for Environmental Science & Policy 2012; 24:58-70 124 Evaluation of a surface hydrological connectivity index in agricultural catchments M. Shore1, P. Jordan2, P-E. Mellander1, M. Kelly- Quinn3, A.R. Melland1 1Agricultural Catchments Programme, Teagasc, Johnstown Castle, 2School of Environmental Sciences, University of Ulster, 3School of Biological Sciences, UCD, Dublin. [email protected] respectively. The 95th percentile of the Introduction distribution of grid NI values within a Targeted management of agricultural subcatchment or field was chosen to catchment areas prone to diffuse represent surface connectivity or phosphorus (P) loss may help to surface saturation, respectively, for improve downstream water quality. that area. Modelled surface Phosphorus is primarily transported in connectivity at the subcatchment scale surface or near surface flow, so (ca. 130 ha) was validated using delineating critical source areas observed ditch and stream channel (CSAs) for P loss requires densities. Modelled surface characterisation of the hydrological connectivity at the field scale (ca. 2 ha) connectivity of surface flowpaths. This was evaluated using four indicators of study investigated the potential for a observed field connectivity; surface topographically derived model, the water extent and flow activity and ‘Network Index’ (NI) (Lane et al., channel length and flow activity per 2004), to predict surface hydrological field perimeter. connectivity at field and subcatchment scales. The importance of agricultural Results and Discussion surface ditches in mediating predicted Original NI Model 12 surface connectivity was also 2

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Catchment B. The NI was applied Soil Drainage using a 5m digital elevation model (DEM), and also using a 5m DEM Well Mixed Poor which was hydrologically corrected to Figure 1. Predicted connectivity account for the observed ditch and th stream channel network. Digital (95 percentile NI values) vs. elevation models and connectivity observed connectivity (channel predictions are referred to as ‘original’ density) for subcatchments across and ‘modified’ when using the both catchments using the original uncorrected and corrected DEMs, NI model.

125 At the subcatchment scale, modelled At the field scale, the original NI model surface connectivity matched has potential for discerning the most observations reasonably well (Fig. 1). connected from the least connected This was partially attributed to the fields which is valuable for identifying correlation between soil type and where CSA-based management topographically-controlled connectivity should be targeted. (Fig. 3) in these catchments. Information on artificial sub-surface drainage features Conclusions may further explain the NI predictions. The NI has potential for facilitating Information on ditch location was CSA-based P management in required to accurately delineate agricultural catchments at scales subcatchment boundaries (Fig. 2) and where CSAs offer greatest potential for thus predict the extent of critical source P loss management. A 5 m resolution areas. DEM was sufficient for capturing the primary topographic controls of surface connectivity in the studied subcatchments.

Acknowledgements This research funded by the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM) through the Agricultural Catchments Programme and the Figure 2. Grey areas highlight Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme. misalignment of subcatchment boundaries predicted with (black References lines) and without (red lines) Lane, S.N., Brookes, C.J., Kirkby, M.J., channel location information in Holden, J., 2004. A network-index- Catchment B based version of TOPMODEL for use with high-resolution digital topographic data. Hydrol. Process.18, 191-201.

Figure 3. Distribution of 95th percentile original NI values for a) least connected fields (where 3 out of 4 indicators < 25th percentile; n = 153), b) moderately connected (fields not included in the well or poorly connected classes; n = 80) and c) most connected fields ( where 3 out of 4 indicators >75thpercentile; n = 35). Horizontal ‘dash’ = median, box represents inter-quartile range, whisker represents upper and lower limits.

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6 6 6 Least connected fields Moderately connected fields Most connected 126 Phosphorus load apportionment in the management of eutrophic water-bodies Lucy Crockford, Philip Jordan, Carlos Rocha and David Taylor Johnstown Castle [email protected]

