Back on the horse: Recent developments in archaeological and palaeontological research in ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALBERTA OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 36

Calcined bone radiocarbon dates from the mineable region, northeastern Alberta

Robin Woywitkaa* a Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Alberta Culture and Tourism, 8820-112th St. NW, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2P8 *contact: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The majority of radiocarbon dates from archaeological sites in the mineable oil sands region of northeastern Alberta have been obtained from calcined (i.e., cremated) bone samples. A lingering question about these dates has been whether the calcination of the bone samples was the result of burning in prehistoric campfires or naturally occurring forest fires. Literature review shows that forest fires rarely maintain residence times at sufficiently high temperatures to produce calcined bone, whereas campfires often do. This indicates that calcined bones from archaeological contexts are likely the result of human burning, and radiocarbon analyses of these samples are representative of site age. Bone dates from 25 archaeological sites in the mineable oil sands region of northeastern Alberta are compiled and calibrated to calendar ages. Occupations from ca. 8000 cal yr BP to the recent past are evident, with a particular concentration ca. 3000 to 1500 cal yr BP. These results show that calcined bone ages are an important source of chronological information in northern Alberta, and best practices for the collection of samples in the boreal forest are presented.

KEYWORDS calcine, bone, radiocarbon, oil sands, boreal forest, prehistoric, campfire, forest fire

1. Introduction The mineable oil sands region (MOSR) hosts one association with dateable material (Roskowski-Nuttall of the densest concentrations of archaeological sites 2015). The Reeves et al. (in press) culture history has a in the boreal forest region of Alberta. Most of these limited temporal reliability until more dates are recovered sites are characterized by intense utilization of Beaver in association with diagnostic tools. River Sandstone (BRS), a lithic raw material sourced Although this appears to be a somewhat dire situation from the Quarry of the Ancestors and Beaver River for chronological studies, several calcined bone Quarry site complexes on the Athabasca River, roughly assemblages from the region have been radiocarbon 60 kilometres north of Fort McMurray, Alberta dated. These samples hold considerable potential to shed (Figure 1). Millions of artifacts have been recovered light on the timing of human occupation of the area. from sites in the mineable oil sands, and Reeves et al. (in This paper clarifies the reliability of using calcined bone press) have proposed a culture history for the area based ages to date archaeological sites in the boreal forest, on diagnostic tools. Unfortunately, acidic soil conditions reports 33 dates from cultural resource management at most sites contributes to rapid breakdown of organic (CRM) projects, and briefly discusses the dates in an material, limiting opportunities for radiocarbon dating. archaeological and regulatory context. To date, only one projectile point has been recovered in

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Van Strydonck 2009). Calcined bone dating is generally accepted as a reliable technique (Lanting et al. 2001). However, recent work has shown that carbon from fire fuel may contaminate samples (Snoeck et al. 2014). This issue can affect dates obtained from fuels with inbuilt ages such as old wood, coal or peat. Branch wood fires used in human campfires will have minimal effect on ages because the wood will be of similar age to the animal remains being burned (Snoeck et al. 2014).

