PROCEEDINGS

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON COASTAL AND INLAND WATER SYSTEMS, CIS 2019 At Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika

Organised by

Forum for River and Ocean Scientists and Technologists, FROST

Indian Institute of Technology, IIT Bhubaneswar

Chilika Development Authority, CDA

16 and 17 December 2019

PREFACE

The International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems, CIS 2019, has received a large number of papers which include five invited papers, a number of professional technical papers and some student papers. These have been divided into seven theme based presentations in the conference. The papers have been sequenced more or less as received. Only the invited papers have been clubbed together. Further, the papers have gone through an editing process to the extent possible given time constraints. One of our invited speakers is Dr. Rao Y. Surampalli, currently editor-in-Chief of the ASCE Journal of Hazardous and Toxic Waste, and Nanotechnology for Environmental Engineering (a Springer Journal), on the editorial board of number of journals, is the President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability and is Distinguished/Honorary Visiting Professor in seven universities across the world. We have been fortunate to have him with us during the conference. Shri B. N. Prasad, another invited foreign speaker is the executive director of IS Container Pte. Ltd., Singapore. A marine engineer by degree he is an operational man handling all kinds of maritime jobs successfully. We are grateful that he agreed to come and talk to us during the conference. Shri DG Sarangdhar, a Director of Seatech Ltd. Singapore, is a researcher well known in India where he led the research team at IRS, Mumbai for a long time before he moved to Singapore to try his skills in maritime design where he excelled as well. The two other Indian invited speakers, Professor O. P. Sha from IIT Kharagpur and Dr Purnima Jalihal from NIOT, Chennai, are well known as researchers and developers in inland and costal water fields and really need no introduction. It is not possible to introduce all other authors who are from diverse fields and most of them are very well known without needing any introduction. There are some papers from Ph D scholars and a few from undergraduate students. This gives a completely different flavor to the proceedings. The entire executive committee of FROST has worked for collection of papers, editing them and making arrangements for publishing them in the form of this Proceedings. We thank ourselves for doing a well done job. We also thank Jyoti Printers who have been able to format the Proceedings properly and taken out the print copy well in time to distribute it to the delegates.I hope the readers will enjoy reading the Proceedings.

Dr P. Misra Professor S. C. Misra Chairman, Organising Committee President CIS 2019 FROST Content

1. Novel anitifouling paints and paint schemes for Coastal Vessels 1-8 Madhu Joshi, Tejinder P. Bhamra, S.C. Misra and U.S. Ramesh 2. Coastal hazards associated with tropical cyclones in a changing climate 9-17 over the North Indian ocean region Prasad K. Bhaskaran 3. Battery powered FRP hull 60 paxelectric vehicle for riverine transportation 18-22 N R Mandal 4. Inland Waterway Transport Development in Assam — Long Term Strategy 23-33 R. M. Das 5. Effect of non-sinusoidal pitching profiles on the propulsive performance of 34-39 an oscillating foil B. Ashok and R.N. Govardhan 6. Application of Artificial Neural Network in Siltation Studies 40-47 Dhanya S. and H. V. Warrior 7. A Geostatistical approach for contour mapping and spatial variability of 48-55 groundwater in and around Rourkela, Odisha, India Rabindranath Barik and Sanjaya Kumar Pattanayak 8. Study on the vulnerability of indian water resources from the 56-60 aspect of climatic uncertainity Sneha P S, Amaljith Sivan, Chippy Lucy and Ashlin Joy 9. Characteristics and Variability of Sea State in Gulf of Mannar- 61-67 an Analysis Using Moored Buoy Observations and Model Results K.N. Navaneeth, K. Jossia Joseph, M. Kalyani, Reddy Janakiram and R. Venkatesan 10. Assessment of Environmental Flow in a Humid Tropical Basin using 68-74 Hydrological Methods Alka Abraham and Subrahmanya Kundapura 11. High speed coastal patrol vessel cum emergency flood rescue vehicle 75-82 Bharath Murali, Adityan A. K. and Rishikesh U. 12. Smart Jetty 83-89 Prayag Raviprakash, Syam Sreedhar K.N and Dr. K. Sivaprasad 13. Stabilization and ship motion simulation using wi-fi enabled autonomous ship model 90-104 Prof. V. Anantha Subramanian, Awanish Chandra Dubey and Naga Venkata Rakesh N. 14. Resurrection of the geo-chemical morphology of River Gangua towards its 105-111 restoration as a River for Tourism and Flood Control Sri J K Rath and Dr P Misra 15. Kochi water metro – a paradigm in inter modal connectivity 112-119 P.J. Shahi, Joe Paul and Nishanth N 16. Advanced Radars and 5G Technology in coastal surveillance 120-126 Cdt Nishant Gurjar and Cdt Rishikesh U 17. Biomimetic Propulsion Systems and their Applications to Marine Vehicles 127-134 Anties K Martin, P. Krishnankutty and Naga Praveen Babu M 18. Nano Fuel Additives: An innovative technology for Ship Emission reduction 135-142 D. Rajasekhar, D. Narendra Kumar, P.S. Deepaksankar and Anantha Krishna Rao 19. Study of Efficiency, Performance and Reliability of ORV Sagar Nidhi 143-148 using Genetic Algorithm D. Rajasekhar, D. Narendra kumar, P. S. Deepaksankar and Anantha Krishna Rao 20. Projection of wave climate into the future due to Climate change 149-152 R.S. Bhavithra and S.A. Sannasiraj 21. Review of Coastal Surveillance requirements and possible solutions 153-158 from the security perspective Jojish Joseph V and Ajith Kumar K 22. Paradigm Shifts Essential for Restoring Water Healthin India 159-169 N. Ramaiah 23. The impact of seasonal and spatial changes in the lagoonal water 170-175 characteristics on the benthic foraminifera Sushree Sova Barik and Raj K. Singh 24. Capacity and manoueuvering of Inland Vessels in Riverine Waterways 176-184 Inderveer Solanji 25. Reduction of carbon footprint and operating costs of vessels operating 185-192 in inland waterways by reducing frictional resistance Lieutenant Commander Paul S Moses 26. 3-D Marine Weather Forecast Dissemination System – PANORAMA 193-198 Commodore Manoj Kumar Singh 27. Assessment of impacts of climate change on streamflow using HEC-HMS: Case study of Kesinga watershed, Odisha 199-207 Srinivasan D., Altafuddin, Md., Ramadas, M. and Panda, R. K. 28. Autonomous Underwater Gliders - A Brief Review of Development and Design and a Proposed Model for Virtual Mooring 208-215 Mukesh Guggilla and R Vijayakumar 29. INLAND VESSEL DESIGN FOR HYDRODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY 216-224 DS Praveen, Mohammed Ashiqu, O P Sha and Bijit Sarkar 30. Water Stress – Can Oceans Provide a Solution? 225-232 Purnima Jalihal 31. ECO-Ships & System: Future of Shipping 233-247 Bodh Nath Prasad 32. Exciting Options for Ships for Operation on Indian Coast and Rivers 248-255 Dilip Sarangdhar and Kandha Mantry 33. Climate change: Impacts, Mitigation and Adaptation 256 Dr. Rao Y. Surampalli, Dr. Tian C. Zhang and Dr. Puspendu Bhunia International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/1 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

NOVEL ANITIFOULING PAINTS AND PAINT SCHEMES FOR COASTAL VESSELS

Madhu Joshi Aditya Mukherjee S.C. Misra U.S. Ramesh Tejinder P. Bhamra Gayatri Vidya Parishad FROST, Bhubaneswar Indian Maritime University Anglo-Eastern Maritime College of Engineering (A), (Visakhapatnam campus), Academy, Karjat, Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam Maharashtra [email protected]

ABSTRACT The major issues in coastal environments include eutrophication, habitat modification, hydrologic and hydrodynamic disruptions, and exploitation of resources, toxic effects and the introduction of non indigenous species. Shipping, both coastal and international are primarily responsible for the introduction of non-native species and partially responsible for toxic effects in coastal waters. Shipping is the primary vector for the introduction of non-indigenous or non-native species which is now a very serious environmental concern. The Ballast Water Management Convention, adopted by IMO in 2004, aims to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms from one region to another, by establishing standards and procedures for the management and control of ships’ ballast water and sediments. The BWM Convention entered into force on 8 September 2017. It was previously thought that ballast water was mainly responsible for this effect; however recent studies have shown that hull fouling is a major factor. Virtually all vessels are coated with “self-polishing” anti-fouling paints to prevent fouling on ships hulls. These coatings not only introduce large quantities of biocides that are toxic to non-target organisms, but also that the antifouling painting schemes, currently in vogue, lead to premature depletion of anti-fouling film in certain niche areas. The breakdown of antifouling protection in these areas, leads to the attachment of various marine organisms and act as a vector for the transmigration of invasive species. The use of natural biocides such as Neem and Karanjin extracts have shown promising anti-fouling properties and due to their low persistence in the aquatic environment are less toxic to non-target marine organisms. Further, optimizing the antifouling painting schemes to prevent premature failure of antifouling protection could drastically reduce the propogule pressure for the transmigration of invasive species. A methodology has been developed by first conducting a CFD analysis of wall shear stresses on the vessels hull to identify areas of high risk of antifouling coating failure, followed by an experimental procedure using a “Drum-Test” apparatus has been developed to optimize antifouling painting schemes to reduce the risk of transmigration of Invasive species. KEYWORDS: Non-indigenous species, Ballast Water Management Convention, Hull fouling, Self-polishing paints, Natural biocides

1. INTRODUCTION The major issues in coastal environments include eutrophication, habitat modification, hydrologic and hydrodynamic disruptions, exploitation of resources, toxic effects and the introduction of non indigenous species. Shipping is the primary vector for the introduction of non-indigenous or non-native species which is now a very serious environmental concern [3].

| 1 | The Ballast Water Management Convention, adopted by IMO in 2004, aims to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms from one region to another, by establishing standards and procedures for the management and control of ships’ ballast water and sediments. The BWM Convention entered into force on 8 September 2017 since it required ratification from minimum 30 states, representing 35% of World Tonnage to bind member states under the convention. As of February 2018, 65% of World Tonnage has ratified the convention and India is still in the ratification process. Ballast Water Management Plan of ship and Ballast Water record book will be similar to maintaining the mandatory Oil Record Book. “Each operation of Ballasting and De-Ballasting has to be recorded in Ballast Water record book and signed by Duty Officer and Master. The scrutiny has been tightened, so it is necessary that all information mentioned is true” and vessel is following the guidelines as per BWM Convention. The Ballast water convention has various sections but section D contains details regarding Standards of BWM (D1 and D2 Standards). “D2 standard for treatment is mandatory for new vessels and for the existing ships that are performing D1 Standards of treatment, the treatment method to be used in future for which the timeline is coupled with that of IOPPC renewal survey. Ultimately, all ships will have to meet the D2 standards from September 2024.” The Ballast Water Treatment Methods involved popular Disinfection technologies like Filtration - UV and Chlorination or Electro Chlorination. The first step in treatment is the Physical Separation, where in the water passes through a fine filter of mesh size 40-50 microns, reducing the organic load of the ballast intake. Next step is the Disinfection which requires Physical or Chemical treatment. The chemical treatment (Chlorination) kills organism instantly whereas the physical treatment such as UV is making the organism non-viable (slow killing). The chemical treatment also has residual effect so while deballasting the water require neutralization also using sodium thiosulphate. Most of the BWTS plants use a fine filter of size 50 Microns or lower in the primary separation process followed by the Disinfection unit. The IMO D2 regulation broadly classifies the organisms as above 50 µ, between 10-50 µ and below 10 µ. Installation of the filter removes all organisms above 50 µ and the disinfection of below 50µ is only required to be carried out. This reduces the Power (UV) or usage (Chlorination) of the disinfection unit. The filters get choked in challenging muddy waters within short span of operation during Ballasting. Once all the ships start using the D2 standard and have to carry treated ballast on board then it will help in reduction of non-indigenous species in coastal water. Virtually all vessels are coated with “self-polishing” anti-fouling paints to prevent fouling on ships hulls. These coatings not only introduce large quantities of biocides that are toxic to non-target organisms, but also that the antifouling painting schemes, currently in vogue, lead to premature depletion of anti- fouling paint film in certain niche areas. The breakdown of antifouling protection in these areas, leads to the attachment of various marine organisms on ships hulls and act as a vector for the transmigration of invasive species. The use of natural biocides such as Neem and Karanjin extracts have shown promising anti-fouling properties and due to their low persistence in the aquatic environment are less toxic to non- target marine organisms. Further, optimizing the antifouling painting schemes to prevent premature failure of antifouling protection could drastically reduce the propogule pressure for the transmigration of invasive species. 2. ANTIFOULING PAINTS The commercial shipping industry primarily uses Self-polishing copolymer (SPC) paints as anti- fouling coatings. These paints were introduced in the mid-1970s and in this class of paints the biocide is chemically bonded to a copolymer. The leaching rate of the biocide is highly controlled due to the fact that

