issue 83 Sept 2006

Contents

CEO comment 2 Editor Gawler Project breaks cover 3 Words Worth Writing New datasets aid area selection and targeting Assistant Editors Jeanette Holland, Steve Ross Preliminary assessment of Tropical 7 Graphic Designer Andrew Bairnsfather For a ‘midget’ cyclone, Larry packed a nasty punch

Web Design Lindy Gratton, Andrew Bairnsfather Modelling answers tsunami questions 12 © Commonwealth of 2006 New research will help emergency planners SSN 1035-9338

Geoscience Australia Echoes of ancient tsunamis 17 GPO Box 378 ACT 2601 Australia New research will help gauge the cnr Jerrabomberra Avenue & tsunami hazard to Australia. Hindmarsh Drive Catching the nickel boom 22 Symonston ACT 2609 Australia New synthesis will aid nickel explorers Internet: www.ga.gov.au

Chief Executive officer Metallogenesis of intrusive rocks of Victoria 28 Dr Neil Williams New datasets target gold and base-metal mineralisation Subsctiptions Annette Collet p: +61 2 6249 9796 f: +61 2 6249 9926 In brief www.ga.gov.au/about/corporate/ ausgeo_news.jsp Seabed Minerals Map — a world first for Australia 31 Sales Centre Indigenous communities — reducing natural hazard risk 32 p: +61 2 6249 9966 f: +61 2 6249 9960 Award assists inversion modelling development 33 e: [email protected] Earthquake Engineering Conference AEES2006 33 GPO Box 378 Canberra ACT 2601 Australia Map producers working together 34 Editorial enquiries Scientist receives 2006 Fulbright Scholarship 34 Len Hatch p: +61 2 6249 9015 f: +61 2 6249 9926 e: [email protected] Product News GEODATA TOPO 250K 35 Alternative satellite imagery for Australia 36 MapConnect: online mapping and spatial information 37 New geophysical datasets 38

AusGeo News Issue 83  issue 83 Sept 2006 CEO comment

$134 million in new program funding for Geoscience Australia

Neil Williams – CEO Geoscience Australia

The Prime Minister’s Energy Security Initiative, announced on Geoscience Australia’s tsunami August 14, included the injection of $134 million in new program impact modelling is already funding into Geoscience Australia. This additional funding will enable contributing to development of Geoscience Australia to supply petroleum and mineral exploration emergency management plans. companies with new geoscience information necessary to reduce Our research into geological exploration risk and encourage exploration in new frontier areas. records of tsunamis, which Geoscience Australia’s Big New Oil program of pre-competitive extends the tsunami record by seismic data acquisition, enhancement and access will be expanded thousands of years, will also over the next five years at a cost of $75 million. This will allow data provide a means of assessing to be acquired from offshore areas that span up to two million square future risk. kilometres, more than three times the area covered by the last program Record nickel prices have which has proved successful in attracting new exploration to frontier prompted a boom in nickel offshore areas such as the Bremer Sub-basin. The improved data exploration and a timely review will be extensively promoted to the petroleum exploration industry of the geological settings and decision-makers in Australia and overseas. resources of Australia’s nickel The package includes $59 million to enable Geoscience Australia sulphide deposits placing them to pioneer innovative, integrated geoscientific research to better in a global context will assist understand the geological potential of onshore Australia for both nickel explorers. There is also minerals and petroleum. This will be done through the application of a report on the compilation of the latest geophysical imaging and mapping technologies. datasets of various metallogenic This issue reports on the Gawler Minerals Promotion Project which parameters for the Tasman outlines the contribution made by this 5-year project in partnership Fold Belt in Victoria which will with Primary Industries and Resources South Australia to increase greatly assist the exploration exploration in South Australia through the development of new industry’s search for intrusion- integrated understanding of crustal architecture, tectonic evolution related mineralisation systems, and controls on mineralisation. Key outcomes are a coherent model notably gold and base metals. for gold and copper mineralisation in the eastern and central Gawler New products reported on Craton, and the development of new methods for ‘uncovering’ frontier include: new geophysical datasets provinces. for Mt Isa, Paterson province, There are also reports on Geoscience Australia’s contributions to East Arunta and the Bowen- research to protect Australia from natural disasters and mitigate their Surat regions; new sources of future impacts. Following Cyclone Larry in far North , satellite imagery; and new seabed Geoscience Australia staff, in collaboration with other agencies, helped minerals maps that show known with the early assessment of the structural damage to residential and offshore mineral occurrences. commercial buildings as well as regional and farm-level assessments of the economic impact.

CEO comment  issue 83 Sept 2006 Gawler Project breaks cover

New datasets aid area selection and targeting Roger Skirrow, Patrick Lyons, Anthony Budd, Evgeniy Bastrakov

Over the past five years, the Gawler Mineral Promotion Project has shed considerable light on the 1590 Ma iron oxide–copper–gold (IOCG) mineral systems of the eastern Gawler Craton and the coeval lode-gold systems of the central Gawler Craton. The project, under the National Geoscience Accord, has been a joint-effort of Geoscience Australia and Primary Industries and Resources South Australia. Acquisition and interpretation of deep crustal seismic reflection data in the region of the giant Olympic Dam Cu–Au–U mine (see AusGeo News 76) delivered huge gains in our understanding of the crustal architecture and tectonic evolution of the eastern and central Gawler Craton. We now recognise that the IOCG mineralisation, Figure 1. Three-dimensional which includes the Olympic Dam deposit, occurred inboard of a inversion of magnetic and gravity data predicts the distribution of convergent margin, with first-order controls on fluid pathways being haematite and magnetite alteration, northwest-trending thrust faults. represented here as isosurfaces (haematite in brown, magnetite in The three-dimensional picture afforded by the seismic results blue). Mapping the distribution constrains our interpretation of potential-field data and enables clear of iron oxides associated comparisons with the Mesozoic–Cainozoic IOCG systems of the with IOCG mineralisation also gives information about Andean margin of South America. possible structures controlling Apart from geophysics, other advances in the project have come mineralisation, such as the fault- from granite studies and geochemistry. We have also refined and plane shown in green, allowing explorers to define drill targets. improved the geochronological framework of the eastern and central Although this example covers an Gawler Craton. area of about 30 km by 30 km, the The result is a coherent model of mineralisation of the eastern inversion method is independent of scale. and central Gawler Craton that links the IOCGs with their coeval lode-gold deposits for the first time. This knowledge gives explorers valuable spatial guides towards mineralisation in these almost by the extent of available completely hidden terranes. petrophysical and spatial data, but these data may be difficult to Potential-fielddata obtain. Fortunately, the unique density and magnetisation of In areas of little or no outcrop, potential-field data are critical to the iron oxide alteration of understanding the geological make-up of the basement. Because IOCG mineralisation allows the Gawler Craton is particularly deficient in outcrop—with the us to map the likely locations crystalline basement of the eastern Gawler Craton almost completely of ore deposition using 3D covered by younger rocks—potential-field data are vital for gaining inversion of the potential-field necessary regional knowledge of the prospective basement. data (figure 1), even where Interpretation of potential-field data is normally constrained constraints are lacking (see AusGeo News 74).

Gawler Project breaks cover  issue 83 Sept 2006

New subdivision of Hiltaba granites Chemical modelling A new subdivision of the Hiltaba Association granites (which Chemical modelling predicts supersedes the Hiltaba Suite) and their comagmatic Gawler that reaction of a low-grade Range volcanics comprises four supersuites. The Roxby and Venus magnetite protore (containing Supersuites show A-type characteristics, while the Venus and 0.1% Cu, in chalcopyrite, and Malbooma Supersuites are I-type. 0.1 g/t Au) with an oxidised Significantly, the A-type granites were hotter and required more fluid may result in a mineral elevated geotherms than the I-types. The Olympic copper–gold assemblage with appreciable province in the eastern Gawler Craton is characterised by the upgrading of copper and gold presence of A-type supersuites, indicating that the elevated crustal (up to ~3% Cu as bornite, temperatures of the eastern Gawler Craton at 1590 Ma were a key chalcocite and chalcopyrite; ingredient for generating IOCG mineralisation. up to 1 g/t Au) (figure 2). The lower temperature I-type supersuites show many of the Mineralisation will be characteristics of granites associated with intrusion-related gold contained within the haematite deposits. These granites are more abundant in the central Gawler gold alteration zone adjacent to province. the magnetite–haematite There is no demonstrated direct genetic link between the oxidation front. Our modelling granite supersuites and the broadly coeval IOCG and lode-gold agrees with observations from mineralisation. It may be that the granites are symptomatic of certain several known occurrences of crustal geotherms that determine the style of mineralisation, with the copper–gold mineralisation hotter crust producing some of the conditions required for IOCG in the Gawler Craton and mineralisation and cooler crust leading to lode-gold mineralisation. shows that favourable sites of mineralisation are less likely within magnetite alteration, but may occur at the juncture of offset haematite and magnetite alteration zones. The two-stage upgrading model complements previously published models of copper and gold precipitation due to simultaneous mixing of reduced and oxidised fluids in accounting for the range of styles of copper–gold mineralisation in the eastern Gawler Craton.