Introduction Two LAMs have been developed in The aim of this study is to investigate recent years, the first based on a power the phosphorus (P) load apportionment function relationship between river patterns and processes to two at risk discharge and P concentration (Bowes water-body types; rivers draining a Model) and the second using simple mixed use agricultural catchment on polynomial linear regression (Greene heavy soil types and drumlin grassland; Model). Along with quantifying the load and an inter-drumlin lake as the receptor from each source, new datasets of in a second drumlin grassland varying sampling frequencies developed catchment. from high frequency data (courtesy of the Agricultural Catchments For rivers, the loads under investigation Programme) (Wall et al., 2011) , are are point and diffuse which are being used to determine the variation in apportioned using numerical modelling the outcomes of these simple models to methods, called Load Apportionment provide an estimate of uncertainty. Models (LAMs). For the lake, the focus is on external and internal loads. Lakes Conversely, the lake requires empirical become eutrophic as a result of three data collection. Two buoys have been loading processes: firstly, as a result of deployed fitted with data-sondes (Fig. increasing external P loads from the 1), one at the shallow eastern end and catchment, the net concentration of two at surface and 9m depth at the which remains in the water column; western/central section. secondly the remainder of the external P load accumulates as bed sediments before becoming biologically available due to resuspension from summer anoxia; or thirdly due to wind induced rolling, dependent on lake morphology. The rate of recovery from eutrophication for the two water-bodies will be investigated and compared with approaching Water Framework Directive Figure 2 Data-sonde maintenance (WFD) deadlines. Each data-sonde is fitted with sensors Methodology for temperature, chlorophyll a, turbidity, The project employs two methodologies. pH, redox and conductivity The load apportionment of P in rivers is measurement on an hourly basis. A based on simple LAMs, where the thermistor chain measures the relationship between river discharge temperature at each metre interval on a rate and P concentration is used to 15 minute basis. Finally, samples for P determine the source of P at that time. and N analysis are also collected on a monthly basis. The data collected is

127 examined and relationships between Quantifying internal release of P is different variables determined, difficult with a low frequency, monthly particularly the impact of changes in P sampling regime. A relationship and N and the chlorophyll a response. between P release and conductivity was identified for both summers, 2011 and Results and Discussion 2012 and resulting modeled SRP values Rivers are shown in figures 3 and 4. Using conductivity values it is possible to The P load apportionment was determine when P release has occurred calculated for each site. For example, which aids the quantification of internal site 1 was predominately affected by P released from sediments. point sources (57%), particularly during summer (88%) due to low flow according to the Bowes Model while the Greene model estimated a much higher percentage from diffuse sources (Fig. 2).

Figure 4 Modelled SRP 2011

All Year Summer Figure 5 Modelled SRP 2012 Figure 3 Site 1 P load apportionment Conclusions Lake Both sites are significantly impacted by Chlorophyll a and TP levels in Lough P contamination but from different Namachree have confirmed a meso- to sources. LAMs require a thorough eutrophic water quality status. Proxy quantification of their uncertainty after catchment P monitoring indicates up to obtaining differing results from the two 0.3kgha-1 entered the lake from external models. Lough Namachree is receiving sources in 2011 while internal loads P from a variety of sources and the have been estimated at 0.0246 kgha-1 quantification of such is aided by the as a result of lake turnover in use of the high frequency sensors. September 2011. While external loads may be larger in magnitude, they usually Acknowledgements enter the lake during winter months The Agricultural Catchments when growing conditions are not Programme and the Walsh Fellowship appropriate for algal blooms. However, Scheme for funding and support. TCD these loads do enter sediments each Geography for academic support. year and are therefore available for References release during summer months. Wall D et al. 2011 Environmental Science & Policy; 14: 664-674.

128 129 Acknowledgements

Teagasc Johnstown Castle gratefully acknowledges funding from the following sources:

 Department of Agriculture, Food & the Marine

 COFORD Council for Forest Research and Development

 European Commission European Regional Development Fund

 Interreg - European Union ERDF – Atlantic Area Programme. Investing in our common future.

 European Commission Framework VII for funding EU projects.

 European Commission LIFE Funding.

 European Commission for funding Co-Operation in the field of Scientific and Technical (COST) Research.

 Science Foundation Ireland (SFI).

 Irish Research Council.

 Environmental Protection Agency, 2007-CD1-1-S1 STRIVE programme under the National Development Plan (2007 - 2013).

 The New Zealand Ministry of Primary Industries under the New Zealand Fund for Global Partnerships in Livestock Emissions Research through the Global research Alliance.

 Research Stimulus Fund, financed by the Irish Government under the National Development Plan 2007-2013. It is administered by the Department of Agriculture, Food & the Marine

 Teagasc Walsh Fellowship Scheme

130