| 2 | biocide is released when sea water reacts with the surface layer of the paint [1]. The SPC paints allow the application of thicker coatings with the biocide chemically bonded throughout the coating. This results in the slow and uniform release of biocides to the surface. The biocide release for these coatings is only a few millimeters deep and the spent layer is slowly eroded away and a new active layer develops. The popularity of these Antifouling (AF) coatings was primarily due to a controlled chemical dissolution of the paint film capable of long dry-dock intervals typically between five to seven years predictable polishing enabling tailor-made specifications by vessel/operation thin leached layers making it easy to clean and recoat good weather ability quick drying and extremely good value for money . 2.1 Antifouling Biocides l The ban of environmentally harmful synthetic antifouling paints, e.g, Tributyltin (TBT))-based paint products have been the cause of a major change in the antifouling paint industry. In the past decade, several Tin-free and Zinc-free products have reached the commercial market and claimed their effectiveness as regards the prevention of marine biofouling on ships in an environment friendly manner. Copper is now the most popular primary biocide. In addition to the primary biocide, booster biocides are incorporated in to anti fouling paint formulations to enhance performance. The booster biocides include commercial formulations such as Irgarol, Diuron, Copper and Zinc pyrethione, Chlorothalonil, etc. However there are concerns that even these tin-free antifouling compositions cause toxic substances to be introduced as well as persistence in the aquatic column. Therefore the challenge is to use biocides that quickly degrade in to non toxic components in the marine environment. 2.2 Natural Product Antifouling Agents (NPA) Plant extracts are perhaps the earliest agricultural biopesticides, as history records that nicotine was used to control plum Beetles as early as 17th century. For defending epibiosis (relationship between one organism growing over another but is not parasitic), marine organisms exhibit variety of defences such as growth of spines, mucus production, surface sloughing and production of secondary metabolites. Some marine organisms such as corals, algae, sponges, and ascidians produces antifouling substances which in nature maintain them free from undesirable encrusting organisms. However, production of these NPA from marine organisms on a large scale is a big challenge for the antifouling technology because most of these metabolites which has been extracted from delicate and slow growing marine organisms such as corals, sponges and other invertebrates which cannot be harvested on a commercial scale without environmental harm [10]. Hence search of NPA had to be made from more sustainable sources such as abundant and easy collectable terrestrial plants. A wide array of terrestrial plants possessing several natural compounds such as terpenes, acetylenes, polycyclic compounds, steroids, phenols, isothiocyanates, nitrogen containing compounds, glycerol derivatives, higher fatty acids and enzymes is reported that are perhaps suitable as antifouling agents [10]. Various NPA have been tested for their potential in industrial applications including halogenated furanones and triterpinoids. In tune with these developments, some secondary metabolites from terrestrial plants could be promising antifoulant candidates [10]. 2.3 Potential Natural Biocdes Two of the most commonly available traditional natural biocides in India, Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) and Azadirachta indica (Neem) have shown good antifouling properties and are discussed below. Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) seed oil Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) is from family Leguminasae, native in tropical and temperate Asia including part of India. China, Japan, Malaysia, Australia [4]. It has been found to be one of the most suitable species due to its hardy nature, high oil recovery and quality of oil [4]. Literature survey has shown that Pongamia pinnata is a medicinal as well as insecticidal plant. In the traditional system of medicines such as Ayurveda

| 3 | and Unani, Pongamia pinnata plant has been used for anti-inflammatory, anti-plasmodial, anti- hyperglycaemic, anti-lipid peroxidative, antidiarrhoeal and anti-oxidant activity [10]. Karanjin is the principal furano- flavonoid constituent of Pongamia pinnata. It is a bioactive molecule with important biological attributes [7]. Flavonoids have been reported to exert wide range of biological activities which includes antibacterial, antiviral etc. [7]. Antibacterial activity of this oil was demonstrated against Bacillus, E.Coli, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, Staphylococcus and Xanthomonas. These factors made the extract of Pongamia pinnata an ideal candidate to test for toxicity against barnacle larvae. Azadirachta indica (Neem) seed oil Azadirachta indica (Neem) of the family Meliaceae is native to India and found throughout the Indian subcontinent. It is also widely distributed in South-East Asia and some other tropical areas. Almost all parts of the plant offer tremendous potential for medicinal, agricultural and industrial applications. It has been used in traditional medicine for household remedies against various human diseases [6]. Products of Azadirachta indica have a wide variety of uses including the provision of medicines, pesticides, fuel wood, timber and food. More than 135 compounds have been isolated from different parts of the plant and their chemistry, and structural diversity is reported in literature [5,6]. Among the isolated compounds, Azadirachtin is found to be one of principle active constituent of Azadirachta indica. Azadirachtin has low toxicity against non-target organisms and low persistence in the environment, both of which are desirable characteristics for a biocide. Toxicity Analysis Toxicity analysis of extracts of Karanjin and Azadirachtin were conducted on barnacle lava. The extraction procedure of Karanjin and azadirachtin is given by Joshi [4]. Barnacles from rocks (Balanus amphitrite) along Maharashtra coast were collected and brought to laboratory and cleaned off debris thoroughly. Balanus amphitrite is a species of acorn barnacle in the balanidae family. Bioassay was performed against barnacle larvae. Here, adult barnacles of more than 10 mm size were collected from natural substratum like rocks, bamboo poles, wooden rafts, PVC objects etc. which at times found in the coastal sea waters . Only healthy barnacles were collected and brought to the laboratory and cleaned properly with the help of a brush and put in culture tank. If not cleaned, the obnoxious substances associated with the animals or other epiphytic organisms grown on them might have created water pollution in the test culture tank resulting in high adult mortality and break down the continuous culture system. Adult barnacles were reared in controlled conditions in glass culture tanks (aquaria) at 22-25oC under continuous aeration and fed on a substitute diet which consist of brine shrimp at the rate of about 300 brine shrimp/individual per day. Barnacles are capable of reproduction when they attend the body size of 7-8mm. In this controlled condition; adult barnacles can release nauplius larvae at 22-25oC in laboratory conditions. Each individual is capable of releasing about 3000 nauplius larvae in one day. (Source: Laboratory manual on methodology for the barnacle, Balanus Amphitrite. Larval settlement bioassay for fouling studies, Marine department, Portblair). After over night (12 h) desiccation, the barnacles were kept in filtered (0.2µm) seawater to allow release of nauplii and were used for bioassay. Laboratory bioassays were conducted in triplicate against nauplii using glass cavity dishes. Extracts of 10, 20, 50 and 100 µg/ml concentration was transferred to cavity dishes and the solvent was evaporated to get the concentrate. Then 0.5 ml of seawater containing 8-10 larvae was added to each cavity through a micropipette, the volume was made up to 1 ml by the addition of 0.5 ml of sterile seawater and larval activity was observed at intervals of 2 and 4 hours. Along with these experimental cavities, relevant controls (Copper Sulphate) as positive control and seawater as normal control in duplicate were also maintained. The effect of bioactives at each concentration on the activity of the nauplii was monitored through visual observation, under stereomicroscope. The effect of bioactive compound, on the larvae was assessed in terms of larval ability recognized as active, mild, morbid or dead on the prick of a micro needle. Bioassay studies against Barnacle larvae after 2, 4 & 24 hrs of exposure is shown in Table 1 Table 1. Bioassay studies against Barnacle larvae after 2, 4 & 24 hrs of exposure | 4 | Sl. Treatment Extractive Larval motility inhibition(% larvae)/physiological No. concentration condition after µg.ml-1 2hrs 4hrs 24hrs 1 Control sea water 0+0, Active 0+0, Active Active 2 Copper sulphate 25 100 + 0, Mild 100 + 0, Dead - (Control) 50 100 + 0, Morbid 100 + 0, Dead - 100 100 + 0, Dead 100 + 0, Dead - 3 Neem bioactive 0.1 100 % Active 100 % Active 34.26 + 6.99 % (Azadirachtin) Slow 0.5 100 % Active 100 % Active 64.78 + 3.95% Highly inactive 1.0 100 % Active 100 % Active 81.24 + 8.23% Highly inactive 5.0 100 % Active 100 % Morbid 100 % Dead 10 100+0, mild 100 + 0, Dead 100 % Dead 20 100 + 0, morbid 100 + 0, Dead 100 + 0, Dead 50 100 + 0, Dead 100 + 0, Dead 100 100 +0, Inactive 100 + 0, Dead 100 + 0, Dead 4 Karanj bioactive 10 0+0 , Active 0+0 , Active NA (Karanjin) 20 6.2 + 2.8, Mild 29.2 + 5.4 ,Mild NA 50 29.5 + 6, Mild 57.3 + 23.9, Mild NA 100 74.4+ 21.4 , Mild 85 + 25.9, Dead NA Note: Volume of water/dish is 1.5 ml

The results show that Neem extract, Azadirachtin, has acute toxicity against barnacle larvae and Neem extract shows better results than Karanj extract, Karanjin, which also showed positive results against barnacle larvae. The results of Neem toxicity agrees with what was previously reported about Neem oil toxicity against L. Fortunei [6]. Ethanol and Methanol extracts of Neem reduces bacterial pathogens and infection in marine ornamental fishes [4]. Neem has been used successfully in aquaculture systems to control fish predators [4]. Aqueous extract of Neem leaves and other Neem-based products have been extensively used in fish-farms as alternative for the control of fish parasites and fish fry predators such as dragon-fly larvae [4]. Karanj oil has been used indigenously with Chandrus (a plant resin from members of the family Dipterocarpaceae) and lime in wooden boats to protect against termites. Toxicity of karanjin has been found to show positive results against barnacle larvae. 3. ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY PAINTING SCHEMES To control fouling, most ocean going vessels use antifouling coatings and self polishing coatings (SPC) are the most popular antifouling protection in the shipping industry. The extent of polishing action in SPC paints depend primarily on the hydrodynamic forces at the paint-seawater interface. The higher the hydrodynamic forces the higher are the polishing rates. Conversely lower hydrodynamic forces at the paint-seawater interface imply lower polishing rates. This implies that at locations where the hydrodynamic forces are high the polishing rates would be high and this could result in premature depletion of the

| 5 | antifouling coating. Also when the hydrodynamic forces are very low such as a ship standing in port waters low polishing action would result and this would lead to insufficient biocide release at the paint-water interface [8]. In both the preceding scenarios the paint film does not offer antifouling protection. In the first case only when the paint is depleted (which takes some time) fouling takes place whereas in the second case fouling takes place almost immediately. The current practice of application of antifouling coating is that a uniform coating of a specified pre-calculated thickness is applied on the underwater hull of the vessel taking in to account the average speed of the vessel its trading routes length of stay in port etc. However shipbuilders/ owners etc do not account for the fact that there are non-uniform polishing rates along the vessels hull in certain niche areas in the proximity of bow thrusters sea chest stern tube rudder shoulder water line etc that are prone to premature fouling [8]. These areas are less than five percent of the total underwater area of the vessel and therefore have negligible effect as far as the operational parameters of the vessel are concerned . Although depletion of paints initiates corrosion a far more serious concern is that they are the primary transmigration of invasive species [3]. Now days some paint manufactures have started suggesting variable paint thickness across the hull surface the reasons for which are unknown. Invasive species also called as alien species or non-native species are introduced in the marine environment by human activities threatens biological diversity and ecological integrity worldwide. They can cause irreversible reduction in biodiversity by preying on or by competing or causing or carrying diseases or altering habitats of native species and threaten biodiversity by predation or competition. They can also cause serious economic and ecological damage. Some can damage shorelines man-made marine structures equipment and vessels. The UNEP has declared that the invasive species are the most serious environmental issue only next to habitat loss. Many studies show that hull fouling is the primary vector for invasive species. Even the best maintained vessels are fouled to the extent of at least three percent of the hull area and are more than sufficient to cause the transmigration of alien species [3]. 3.1 Analysis of hydrodynamic forces at fluid-hull interfaces Mukherjee [8] conducted an analysis of hydrodynamic forces at the fluid hull interfaces of two types of vessels. Typical results are shown in figures 1 and 2. It is observed that the hydrodynamic forces on the vessels hull vary along the hull. They also reported that these forces depend on the hull shape, speed of the vessel, as well as its draft.

Fig. 1. Wall shear stresses of a tanker at a draft of 12m and Fig. 2. Wall shear stresses of a 100 passenger vessel at a speed of 6 m/s (blue indicates regions of high shear draft of 3m and speed of 3 m/s (blue indicates regions stress and yellow the lowest shear stress). From of highest shear stress and orange that of lowest shear Mukherjee et. al., 2019 stress.