Mineral potential map A 1:500 000 scale map released Figure 2. Computer modelling shows that flushing of magnetite alteration, containing sub‑economic copper and gold, by oxidised fluids produces in February this year—Iron haematite alteration and upgrades copper and gold. The characteristic suite oxide Cu–Au (–U) potential of sulfides associated with IOCG mineralisation is predicted. A consequence of the Gawler Craton, South is that maxima of magnetic anomalies are not optimal drill targets for copper–gold. One must combine mineralogical data with magnetic and Australia (figure 3)—summarises gravity data to locate haematite alteration adjacent to magnetite alteration. key results of work on IOCG

Gawler Project breaks cover  issue 83 Sept 2006

systems and shows the distribution of several ‘essential ingredients’ of IOCG ore- forming systems, including: • supersuites of the Hiltaba granites • faults and shear zones with interpreted age of youngest significant movement • copper geochemistry (>200 ppm) from drillholes intersecting crystalline basement • hydrothermal alteration assemblages and zones, based on drillhole logging • distribution of IOCG alteration based on inversion modelling of potential-field data • host sequence units considered important in localising IOCG alteration and mineralisation • neodymium isotopic data and the mineral isotopic ages of late Palaeoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic magmatism and hydrothermal minerals • prioritised areas of maximum potential for IOCG mineralisation. Figure 3. Iron oxide Cu–Au (–U) potential of the Gawler Craton, South Australia map produced by the Gawler Mineral Promotion Project is a The map may be downloaded summary of ‘essential ingredients’ for IOCG mineralisation in the Gawler from the Gawler Project website. Craton. This map can be downloaded from the Gawler Project website.

Project lessons The Gawler Mineral Promotion Project demonstrated how to come to grips with the geology and mineralisation of a region generally obscured by hundreds to thousands of metres of cover. The most important lesson is that a multidisciplinary and collaborative approach is essential. Geophysics, geochemistry, petrology, drillhole data, and geochronology combined to provide guides to ore and to help us understand the tectonic environment of the Gawler Craton’s IOCG mineral systems and coeval lode-gold systems.

Gawler Project breaks cover  issue 83 Sept 2006

We are now able to take what we have learned about working Related links in such a difficult terrane to other frontier parts of the Australian AusGeo News 76 Proterozoic. Gawler seismic study. AusGeo News 74 Thick cover no obstacle to field inversion, Iron oxide Cu–Au (–U) potential of the More information Gawler Craton, South Australia 1:500 000 scale map. phone Roger Skirrow on +61 2 6249 9442 email [email protected] www.ga.gov.au/minerals/ web www.ga.gov.au/minerals/research/regional/gawler/gawler.jsp research/regional/gawler/gawler. link jsp Gawler Mineral Promotion Project

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Gawler Project breaks cover  issue 83 Sept 2006 Preliminary assessment of Larry For a ‘midget’ cyclone, Larry packed a nasty punch Adrian Hitchman, Bob Cechet, Mark Edwards, Geoff Boughton (TimberEd Services, Perth, Western Australia), Mary Milne, Damian Mullaly, Medhavy Thankappan

Severe Tropical Cyclone Larry crossed the Cyclone description coast near Etty Bay around 7 a.m. on 20 March, 2006. It then tracked west–northwest and passed directly over the town of Innisfail Tropical Cyclone Larry (figure 1). Within 48 hours, teams from Geoscience Australia were was classified as a ‘midget’ on the ground to begin a program of assessing building and crop cyclone because of the limited damage. This continued over three weeks and the initial analysis of range of its destructive data collected is presented below. winds. Furthermore, coastal At landfall, the of Tropical Cyclone Larry extended about 20 to communities were not exposed 25 kilometres from Mirriwinni in the north to Mourilyan Harbour to cyclonic winds and airborne in the south. A vessel sheltering in the South to the debris for long periods as the east of Innisfail recorded winds gusting to 225 km/h while gusts as cyclone moved relatively quickly high as 294 km/h were recorded near the peaks of the Bellenden Ker at landfall. Low tides at the mountain range (1450 metres) and 187 km/h at the Ravenshoe wind time also ensured there was no farm (about 75 kilometres from the coast) as the weakening cyclone significant storm surge. moved inland. Since the 1870s, 22 cyclones The fast-moving tropical depression travelled westward, weakening have impacted the Innisfail throughout the day. By 10 p.m. it had passed to the south of region causing damage from Croydon in Queensland’s Gulf country where it continued to bring severe wind, storm surge, heavy rain and severe flooding. estuarine flooding or a combination of these hazards (Callaghan 2004). Tropical Cyclone Larry impacted the coast at both high lateral speed and at low tide, causing only wind- related damage. From analysis of impacts to simple structures (such as road signs), preliminary estimates of maximum wind gust speeds at a height of 10 metres are in the order of 55–65 m/s (~200–235 km/h) compared to 50–55 m/s (~180–200 km/h) reached in Tropical , which hit the region in February 1986 (Reardon et al 1986). Further analysis of the Figure 1. Tropical Cyclone Larry track (, 2006). data will be required before final wind speeds are determined.

Preliminary assessment of Tropical Cyclone Larry  issue 83 Sept 2006

Impact on critical infrastructure The assessed damage index, which expresses the repair cost Electricity transmission was cut to the north and southwest of as a proportion of the value of Innisfail. Severe damage to pole-mounted electrical distribution and rebuilding damaged residential communications networks was widespread. Power disruption affected structures (table 1), was other essential utilities such as the hospital, water supply and water calculated for the population treatment works which needed emergency generators. Road and rail of buildings within a number access to the region was disrupted for several days by flooding. of Innisfail suburbs and nearby townships. Figure 2 shows an Impact on buildings example of the spatial analysis conducted for the community of Severe winds caused by Tropical Cyclone Larry resulted in significant Kurrimine Beach (30 kilometres damage to buildings. All townships in the Innisfail region were south–southeast of Innisfail). severely affected. Figure 3 displays the results Table 1. Damage Index: relationship between physical damage and damage as a population percentage costing where the repair cost is expressed as a proportion of the value of the property. (e.g. 25% indicates a damage level equal to 25% of the value Damage Index (physical) Damage Index (cost) % of the structures in the local 1 Negligible 0 population). 2 Missile to cladding/window 20 Among residential properties, 3 Loss of half roof sheeting 50 older homes (pre-1986) 4 Loss of all roofing 70 tended to suffer the greatest 5 Loss of roof structure 90 wind damage because of their 6 Loss of half of outer walls 100 vulnerable locations (e.g. on 7 Loss of all walls 100 ridge tops), building regulations 8 Loss of half floor 100 which required limited cyclone- 9 Loss of all floor 100 resistance measures at the time 10 Collapse of floor supporting piers 100 of construction, and their lower resilience as a result of aging processes (corrosion, rot, insect attack). Structures built after Tropical Cyclone Winifred withstood Tropical Cyclone Larry better. This may be because of the revised building standards introduced for domestic construction in the early 1980s and a better understanding of prevention measures following an analysis of the damage inflicted in 1986 by Cyclone Winifred. Figure 2. Geographical Information System image displaying the building Damage to newer homes damage overlain on an aerial photograph for the beachside community of tended to be comparatively Kurrimine Beach (30 km SSE of Innisfail). minor and was mostly limited to

Preliminary assessment of Tropical Cyclone Larry  issue 83 Sept 2006

30 TimberEd Services and the Australian Building Codes Board 25 to assess structural damage to residential and commercial 20 buildings and infrastructure.

15 Teams recorded building and property information such as 10 construction type, building materials, number of floors, 5 and damage sustained. High resolution satellite imagery was 0 Belvedere Hudson Innisfail East Mourilyan Flying fish Coconuts Kurrimine All Estate Innisfail point Beach used to complete building and % DI Old Queenslander % DI 1946–70 % DI 1971–85 % DI 1986+ % DI Total property information, such Figure 3. Damage Index (DI) relating to residential building damage as roof size, and to locate the (proportion of population value based on repair cost; see table 1.) structures on land parcels. by region/township impacted by Tropical Cyclone Larry As part of the Operation Recovery—Industry Action garage doors, roof tiles, fascias and guttering. Group (OR‑IAG), Geoscience In addition to engineering considerations, the impact of local Australia collaborated with the winds on structures was significantly influenced by geographical Queensland Department of terrain, structure height, shielding by upwind structures, and Primary Industries and Fisheries topographical factors. Topographical acceleration of local winds was (DPIF) to provide regional a very significant factor–severe damage was often confined to exposed and farm-level assessments ridge tops. of economic impact for the Cyclone Larry Recovery Taskforce. An initial assessment Impact on primary industry of the economic impact of From Tully in the south to sections of the tablelands in the north and the cyclone on Far North as far west as Herberton, wind-related damage to crops was extensive. Queensland was conducted Banana plantations within a 40 to 50 kilometre radius of the cyclone in collaboration with Monash path were destroyed. Sugarcane crops, which were well advanced for University, Queensland the mid-year harvest, were damaged. The Babinda sugar mill suffered Treasury’s Office of Economic damage to its gas bin and cooling tower. The Mourilyan mill suffered and Statistical Research, and some structural damage, particularly to a boiler chimney stack, the DPIF (Milne 2006). whilst the mill at South Johnstone suffered superficial damage. Mill The assessment incorporated operators indicated that the 2006 cane crush would go ahead, despite productivity losses sustained widespread damage to crops and industry infrastructure. by the primary industry sector in addition to government Geoscience Australia’s response assistance for individuals, households and businesses. Geoscience Australia’s post-disaster response was multifaceted, Teams of Geoscience Australia beginning with the provision of 2500 maps of the affected area for and DPIF staff interviewed 85 Department of Defence emergency-response personnel following primary producers about their the initial impact. Our teams were subsequently dispatched to the immediate needs and plans for area, with the first team departing within 48 hours. One of their recovery (figure 4) and recorded responsibilities was to collaborate with James Cook University, the extent of crop damage.