2.1 Mode of calcination – humans or forest fire? A key question concerning calcined bone found in archaeological sites is whether it was cremated in a natural fire or human induced campfire. Bone calcination requires heating at very high temperatures for extended periods of time. Campfires are known to burn hot enough and long enough to calcine bones (Shipman et al. 1984; David 1990; Stiner et al. 1995). David’s (1990) campfire experiments showed that calcination did not commence until bone was heated for 25 minutes in an 840 degree Celsius fire. Bones exposed to lower temperatures for shorter periods were charred but not calcined (David 1990). While surface temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius occur in forest fires (Bailey and Anderson 1980; David 1990; Figure 1. Location of the mineable oil sands region. Buenger 2003), temperature gradients vary widely through time and space (Baily and Anderson 1980; Alexander 1982; 2. Radiocarbon dating of calcined bone Úbeda et al. 2009). Average temperatures closer to 400 Calcined bone (also referred to as cremated bone or to 500 degrees Celsius are more common in boreal forest bone ash) is created when a bone is heated to very high conditions (Smith and Sparling 1966; Bailey and Anderson temperatures (>600 degrees Celsius according to Lanting 1980; Buenger 2003), with peak temperatures occurring in et al. 2001). At these temperatures, organic bone collagen isolated areas of very heavy fuel load like slash piles (refuse is burned away, and apatite portions of bone recrystallize piles from logging) or underneath burning logs (David into larger, stronger crystals that contain small proportions 1990; Buenger 2003). Residence time at these maximum of carbonate. temperatures is usually brief, ranging from 20 seconds (Buenger 2003) to three minutes (David 1990). This “structural carbonate” (Lanting et al. 2001:249) is related to blood bicarbonate, and is derived largely from These data suggest that, although wildfires may reach the carbohydrates, fats, and excess protein in the animals’ temperatures in excess of 600 degrees Celsius, average diet, making it an ideal material for radiocarbon dating. The temperatures are far lower, and residence time at peak recrystallization also makes calcined bone more resistant temperatures is sporadic and brief. It is unlikely, therefore, to decay, and lessens contamination by dissolved inorganic that wildfire exposure would induce bone calcination. It carbon in ground water. However, charred or incompletely appears safe to concur with David’s conclusion: calcined bone may retain a weaker crystalline structure, …whilst natural conditions will regularly carbonise bones, and can be contaminated by exogenous carbon (Van they will rarely calcine them. When large proportions of the Strydonck et al. 2009). Because of this, bone dates from surface area of a bone are calcined, one can safely infer structural carbon should be derived from bones that have (anthropogenic) prolonged fires under high temperatures been thoroughly calcined, and burned or charred bone dates (David 1990). should be obtained from collagen, if possible. Researchers (de Graaf 1961; Stiner et al. 1995; Bennett Several archaeological studies have cross dated calcined 1999; Aldeias et al. 2016) have observed that buried bone bone ages with charcoal and collagen ages and found good can be altered by anthropogenic surface fires ignited after agreement (cf., Lanting et al. 2001; Naysmith et al. 2007;

2 Woywitka / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 36 (2016) 1-8 deposition. Subsurface thermal alterations in these studies 3. Methods are variable and dependent on sediment matrix and depth Although bone samples were drawn from 15 different (Bennett 1999; Aldeias et al. 2016). Aldeias et al. (2016) projects over five years (2007-2012), one lab performed found that only bones at shallow depth (< 3 cm) were all of the radiocarbon analyses (Beta Analytic, Miami, calcined by surface fires. Unfortunately, it is difficult to Florida, USA). After physically removing any rootlets or determine if thermal alterations were introduced pre-burial other visually identifiable contaminants, Beta Analytic or post-burial, based on bone characteristics alone. It is uses chemical pre-treatments presented in Lanting et al. possible that a shallowly buried, naturally deposited bone (2001): a sodium hypochlorite solution is used to remove could have been heated by a subsequent campfire unrelated organic material, acetic acid is used to remove more to human processing of the bone. Regardless, post- soluble carbonates like calcite and adsorbed carbonates, deposition calcination by campfire indicates that humans as well as the less crystalline components of apatite. The had a role in altering the bone, even though it might have pretreated sample is powdered, and CO2 is produced by been unintentional. In this situation, the calcination will reaction with oversaturated phosphoric acid. The CO2 is post date the death of the animal, and a radiocarbon age then cryogenically trapped in a vacuum extraction system, would give the maximum possible age of the burning event. purified, and converted to graphite, which is then measured Given that most bone samples in the MOSR are recovered by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS; Lanting et al, in association with food-processing artifacts and are usually 2001). AMS ages were calibrated using the OxCal v4.2 buried deeper than 3 centimetres, the dates recovered from software, which references the IntCal13 radiocarbon age calcined bone are most likely representative of direct human calibration curve (Reimer et al. 2013). alteration that occurred around the time of death of the animal. As with all radiocarbon dates, it is imperative that 4. MOSR Bone Dates sample selection is carried out with careful consideration of geological context, ensuring reservoir effects are accounted A total of 34 non-modern bone dates have been reported for and performing pre-treatments to remove contaminate from 25 sites in the MOSR (Table 1; Figure 2). The majority carbon. In the MOSR, where massive deposits dominate, of the dates were obtained from calcined bone (n=28). All it is best to recover bone samples from as small an area as samples were recovered in association with lithic artifacts possible to minimize the likelihood of mixing specimens in buried contexts; therefore, the dates presented here are from different horizontal and vertical components of the assumed to represent intentional processing of animal bone site and, therefore, from different events in time. in campfires. The ages range from 8100 to 539 cal yr BP,

Table 1. Radiocarbon ages from bone samples in the mineable oil sands region.