Additionally, they reported that higher shear stresses (which could imply) higher paint polishing rates are only underwater and the boot top region is not a critical area for AF paint depletion. It can also reported that stresses are high at areas of sharp curvature of the hull surface such as bilges and shoulders

| 6 | where wall shear stress is also high. Speed was also a primary parameter in determining wall shear stress. In case a full form ship like a tanker the regions of high shear stress can be identified as regions of large curvature which are very pronounced along the bilges and forward and aft shoulders and this happens at comparatively low speed or at low Froude number. But in case of a fine form ship like a passenger vessel the regions of sharp curvature are less with comparatively low shear stress at similar speeds (i.e. same Froude number) but shear stresses increase sharply with increase in speed or Froude number and this increase is spread over large area of the hull surface. 3.2 Identification of niche areas of fouling The issue of invasive species can therefore be best addressed if fouling is further reduced or completely eliminated particularly in the niche areas of the vessel. This could be best accomplished if these areas are accurately identified and appropriate paint schemes are applied at these regions. To locate these niche areas hydrodynamic forces at the paint-water interface are to be first analyzed. Mukherjee [8], compared the results of the CFD analysis, observed a fairly good correlation between regions of high wall shear stresses and fouling and is a likely indication that high wall shear stress results in the premature wearing of the AF protection this ultimately leads to fouling. Therefore in order to significantly minimize fouling antifouling (AF) painting schemes must take into account the uneven hydrodynamic forces at the water-hull interface. In other words if a CFD analysis is first conducted to identify areas of high wall shear stress and correlation between wall shear stress at all locations on the vessels hull with rate of antifouling paint depletion is known then the appropriate AF scheme could be applied. 3.3 Determination of antifouling paint thickness To obtain such a correlation between wall shear stress, the rate of paint depletion must be determined experimentally. Ideally flow past a body to study the paint deterioration should have been simulated in an experimental set up by moving a flat plate or moving water around a stationary flat plate. However such an experiment would require a towing tank or a water tunnel [9]. Here the flow would be linear as in case of a ship. More importantly, any paint flow test is normally carried out over a long period of time and the experimental facility has to be occupied for this test only. However, the Drum- test apparatus developed by Mukherjee [8], is an easy to use, low cost facility where the flow is turbulent and largely tangential to the drum and at any point it is linear without any circulation or vortex generation though there could be some curvature effects. This drum test apparatus essentially consists of two concentric cylinders. The inner cylinder which is 250 mm in diameter rotates about a vertical shaft that is connected to a variable speed motor. The outer cylinder is 600mm in diameter and is stationary. The gap within the inner and outer cylinders is filled with sea water. Plates coated with various antifouling paints are affixed on the inner cylinder and the inner cylinder is rotated at a known fixed speed for a predetermined time. A total of six such plates can be attached to the central drum. The paint film thickness can be measured after regular intervals using an ultrasonic paint film thickness gauge. The shear stresses can be estimated either by incorporating a torque meter attached to the spindle or by CFD techniques. Thus a correlation between wall thickness and paint depletion can be obtained using this technique. Once such a correlation is obtained the appropriate paint film thicknesses that would not lose its integrity for the full dry-dock period could be estimated. 4. CONCLUSIONS Natural Product antifouling agents (NPA) are a potential alternative to synthetic biocides as their persistence in the aquatic environment is small. Extracts of Neem and Karanjin are two such NPA’s which have demonstrated their ability to cause mortality in barnacle lava and therefore are promising agents to be incorporated in to antifouling paint schemes. However, more work is to done on their long term stability when incorporated in AF formulations followed by field tests. Optimizing antifouling paint schemes to cater to uneven hydrodynamic forces in the seawater-hull interface would ensure the integrity of the AF protection throughout the entire dry-dock cycle of the

| 7 | vessel and would go a long way in reducing the propogule pressure for the transmigration of invasive species. Therefore along with the utilization of NPA’s and optimization of AF paint schemes would lead to sustainable practices that would lead to a signification reduction in the adverse environmental effects caused by the shipping industry.

References Almeida, E., Diamantino, T.C., Sousa, O. Marine Paints: the Particular Case of Antifouling Paints Progress in Organic Coatings, vol 59. pp. 2–20 (2007) Dunkel FV and Richards DC. Effect of an Azadirachtin Formulation on Six Non target Aquatic Macroinvertebrates. Environ. Entomol., 28: 667-674 (1998) Gollasch S. The importance of ship hull fouling as a vector of species introductions into the North Sea. Biofouling. Vol. 18, p. 105-121(2002) Joshi, M. Environmentally friendly antifouling painting system, PhD Thesis, Indian Maritime University (2017) Kausik B; Chattopadhyay I; Banerjee RK and Bandyopadhyay U. Biological activities and medicinal properties of Neem (Azadirachta indica). Current Science 82(11): 1336-1345 (2002) Koul O; Isman MB and Ketka CM. Properties and Uses of Neem, Azadirachta indica. Can. J Botany, 68: 1– 11 (1990) Kumar S and Pandey AK. Chemistry and Biological Activities of Flavonoids: An Overview. The Scientific World Journal Volume 2013 (2013) Mukherjee, A., Joshi M., Misra S.C., Ramesh U.S. Antifouling paint schemes for green SHIPS, Ocean Engineering, 173, 227-234 (2019) Politis, G., Atlar, M., Williams, D. A state-of-the-art facility for the determination of polishing rate of SPC coatings. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advanced Model Measurement Technology for the Maritime Industry (AMT’11). Newcastle upon Tyne, UK (2011) Rittschoff, D. Natural product antifoulants and coatings development. In: Mc Clintock, J.B., Baker, B.J. (Eds.), Marine Chemical Ecology.CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp.543-566 (2001)

| 8 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/2 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

COASTAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH TROPICAL CYCLONES IN A CHANGING CLIMATE OVER THE NORTH INDIAN OCEAN REGION

Prasad K. Bhaskaran Department of Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur-721 302, India *Email: [email protected], [email protected] Tel: +91-3222-283772, Fax: +91-3222-255303

ABSTRACT Tropical cyclones are one among the natural hazards that create havoc and loss of life and property during landfall in the North Indian Ocean region. Recent research shows clear evidence on increased intensity and size of tropical cyclones that forms over the North Indian Ocean basin that is linked with climate change. A detailed mapping on the tropical cyclone induced storm surge and associated inundation along the East coast of India is reported for two cyclone events viz; Aila and Hudhud events. The importance of a coupled wave-hydrodynamic model that improves coastal and nearshore extreme water levels during very severe cyclone cases is also discussed. The study also presents a detailed validation of various parameters such as significant wave height, storm tide, and flooding scenarios associated with the extreme event against the field measured data.Finally, the key challenges, priority areas and knowledge gaps identified for a detailed research on tropical cyclones will be highlighted. Keywords: Tropical Cyclones, Coastal Hazards, Climate Change, Indian Ocean

1. INTRODUCTION Damages resulting from tropical cyclone landfall over coastal regions can result in excessive flooding due to heavy rainfall and extreme water levels due to storm surge induced coastal inundation. In addition, strong winds associated with the passage of cyclones hinterland pose a serious threat and damage to infrastructure and property. Table-1 provides a comprehensive overview on the human deaths associated with global tropical cyclones during the past three centuries. As seen from this Table the major causalities are reported both in India and Bangladesh bordering the Bay of Bengal. The Bay of Bengal alone accounts for 7% of the global tropical cyclone count. Once can find a detailed review on storm surge studies for the Bay of Bengal in Ali (1979), Rao (1982), Roy (1984), Murty et al., (1986), Das (1994), Dube et al., (1997), Chittibabu (1999), and Gonnert et al., (2001).Basic mechanism that generate storm-tide close to coastal regions results from factors such as astronomical tides, storm central pressure, and surge attributed due to strong onshore winds (Reid, 1990). The total water level elevation near coast is a cumulative effect resulting from astronomical tides, storm surges, wind-waves, and wave induced setup. Bay of Bengal experiences cyclones almost five times higher as compared to Arabian Sea. In a climate change perspective, the recent decade show paradigm shift in occurrence frequency of high intense storms over global ocean basins as compared to past. Also the Power Dissipation Index (PDI) that is directly linked with cyclone strength showed a manifold increase in the Indian Ocean basin (Sahoo and Bhaskaran, 2015). There are prior studies that documents on the wave modeling efforts for the Indian seas (Padhy et al., 2008;Chitra

| 9 | et al., 2010;Chitra and Bhaskaran,2012;Nayak et al., 2012; Remya et al., 2012;Chitra and Bhaskaran, 2013;Bhaskaran et al., 2013 ;Nayak et al., 2013a, 2013b ; Prasad Kumar et al., 2000, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2010 and Sandhya et al., 2014).The study discusses on two extreme weather events associated with Aila and Hudhud cyclones that had landfall along the East coast of India. The Aila cyclone had landfall in May 2009 over the West Bengal coast and Hudhud had its landfall in Andhra Pradesh during October 2014. Both these cyclones have resulted in enormous loss to life and property in both these states. Numerical modelling exercise was carried out using ADCIRC (Advanced Circulation Model) to understand the resultant storm surge and associated coastal flooding during both these events. The subsequent section provides more details on both these cyclones, results and discussion followed by the summary and conclusion of the study. Table-1: Human Deaths reported from Tropical Cyclones S.No. Year Countries Deaths 01 1737 India 3,00,000 02 1780 Antilles (West Indies) 22,000 03 1822 Bangladesh 40,000 04 1833 India 50,000 05 1864 India 50,000 06 1876 Bangladesh 2,00,000 07 1886 China 3,00,000 08 1897 Bangladesh 1,75,000 09 1900 U.S.A 6,000 10 1923 Japan 2,50,000 11 1960 Bangladesh 5,149 12 1960 Japan 5,000 13 1961 Bangladesh 11,466 14 1963 Bangladesh 11,520 15 1963 Cuba 7,196 16 1965 Bangladesh 19,279 17 1970 Bangladesh 3,00,000 18 1971 India 10,000 19 1973 India 5,000 20 1977 India 10,000 21 1985 Bangladesh 11,069 22 1991 Bangladesh 1,40,000 23 1999 India 15,000

*Source: Recent Developments in Storm Surge Prediction Models for the North Indian Ocean (Dube et al, 2009) 1.1 AILA Cyclone A low pressure system was formed during 22 May, 2009 in the southeastern Bay of Bengal that further intensified into a depression after 30 hours as stated by the India Meteorological Department (IMD). Thereafter, the cyclonic system was monitored continuously from satellite imageries and Doppler Weather Radar (DWR) at Kolkata as it advanced towards West Bengal coast. Aila cyclone crossed Diamond Harbour and then dissipated over the northern region of West Bengal on 26 May, 2009. The wind speed exceeded

| 10 | 14 m/s on 24 May, 2009 and thereafter intensified into a cyclonic storm with speed exceeding 17 m/s on the same day. Further, on the next day (25 May, 2009) the wind speed was more than 25 m/s transforming the system into a severe cyclonic storm just before the landfall in West Bengal coast (Figure 1). As per the reports of IMD the storm surge during this event exceeded 2 m along Sundarbans coast (IMD, 2009), whereas the surge heights were about 3 m for Bangladesh (Basu and Bhagyalakshmi, 2010). The total water level elevation was about 4 m that inundated the onshore regions and the astronomical tide during landfall ranged between 4 to 5m. As seen from Figure 1 the trajectory of Aila followed almost northward direction that is the usual pre-monsoon climatology track. Translational speed for Aila was about 15.5 km/h in the northward direction.

Figure-1: Track details of Aila Cyclone

1.2 HUDHUD Cyclone A low pressure system was reported by IMD that formed over the Andaman Sea in 6 October, 2014 that upgraded to a depression on next day. The cyclonic system was named Hudhud by IMD on 8 October, 2014 (Figure 2). In the mid-Bay of Bengal basin the system intensified into a severe cyclonic storm on 10 October, 2014. On the next day, Hudhud attained its peak intensity with central pressure of 950 hPa and average wind speed of 185 km/h. It made landfall near Visakhapatnam on the afternoon of 12 October, 2014 with recorded wind gust speed of 210 km/h. After the landfall, the system finally weakened into low-pressure system over eastern part of Uttar Pradesh.

Figure-2: Track of Hudhud cyclone.