Preliminary assessment of Tropical Cyclone Larry  issue 83 Sept 2006

How will the collected data be used? agricultural areas and validate post‑disaster remote sensing The collected structural damage information will be useful in a imagery (Thankappan 2006). number of ways. It will contribute to a better understanding of The data collected with the extreme cyclonic wind gusts and provide engineers with highly assistance of DPIF have detailed data on the vulnerability of houses and other structures to provided detailed estimates of severe wind. When combined with information from similar events direct economic losses to the and other sources, the data collected will provide a clearer picture of agricultural sector. This will be severe-wind risk for Australian communities. This information will used to assess the long-term help Australian communities in preparing for future cyclone events impact on the regional economy and reduce their potential impact. and provide information to assist In addition to the findings of the primary producer survey, which policy decisions for recovery were provided to the Cyclone Larry Recovery Taskforce, Geoscience (figure 5). Australia used field survey data to assess the extent of damage to Results and additional information Preliminary results from the Tropical Cyclone Larry post- impact surveys, including a review of the meteorological information, can be found in the report from the Cyclone Larry Forum (Cyclone Larry Forum Report 2006). The Bureau of Meteorology has prepared a meteorological report detailing the maximum wind zones associated with Cyclone Larry (Callaghan and Otto 2006). The Cyclone Testing Station at Figure 4. Expected number of years until full crop production is resumed James Cook University has issued (Milne, 2006). a report detailing the damage to buildings from Cyclone Larry (Boughton et al 2006). A whole‑of-government report on Larry’s impact (due December 2006) is being coordinated by the Bureau of Meteorology for the Queensland Tropical Cyclone Coordination Committee. Geoscience Australia will continue to post updates of our analysis of the impact through Figure 5. Impact of Tropical Cyclone Larry on selected industries’ output: our website (Geoscience Australia government assistance scenario (% deviation from forecast) (Mullaly and 2006). Wittwer 2006).

Preliminary assessment of Tropical Cyclone Larry 10 issue 83 Sept 2006

References Geoscience Australia. 2006, www. ga.gov.au/urban/projects/ramp/tc_ Boughton G et al. 2006. Effects of Cyclone Larry on buildings, James Cook larry.jsp University Cyclone Testing Station, Technical Report No. 51 Milne M. 2006. Findings from Bureau of Meteorology. 2006. Tropical cyclone Larry. www.bom.gov.au/ primary producer post-disaster weather/qld/cyclone/tc_larry/ recovery surveys. Report for the Callaghan J. 2004. Tropical cyclone impacts along the Australian east coast Operation Recovery—Industry Action from November to April (1858 to 2004). Bureau of Meteorology, Group. Regional Office, australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/impacts-eastcoast.pdf Mullaly D.J & Wittwer G. 2006, Callaghan, J. and P. Otto 2006. The maximum wind zones associated with Modelling the economic impacts of Tropical Cyclone Larry at landfall, Bureau of Meteorology (in press) Tropical Cyclone Larry in Far North Cyclone Larry Forum Report. 2006. campus, James Cook Queensland. Report for the Operation University, 7 April 2006, www.rainforest-crc.jcu.edu.au/latestNews/ Recovery—Industry Action Group. ForumReport.pdf Reardon GF, Walker GR & Jancauskas ED. 1986. Effects of Cyclone Winifred on buildings. Technical report no. 27, More information James Cook University Cyclone phone Bob Cechet on +61 2 6249 9246 Testing Station. email [email protected] Thankappan M. 2006. Crop damage assessment using a GIS and remote sensing approach. Report for the Related websites/articles Operation Recovery—Industry Action AusGeo News 81 Beating the big blows Group. link www.ga.gov.au

International Earth Science Week celebrations International Earth Science Week 2006, to be celebrated from 8 to 14 October, will provide an opportunity for everyone involved in the earth sciences to share the significance of their work with the broader events community. This year’s theme of ‘Citizen’s Science’ aims to encourage everyone, adults and children alike, to participate and learn about the contribution of the earth sciences to the wellbeing of our society and environment. Geoscience Australia has been the national coordinator of Earth Science Week events in Australia since 1999 and continues to promote the week and encourage participation by scientific and cultural communities across the country. The 2006 Earth Science Week poster has been distributed nationally and the national Earth Science Week website includes information on activities in each state and territory as well as ideas for themed events and activities. Geoscience Australia also encourages organisations to share details of their Earth Science Week activities with the rest of Australia by More information posting their event information. phone Jeanette Holland on The 2006 Earth Science Week poster depicts a sparse rocky terrane +61 2 6249 9731 which highlights several areas of current geoscience research. Topographic email [email protected] and 3D mapping support the search for new mineral resources while Related websites mapping of the seabed provides clues for the future discovery of petroleum. Other features include the melting ice as a gentle reminder Geoscience Australia Special events of the climate change challenge and working scientists represent the www.ga.gov.au/about/event/index.jsp diversity of careers within the geosciences. link

Preliminary assessment of Tropical Cyclone Larry 11 issue 83 Sept 2006 Modelling answers tsunami questions New research will help emergency planners Ole Nielsen, Jane Sexton, Duncan Gray and Nick Bartzis

The Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004 demonstrated the complex bathymetric and potentially catastrophic consequences of natural hazards. In addition topographic effects near the to humanitarian assistance, the ’s response area of interest. For example, included the establishment of the Australian Tsunami Warning during the 1993 Okushiri Island System (ATWS) and greater priority for research into hazard and risk tsunami, a very large run‑up modelling of tsunami impacts. was observed at one specific location, whereas surrounding Determining tsunami risk areas received much less inundation (Matsuyama et al Geoscience Australia aims to define the economic and social threat posed 1999). Estimating the impact to urban communities by natural hazards such as tsunamis. Predictions of a tsunami on a particular of the likely impacts of tsunamis can be made through the integration community therefore requires of earthquake and tsunami hazard research, community exposure and modelling of the nonlinear socioeconomic vulnerabilities. By modelling the likely impacts on urban process by which waves are communities as accurately as possible and building these estimates into reflected and otherwise shaped land use planning and emergency management, we can better prepare by the local bathymetries and communities to respond to tsunamis when they occur. topographies. These complex One critical component in understanding tsunami risk is being effects generally require elevation examined by the Risk Assessment Methods Project (RAMP) at data of much higher resolution Geoscience Australia which has been developing a hydrodynamic than is used by the linear inundation modelling tool developed specifically to estimate models, which typically use the consequences of possible tsunami impacts on Australian data resolutions in the order of communities. hundreds of metres (sufficient to model long-wavelength tsunamis Modelling methodology in open water). The data resolution used by nonlinear Tsunami hazard models have been available for some time. They inundation models, by contrast, generally work by virtually converting the energy released by a is typically in the tens of metres. subduction earthquake into a vertical displacement of the ocean The ANUGA model (Nielsen surface. The resulting wave is then propagated across a sometimes et al 2005)—the result of vast stretch of ocean using a relatively coarse linear model based on collaboration between the bathymetries with a typical resolution of two arc minutes. Australian National University The maximal wave height at a fixed contour line near the coastline and Geoscience Australia—is (say, 50 metres) is then reported as the hazard to communities ashore. suitable for this type of Models such as Method of Splitting Tsunamis (MOST) (Titov & modelling. However, running Gonzalez 1997) and the URS Corporation’s Probabilistic Tsunami a nonlinear model capable of Hazard Analysis (Somerville et al 2005) follow this paradigm. resolving local bathymetric The severity of a hydrological disaster is critically dependent on