Site Lab No. Material 13C/12C (o/oo) Conventional One Sigma Permit Reference Radiocarbon Calibrated Age (14C yr BP) Age Range (cal yr BP) HhOu-113 Beta-333309 Calcined bone -23.1 7250±30 8155 to 8011 12-234 Roskowski et al. 2015 HhOu-70 Beta-248279 Calcined bone -15.6 1650±140 1693 to 1561 07-219 Roskowski et al 2008 HhOv-156 Beta-312092 Calcined bone -23.7 3990±30 4514 to 4422 11-167 Roskowski & Netzel 2012 HhOv-16 TO-1439 Soil organics Not reported 1240±60 1262 to 1086 88-032 Head & Van Dyke 1990 HhOv-245 Beta-229413 Calcined bone -24 500±40 542 to 508 06-376 Wickham and Graham 2009 HhOv-256 Beta-239181 Charcoal -25.5 4750±40 5583 to 5336 06-376 Wickham 2010 HhOv-350 Not reported Calcined bone Not reported 2430±40 2679 to 2360 10-093 Bryant et al 2011 HhOv-350 Not reported Calcined bone Not reported 2490±40 2715 to 2493 10-093 Bryant et al 2011 HhOv-351 Beta-295837 Calcined bone -25.5 1910±30 1883 to 1824 10-148 Roskowski & Netzel 2011b HhOv-384 Beta-278392 Calcined bone -24.2 2750±40 2875 to 2785 10-093 Bryant et al 2011 HhOv-384 Beta-248280 Calcined bone -21.7 2930±40 3156 to 3005 07-280 Woywitka & Younie 2008 HhOv-387 Beta-278392 Calcined bone -26.1 1860±40 1862 to 1735 10-093 Bryant et al 2011 HhOv-387 Beta-248281 Calcined bone -22.2 1900±40 1898 to 1745 07-280 Woywitka & Younie 2008 HhOv-449 Beta-229415 Charcoal -26.7 680±40 675 to 565 06-376 Wickham 2010 HhOv-506 Beta-312095 Calcined bone -24.4 2870±30 3059 to 2952 11-070 Roskowski & Netzel 2015

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Table 1. (continued)

Site Lab No. Material 13C/12C (o/oo) Conventional One Sigma Permit Reference Radiocarbon Calibrated Age (14C yr BP) Age Range (cal yr BP) HhOv-506 Beta-312096 Bone collagen -20.4 550±30 625 to 530 11-070 Roskowski & Netzel 2015 HhOv-508 Beta-298152 Calcined bone -24.8 5660±40 6486 to 6405 11-070 Roskowski & Netzel 2015 HhOv-520 Beta-312098 Calcined bone -24.4 5260±40 6174 to 5941 11-167 Roskowski & Netzel 2012 HhOv-528 Beta-340825 Calcined bone -25.9 1070±30 1045 to 934 12-085 Turney 2014 HhOv-528 Beta-340826 Calcined bone -26.2 1080±30 1050 to 955 12-085 Turney 2014 HhOv-528 Beta-340827 Calcined bone -26.2 1080±30 1050 to 955 12-085 Turney 2014 HhOv-528 Beta-340830 Charred material -24.6 570±30 631 to 539 12-085 Turney 2014 HhOv-528 Beta-340828 Calcined bone -23.1 6090±40 7005 to 6891 12-085 Turney 2014 HhOv-528 Beta-340829 Bone collagen -22.1 1260±30 1260 to 1170 12-085 Turney 2014 HhOv-73 Beta-7839 Charcoal (bulk) Not reported 1340±40 4808 to 4237 83-053 LeBlanc & Ives 1986 HhOv-87 Beta-277702 Calcined bone -25.8 2020±40 2041 to 1927 09-168 Roskowski & Netzel 2011a HhOw-20 Beta-244942 Calcined bone -23 1670±40 1616 to 1532 07-393 Youell et al. 2009 HhOw-45 Beta-255737 Calcined bone -23.3 2320±40 2362 to 2211 08-208 Boland et al. 2009 HhOw-46 Beta-255739 Calcined bone -25 1980±40 1986 to 1890 08-208 Boland et al. 2009 HhOx-18 Beta-255742 Calcined bone -22.4 2080±40 2112 to 1998 08-166 Kjorlein et al. 2009 HiOv-46 Beta-258073 Calcined bone -23.1 2270±40 2345 to 2183 08-163 Woywitka et al. 2009 HiOv-70 Beta-258075 Calcined bone -23 1710±40 1708 to 1401 08-163 Woywitka et al. 2009 HkOv-100 Beta-337912 Calcined bone -25.6 2000±30 1989 to1904 12-157 Foster 2013 HkOv-92 Beta-337911 Calcined bone -20.9 1100±30 1053 to 966 12-157 Foster 2013