2. THE ADCIRC HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL ADCIRC (Advanced Circulation model) was developed based on a joint effort between the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Engineering Research and Development Centre, University of Notre Dame, and University of North Carolina. The model solves the equation of motion for moving fluid in a rotating coordinate system. ADCIRC can run on highly flexible unstructured grid in a two-dimensional depth integrated (2DDI) mode or in a three-dimensional (3D) mode. One can find more details on ADCIRC model and its governing equations in the published work of Luettich et al., 1992 and Dietrich et al. (2011). The

| 11 | model requires wind and pressure fields, and tidal forcing along open ocean boundary as essential inputs. The model uses a sophisticated algorithm (Luettich and Westerink, 1995) for wetting and drying that activates and de-activates the near-shore grid elements during inundation and recession of the coastal topography. Dry grid points become wet when a balance is satisfied between water level gradients and bottom friction relative to the neighboring wet grid points on a triangular element. Likewise, the wet grid point becomes dry when the total water depth decreases below the minimum wetness height. If all the vertices are wet in a triangular element, the area within this triangular element is taken as wet else dry. For more details on the wetting and drying algorithm one can refer to the work of Luettich and Westerink (1995). Once the water level information updates, the wetting and drying algorithm activates and the vertically integrated momentum equations solves explicitly for the currents. The implementation of wetting and drying algorithm in ADCIRC model begins from a cold start mode defining the water level elevation (ζ ) as zero at all wet nodes. 3. DATA AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 Aila Cyclone The mesh for the study region in the head Bay should essentially be a high-resolution grid that captures the complex geomorphic environment for realistic computation of storm surge and inundation. The blended SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) and GEBCO (General Bathymetric Charts of the Oceans) was used in this study (Figure 3). The SRTM data has a horizontal resolution of 90 m, and the gridded bathymetry from GEBCO is a global 30 arc-second grid generated by combining quality controlled depth soundings with satellite derived gravity data.

Figure-3: Blended topography (SRTM+GEBCO) and finite element mesh of study region The hybrid-blended product used is of superior quality that provides a true depiction of near-shore surge propagation and coastal inundation. The finite element mesh comprises of 317,589 nodes with 627,191 triangular elements enveloped by a rectangular offshore boundary (Figure-3a, b). The advantage in choosing a rectangular boundary is to avoid computational instability along the corner nodes. Extent of the onshore boundary is limited to +10 m topo line, assuming that flooding does not cross this boundary limit. In spatial dimension, the +10 m onshore elevation extends up to a distance of nearly 5 km inland. The wind field for ADCIRC computation uses the Jelesnianski formulation (Jelesnianski, 1975). The best track information of Aila from IMD (India Meteorological Department) is used. The ADCIRC model executes for a period of five days in a hot start mode, starting from May 22, 2009 (1800 h) until May 26, 2009 with a time step of 3 s. The hybrid bottom friction coefficient used in ADCIRC considers the bottom stress as proportional to the local water depth. This provides a more realistic description of bottom stress condition compared to the linear and quadratic bottom friction formulations and more accurate in shallow water when wetting and drying of grid elements occur (Murray, 2003). The model outputs at every 0.5 h interval

| 12 | the net water level elevation and depth averaged currents for the analysis of surge and flooding characteristics. 3.2 Hudhud Cyclone The finite element mesh used in the present study provides a good representation of the observed coastal features. The bathymetric data GEBCO (General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans) having a grid spacing of 30 arc seconds by the British Oceanographic Data Centre (BODC) was used in this study (Figure 4). The unstructured grid used in this study comprises of 123,594 vertices and 235,952 triangular elements (Figure 4). It has a definite advantage and capability to handle complex coastline geometry in the head Bay region, depicting coastal geomorphic features in the near-shore region. The grid used in this study is the most optimized version in context to computational time. The minimum/maximum grid resolution is < 1 km along coast in near-shore areas, and relaxing to 30 km along the offshore boundary in the deep ocean. A recent study (Bhaskaran et al., 2013) suggests that a high-resolution flexible mesh in near-shore areas resolves the complex bathymetry, and thereby provides a better resolution for wave transformation.

Figure-4: (a) Bathymetry of the study region from GEBCO, (b) flexible finite element mesh for the study area, and (c) zoomed version of (b) for the Andhra Pradesh coast along with the location of in-situ observation.

The bottom friction coefficient used was 0.0028 with a time step of 10 s. Bottom friction coefficient selected in this study is best suited for the sandy bottom environment along the Andhra coast, an optimum configuration with both ADCIRC and SWAN models (Murty et al., 2014). The model run execution was from 8th October, 2014 (00 h) when Hudhud was in deep waters, until the time of landfall (forenoon of 12th October, 2014). A recent study by Bhaskaran et al. (2013) advocates that the above mentioned coupling time step very well suffices to understand the non-linear interaction effects arising from changing water levels and currents on the resultant wave field. The implementation of SWAN comprises of 36 directional and 35 frequency bins. These numbers are optimum to essentially resolve the spectral distribution of wave energy propagation, and capture realistically the evolution of wave energy in both geographic space and time. The prescription of wave frequency uses logarithmic frequency bins ranging from 0.04 to 1.0 Hz, with an angular resolution of 10°.

| 13 | 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Model computed maximum storm surge for the Aila event was about 4 m along the regions of Dongajara and Sundarbans. According to media reports and the India Meteorological Department (IMD), the storm surge was 3 m along the western parts of Bangladesh that submerged several villages and the resultant storm surge over Sundarbans exceeded 2 m. Model simulations show that surge propagated into most of the river systems. Surge amplitude in rivers such as Matla, Bidyadhari, and Garal reached nearly 4 m. The worst affected areas with highest surge amplitude were the Sundarbans along India and the Bangladesh sector.

Figure-5: Storm tide (in meters) from ADCIRC model for the head Bay region Model computed maximum water level elevation for the head Bay region is shown in Figure 5. The black solid line indicates the Aila track, and maximum surge occurred along the right side of the storm track. Comparison of storm-tide amplitudes (Figure-6) indicates a significant phase difference in the surge characteristics. The locations Basakhali and Hiron Point (Figure-6) exhibited a perfect match in both surge amplitude and phase. Phase difference in surge characteristics (Figure-6) is evident as one progress towards east from the Aila track.. During the landfall time, the surge amplitude was 2.75 m at Hiron Point reducing to 1.10 m at Char Chenga.

Figure-6: Amplitude and Phase difference in Storm-tide characteristics from ADCIRC model at various locations in Sundarbans.

| 14 | Figure-7 shows the 38 locations along the coastal belt based on the inundation range. Most of the locations experienced seawater penetration ranging between 200-400 m. The horizontal extent of inundation depends not only on onshore topographic elevation, but also on the roughness characteristics from vegetation cover such as the mangrove ecosystem dominant in Sundarbans.

Figure-7: Storm surge affected areas and associated onshore inundation range (in meters) for the head Bay region. Figure-8 shows computed maximum significant wave height (in m) from the coupled model run for the Hudhudcyclone. Waves are stronger along the coastal belt north of Visakhapatnam (in excess of 8.0 m) that faces the right side of track, attributing to strong onshore winds. For regions in the leeward side of Hudhud track, the wave heights are relatively small (less than 4.0 m) as the predominant wind direction is in the offshore direction. The spatial distribution of significant wave heights along the coastal stretch from Visakhapatnam to Bheemunipatnam separated by a distance of about 24 km is almost similar.

Figure-8: (a) Model computed maximum significant wave height (in m) for Hudhud event, (b) Significant wave height validation between model and wave rider buoy off Visakhapatnam (arrow indicates the landfall time), (c) Validation of storm surge against tide gauge observation near Bheemunipatnam and Visakhapatnam, and (d) Comparison of wave induced setup (in m) at Bheemunipatnam and Visakhapatnam.

| 15 | Figure 8b shows the validation of significant wave height between coupled model and wave rider buoy recorded at Gangavaram, south of Visakhapatnam. The coupled model performs well representing the variation of extreme waves in the near-shore region off Visakhapatnam quite satisfactorily. Figure 8c shows the computed storm surge for Hudhud cyclone at Bheemunipatnam and Visakhapatnam. During the time of landfall, the maximum computed storm surge at Bheemunipatnam was about 1.5 m from ADCIRC standalone run, and the contribution from wave-induced setup was about 0.5 m. Wave setup gradually increases during the approach of Hudhud cyclone, and diminishes rapidly after its landfall (Figure-8d). The wave setup remained almost invariant at Visakhaptnam followed by set-down during the landfall event. On the other hand, at Bheeminupatnam the wave setup increased during the approach of Hudhud. There is a steady increase seen until the landfall time, and thereafter the wave set-down attributes from predominant offshore winds at this location. 5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This study report on the application of ADCIRC and coupled ADCIRC-SWAN models to compute the peak storm surge and extreme waves associated with two severe cyclones Aila and Hudhud that had landfall near Sagar Islands in West Bengal and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh respectively. The Jelesnianski formulation was used to generate the wind field for Aila event using the primary information of best track details from IMD. The model was executed in a hot start mode using the tidal forced realistic boundary information of water level elevation. Model simulations for the Aila event covered a period of five days starting from May 22, 2009 (18 h) until May 26, 2009 (06 h) with a prescribed time step of 3 s. The model computed storm surge was about 4.0 m for the coastal stretch of Sunderbans. The Hiron Point at Bangladesh is the nearest place to the landfall point of Aila cyclone that had a tide gauge operated by Bangladesh Inland Waterways Transport Authority. The maximum surge height at Hiron Point matched very well with ADCIRC simulation.The extent of inundation on an average was about 350 m for the Sunderban region. Several locations such as Silampur, Kakadwip, etc. were the worst affected and experienced flooding up to 600 m.The overall performance of coupled model run showed a good match against observations.A comprehensive analysis was carried out to understand the variationsin wave induced setup between Visakhapatnam to Bheemunipatnam, separated by a distance of almost 24 km. The wave setup at both these locations were quite different, directly linked to the coastal geomorphic features and beach slopes at these locations. References: Ali, A: Storm surges in the Bay of Bengal and some related problems. Ph.D Thesis, University of Reading, England, pp.227 (1979). Basu, B.K., Bhagyalakshmi, K: Forecast of the track and intensity of the tropical cyclone AILA over the Bay of Bengal by the global spectral atmospheric model VARSHA. Current Science 99(6), 765-775 (2010) Bhaskaran, P.K., S. Nayak, S.R. Bonthu, P.L.N. Murty, and D. Sen: Performance and validation of a coupled parallel ADCIRC– SWAN model for THANE cyclone in the Bay of Bengal. Environ. Fluid Mech. 13(6), 601-623 (2013) Chitra, A., and P.K. Bhaskaran: Parameterization of bottom friction under combined wave-tide action in the Hooghly estuary, India. Ocean Eng. 43, 43-55 (2012). Chitra, A., and P.K. Bhaskaran: Numerical modeling of suspended sediment concentration and its validation for the Hooghly estuary, India. Coastal Eng.55(2), 1-23 (2013). Chitra, A., B. Prasad Kumar, I. Jain, A. Bhar, and A.C. Narayana: Bottom boundary layer characteristics in the Hooghly estuary under combined wave-current action. Mar. Geodesy 33, 261-281 (2010). Chittibabu, P: Development of storm surge prediction models for the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Ph.D Thesis, IIT Delhi, India, pp. 262 (1999). Das, P.K: Prediction of storm surges in the Bay of Bengal. Proc. Indian Natl. Sci. Acad. 60, 513-533 (1994). Dietrich, J.C., Zijlema, M., Westerink, J.J., Holthuijsen, L.H., Dawson, C.N., Luettich Jr., R.A., Jensen, R.E., Smith, J.M., Stelling, G.S., Stone, G.W:Modeling hurricane waves and storm surge using integrally-coupled, scalable computations. Coast.Eng. 58, 45-65 (2011). Dube, S.K., Jain, I., Rao, A.D., Murty, T.S: Storm surge modelling for the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Nat. Hazards 51, 3-27 (2009).