Modelling answers tsunami questions 12 issue 83 Sept 2006

topography mesh initial condition Furthermore, to avoid unnecessary computations, ANUGA works with an unstructured triangular mesh rather than the rectangular grids typically used by hazard models. The advantage of an boundary condition model forcing terms unstructured mesh is that different regions can have different resolutions, allowing computational resources to be directed where they are most needed. For example, one might use very high resolution near output a community or in an estuary, whereas a coarser resolution might be enough for deeper water, where the bathymetric effects are less pronounced. To implement a scenario, the modeller requires suitable initial conditions (such as a tidal height), boundary conditions (such as model data from a subduction zone earthquake), forcing terms (such as wind) and, importantly, bathymetric and topographic data for the study area (figure 1). The calculated run‑up height and Figure 1. Data requirements for an ANUGA simulation include topography resulting inundation ashore is of the study area, a triangular mesh, definition of initial and boundary conditions, and any forcing terms, such as wind stress. Boundary conditions determined by these inputs, could capture incoming waves from a range of sources, such as output from as well as the cell resolution. other models, run‑off or tidal variations. The data should ideally capture all complex features of the underlying bathymetry and effects and run‑up using detailed elevation data requires more topography, and cell resolution computational resources than the typical hazard model, making it should be commensurate inapplicable for complete end‑to‑end modelling of a tsunami event. with the underlying data. Any We have adopted a hybrid approach, in which the output from limitations in the resolution and a hazard model such as MOST is used as input to ANUGA at the accuracy of the data, including seaward boundary of its study area. The output of the hazard model the cell resolution, will introduce thus serves as a boundary condition for the inundation model. In this errors to the inundation maps way, we restrict the computationally intensive part to regions where as well as to the range of model detailed understanding of the inundation process is required. approximations.

Modelling answers tsunami questions 13 issue 83 Sept 2006

Tsunami impact on the North West Shelf on the North West Shelf. Digitisation of some of these Historical evidence of large tsunamigenic earthquakes off Sumatra charts is needed, and matching with impacts on the Western Australian coastline suggests that the entire dataset requires communities and infrastructure along that coastline are at risk of suitable metadata to be available tsunami inundation (Cummins & Burbidge 2004). (which it seldom is, especially To better understand the risk, particularly for the significant for older datasets). Thanks to petroleum production infrastructure off the North West Shelf the National Mapping and and near the Sunda Arc trench, the Fire and Emergency Services Information Group within Authority (FESA) in Western Australia struck a collaborative research Geoscience Australia’s Geospatial agreement with Geoscience Australia. Initial priority areas are and Earth Monitoring Division, Onslow, Port Hedland, Karratha, Dampier, Broome, Busselton and offshore and onshore datasets for Perth. The study has brought together a number of groups within Onslow and Port Hedland have Geoscience Australia to support the FESA project. The study areas for been delivered to RAMP for the first project milestone are Onslow and Port Hedland. inundation modelling. The boundary condition has been defined by the Earthquake and Once the inundation Tsunami Hazard Project model of an Mw 9 earthquake generated modelling has been completed, east of Java by the Sunda Arc trench (Mw is a logarithmic measure of structural damage and contents earthquake size, similar to the Richter scale but better suited to very loss estimates can be made. large events). This event is plausible, but the recurrence rate is not yet RAMP engineering models known. The earthquake and subsequent tsunami wave in deep water and the national building are simulated by MOST, which outputs water height and velocity in exposure database (NBED) are space and time. ANUGA then uses this information and propagates brought together to develop the wave through the shallow water and onshore. a damage estimate for each The collation of data has proved to be a challenging task. simulation. The NBED contains Geoscience Australia’s Petroleum and Marine Division has sourced information about residential available hydrographic charts (‘fairsheets’) for regions identified buildings, people, infrastructure, structure value and building content, and has been created so that consistent risk assessments for a range of natural hazards can be conducted. The damage estimates use the NBED information and predict probability of collapse as a function of the building type, location and inundation depth at the building and floor levels. Finally, the GIS team within RAMP develops the decision support tool (figure 2), which includes ANUGA outputs, inundation maps, time series for defined point locations, and Figure 2. Example of inundation map provided to emergency managers. Here, the map is embedded in a GIS product, enabling emergency managers damage estimates. These outputs to use the output as a decision support tool. are included as layers in the

Modelling answers tsunami questions 14 issue 83 Sept 2006

decision support tool, with aerial photography and overlays of critical warning, response and infrastructure, such as roads. Visualisations developed from the community recovery in the ANUGA output (figure 3) are useful to modellers and planners alike event of a tsunami disaster. for understanding the behaviour of the tsunami. The recent meeting of the The outcome is a tactical decision support tool for use by Australian Tsunami Working operational emergency managers as they make decisions on how Group acknowledged the utility to mitigate risk to coastal communities. In particular, the tool will of detailed impact modelling provide: for mitigating the effects of • a better understanding of national tsunami risk and resourcing tsunamis. However, the biggest requirements for particular communities and regions barrier to such modelling is the unavailability of reliable, • scenarios for a wide range of tsunami events for which casualty high-resolution bathymetry and infrastructure consequences are predicted, and against which and elevation data. Geoscience emergency management capability can be assessed Australia has developed a set • real‑time consequence prediction tools for tactical use by of guidelines for state agencies, emergency managers to obtain assessments of tsunami impact and outlining the requirements for expected consequences to guide initial resource deployment. the collection of such data. These guidelines will assist the exchange of data between studies Further agencies and guide third parties The preliminary hazard modelling has identified communities most in the collection of data. at risk from tsunamis generated by subduction zone earthquakes. Other state agencies have More detailed modelling, which will be available by the end of 2006, expressed interest in conducting will provide information on return periods so that tsunami risk can studies similar to those being be determined. This is consistent with RAMP’s objective of defining done for FESA. Geoscience the national risk from a range of rapid‑onset natural hazards in a Australia is committed to standardised and consistent way. working with state emergency The relative tsunami risk can be measured using the modelling managers to understand tsunami techniques we have described, providing a strategic aid to emergency risk, and will continue to planning. In addition, the precomputed simulations and risk maps conduct detailed studies in areas will form a library of scenarios for the ATWS, aiding mitigation, of national interest.

Figure 3. Snapshot of visualisation of tsunami inundation, North West Shelf (photograph courtesy of Department of Land Information, Western Australia).

Modelling answers tsunami questions 15 issue 83 Sept 2006

More information Related sites phone Ole Nielsen on +61 2 6249 9048 AusGeo News 81 email [email protected] Geoscience Australia’s impact modelling protecting Australia References link www.ga.gov.au Cummins P & Burbidge D. 2004. Small threat, but warning sounded for tsunami research. AusGeo News 75, 4–7. Risk Assessment Methods Matsuyama M, Walsh J & Yeh H. 1999. The effect of bathymetry on Project www.ga.gov.au/urban/ tsunami characteristics at Sisano Lagoon, Papua New Guinea. Geophysical projects/ramp/inundation.jsp Research Letters 26(23):3513–3516. link Nielsen O, Roberts S, Gray D, McPherson A & Hitchman A. 2005. Hydrodynamic modelling of coastal inundation. MODSIM 2005 International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, Modelling and Simulation Society of Australian and New Zealand, 518–523. www.mssanz.org.au/modsim05/papers/nielsen.pdf Somerville P, Thio H-K & Ichinose G. 2005. Probabilistic tsunami hazard analysis. Report to Geoscience Australia. Titov V & Gonzalez F. 1997. Implementation and testing of the Method of Splitting Tsunami (MOST) model. NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL PMEL-112.

Modelling answers tsunami questions 16 issue 83 Sept 2006 Echoes of ancient tsunamis

New research will help gauge the tsunami hazard to Australia Amy Prendergast

Geological signatures of tsunamis provide clues to tsunami Geological evidence for hazards that are unknown or poorly understood from written and tsunamis varies from large instrumental records alone. In northeast Japan, western North boulders to erosional features. America, Norway, and Scotland, tsunami deposits serve as long-term The most common tsunami warnings of unusually large tsunamis that could otherwise take these signatures are landward-tapering, areas by complete surprise (Nanyama et al. 2003; Atwater et al. 2005; higher energy sediment sheets Bondevik et al. 2005). preserved within lower energy Because there was no historical precedent for an event the size depositional environments of the Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004 along the (figure 1). The composition Aceh–Andaman subduction zone, countries affected by the tsunami of the sediment sheets varies and their neighbours were not adequately prepared for the disaster. with the available onshore If geological records of tsunamis in the Indian Ocean region had and offshore sediments, but been studied before the event, the regional tsunami hazard may have fine to medium sand generally been recognised and the impact may have been reduced through the dominates. implementation of education programs and early warning systems. Tsunami sediment sheets range in thickness from a Deposits from ancient tsunamis few centimetres to tens of decimetres, and mantle beach- Historical and instrumental records of tsunamis have been gathered ridge plain, estuarine marsh or for a much shorter period than the recurrence intervals of large lake bottom sediments. They tsunamis. Studying the geological signatures of past tsunamis characteristically have a sharp, therefore extends the tsunami record by thousands of years, leading erosional contact with the lower to a better understanding of tsunami frequency, magnitude and flow unit (usually soil), indicating dynamics, and a greater appreciation of tsunami hazard and risk. some scouring before deposition (figure 2). The sediments may contain local or far-field gravel, mud and soil rip-up clasts mixed with sand and silt (figure 3). Multiple, normally graded layers are evident in some deposits, allowing the differentiation of specific waves in the tsunami Figure 1. The formation of tsunami deposits during a subduction zone wave train. earthquake. Co-seismic subsidence occurs during the earthquake, lowering Microfossil assemblages the land level and drowning coastal marsh deposits. Minutes to hours after the earthquake, several sediment-laden tsunami waves wash over the (ostracods, diatoms, foraminifera drowned marshlands, leaving behind sediment sheets. Over the next few and pollen) provide evidence decades, the land stabilises, allowing vegetation to recolonise the area and a of sediments transported soil profile to develop.