Figure 2. Radiocarbon date calibration curve plot of MOSR bone samples.

4 Woywitka / Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 36 (2016) 1-8 with a cluster of 15 dates in the period between 3500 and around 3000 cal yr BP, with repeated occupations around 1500 cal yr BP. 500 yr BP, and again during the past 200 years (Figure 3). Of the five sites that yielded multiple dates, only HhOv-528 has a wider gap between dated occupations, HhOv-506 and HhOv-528 had ages that did not overlap, with the first occurring around 7000 cal yr BP, and the next indicating that multiple occupations have been preserved at 1000 cal yr BP. A third occupation centred around 500 yr BP these two sites (Figure 3). HhOv-506 was been occupied slightly overlaps this second occupation (Figure 4). at least three times: the oldest dated occupation occurs

Figure 3. Radiocarbon dates from sites with multiple occupations.

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Only one date was associated with a diagnostic tool. A been avoided or reported if they had been used. This is a side-notched point from HhOu-113 with morphological shaky assumption; it is important that future reporting fully similarity to early Beaver River Complex specimens describe radiocarbon sample collection methods. Reports classified by Reeves et al. (in press) was found in association should include detailed descriptions and mapping of the with a small calcined bone feature that yielded a date of 8160 horizontal and vertical distribution of the samples collected, to 8090 cal yr BP (Roskowski-Nuttall 2015; Beta-333309; and provide clear representation of the depositional context Table 1). This currently represents the only diagnostic tool through sediment description, photographs, and profile recovered in association with datable material in the MOSR. drawings. A single fragment should be used for dating if possible (must weigh a minimum of 1 to 4 grams). Multiple fragments should be used only if the samples come from 5. Discussion and conclusion a discrete feature or concentration that is unlikely to have A review of calcined bone dates from the MOSR region been mixed by post-depositional processes. Samples from shows that the area was occupied from the early Holocene clearly separated horizontal or vertical components of a site through to the present (Figure 2), and that at least two sites should never be dated together. have two separate dated components. The association of a Calcined bone radiocarbon ages have proven an important ca. 8000 cal yr BP age with a Beaver River Complex side- chronological tool in the MOSR. This usefulness should notched point provides the first dated test of Reeves et al. (in extend throughout the boreal forest, where it is notoriously press) typological chronology (Roskowski-Nuttall 2015). difficult to obtain ages for archaeological sites. As more The age pre-dates the 7500 cal yr BP onset of the Beaver samples are collected, and more dates are returned, a more River Complex proposed by Reeves et al. (in press), but this concise chronological framework will emerge for the still represents good agreement with the typology estimate. northern part of the Province. The cluster of ages between 3500 and 1500 cal yr BP is interesting, as is the lack of dates prior to 3500 cal yr BP. The latter may be due to preservation issues, with older bone 6. References more likely to have fully decayed. However, the drop in the Aldeias, V., H. L. Dibble, D. Sandgathe, P. Goldberg, and S. J. P. number of dates before 3500 cal yr BP is quite abrupt and McPherron. 2016. How heat alters underlying deposits and may be indicative of other preservation or cultural factors. implications for archaeological fire features: A controlled The drop off in ages post-1500 cal yr BP is not readily experiment. 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