| 16 | Dube, S.K., Rao, A.D., Sinha, P.C., Murty, T.S., Bahulayan, N: Storm surge in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea: the problem and its prediction. Mausam.48(2), 283-304 (1997). Gonnert, G., Dube, S.K., Murty, T., Siefert, W:Global storm surges: theory, observations and applications. Die Kueste, pp.623 (2001). Jelesnianski, C. P: A preliminary view of storm surges before and after storm modifications for along shore-moving storms. NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS TDL-58, NOAA, Federal Insurance Administration, Silver Springs, MD., pp. 16 (1975). Luettich, R.A., Westerink, J.J: Continental shelf scale convergence studies with a barotropic model. In: Lynch, D.R., Davies, A.M. (Eds.), Quantitative skill Assessment for Coastal Ocean Models, Coastal and Estuarine Studies Series, No 47. AGU, pp. 349-371 (1995). Luettich, R.A., Jr., Westerink, J.J., Scheffner, N.W: ADCIRC: an advanced three-dimensional circulation model for shelves, coasts, and estuaries, Report 1: theory and methodology of ADCIRC-2DDI and ADCIRC-3DL, Dredging Research Program Tech. Report DRP-92-6, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, pp.137 (1992). Murray, R.R: A Sensitivity Analysis for a Tidally Influenced Riverine System. M.S. Thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Central Florida,, USA pp.153 (2003). Murty, T.S., Flather, R.A., Henry, R.F: The storm surge problem in the Bay of Bengal. Prog.Oceanogr.16, 195-233 (1986). Murty, P.L.N., Sandhya, K.G., Bhaskaran, P.K., Jose, F., Gayathri, R., Balakrishnan Nair, T.M., Srinivasa Kumar, T., Shenoi, S.S.C: A coupled hydrodynamic modeling system for PHAILIN cyclone in the Bay of Bengal. Coast.Eng. 93, 71-81 (2014). Nayak, S., P.K. Bhaskaran, and R. Venkatesan: Near-shore wave induced setup along Kalpakkam coast during an extreme cyclone event in the Bay of Bengal. Ocean Eng. 55, 52-61 (2012). Nayak, S., P.K. Bhaskaran, R. Venkatesan, and SikhaDasgupta: Modulation of local wind-waves at Kalpakkam from remote forcing effects of southern ocean swells. Ocean Eng. 64, 23-35 (2013a). Nayak, S., and P.K. Bhaskaran: Coastal vulnerability due to extreme waves at Kalpakkam based on historical tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal. Int. Journal of Climatology, DOI: 10.1002/joc.3776 (2013b). Padhy, C.P., D. Sen, and P.K. Bhaskaran: Application of wave model for weather routing of ships in the North Indian Ocean. Nat. Hazards 44, 373-385(2008). Prasad Kumar, B., R. Kalra, S.K. Dube, P.C. Sinha, A.D. Rao, R. Kumar, and A. Sarkar: Extreme wave conditions over the Bay of Bengal during severe cyclone – simulation experiment with two spectral wave models. Mar. Geodesy 23, 91-102 (2000). Prasad Kumar, B., I.C. Pang, A.D. Rao, T.H. Kim, J.C. Nam, and C.S. Hong: Sea-state hindcast for the Korean seas with a spectral wave model and validation with buoy observation during January 1997. J. Korean Earth Sci. Soc. 24(1), 7-21 (2003). Prasad Kumar, B., R. Kalra, S.K. Dube, P.C. Sinha, and A.D. Rao: Sea-state hindcast with ECMWF data using a spectral wave model for typical monsoon months. Nat. Hazards 31, 537-548 (2004). Prasad Kumar, B., and G.W. Stone: Numerical simulation of typhoon wind forcing in the Korean seas using a spectral wave model. J. Coast. Res. 23(2), 362-373 (2007). Prasad Kumar, B: Reliability based design method for coastal structures in shallow seas. Indian Geo-Mar. Sci. 39(4), 605-615 (2010). Rao, A.D: Numerical storm surge prediction in India. Ph.D Thesis, IIT Delhi, New Delhi, pp.211 (1982). Reid, R.O: Tides and storm surges. In J. Herbich (ed), Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering: 533-590, Houston, Tx: Gulf Publishing Company (1990). Remya, P.G., R. Kumar, S. Basu, and A. Sarkar: Wave hindcast experiments in the Indian Ocean using MIKE21SW model. J. Earth Syst. Sci. 121(2), 385-392 (2012). Roy, G.D: Numerical storm surge prediction in Bangladesh.Ph.D Thesis, IIT Delhi, pp.188 (1984). Sahoo, B., and P.K. Bhaskaran: Assessment on historical cyclone tracks in the Bay of Bengal, east coast of India. Int. Journal of Climatology, doi:10.1002/joc.4331 (2015). Sandhya, K.G., T.M. Balakrishnan Nair, B. Prasad Kumar, L. Sabique, N. Arun, and K. Jeykumar: Wave forecasting system for operational use and its validation at coastal Puducherry, east coast of India. Ocean Eng. 80, 64-72 (2014).

| 17 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/3 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

BATTERY POWERED FRP HULL 60 PAXELECTRIC VEHICLE FOR RIVERINE TRANSPORTATION

N R Mandal Retd. Professor, Head and Dean(SA), Department of Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture, IIT Kharagpur

ABSTRACT Serious concern for environmental protection by reducing carbon foot print has led to the development ofelectric vehicles for various modes of transportation and naturally river transportation is also no exception.The propulsion engine being electric motor, power is drawn from a rechargeable battery bank of adequate capacity for the required endurance. The power for charging of the battery bank will be drawn from a solar powered pumped storage facility on shore. For the cloudy days, a grid based shore connection will also be kept.Two numbers brushless DC (BLDC) motors each of about 7.5 kW power will be used to propel the vessel at a minimum 8 knots cruising speed in calm water. The motors will be operated remotely from the wheel house. It is designed to carry 60 passengers along with their personal effects of reasonable amount in the sheltered waters of river Ganga. The vessel is meant for ferrying people across the river at different locations from Malda to Diamond Hourbour.Integrated FRP seats will be provided on the main deck. Access to the seating area is provided through four entry/exit points, two each on port and starboard sides. These entry/exit points will be provided with suitable sliding opening and closing gates. This proposed propulsion system not only eliminates the polluting emission of conventional hydrocarbon based propulsion engines but also results in various additional benefits, such as Least noise pollution, zero air pollution during its operation, electric motor will lead to substantial energy savings, power consumption cost of a battery powered vessel is about 1/3rd that of a conventional diesel powered vessel.

INTRODUCTION Serious concern for environmental protection by reducing carbon foot print has led to the development of electric vehicles for various modes of transportation and naturally river transportation is also no exception. The propulsion engine being electric motor, power is drawn from a rechargeable battery bank of adequate capacity for the required endurance. However, unlike conventional fossil fuel propelled vessels, the endurance of battery powered vessels gets very much limited by the capacity of battery bank. Hence with the present state of battery technology, it may not be economically feasible to power large ocean going vessels or even river vessels operating over long cruising distance. At the same time the exhaust of such large ocean going vessels and vessels plying along rivers over a long distance gest much diluted and thereby the effect on environmental direct pollution also gets minimised.

| 18 | Whereas on the other hand the fossil fuel driven vessels operating for ferrying commuters between two destinations within city area across the river bank contributes substantially to local environmental pollution. Hence by replacing these vessels by battery powered electric vessels, it will lead to substantial reduction in environmental pollution. Since these vessels generally have much lower journey time for each trip, hence with adequately designed charging system a lower capacity battery bank can be installed. In the present work a 60 passenger capacity FRP hull battery powered vessel for transportation of commuting passengers across river Ganga is proposed. PROPOSED VESSEL To achieve reduced hull weight, a fibre reinforced plastic hull is proposed with round bilge construction. It is designed to carry 60 passengers along with their personal effects of reasonable amount in the sheltered waters of river Ganga. The vessel is meant for ferrying people across the river at different locations from Malda to Diamond Hourbour. The proposed general arrangement is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 General arrangement of a battery powered 60 Pax electric vehicle for riverine transportation

PASSENGER SEATING AREA Passenger accommodation has been provided on main deck having a seating capacity of 54 passengers. The seats are arranged along the port and starboard sides and also along the centre of the main deck as shown in the General Arrangement Plan. The main deck has sufficient clear space to accommodate rest 6 passengers along with their personal belongings.

| 19 | Integrated FRP seats will be provided on the main deck. Access to the seating area is provided through four entry/exit points, two each on port and starboard sides. These entry/exit points will be provided with suitable sliding opening and closing gates. The passenger seating area is illuminated by suitable number of LED lights mounted on the awning framework. The deck at the seating area is to have a non-skid surface. Crew Accommodation No dedicated crew accommodation is provided on board the vessel. The vessel is not meant for night navigation. Wheelhouse A simple arrangement for the vessel master is provided as an elevated wheel house above the awning to give an excellent all round visibility. Access to the wheel house is provided through a ladder from the main deck. All the electrical control, monitoring systems and steering will be located in the wheel house. Propulsion and Steering System Two numbers brushless DC (BLDC) motors each of about 7.5 kW power with suitable Controller, shown in Fig.2, will be used to propel the vessel at minimum 8 knots cruising speed in calm water. The motors will be operated remotely from the wheel house. Rudder will not be used. Vessel maneuvering will be done by controlling the thrust delivered by the individual propellers.

Fig.2 Brushless DC motor and Controller

Battery Bank& Electrical Systems An adequate battery bank of 96 volt Li ion/LiFePO4 battery, as shown in Fig.3, of adequate Ahr capacity will be used. The battery compartment and the necessary electrical harness will be suitably stowed below the floor level. Necessary DC-DC converter will be provided to supply power to other electrical devices on board the vessel. Fig.3 Li ion battery bank

| 20 | Battery Charging System Suitable charging system will be provided on board the vessel. Charging power will be drawn from shore connection. Every time the eBoat is moored at a jetty for passenger disembarkation and boarding, and also during lunch time, the shore power will be connected to the battery charging system. Thus the battery bank capacity can be kept at its minimum. The power for charging of the battery bank will be drawn from a solar powered pumped storage facility on shore, schematically shown in Fig.4. For the cloudy days, a grid based shore connection will also be kept.This charging configuration will reduce power consumption from the national grid.

Fig.4 Solar powered pumped storage facility

COST OF POWER CONSUMPTION FOR VESSEL OPERATION

| 21 | BENEFITS OF BATTERY POWERED RIVER VEHICLES This proposed propulsion system not only eliminates the polluting emission of conventional hydrocarbon based propulsion engines but also results in various additional benefits as summerised below: • Least noise pollution. • Zero air pollution during its operation. • High reliability of electric motors. Service life between overhauls is about 100,000 hrs. At that point, all that needs to be done is replace two bearings. • Electric motors have full torque at zero rpm. Large propeller with higher pitch can be operated without fear of engine stalling, translating directly into increased efficiency. • Electric motors are inherently more efficient. Much of the power produced by a diesel engine is wasted in heat. Modern electric motors can be up to 98% efficient. • Electric motor will lead to substantial energy savings. While not cruising it remains in switched off mode unlike diesel propulsion, where the engine mostly keeps running continuously. • Electric propulsion provides improved manoeuvrability.An electric motor coupled with a larger propeller is exquisitely controllable, making docking and slow speed manoeuvres much easier. • Power consumption cost of a battery powered vessel is about 1/3rd that of a conventional diesel powered vessel

| 22 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/4 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

INLAND WATERWAY TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT IN ASSAM — LONG TERM STRATEGY

R. M. Das Consultant, LEA Associates South Asia Pvt. Ltd., [Canadian Global Firm] [email protected]

ABSTRACT The Brahmaputra River is precious gift of Nature to India especially to its northeast region; considering its vastness of water resources which the river basin possesses. Nearly 30% of India’s water resources potential are found in this basin. In terms of the average discharge, the Brahmaputra River is the fifth largest river in the world. India’s navigable inland waterways extend nearly 14,500 km, comprising a variety of river systems, canals, backwaters, creeks, and tidal inlets. Assam has a total of 1983 kmnavigable waterways, (about 14% of Nation’s waterways). The Brahmaputra River has evolved in about two million years. Assam’s trade with the neighbouring provinces, from very early times, was mainly carried by river transport, the main route to Bengal, Bihar and Orissa being the Brahmaputra and the Ganges. In 1834, when the steamer service was introduced on the Ganges, transport and communication to and from Assam, in general, were underdeveloped. The steamer service in the Brahmaputra, thereafter, between Calcutta and Guwahati (960 km), was established by the then Government in 1847. The Assam Rail Link completed in 1949. Apart from being one of the earliest modes of transport, the inland water transport is accepted as one of the most efficient modes of transport from the standpoint of energy consumption and environmental friendliness, world-wide. In the recent period, IWAI as well asNITIAayog,are putting their optimum thrust on the development of IWT.Today, Assam is having total 15 NWs, including NW-2, out of total 111 NWs of India. Key words: 1. Inland Waterways Authority of India, 2. National Waterway, 3. NITIAayog (Hindi for Policy Commission) (abbreviation for National Institution for Transforming India)