Echoes of ancient tsunamis 17 issue 83 Sept 2006

and deposited by tsunamis. Tsunami deposits generally contain a mixture of fossils from terrestrial, tidal and deepwater environments, indicating both landward and seaward transport of sediments during inundation and backwash. Geochemical signatures, such as stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen, are also useful in distinguishing sediment sources, as they can be used as indicators of fresh and saltwater influxes. If several tsunami deposits occur in stratigraphic sequence, dating of the deposits using radiogenic or luminescence techniques Figure 2. Soil and sediment rip-up allows estimates of tsunami frequency (Cisternas et al 2005). This clasts in the 1960 Chile tsunami information can provide the basis for tsunami hazard assessments. deposit near Maullin, Chile. gc Detailed studies of the sedimentology of tsunami deposits can = soil rip-up clast; rc = sediment rip‑up clast. yield constraints on tsunami behaviour, such as flow depth and velocity (Jaffe and Gelfenbaum 2002, Atwater et al 2005), providing empirical data for tsunami modelling and allowing better hazard and enhancement of tsunami estimation. The mapped geographical extent of tsunami deposits can run-up modelling. Furthermore, contribute to probabilistic hazard maps and to calibration, testing tsunami deposits can be a focus for public education about tsunami hazards. Identification of far-field tsunami deposits is often more difficult than identification of earthquake-generated deposits close to a tsunami source region. In plate margin settings, tsunami sediment sheets are preserved in conjunction with evidence for co-seismic subsidence landward of the subduction zone. Such evidence includes drowned trees in growth position, a change in biota from supratidal to subtidal assemblages, highly bioturbated soil profiles, and a change in deposit sedimentology between the upper and lower units (figure 2). This additional evidence makes identification of a sediment sheet as tsunamigenic more certain. Furthermore, co‑seismic subsidence makes it more likely that the tsunami Figure 3. An example of tsunami sediment sheets, soil profiles and tidal flat sediment sheet will be preserved. deposits in stratigraphic sequence from Maullin, Chile. The tsunami events have In coasts prone to severe been constrained by radiocarbon dating (Cisternas et al 2005). Note the sharp storm events, tsunami hazard contact between tsunami sand sheets and underlying soil, indicating scouring before deposition. The bioturbated pre-1575 soil profile indicates subsidence. assessment is complicated by

Echoes of ancient tsunamis 18 issue 83 Sept 2006

Hazards from the north… Tsunamis can be generated by any process that vertically displaces the sea surface, including landslides into the sea, underwater landslides, volcanic collapses and bolide impacts. However, undersea subduction zone earthquakes are the most common mechanism. Tsunamis generated from earthquakes around the Australian margin Figure 4. The Australian region, showing locations of tsunamigenic earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, oil and gas production facilities, and could potentially reach palaeotsunami deposits on the Australian coastline (reported from Bryant Australian shores within hours and Nott 2001). Known tsunami run-up heights are scaled and colour- (figure 4). coded with their sources. The Sunda Arc south of Indonesia, where the Australian Plate is subducting beneath the the potential for storm surges to deposit sediment sheets that may be Sunda Plate, poses the greatest difficult to distinguish from those left by tsunamis. Recent studies of tsunami threat to Australia’s historic tsunami and storm deposits have suggested some criteria for northwest coast. Although distinguishing between them. These include: population density is fairly low, • tsunami deposits are generally of greater lateral extent iron ore production facilities • stable isotopic analysis of offshore sediments can be used to and extensive oil and gas identify freshwater flux to the continental shelves caused by storm infrastructure are concentrated events. in this region (figure 4). Furthermore, if a large tsunami Nonetheless, the differentiation of palaeotsunami and palaeostorm occurs in this region, the deposits, particularly for distantly generated events, remains remoteness of the settlements problematic. More work is needed to link the sedimentology of along the northwest coastline tsunami and storm deposits with the physics of sediment erosion, may hamper the delivery of transport and deposition (Tuttle et al 2004, Atwater et al 2005, aid. Tsunami inundation along Rhodes et al 2006). It is therefore important for the characterisation this coastline, therefore, has the of the tsunami threat to Australia that evidence be considered not potential to cause considerable only from the Australian coastline but also from neighbouring human and economic loss. subduction zones where there is a better chance of preserving less The 2004 event confirmed equivocal tsunami signatures. that the western Sunda Arc is Several authors have reported erosional and depositional features capable of generating truly giant along the Australian coastline purported to be tsunamigenic (Bryant earthquakes. On the Western and Nott 2001, Switzer et al 2005). However, most are large boulders Australian coast, the 2004 and erosional features, or their origin is enigmatic. They are not tsunami displaced boats from as useful for tsunami hazard estimation because they do not yield their moorings and dragged information about tsunami frequency. swimmers out to sea. However, due to the orientation of the

Echoes of ancient tsunamis 19 issue 83 Sept 2006

arc in relation to the Australian coastline, most tsunami energy was directed away from Australia and towards the Indian Ocean Basin A (figure 5a; Dominey-Howe et al, in press). Open-ocean tsunami propagation modelling has shown that large earthquakes in the eastern Sunda Arc could have a significant impact along Australia’s northwest coastline (figure 5b; Burbidge and Cummins, in preparation). The 1977 Sumbawa earthquake and the 1994 Java earthquake in the eastern Sunda Arc generated four-metre to six-metre tsunamis on the northwest Australian coastline. The two earthquakes were rated at Mw 8.3 and Mw 7.8 respectively (Mw is a logarithmic measure of earthquake size, similar to the Richter scale but better suited to very large events). The 2006 West Java earthquake B (Mw 7.7) also had a significant impact on parts of the Western Australian coastline. There is still debate about whether the eastern Sunda Arc is capable of generating earthquakes greater than Mw 9, which could potentially cause a large tsunami along the entire west Australian coast (Burbidge and Cummins, in preparation). This will be important in the future characterisation of tsunami hazard to Western Australia.

… and from the east Figure 5. Open-ocean tsunami Along the eastern Australian coastline, where most Australians live, propagation of Mw 9 earthquakes the tsunami threat comes from several sources. Although they have on the Sunda Arc. produced few historical tsunamis, the Solomons trench, the New A: The 2004 Sumatra tsunami did not significantly affect Australia Hebrides trench off Vanuatu, the Tonga–Kermadec trench north of (Dominey-Howe et al, in press). New Zealand, the Alpine fault in New Zealand and the Puysegur B: An earthquake in Java trench south of New Zealand may all have the potential to produce would have a greater impact on northwestern Australia (Burbidge earthquake-generated tsunamis capable of reaching Australian and Cummins, in preparation). This shores. More work needs to be done to characterise the earthquake modelling is accurate for tsunami propagation in deep water. Run-up mechanisms in these regions, including assessments of the maximum of the tsunami onto the shoreline magnitude earthquake that each zone might generate and the is likely to increase the tsunami expected nature of earthquake rupture. amplitude severalfold. Figures courtesy of David Burbidge. The steep slopes of the continental shelf on the eastern Australian margin may induce underwater landslides capable of producing identified along the southeast localised tsunamis. In the Australian Tsunami Database (Allport & coast between Sydney and Blong 1995), several large waves of unknown source are documented Wollongong. Higher resolution along the eastern coast between Hobart and Newcastle. It has been bathymetry data and offshore suggested that these waves—recorded on otherwise calm and clear coring and dating are necessary days—may be localised tsunamis generated by submarine slumps. to characterise the age, The most famous such incident occurred on Sydney’s Bondi Beach in magnitude and tsunamigenic 1938, when three waves encroached on the beach in quick succession. potential of these features. The backwash was strong enough to drag swimmers out to sea. More Another source of tsunami than 200 bathers required assistance and five people were drowned on hazard for the Australian a day that became known as Black Sunday. region is the arc of many active Over a hundred features suggested to be slump scars have been volcanoes, in Indonesia and the