INTRODUCTION: Transport is a personal activity, a social service, and an industry which constitutes one of the most important activities of man in every stage of his civilisation. No nation could, indeed, afford to overlook the crucial role of transport in economic development at the national and regional levels as well as in the expansion of international trade. Today efforts have been made to explain regional imbalance in terms of infrastructure of which transport is a vital component. The impact and counter impact of each different type of transport facility may also be different in the same region from time to time. Many rivers in the world provide natural navigable waterway routes for the movement of large quantities of goods. Inland Waterway Transport (IWT) has played an important role as the maiden transportation system throughout the world since times immemorial. With the introduction of trains, automobiles, and the aeroplane, however, it has had to face serious competition. Fortunately, it has not

| 23 | merely survived, but continues to play an important role in many advanced countries of the world, like U.S.A., Germany, and Russia, etc., in spite of the fact that other modes of transport, such as rail and road, are far more developed in these countries as compared to India. This is because of its inherent advantage as a low cost mode of transport. The Brahmaputra River has evolved in about two million years and rests on fractured pavements. Aggradation and degradation occur in alternate reaches of the river. The eroded sediment contributes for building the bars and islands within the river. The different channel processes are important, ultimately to shape this huge river. The Barak River, in the Barak Valley of Assam, is another important river. Both the Rivers are having numerous tributaries with considerable navigable waterways which are the basis for the quantity of water and sediments flowing.Assam has a total of 1983 km navigable inland waterways. Since 2016, Assam is having total 15 National Waterways (NWs). A fresh look into the navigation potentiality in Assam has become much more important than ever before, in view of the rapidly mounting global energy crisis and its effect on the future economy of the region. ROLE OF INLAND WATER TRANSPORT IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: Trade by inland water transport gave to the world its earliest civilisations in Mesopotamia and along the Indus, the Nile and the Hoang Ho. Apart from being one of the earliest modes of transport, the inland water transport is accepted as one of the most efficient modes of transport from the standpoint of energy consumption. The economic development of a region or a modern state depends, amongst other things, on the development of transport systems as a whole. The major modes of transportation, presently available in Assam, comprise of railways, roadways, airways, and inland waterways. The quantum of contribution to the transport sector, at present, by airways and waterways in Assam is insignificant. The major share of passenger and goods transport has been taken care of by rail and road transport. Viewed from the trend of development of these modes, it is estimated that about 90% of inland passenger and freight traffic in 2022 AD will have to be met by roads and rails. The problem is whether adequate road and rail transport facilities can be provided to meet such huge demands in the future at a reasonable cost to society and at the same time ensure safe, efficient, convenient, and pollution-free service to the public. This problem is made all the more complicated with the energy crisis generated world-wide, which undoubtedly is going to affect the future transportation scenario of the world. The transport sector consumes about 35 percent of (our) nation’s requirement of petroleum products and this demand is increasing at the rate of 8 per cent per annum. With nearly 60 per cent of our Nation’s requirement being met by imports, every increase in the price of oil has eaten into the Nation’s foreign reserves significantly. India has embarked on its journey towards major transformation. Change has been in the making over the last five years. The economy is finally moving out of the negative legacies of the past, especially the reckless credit expansion. India has regained its position as the fastest growing large economy in the world. Moreover, Hon. Prime Minister has given his clarion call, through NITI Aayog, for establishing a New India by 2022, 75th Independence Year of India. The ‘Strategy for New India @ 75’ captures three key messages from the Prime Minister. First, development must become a mass movement. Second, development strategy should help achieve broad-based economic growth to ensure balanced development across all regions and states and across sectors. Third, the strategy when implemented, will bridge the gap between public and private sector performance. ‘Strategy for New India @ 75’ has identified 41 different areas that require either a sharper focus on implementing the flagship schemes already in place or a new design and initiative to achieve India’s true potential. ‘Ports, Shipping and Inland Waterways’ is one of the areas is being duly focused in the concerned document. Efficient, transparent and accountable governance has come to be recognized as this government’s USP (Unique Selling Proposition/ Point). This

| 24 | will ensure that India will not only achieve its ambitious goals for 2022, but also go on to become one of the two largest economies in the world by 2047, when we celebrate the centenary of our independence.In 2019, Top Ten Countries GDP, in nominal terms (in $ million), would be: United States (GDP: $21,410,230),China (GDP: $15,543,710), Japan (GDP: $5,362,220), Germany (GDP: $4,416,800), India (GDP: $3,155,230), France (GDP: $3,060,070),United Kingdom (GDP: $3,022,580), Italy (GDP: $2,261,460), Brazil (GDP: $2,256,850), Canada (GDP: $1,908,530) [Source: IMF] Therefore, inland water transport is one of the most efficient modes of transport from the standpoint of energy consumption. Economically, in fact, inland water transport is the cheapest mode of transport for certain kinds of traffic, both for long and short distances, particularly if the points of origin and destination are located on a water front and no transhipment is involved. MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY OF THE RIVER BRAHMAPUTRA: Geology, geomorphology, physiography, climate, and soils of the Brahmaputra basin exhibit marked variations. An understanding of these variations is vital for the development of the basin. These factors are also having enough importance in the Navigation Development. The Brahmaputra River is one of the biggest rivers in the world. It is known as the Tsangpo in Tibet (China), the Siang or Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh (India), the Brahmaputra in Assam (India) and the Jamuna in Bangladesh. Originating at an altitude of 5,300 m just south of the lake Konggyu Tso about 63 km south- east of the Manasarowar lake in Tibet, the river traverses a total distance of 2,977 km through the Himalayan mountains, hills and plains until reaching the Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh. The river, with its Tibetan name Tsangpo in the uppermost reach, flows through southern Tibet for about 1,561 km almost in an easterly direction. This river traversing through deep narrow gorges of the Himalayan terrain, takes a southward turn and enters Indian Territory at an elevation of 660 m. at extreme north- east through a deep narrow gorge at Pe where in the gorge section the river has a gradient ranging from about 4.3 to 16.8 m per km. The Brahmaputra’s upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the Yarlung Tsangpo was only established by exploration in 1884–86. This river is often called the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra River. After crossing the Indo-China border the Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) enters the state of Arunachal Pradesh in India, where it is called Siang/ Dihang. It makes a very rapid descent from its original height in Tibet and finally appears in the plains, where it is called Dihang. It flows for about 35 km southward after which, it is joined by the Dibang River and the Lohit River at the head of the Assam Valley. Below the Lohit, the river is called Brahmaputra (“Son of Brahma”); it then enters the state of Assam, and becomes very wide—as wide as, about, 20 km in parts of Assam. At the head of the valley near Dibrugarh the river has a gradient of 0.09—0.17m per km which is further reduced to about 0.1 m per km near Pandu. The mighty Brahmaputra rolls down the valley from east to west for a distance of 640 km up to the Bangladesh border. The Dihang, winding out of the mountains, turns towards the southeast and descends into a low- lying basin as it enters north-eastern Assam state. Just west of the town of Sadiya, the river again turns to the southwest and is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit, and the Dibang. Below that confluence, about 1,450 km from the Bay of Bengal, the river becomes known conventionally as the Brahmaputra (“Son of Brahma”). In Assam, the river is mighty, even in the dry season, and during the rains, its banks are more than 8 km apart. As the river follows its braided 700 km course through the valley, it receives several rapidly flowing Himalayan streams, including the Subansiri, Kameng, Bhareli, Manas, Champamati, Saralbhanga, and Sankosh Rivers. The main tributaries from the hills and from the plateau to the south are the Burhi Dihing, the Disang, the Dikhu, the Dhansiri and the Kopili.It is navigable for most of its length in the Brahmaputra- Valley. The annual rainfall in the Valley ranges from 1,750 mm in Kamrup District to about 6,400 mm in the North Lakhimpur District.The precipitation varies 297 mm between the driest month and the wettest month in Assam. Throughout the year, temperatures vary by 2.2 °C.

| 25 | Map 1 Map 2 Between Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur Districts, the river divides into two channels—the northern Kherkutia channel and the southern Brahmaputra channel. The two channels join again about 100 km (62 mi) downstream, forming the MajuliIsland, which is the largest river island in the world. It may be noted that now Majuli is a separate civil District of Assam, the first river island district to have such distinction in India. After the Bangladesh border, the Brahmaputra River takes the name the Jamuna.The Jamuna joins with the Ganga north of Goalundo Ghat, below which, as the Padma, their combined waters flow to the southeast for a distance of about 120 km. After several smaller channels branch off to feed the Ganga- Brahmaputra delta to the south, the main body of the Padma reaches its confluence with the Meghna River near Chandpur and then enters the Bay of Bengal through the Meghna estuary and lesser channels flowing through the delta. The growth of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta is dominated by tidal processes. The Ganga Delta, fed by the waters of numerous rivers, including the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, is 59,570 square kilometres, the largest river- delta in the world. The Discharge, at uppermost observation site, is at Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh and lowermost at Jogighopa, Assam. Maximum, minimum discharge data and annual average yield of the four hydrological observations sites are tabulated in Table-1. (Source: Water Resources Department, Government of Assam). Out of total average annual surface water yield of 1869 billion cubic metres (bcm) of the Indian River System, contribution of Brahmaputra River System is estimated at 537 bcm. Table-1: Discharge at different observation sites of Brahmaputra River (WRD, Assam) Sl. Observation Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Remarks No. site Maximum Minimum Average Yield Discharge (cumec) Discharge (cumec) (mcum) 1 Pasighat 29643 1076 185102.29 1949-1962 (recorded 18-08-1962) (recorded 28-01-1954) 1976-1978 2 Bechamara 29710 1001 268936.58 1976-1983 (recorded 17-08-1980) 3 Pandu 72794 1757 494357.19 1955-1982 (recorded 23-08-1962) 4 Jogighopa 78450 2015 537066.67 1955-1957 (recorded 31-07-1972) (recorded 22-02-1977) 1971-1977 Brahmaputra River has high steep slope in its initial stage and bed slope becomes mild in the plains of Assam. River bed levels at certain important locations are furnished in table-2. (WRD, Assam)

| 26 | Table-2: Bed levels of different Important Location of Brahmaputra River (WRD, Assam) Sl. Location / Reach Chainage Elevation Slope Channel Remarks No. from Indo (m) width (km) Bangladesh Border (km) 1 Indo Tibet Border 918 660 1:515 Not available 2 Kobo 640 120 1:3700 6.70 At confluence of Lohit & Dihang 3 Dibrugarh 580 92 1:5595 9.25 4 Neamati 480 72 1:6425 9.55 5 Tezpur 335 50 1:6750 4.50 6 Guwahati 205 30 1:8875 1.20 At Pandu 7 Dhubri 0 8 1:14650 3.70 Lastly, the Brahmaputra being a part of eastern Himalayan ranges, falls into the world’s wettest monsoon belt, this northeast part of India has always enjoyed the blessing of huge potentiality of water resources. As concerning the average annual potentiality of water in the Brahmaputra’s river basin and estimation of monsoon run off, it has always endowed with tremendous potentiality of water resources in the country. EVOLUTION OF RIVER TRANSPORT IN ASSAM: Assam’s trade with the neighbouring provinces, from very early times, was mainly carried by river transport, the main route to Bengal, Bihar and Orissa being the Brahmaputra and the Ganges. In 1834 when the steamer service was introduced on the Ganges, transport and communication to and from Assam were underdeveloped. The journey down- stream from Goalpara to Calcutta took twenty-five to thirty days and in the upward direction about eight days more, making it more tedious. In fact, New Orleans, or Orleans, was thefirst Mississippi steamboat. Launched in 1811 at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania for a company organized by Robert Livingston; and Robert Fulton, her designer, she was a large, heavy side-wheeler with a deep draft. And in India, in 1934, the first steamer service was introduced in the Ganges. As early as in 1839, when the Assam Company was formed, the Company started its own fleet of country boats; although a steamer was purchased at the cost of British Pound 13,000, it was unsuccessfully tried on the Brahmaputra in 1842.The steamer service in the Brahmaputra, thereafter, between Calcutta and Guwahati (960 km), was established by the Government in 1847. Yet as it was irregular the tea chests had to wait a long time at Guwahati for export. In fact, it was the cultivation of tea which turned the course of history. In 1861, the Indian General Steam Navigation (I.G.S.N.) Company started regular traffic on the Brahmaputra with arrangements for the carriage of tea-garden labours into Assam. By 1863, the I.G.S.N. Company was more attracted to Cachar areas as compared to Ganges trade. This Company began to expand and by 1869, it had 16 steamer, 32 flats and 5 barges. In 1862 the River Steam Navigation (R.S.N.) Company also started operation with three steamers and three flats. In 1878 the R.S.N. Company was running a regular service in competition with the I.G.S.N. Company. Thereafter, both the companies thought it better to enter into an agreement with the tea industry so that the exporters could send their goods by the steamer of any Company at a considerable reduction over ordinary rates, It is interesting to note that around 1882 river transport helped the railway construction in Assam in a big way. The steamers carried almost all the materials and stores required for the construction railway- line from Dibrugarh to Makum. Up to 1882 the steamer companies carried cargo and towing flats, handled passenger traffic and it took 18 days to reach Dibrugarh from Goalunda. After 1882, with the development of railway enterprise, the mainline streamers became towing steamers only and stopped carrying passenger. In 1883, the two Companies (I.G.S.N. and R.S.N.), aided by a Government subsidy, established a daily

| 27 | service steamer on the Brahmaputra, which could reach Dibrugarh from Goalunda, within a week. Those streamers were smaller in size and only for passengers. Those were speedier and had regular services; and which carried mails also. In1887. Such service was introduced in the Surama River, between Goalundo and Sichar during rainy season and between Goalundo and Fenchuganj in the cold weather. Thus, when the railways had touched the soil of Assam, steamers played a crucial role in facilitating trade with Calcutta, whereas for trade with Dacca block and Patna city, boat was inevitable. If we remember that the first survey in connection with the Assam Bengal Railway took place in 1890s, it was but natural that in 1895- 96, apart from necessary consumer goods, important capital goods like locomotive engines, steel rails, fish-plates and sleepers, and cast iron and other sorts of materials for construction were imported to both the Brahmaputra Valley as well as the Surama Valley from Calcutta alone. In fact, towards the close of the nineteenth century, in the BrahmaputraVelley, steamer played a more important role than the boat- transport, both in imports and exports. But the boat-transport dominated trade to and from Sylhet zone. Despite extension of the A. B. Railway from Lumding to Gauhati in 1901, in the Assam Velley, 98% of the trade was carried by river, during 1901-02. Thus, the river transport played a more important role in export, and during the initial stage railway’s contribution was more in import of essential items. In 1904 with the introduction of Assam Sunderbans Despatch Service to bring tea direct from Assam to Calcutta without transhipment at Goalunda and the agreement with the E. B. Railway to an arrangement conferring equal rates for tea from the Dooars, that helped the J.S. Company to obtain a share of tea traffic via Dhubri, the impact of the river transport became more perceptible. In 1908-09, the river borne, traffic equalled 50 % of total exports and 41 % of imports and thus the impact of railways was more conspicuous only in import to Assam. In 1905 daily steamer service was started between Dhubri and Gauhati, in both directions as a natural consequence of the extension of the E. B. (State) Railway to Dhubri in 1902. However, the river services for passenger traffic even intrastate journeys wear found to be tedious. With the Second World War, the streamer terminals experienced congestion owing to huge volume of inward traffic. During 1941-42, the government aimed particularly at diverting traffic to river route so that the strain on the railways could be reduced. The normal trade and commerce suffered when Amingaon- Kakilamukh and Dhubri- Goalpara services were closed and Bordutti (Badati) feeder service was converted from daily to alternate day service to meet military and other State requirements. After independent and partition of Bengal in 1947, the R.S.N. and I.G.S.N. Companies obtained virtual monopoly of traffic (especially of tea and jute) between Calcutta and Assam, as they could offer direct transport between these places, where the railways could not. The streamer companies’ rates were also not subject to the control of the newly set up Rates Tribunal. It was apprehended that the river transport would be a formidable mode to the railways in future. But unfortunately, river transport had also occasional and unforeseen problems, as in December 1949, when river-vessels laid with Assam- jute on way to Calcutta were held up in East- Pakistan territory. Then the river transport companies had to purchase coal from the railways at higher price owing to the operation of a system of coal-price equalization. Further, there was increase in freight with effect from June 1951 owing to the introduction of custom- examination charge of 6 pies per maund (37 kg) for each border crossing by the steamer companies. In addition to these, there was loss of time in eight check-posts on the Calcutta- Assam- Calcutta round trip. The total detention (about 4 hours in each place), being about 10 per cent of the total time taken for the voyage, appeared to be excessive from international standard. Perhaps all these factors, despite traffic potentialities, let to loss incurred by the R. S. N. Company from 1947 to 1953 and the I. G. S. N. Company in 1947 and 1949. The Assam Rail Link completed in 1949.In regard to intrastate passenger service the J. S. Companies ran three passenger services, namely, Dhubri- Kholabandha, Gauhati- Tezpur- Neamati and Silghat – Pandu- Tezpur Ferry service. Although the J. S. Companies incurred yearly loss of about Rs. 8 lakhs on these services, the

| 28 | services were popular. During 1952- 53, Gauhati- Tezpur- Neamati Express service carried 1.5 lakh passenger and Dhubri- Kholabandha service carried about 1 lakh passengers. According to the Inland Water Transport Department of the Government of Assam, about 4 lakh passengers moved, district- wise, at major ferry crossings within the Assam Valley by river transport in fifties. The earthquake of 1950, which changed the regime of the rivers, was the biggest blow to the river services of Assam. As a result of navigational difficulties the main line service was terminated 70 kilometres downstream of Dibrugarh, the main tea producing region, and only feeder services were operated to Dibrugarh. In December 1961, the main line service was further restricted only up to Neamati. During the post- independence era the transport requirement in Cachar, the Barak – valley and the Brahmaputra – valley was much more than the capacity of river services. It may be mentioned here that the average life span of IWT vessels (tugs and barges) was estimated at about 50 years, which compared favourably with the life of railway rolling stock and was much more than that of road vehicles. The capital and maintenance costs of inland water transport compared favourably with those of the roads or the railways in Assam. Thus, the importance of IWT lies as far as life- span is concerned. According to a survey, in 1963 more than 47 per cent of goods moved between Assam and Calcutta by waterways as against 46 per cent by railways in 1963-64. But unfortunately, so far as external trade is concerned, 1964 was the last year of the glory of steamer services in Assam as the Indo- Pak hostilities of 1965, led to closure of river route and river service came to standstill. Apart from external aggression of 1965, the most important single factor affecting the river transport was opening of the Brahmaputra Bridge in 1962, which led to improvement of road and rail transport in the State. In addition to this there were some internal problems: the flats were about 100 years old and there were no improvement in waterways- channel, terminal facilities and godowns etc. during the post- independence era. It may be noted that, Inland Water Transport on the rivers & some coastal routes, in India, was developed by the British- Government, since 180 years ago. CENTRAL INLAND WATER TRANSPORT CORPORATION After the War in 1965, the Joint Steamer Companies i.e. India General Steam Navigation (IGSN) Co. and Rivers Steam Navigation (RSN) Co. were made a P.S.U. in 22ndFebruary, 1967, as the Central Water Transport Corporation, CIWTC, by taking- over assets and liabilities of the erstwhile River Steam Navigation Company Ltd under a scheme approved by the Calcutta High Court, and under the Companies Act 1956 But unfortunately, “Due to inherent limitation and infrastructure bottlenecks, the operations of CIWTC could never become viable and the company has been incurring losses since inception”. In line with the decision of the GoI to revitalise sick CPSUs, wherever possible or to wind up irretrievable cases, the dissolution of the CIWTC would be initiated after disposal of movable and immovable assets. And ultimately, the Union Cabinet chaired by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi has given its approval to proposal for dissolution of Central Inland Water Transport Corporation Limited (CIWTC). The Voluntary Retirement Scheme for CIWTC was implemented in the year 2015 as per decision of ‘the Cabinet on 24.12.2014’. After the disposal of movable and immovable assets were duly completed,before liquidation of CIWTC, for the interest for better utilization and for the benefit of the people. A number of assets weretaken up by ‘Inland Waterways Authority of India’, IWAI, to provide services on the Brahmaputra River (NW-2).

| 29 | Assam Inland Water Transport Directorate: In the meantime, in pursuance of the recommendations of the Gokhale Committee (1959), the State Government (Assam) set up in 1959, a Directorate of IWT, under their Transport Department to look after the development of waterways, ferries and training of inland water transport personnel. [Source: 11.4.1 Report of Inland Water Transport Committee, October 1970, Government of India, Ministry of Shipping & Transport, New Delhi]. Presently, the Directorate is having two main services, ferry and commercial, as well as other activities. Presently, the Directorate of IWT, Assam is operating total 104 Ferry Services, under the Control and Management of the Northern India Ferries Act, 1878[As on 1959] and its Rules-1968 (As modified up to July, 1969). In addition to the ferry-services, other services namely, Commercial Services have been introduced in 1974, as per the recommendation of the Bhagavati Committee Report. Through a Crew Training Centre (CTC) at Guwahati, DIWTA is imparting training to the vessel-operating personnel (crews), since early seventies. DIWTA, also, does conservancy activities to ease the movement of ferry vessels, particularly, apart from other boats/ vessels. Inland Water Transport Directorate, Assam, also, exercises the I.V. Act, 1917, as amended in 2007; and Inland Steam Vessels Registration Rules, 1951 & Registration of Barges Rules, for Survey & Registration of vessels and conduct examinations for issuing licences to the crews. Drawing, design and construction- supervision of boats/ vessels are managed by the Directorate. To a credit to this Directorate, around 400 boats/ steel-vessels, are build/ constructed locally without any modern ship- building- facilities. Repairing and maintenance, both, minor & major, are managed by the Directorate.DIWTA, presently, has a huge asset, Fleet of 186 boats/steel- vessels. Present, human resource, under the Directorate of Inland Water Transport, Government of Assam is 4092, in total. Inland Waterways Authority of India: Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) was created by Government of India on 27 October 1986 for development and regulation of Inland waterways for shipping and navigation. The Authority primarily undertakes projects for development and maintenance of Inland Waterway Terminal infrastructure on National Waterways through grant received from the concerned Ministry of Government of India. The head office is at Noida. The Authority also has its regional offices at Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati and Kochi and sub- offices at Allahabad, Varanasi, Farakka, Sahibganj, Haldia, Swroopganj, Hemnagar, Dibrugarh, Dhubri, Silchar, Kollam, Bhubaneshwar and Vijayawada. There are 111 officially notified National Waterways (NWs) in India, identified for the purposes of inland water transport, as per the National Waterways Act, 2016. Out of the 111 NWs, 106 were created in 2016. The NW network covers around 20,275.5 km. NW-1, 2, & 3 are already operational. Cargo as well as passenger / cruise vessels are plying on these waterways. Detailed Project Reports(DPRs) for development of NW-4 & 5 were completed in 2010. The DPR of NW 5 was updated in 2014. For the newly declared 106 NWs, techno-economic feasibility studies have been initiated. [“Press Information Bureau”. www.pib.nic.in Government of India. Retrieved on 30th January, 2017.].The State of Assam is having total 15 National Waterways, including NW-2[1988, 891 KM], which has nearly 10% of cumulative navigable length of all 111 NWs in India. Table 3: National Waterways in Assam, 15, out of, total, 111 NWs in India Sl. National River Notification Year Length of NW(km) No. Waterway (NW) 1. NW 2 Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of Brahmaputra River 1988 891 2. NW 6 Aai River 2016 71 3. NW 16 Barak River 2016 121 4. NW 18 Beki River 2016 73 5. NW 30 Dihing River 2016 114 6. NW 31 Dhansiri River-Chathe River 2016 110

| 30 | 7. NW 32 Dikhu River 2016 63 8. NW 33 Doyans River 2016 61 9. NW 38 Gangadhar River 2016 62 10. NW 50 Jinjiram River 2016 43 11. NW 57 Kopili River 2016 46 12. NW 62 Lohit River 2016 100 13. NW 82 Puthimari River 2016 72 14. NW 95 Subansiri River 2016 111 15. NW 102 Tlwang (in Mizoram) then enters Cachar 2016 86 district of Assam as river Dhaleswari India has about 14,500 km of navigable waterways which comprise of rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. About 55 million tons of cargo is being moved annually by Inland Water Transport (IWT), a fuel - efficient and environment -friendly mode. Its operations are currently restricted to a few stretches in the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly Rivers,the Brahmaputra, the Barak River, the rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala, inland waters in Mumbai and the deltaic regions of the Godavari - Krishna Rivers. Besides these organized operations by mechanized vessels, country boats of various capacities also operate in various rivers and canals and substantial quantum of cargo and passengers are transported in this unorganized sector as well. Presently, IWT has been identified as one of its focus areas of development. GoI is undertaking several policy initiatives to develop this sector, through certainmajor projects, such as Jal Marg Pariyojana and Integrated National Waterways Transportation Grid. RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN ASSAM INLAND WATER TRANSPORT DIRECTORATE: The Government of Assam has, recently in 2018, taken up a Project titled ‘Assam Inland Water Transport Project’ to transform the quality of inland water transport services and to integrate high quality passenger and vehicle ferry services into Assam’s wider transport network, following the best practices of the developed countries of the world. The Project was envisaged as a sequel to a request from Government of India to the World Bank for loan assistance for the Project. It is aligned with the strategy of developing waterways for promoting regional integration and mitigation of climate change impacts. In 2018, May, a Contract is executed in between ‘Assam Inland Water Transport Development Society’ and ‘LEA Associates South Asia Private Ltd.’ for the Project, ‘Assam Inland Waterways Sector Institutional- Strengthening and Business Planning’, as per the concerned, Term of Reference. Financial support or loan grant will be from ‘the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)’, World Bank.The main objective of the project is to upgrade the vessel infrastructure and undertake activities encompassing vessel modernization, institutional capacity development, terminal development, night navigation and last mile connectivity. Broadly, it will consist of two components: To develop a Long Term Strategic Plan for Institutional-Straightening and Business Planning for Assam Inland Waterways Transport. The Government of Assam wishes to transform the quality of inland water transport services and integrate high quality passenger, cargo and vehicle ferry services into Assam’s wider transport network. To facilitate this new approach, the Government plans to create a more supportive institutional framework. While the precise allocation of functions and staff has not been finalised the broad intention is that: l the high level sector strategy and policy will be the responsibility of the Department of Transport; l the safety, environmental and economic regulation of the sector (shipping, ports, shipbuilding) will be carried out by an independent inland waterways transport regulatory authority (RA) to be established as a statutory authority and at arm’s length from either the Department of Transport or industry operators, and which shall be competitively neutral as between private and public participants in the industry;