Echoes of ancient tsunamis 20 issue 83 Sept 2006

Pacific, that encircle the Australian margin. The famous Krakatau References

eruption of 1883 caused 36 000 deaths in Indonesia and generated a Allport JK & Blong RJ. 1995. The four-metre tsunami in northwestern Australia. The 1453 eruption of Australian Tsunami Database (ATDB). Natural Hazards Research Centre, Tongola in Vanuatu is reported to have been four times as powerful as Macquarie University, Sydney. Krakatau, but it is not known whether the tsunami generated by this Atwater BF, Bourgeouis J, Yeh H, Abbott eruption reached Australia. D, Cisternas M, Glawe U, Higman B, Horton B, Peters R, Rajendran K & Tuttle MP. 2005. Tsunami geology and its role in hazard mitigation. Eos 86:400. Geoscience Australia’s role in palaeotsunami Bondevik S, Løvholt F, Harbitz C, research Mangerud J, Dawson A & Svendsen, JI. 2005. The Storegga Slide tsunami— Geoscience Australia has been building expertise in tsunami geology comparing field observations with numerical simulations. Marine and and is well placed to take a leading role in palaeotsunami research and Petroleum Geology 22:195–208. hazard and risk estimation in the region. Bryant EA & Nott J. 2001. Geological indicators of large tsunami in Australia. In February 2006, staff participated in a field-based training Natural Hazards 24:231–249. course in Chile, the source location for the Mw 9.5 earthquake and Burbidge DR & Cummins P. In subsequent trans-Pacific tsunami of 1960. The course enabled us to preparation. Assessing the threat to Western Australia from tsunami develop our expertise in tsunami geology and fostered collaborative generated by earthquakes along the contacts with tsunami geologists from other nations. In May 2006, Sunda Arc. Cisternas M, Atwater BF, Torrejon F, we continued our collaboration with Indian Ocean and United States Sawai Y, Machuca G, Lagos M, Eipert scientists through participation in a tsunami deposit reconnaissance A, Youlton C, Salgado I, Kamataki T, Shishikura M, Rajendran CP, Malik JK, program in Java. It is expected that continuing collaboration in Rizal Y & Husni M. 2005. Predecessors this region will help to characterise the tsunami hazard from the to the giant 1960 Chile earthquake. enigmatic eastern Sunda Arc subduction zone, which potentially Nature 437:404–407. Dominey Howe D, Cummins P & poses the greatest tsunami hazard to Australian shores. Burbidge D. In press. Historic records Over the next year, Geoscience Australia will conduct a pilot of teletsunami in the Indian Ocean and insights from numerical modelling. project focusing on the southeast coast of Australia, where tsunamis Natural Hazards. might be generated by submarine slumps off the steep continental Jaffe BE & Gelfenbaum G. 2002. Using shelf and by earthquakes south of New Zealand. This project will tsunami deposits to improve assessment of tsunami risk. Proceedings of Solutions complement tsunami propagation and inundation modelling and a to Coastal Disasters 2002, American high-resolution study of the potential of the continental margin to Society of Civil Engineers, 836–847. Nanayama F, Satake K, Furukawa R, generate underwater landslides. Shimokawa K, Atwater BF, Shigeno Future work in the characterisation of tsunami hazard to the K & Yamaki S. 2003. Unusually large earthquakes inferred from tsunami Australian region will require onshore and offshore investigations deposits along the Kuril trench. Nature along the Australian coastline, as well as collaboration with regional 424:660–663. neighbours, in order to better characterise the threat from plate Rhodes B, Tuttle M, Horton B, Doner L, Kelsey H, Nelson A & Cisternas margin earthquakes. The work will involve interdisciplinary M. 2006. Palaeotsunami research. Eos collaboration between sedimentologists, geomorphologists, 87(21):205. Switzer AD, Pucillo K, Haredy RA, micropalaeontologists, tsunami modellers and emergency managers. Jones BG & Bryant, EA. 2005. Sea Through an understanding of the magnitude, frequency and flow level, storm or tsunami: enigmatic sand sheet deposits in a sheltered coastal dynamics of past tsunamis, tsunami deposits can improve our embayment from southeastern New understanding of the tsunami hazard and provide a means of assessing South Wales, Australia. Journal of future risk. Coastal Research 21(4):655–663. Tuttle MP, Ruffman A, Anderson T & Jeter H. 2004. Distinguishing tsunami More information from storm deposits in eastern North America: the 1929 Grand Banks phone Amy Prendergast on +61 2 6249 9292 tsunami versus the 1991 Halloween storm. Seismological Research Letters email [email protected] 75:117–131.

Echoes of ancient tsunamis 21 issue 83 Sept 2006 Catching the nickel boom

New synthesis will aid nickel explorers Dean Hoatson, Subhash Jaireth and Lynton Jaques

In August 2006, a tonne of nickel was worth a record $US34 750 hosted deposits in the Eastern on the world market, a 7.7-fold increase from 2001—an astounding Goldfields began within two performance driven mainly by the urbanisation and industrialisation years of discovery. Australia of China. At that price, global stockpiles of nickel have virtually is particularly well endowed disappeared, while exploration expenditure and activity are at all‑time with world-class komatiite- highs as Australia’s nickel industry experiences a ‘boom phase’ of associated deposits at Mt Keith unparalleled opportunities. (3.4 Mt), Perseverance (2.5 Mt), To support Australian explorers, Geoscience Australia has just Yakabindie (1.7 Mt), published Nickel sulfide deposits in Australia: characteristics, resources Kambalda region (1.4 Mt), and and potential, a comprehensive synthesis in which we review the Honeymoon Well (1 Mt), along geological settings and resources of Australia’s nickel sulphide deposits with smaller high‑grade deposits at a national scale and place them in a global context for the first (assaying 5–9% Ni) at Cosmos, time. The paper summarises the key factors that determine the Prospero, Long, Silver Swan and fertility of nickel-bearing magmatic systems, with a predictive focus Victor. In contrast, the nickel that should be of considerable interest to companies exploring for resources in Australia’s tholeiitic nickel deposits. mafic–ultramafic intrusions (containing more siliceous Evolution of Australia’s nickel sulphide igneous rocks than komatiites) industry and global status are substantially smaller than those in the major foreign The discovery of massive nickel–copper sulphides at Kambalda near deposits. Lake Lefroy in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia on the Exploration for nickel 28 January 1966 heralded the beginning of the nickel industry in sulphides has been very active Australia. The sulphides at Kambalda assayed 8.3% Ni and 0.5% Cu since 2001 in most Precambrian over 2.7 metres, and were hosted by unusual ultramafic igneous rocks provinces of Australia. Record called komatiites—rocks rich in magnesium, iron and the mineral numbers of exploration olivine. Exploration since 1966 has defined a total resource (total companies are active in Western production plus remaining reserves and resources) of nickel metal Australia (more than 170 in from sulphide ores of approximately 12.9 Mt, and five world-class 2006), accounting for more deposits (each containing at least 1 Mt of nickel metal). In 2006–07, than 90% of the nation’s production from nickel sulphide and laterite deposits will reach Ni–Cu exploration budget of 212 000 tonnes of nickel and earn around A$4.2 billion in export A$168.1 million (ABS 2006). revenue (ABARE 2006), making Australia the world’s third largest The main areas of interest producer of nickel after Russia and Canada. include Archaean greenstone More than 90% of the nation’s total known resources of nickel belts in the Yilgarn Craton metal from sulphide deposits were defined during the relatively short (near Kambalda, Leonora, period from 1966 to 1973, and production from many komatiite- Leinster and Southern Cross),

Catching the nickel boom 22 issue 83 Sept 2006

the northern margins of that craton, the western part of the Pilbara • Precambrian tholeiitic Craton, and the Proterozoic Musgrave, Kimberley, Albany–Fraser and mafic–ultramafic intrusions Hamersley provinces. Recent exploration successes include: emplaced in rift zones • increased resources at previously known deposits (many deposits of Archaean cratons or near Kambalda, Carnilya Hill, Flying Fox T Zero to T5, Radio Proterozoic orogens Hill, Sally Malay) • hydrothermal-remobilised • delineation of deep and covered mineralised komatiite sequences occurrences with no apparent (Cosmos Deeps, Prospero, Wedgetail, Flying Fox T5) age or tectonic constraints. • new mineralised Precambrian mafic±ultramafic intrusions (Nebo– Most deposits can be Babel, Copernicus, Billy Ray) classified (table 1) into two orthomagmatic associations • new styles of mineralisation and/or new provinces (Collurabbie, that reflect the dominant Sinclair, Koolyanobbing North, Beasley, and Avebury in western chemical affinities of the host Tasmania). magma (komatiitic or tholeiitic) and a third association that Classificationof Australia’s encompasses hydrothermal- nickel sulphide deposits remobilised mineralising systems. The largest and Australia’s nickel sulphide deposits are associated with ultramafic and/ most economically important or mafic igneous rocks in three major geotectonic settings: deposits are associated with • Archaean komatiites emplaced in rift zones of granite–greenstone Archaean komatiitic rocks in the belts greenstone belts of the Yilgarn Figure 1. Time-nickel sulphide metallogenic event plot showing approximate Craton of Western Australia. ages and relative sizes of nickel sulphide deposits and nickel sulphide camps/ These deposits account for provinces in the world. approximately 82% of the nation’s nickel production; minor contributions come from tholeiitic mafic–ultramafic intrusions (~3%) and laterite (~15%) sources. The world’s komatiite- associated Ni–Cu deposits are of specific Archaean and Proterozoic age, with the largest formed at ~2700 Ma and ~1900 Ma (figure 1). In contrast, basal Ni–Cu sulphide deposits do not appear to be age dependent. Large deposits/ mining camps associated with continental flood basalt (Noril’sk) and astrobleme (Sudbury) events appear to have a very restricted representation in the geological record. The

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Table 1. Classification of Australia’s nickel sulphide deposits

Association Deposits/prospects Age (Ma) Metal association Ni:Cu 1. Komatiitic 1A. Massive and/or matrix sulphides Kambalda, WA ~2900–2700 Ni-Cu±Au±PGE±Co 7-20 at base of olivine cumulate (peridotite) Maggie Hays, WA sequences in preferred lava pathways Cosmos, WA 1B. Disseminated sulphides in central Mt Keith, WA ~2900–2700 Ni-Cu±PGE±Co >20 parts of thick olivine cumulate (dunite) Black Swan, WA sequences in preferred lava pathways Honeymoon Well, WA Other komatiitic deposits • Sulphides at basal contact of olivine Beasley, WA ?2770 Ni-Cu-PGE NA cumulate sequences associated with comagmatic flood basalts • PGE-enriched sulphides associated Collurabbie, WA ?2900–2700 PGE-Ni-Cu <2 with komatiitic and tholeiitic mafic- ?Daltons, WA ultramafic rocks 2. Tholeiitic 2A. Massive and disseminated sulphides Radio Hill, WA ~2925–2700, Ni-Cu-Co±PGE 0.5-7 in feeder conduit and/or depressions Sally Malay, WA ~1850,~1080 along basal contacts of mafic±ultramafic Mt Sholl, WA intrusions Nebo-Babel, WA 2B. Stratabound disseminated sulphides Munni Munni, WA ~2925–2800, PGE-Cu-Ni <2 near ultramafic-gabbroic zone contacts Weld Range, WA ?1850 of mafic-ultramafic intrusions Windimurra, WA 2C. Stratabound chromitite layers near Panton, WA ~1850, ~1300 PGE-Ni-Cu-Au-Cr 5 ultramafic-gabbroic zone contacts of Eastmans Bore, WA ultramafic-mafic intrusions Salt Creek- Plumridge, WA 2D. Discordant bronzitite breccia pipes Carr Boyd Rocks, WA ?2700 Ni-Cu 3 in mafic-ultramafic intrusions 3. Hydrothermal-remobilised 3A. Hydrothermal-remobilised— Avebury, Tas ?360 Ni Ni>>Cu ultramafic host or ?skarn 3B. Hydrothermal-remobilised— Sherlock Bay, WA ~2925–2700 Ni-Cu 5 metasedimentary rock host Cruickshank, WA Other hydrothermal-remobilised deposits • Hydrothermal-remobilised— Elizabeth Hill, WA <2870 Ag-Pb-Ni-Cu±PGE NA felsic±mafic±ultramafic rock hosts ?Andover, WA • Remobilised-metamorphic— Corkwood, WA ~1865 Ni-Cu-Co 3 metagabbro host Bow River, WA • Hydrothermal arsenical-auriferous- Mt Martin, WA NA Ni-As-Au Ni>>Cu bearing quartz-carbonate veins Bamboo, WA Type examples of deposits/prospects are indicated in italics. NA – not available

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Figure 2. Komatiitic mineralising systems. Schematic section through an Al‑undepleted chemical affinities inflationary komatiite flow field that developed through sustained eruption (Al O /TiO = 15 to 25), and of komatiite. The spatial relationships between various komatiite facies and 2 3 2 types of nickel mineralisation are shown for the Mt Keith (section A–B), form compound sheet flows Kambalda (C–D), and Beasley (E–F) type deposits. Modified after Dowling with internal pathways and & Hill (1998). dunitic compound sheet flow facies. The preferred pathways (figure 2) assist in focusing large volumes of primitive magma flow (i.e. high‑magma flux environments) and facilitate interaction of the magma with a potential sulphur-bearing substrate. The identification of magmatic facies in komatiitic systems is therefore important for assessing economic prospectivity. There is considerable potential for further discovery of komatiite- hosted deposits in Archaean granite–greenstone terranes, including large and smaller high‑grade deposits (5–9% Ni), that may be enriched (2–5 g/t) in platinum-group elements (PGE), especially where the host ultramafic sequences are poorly exposed under shallow cover or younger basinal sequences. In contrast to komatiitic- mineralising systems, the broad ages of Australia’s major deposits correlate with at least three major criteria for assessing the nickel global-scale nickel metallogenic events at ~3000 Ma (3000 Ma prospectivity of tholeiitic to 2875 Ma), ~2700 Ma (2705 Ma to 2690 Ma) and ~1900 Ma mafic±ultramafic intrusions (2060 Ma to 1840 Ma). These events correspond with major periods and their provinces are less of juvenile crustal growth and the development of large volumes of clear. However, a significant primitive komatiitic and tholeiitic magmas. They are thought to have exploration advantage for been caused by mantle overturn events associated with mantle plumes investigating basal Ni–Cu–Co or larger superplumes (figure 1). sulphide deposits (such as at Sally Malay, Radio Hill and Nebo–Babel) is that they can versus barren magmatic systems, Fertile occur in small- to medium- and prospectivity sized, sulphur-saturated mafic Analysis of the world’s major komatiite provinces reveals that the bodies of various ages. Most most fertile komatiite sequences are generally of late Archaean Precambrian provinces in (~2700 Ma) or Palaeoproterozoic (~1900 Ma) age, have dominantly Australia and, in particular,

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Figure 3. Tholeiitic and hydrothermal mineralising systems. Schematic distribution of orthomagmatic and hydrothermal-remobilised nickel sulphide deposits associated with tholeiitic mafic±ultramafic intrusion. A . Stratabound, basal, and discordant Ni–Cu–Co and PGE–Ni–Cu deposits in mafic–ultramafic intrusion. Australian deposits (shown in normal type) are Munni Munni, Radio Hill, Mt Sholl (west Pilbara Craton); Carr Boyd Rocks (Yilgarn Craton); and Panton and Sally Malay (Halls Creek Orogen). Foreign deposits (italics) are Merensky Reef and UG–2 Chromitite (Bushveld Complex, South Africa); J–M Reef (Stillwater Complex, USA); MSZ (Main Sulphide Zone–Great Dyke, Zimbabwe); and Jinchuan Intrusion (China). B . Massive Ni–Cu–Co sulphide deposits in the feeder conduit of mafic-dominated intrusion: Nebo–Babel (Musgrave Province, WA) and Voisey’s Bay (Canada). C . Hydrothermal-remobilised Ni–Cu–±Ag±PGE and other metal deposits hosted by: serpentinised ultramafic (Avebury), deformed mafic (Corkwood), metasedimentary (Sherlock Bay, Mt Martin), and igneous (Elizabeth Hill) rocks.

Proterozoic orogenic belts, contain an abundance of these intrusions Australia has large areas of that have not been fully investigated. The Musgrave Province, Halls Archaean to Phanerozoic Creek Orogen, Albany–Fraser Orogen, Arunta Block, and western continental flood basalts, but parts of the Yilgarn, Pilbara and Gawler cratons are considered no ‘Noril’sk‑type’ Ni–Cu–PGE the more prospective provinces. The major exploration challenges deposits associated with these for finding basal Ni–Cu–Co sulphide deposits are to determine rocks have yet been discovered. the predeformational geometries and younging directions of the Hence, there is also some potential intrusions, and to locate under cover, favourable environments (e.g., for these underexplored deposits structural irregularities and depressions in basal contacts and feeder in large igneous provinces, such as conduits) that concentrate the economically important massive the late Archaean Fortescue Group sulphides (figure 3). basalts of the Pilbara Craton, Hydrothermal-remobilised nickel sulphide deposits have diverse Palaeoproterozoic Hart Dolerite– geological settings and metal associations that reflect the different Carson Volcanics of the Kimberley compositions of the source rocks and fluids. Typically, most Basin, and Mesoproterozoic hydrothermal deposits are small tonnage and of low economic Warakurna dolerites/intrusions importance. The unusual Avebury deposit in western Tasmania has and Cambrian Kalkarindji basalts increased awareness of hydrothermal-type targets in Phanerozoic of western and northern Australia. provinces that were previously considered to have low prospectivity.

Catching the nickel boom 26 issue 83 Sept 2006

More information, References ABARE (Australian Bureau phone Dean Hoatson on +61 2 6249 9593 of Agricultural and Resource email [email protected] Economics). 2006. Australian Mineral Statistics. ABARE, June Related websites/articles quarter 2006, Canberra, 339–341. ABS (Australian Bureau of Nickel sulfide deposits in Australia: characteristics, resources and potential Statistics). 2006. Mineral and will appear in Ore Geology Reviews, volume 29, No. 3–4, petroleum exploration Australia. October 2006 8412.0, ABS, December quarter link www.sciencedirect.com 2005 (reissue), 16 March 2006. Dowling SE & Hill RET. 1998. Komatiite-hosted nickel sulphide AusGeo News 79 deposits, Australia. Special jubilee Nickel sulphide metallogenic provinces: resources and potential issue of Australian Geological Survey Organisation Journal link www.ga.gov.au 17(4):121–127. Resources Australia’s nickel endowment (PDF) link www.ga.gov.au

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Catching the nickel boom 27 issue 83 Sept 2006 Metallogenesis of intrusive rocks of Victoria New datasets target gold and base-metal mineralisation David Champion

Geoscience Australia has been compiling and synthesising datasets of (linked to Geoscience Australia’s various metallogenic parameters for intrusive and country rock units National Map digital geology) of the Tasmanides (or Tasman Orogenic Zone—the younger eastern will be released in early 2007. part of Australia, which is joined to the continent’s Proterozoic and older core along the Tasman Line) of eastern Australia. Preliminary The work is part of the Felsic Igneous Rocks of Australia project implications for to assist the exploration industry in the search for intrusion-related mineralisation systems (see, for example, Champion & Blevin intrusion-related 2005). As reported in AusGeo News 74 and 79, this project is being mineralisation undertaken as regional modules. Datasets for north Queensland are Granites comprise a significant currently being prepared for release, and datasets for Tasmania are part of the Lachlan Fold Belt now completed and released as a joint Mineral Resources Tasmania– in Victoria (up to 20% by Geoscience Australia product. surface area; figure 1). They In collaboration with Geoscience Victoria, the project is now are dominantly Silurian to extending into the Tasman Fold Belt of Victoria and is currently Devonian, ranging from synthesising metallogenic data for that state. Products of this study, about 430 Ma to 350 Ma. which will include downloadable data tables for Victorian rock units Mineralisation associated with these granites includes a range of commodities, including tungsten, tin, molybdenum, copper and gold. One of the project’s primary aims is the compilation and interpretation of chemical- based metallogenic parameters for the granites, using the characteristics identified by Blevin and other workers (for example, Blevin 2004; see summary in Champion & Blevin 2005). The simplest first-pass regional approach has been to use the granite data to calculate parameters of oxidation state and degree of evolution. Figure 1. Simplified pre-Permian geology of Victoria. Geology map courtesy These parameters can then be of Geoscience Victoria. used as defined by Blevin (2004)

Metallogenesis of intrusive rocks of Victoria 28 issue 83 Sept 2006

to highlight mineral potential (figure 2). Igneous Metallogenesis Use of this technique is relevant for regional application 1 10 to new exploration models, and Blevin et al. (1996) particularly for intrusion-related A Blevin (2004) gold systems (Thompson et al 1999, Blevin 2005), given that 0 Cu-Au Cu-Mo Mo Fe2O3 10 W-Mo Bierlein & McKnight (2005) FeO have recently documented IRGD ratio W Oxidised several examples of intrusion- -1 10 Increasing Sn-W related gold mineralisation in Oxidation western Victoria, and raised the Increasing possibility of additional, as yet Fractionation Fractionated undiscovered, mineralisation of -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 similar styles elsewhere in the state. Rb/Sr ratio Geoscience Australia has access to public and confidential Figure 2. A. Relationship between the oxidation state (calculated using geochemical data for over total rock Fe2O3/FeO ratio), and the degree of compositional evolution (calculated using total rock Rb/Sr ratio) of granites, and related metallogenic 200 Victorian granite units. associations, as documented by Blevin et al (1996) and Blevin (2004). A preliminary classification of this geochemical data, plotted (contoured) on the oxidation– fractionation diagram of Blevin (2004; figure 2), illustrates a number of points. Victorian Granites First, it is evident that the 1 10 granites collectively span a range B of compositions, encompassing I-types various metallogenic 0 Cu-Au associations, consistent with 10 Fe2O3 IRGD known mineral occurrences FeO for the state. Second, it is ratio apparent that only a few of -1 10 the granites (for which we Increasing S-types Oxidation have data) have characteristics Increasing considered prospective for Fractionation the granite-related porphyry -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 copper–gold class of deposits Rb/Sr ratio (such as those associated with Ordovician magmatism Figure 2. B. Oxidation – compositional evolution plot, contoured in New South Wales, for using available geochemical data for Victorian granites. The bulk of the example Cadia). Third, it geochemical data for the I‑type granites (grey field) strongly overlaps with the is clear that the majority of suggested field (Blevin 2004) for intrusion-related gold. Victorian I‑type granites have

Metallogenesis of intrusive rocks of Victoria 29 issue 83 Sept 2006

chemical characteristics similar to those of granites known to be References associated with intrusion-related gold mineralisation (figure 2). This Bierlein FP & McKnight S. 2005. does not necessarily indicate these granites will have associated gold Possible intrusion-related gold mineralisation, but does show that much of Victoria has the potential systems in the western Lachlan for such mineralisation, consistent with the suggestions of Bierlein & Orogen, southeast Australia. McKnight (2005). Economic Geology 100:385–398. General models for intrusion-related gold systems also highlight Blevin PL. 2004. Redox and compositional parameters the importance of continental sedimentary assemblages as host for interpreting the granitoid rocks, especially those with carbonaceous or carbonate-bearing metallogeny of eastern Australia: units (see the compilation table in AusGeo News 79). These and Implications for gold-rich ore other parameters are currently being compiled for all pre-Mesozoic systems. Resource Geology 54:241– 252. Victorian country rock units. All synthesised data will be linked to Blevin PL. 2005. Intrusion Related Geoscience Australia’s National Map digital geology. This linkage will Gold Deposits. Exploration model allow integrated use of the country rock and granite data in a spatial and PDF file, www.ga.gov.au/ environment, and will help to refine area selection for intrusion- about/corporate/ga_authors/Expl_ models/PL_Blevin_IRGD.jsp. related gold and other commodities in Victoria. Blevin PL, Chappell BW & Allen CM. 1996. Intrusive metallogenic More information provinces in eastern Australia based on granite source and composition. phone Dave Champion on +61 2 6249 9215 Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences email [email protected] 87:281–290. Champion D & Blevin P. 2005. Related websites/articles New insights into intrusion- related gold–copper systems in AusGeo News 74 the Tasmanides. Presentation given at Mining 2005, Brisbane, Granite hosts focus of new 26 October. www.ga.gov. minerals project au/minerals/research/pubs/ link presentations/irg_mining2005.jsp Thompson JFH, Sillitoe RH, Baker AusGeo News 79 T, Lang JR & Mortensen JK. 1999. Prospects look good for gold in Intrusion-related gold deposits associated with tungsten–tin north Queensland provinces. Mineralium Deposita link 34:323–334.

Geoscience Australia’s Felsic Igneous Rocks of Australia project link

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Alternative satellite imagery for Australia Geoscience Australia has successfully received a test downlink of satellite images from the China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS‑2) at its Alice Springs ground station. CBERS‑2 provides images with a spatial resolution of approximately 20 metres product news product with repeat coverage every 26 days. This test downlink is part of the contingency planning Geoscience Australia has been undertaking with the local user community and international satellite operators to secure access to alternative sources of data in case of a continuity gap in Landsat data. Geoscience Australia is also evaluating data from the SPOT (Système Pour l’Observation Figure 1. The first image from the China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS-2) acquired by Geoscience Australia on 7 April 2006 de la Terre) satellites and in cooperation with the China Center for Resource Satellite Data and investigating the potential for Applications (CRESDA). The image area is located approximately 100 downlinks of ResourceSat-1 kilometres east of Alice Springs and the swath width is around 100 kilometres (Image centre: S 24:09:20 E 135:36:30). (also known as Indian Remote Sensing Satellite P6). Geoscience Australia’s consultations aim to identify alternative sources of imagery for applications that require access to images spanning a period of time. The Australian Centre for Remote Sensing (ACRES) has been acquiring images from the Landsat series of satellites since 1979. Landsat data have proved invaluable to government and industry for a range of applications including environmental monitoring, agriculture, mapping and emergency management. As the current Landsat satellites age, Australian users have become concerned about the continuing availability of reliable and cost effective satellite imagery. This test downlink also demonstrates the flexibility provided by the multi-satellite capability of Geoscience Australia’s receiving station in Alice Springs. The receiving station can easily be reconfigured to enable quick and easy access to new sources of satellite remote sensing data. More information phone Stuart Barr on +61 2 6249 9131 email [email protected]

Product news 36 product news Product news wider user available additional datasets ‘MapConnect’ is Geoscience and spatialinformation MapConnect: onlinedelivery ofmaps email phone More information Geoscience Data All • • • • The create a download area directly agriculture, including

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