| 31 | l the operational and commercial functions of the government’s shipping operations and terminal services is proposed tobe vested in two new corporations, the Assam Inland Water Transport Corporation Limited (AIWTCL)(indicative name) and the Assam Inland Ports Corporation Ltd (AIPCL)(indicative name) respectively, the latter providing terminals and terminal services on a common-user basis. The two new corporations will be constituted under the Companies Act (2013). l the DIWTA will retain a number of residual and other functions to be defined and developed during the study to ensure continuing employment for existing DIWTA staff not absorbed into the other entities. It is very much welcoming that “The Assam Inland Water Transport Regulatory Authority Act, 2018” already receivedthe assent of the Governor on 15th November, 2018. [ASSAM ACT NO XXVII OF 2018] It is ‘an Act to providefor the constitution of an Inland Water Transport Regulatory to promotethe development of safe, efficient, reliable and environmentally sound inland water transport and terminal services for the benefit of ferry users, freight consigners and water tourism in the State of Assam.’ The Assam Shipping Corporation Limited (ASCL)(indicative name) and the Assam Ports Corporation Ltd (APCL)(indicative name) are also very much in the pipe- line. ‘Jibondinga’, which is an ‘Incentivisation Scheme for Improvement of Inland Water Country Boat Services in Assam’ is also under an active consideration with the Government of Assam, as an IBRD- World Bank Project. CONCLUSIONS: In1950-51, Assam’s per capita income was more than the per capita income of India. But the economic scenorio of Assam has unfortunately been deteriorating since than and per capita income of Assam in 1993- 94 was only Rs5,916.00 against Rs 6,929.00 of india, which is 15 per cent less than per capita income of India.”Assam’s low per capita income is a concern” stated by the Union Finance Minister on April 24. 2018. The per capita income of Assam is Rs 67,620, much lower than the all India average of Rs 1,03,870, said the Ministry statement, adding that the (Finance) Commission recognizes the special characteristics of Assam, which, “notwithstanding acceleration in growth momentum”, will have to make enormous development strides to catch up with national averages, particularly, with respect to per capita income. In fact, Assam possesses ample potentialities for the development of Inland Water Transport. Although, it can stillplay a vital role in the regional economy, presently only a fraction of its potentialities have been explored and unutilised.Therefore intensive efforts are necessary for the study of its technologies, managementsystem and practices. Although, the history of Inland Water Transport in the North East Region of India is more than a century old, till date, no standardisation for its vessels has been adopted by any organisation. Standardisation of vessels has got a number of advantages, namely: It economizes design and construction; It economizes maintenance; Also, it improves the overall economy of transportation. Particularly, Cargo Services of Assam may be of integrated tug-barge system. Self- propelled vessels should be reduced to a bare minimum.The barge sizes should be such that it facilitates the loading of containers of standard sizes, as per ISO Standard- Container. Utilisation of Wind- Power as Additional Source of Propulsion: In a study by the author at IIT, Kharagpur in 1984, it was found that the wind characteristics, over the Brahmaputra River, are found favourable for introduction of wind- propulsion system in addition to the heat engine propulsion in the Inland Vessel in Assam. Aerofoil rig system was proposed for the purpose. For an efficient control, a microcomputer based control system was proposed to be added to the rig-system. Once the microcomputer is available on board of the vessel, a variety of other jobs may be assigned to it, such as wind direction sensing, wind velocity measurement, keeping track of actual distance covered, inventory control, and other computational aids to the navigation.

| 32 | In fact, majority of the river activities are still managed by wooden boats. The Supreme Court verdict banning the felling of trees for the interest of preserving ecological balance in the North- East region of India has triggered the importance for finding alternative boat building materials. The Brahmaputra River and the Barak River are the lifeline of Assam’s both the Valleys and its economy. It can be argued that, if properly developed, the Brahmaputra basin, particularly, can be one of the most prosperous regions of India. The key is to harness the Brahmaputra’s water resources and other resources that accompany it which has been adequately rendered in the section on morphology of the river. This paper makes a few preliminary remarks about the role of the Brahmaputra in Assam’s economy, especially from a navigational viewpoint. Finally, the paper has also attempted to highlight (i) the Role of River Transport in Economic Development as well as (ii) Evolution of River Transport. Both these aspects have been dealt with concerned historic perspective to set the appropriate background for the subject. Lastly, factual information about the State Directorate and its recent activities set the ball rolling to seek ideas and to inform the direction of the activities that would follow in near future.

References: Bora, A.K. (GU): Fluvial Geomorphology (Brahamaputra) Sarma, J.N.: An Overview of the Brahmaputra River System. Rajkumari, I.:Water Resource for Socio Economic Development With Special Reference to the River Brahmaputra in Assam, India [International Journal of Management and Applied Science, ISSN: 2394-7926 Volume-4, Issue-3, Mar.-2018] Gait, Edward Albert,:A History of Assam Guha, A. :Colonization of Assam; Second Phase 1840- 1859. Gokhale Committee Report on I.W.T (1951). Barpujari, H.K. : Assam in the days of Company (1963). Government of India (1970): Report of the IWT Committee, Chaired by B.Bhagavati. Medhi, S.B. : Transport System And Economic Development in Assam (1978). Government of India (1970): Report of the IWT Committee, Chaired by B.Bhagavati. Das, R.M,: Navigation Development (2004) [ V.P.Singh et al. (eds), Louisiana State University,U.S.A., The Brahmaputra Basin Water Resources, 473-519, Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherland. Das, R.M.: Theoretical Modellingof Cargo- Transportation in the River Brahmaputra and An Experimental Study of Utilisation of Wind- Power as Additional Source of Propulsion with Computer- Added Mechanised – Sail in Inland Water Vessels (1984). NITI Aayog: “Strategy for New India @ 75”, November,2018. Government of Assam, Water Resource Department:‘Brahmaputra River System’.

| 33 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/5 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

EFFECT OF NON-SINUSOIDAL PITCHING PROFILES ON THE PROPULSIVE PERFORMANCE OF AN OSCILLATING FOIL

B. Ashok & R.N. Govardhan Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore - 560 012

ABSTRACT By engineering standards, fish possess extraordinary swimming and maneuvering capabilities. It is interesting to understand how fish exploit the fluid around it to propel itself and from the application point of view, these studies will help to better design bio-inspired Autonomous Underwater Vehicles. Thrust generation from a flapping tail of a fish can be idealized by an airfoil undergoing pitching motion. Present work is an experimental investigation to study the effect of non-sinusoidal waveforms on the propulsive characteristics of an oscillating foil. We employ pitching motion of the desired waveform through a servo motor to a foil placed in a uniform freestream and record the unsteady forces and moments generated, using a loadcell. We compare the generated thrust, input power, and propulsive efficiency for three basic pitching waveforms, i.e. triangular, sinusoidal, and square-like waveform for a range of nondimensional pitching frequencies (Strouhal number). We are using two configurations for the foil, i.e. initially a rigid foil, and at a later stage by attaching a flexible flap at the end of its trailing edge. Hence chordwise flexibility is another independent parameter in this study. Results reveal that the square-like waveform produces higher thrust, whereas sinusoidal and triangular profile leads to better propulsive efficiency in case of both rigid and flexible foil. Keywords: fish swimming, actuation waveforms, non-sinusoidal motion, pitching foil, propulsion.

1 INTRODUCTION Over centuries fishes have evolved to perform efficient swimming and complex maneuvering. Such observations have attracted many researchers to study and mimic the thrust generating mechanism of fishes. As a simplified version of such a propulsive system, oscillating foils are being studied extensively in different conditions to understand and quantify their propulsive performance. There is a large body of work available for thrust generation from a rigid foil in both experimental and numerical fronts (such as [1], [2], [3], [4]). But except a very few, most of these studies were restricted to the sinusoidal form of oscillations only. However, fishes use different types of tail flapping under different circumstances to achieve desired motions. The present work is intended to explore the possibility of different types of oscillating waveforms and their implications on propulsive performance, which could be useful in designing the propulsor of an underwater vehicle. Some of the very few studies dealing with non-sinusoidal oscillations of a foil are discussed here. One of the early experimental studies by Koochesfahani [5] showed how altering the shape of a pitching waveform changes the vortical patterns in the wake of an oscillating foil. Hover et al. [6] have compared

| 34 | the effect of square, symmetric saw tooth, and cosine pitching profiles on thrust generation from a foil experimentally. They have reported that a cosine profile has better propulsive performance in terms of high thrust and high efficiency. In a very recent experimental study by Smits et al. [7] and numerical work by Lu et al. [8], showed the effects of triangular, sinusoidal, and square waveforms, on the flow and forces of a rigid oscillating airfoil. Despite such studies, the understanding of non-sinusoidal oscillating foils is still in its elementary stage. Additionally, most of the previously mentioned studies were for rigid foils, but in reality, fish fins have flexible parts that can undergo passive deformations during flapping. Studies have reported substantial improvement in propulsive efficiency in the case of flexible foil compared to its rigid counterpart [9, 10]. This motivated us to introduce chordwise flexibility to the foil in our study along with rigid foil. The present work involves a comprehensive study on the effects of three basic actuation waveforms, namely, triangular, sinusoidal and square-like on the propulsive performance of rigid & flexible pitching foils in a uniform flow. 2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experimental setup consists of a rigid symmetric airfoil (NACA 0012) of 12.5 cm chord and 30 cm span length, which undergoes in a pitching motion employed by a servomotor controlled through an Arduino board. The whole setup is placed inside a free surface recirculating water tunnel with 0.26m width, 0.45m depth, and 1m long test section. A uniform flow of speeds in the range of 1cm/s to 30cm/s can be achieved in the test section. To maintain the two-dimensionality of the flow around the airfoil and to limit the end effects, end plates are placed at 3mm away from the top and bottom surface of the foil. To measure the unsteady forces and moments generated during the pitching motion of the foil in a uniform freestream, we attach a six-component force-torque sensor above the airfoil as shown in the Fig.1(a). The Instantaneous angular displacement of the foil about its axis of rotation (at quarter chord) is measured by using a potentiometer.

Fig.1.(a) Schematic of the experimental setup showing a pitching foil in the water tunnel. (b) Schematic showing flexible foil, comprising of a flexible flap of length C and flexural rigidity EI attached to a rigid foil of chord length C . F R 2.1 Experimental details In the present study, we experimentally investigate the effect of actuation waveform on the propulsive characteristics of a pitching foil. We used three basic variants of pitching waveforms, i.e. triangular, sinusoidal, and square-like waveforms, which were generated using the following function taken from the numerical study of Lu. et al, 2013 [8].

| 35 | where K is an adjustable parameter employed to get different waveforms starting from triangular to square as we vary its value from -1 to 3, θ is the instantaneous angular position, ƒ is the pitching frequency, and t is time.

Fig.2. Pitching waveforms showing triangular (K=-1), sinusoidal (K=0), Square like (K=3) waveforms for θ =150. 0 The amplitude of oscillation, θ , was kept constant at 150 for all the cases in the study, and the values 0 of K were varied as -1, 0 & 3 to obtain triangular, sinusoidal & square-like waveforms respectively as shown in the Fig.2. The flexible foil used in the study comprises of a thin flap of flexural rigidity EI and flap length C attached to the trailing edge of the rigid foil, as shown in Fig.1(b). This chordwise flexibility introduces F additional non-dimensional parameters like flexural rigidity parameter, R*=El / (0.5pU2C 3), and flexible F flap to total chord length ratio (C / C) as given in [10]. In the present study, C / C was kept constant at F F 0.45, whereas flaps of different stiffness were used to obtain data over a wide range of R* values. The kinematics of the pitching foil can be captured by a non-dimensional frequency called Strouhal number, St= fA /U, where A is the rigid trailing edge peak to peak excursion, and U is the free stream velocity. R R Strouhal number was varied from 0.08 to 0.64 in increments of 0.08 by changing the pitching frequency f. The desired waveform was fed to the servomotor through an Arduino board according to equation (1). The instantaneous forces and moments generated due to the pitching motion of the foil were measured using a loadcell mounted above it. The axes of the loadcell were aligned in such a way that it measures forces in the normal and axial directions with respect to the rigid chord along with the instantaneous pitching moment as shown in Fig.3. These forces and moments were normalized appropriately as the following,

| 36 | Where N is the normal and A is the axial force with respect to the rigid chord of the foil, U is the uniform freestream velocity in the test section, s is the span, and c is the total chord of the foil, i.e. C for R rigid foil and (C + C ) for flexible foils. The thrust R F coefficient (C ) was calculated as the sum of the T contributions from normal (C ) and axial forces (C ) TN TA by resolving the normal and axial force coefficients, respectively, along the streamwise direction using the instantaneous angular position (θ), measured by the Fig.3. Rigid pitching foil showing the positive direction of potentiometer, as given below: normal force (N), axial force (A), and pitching moment (M).

In our experiments, we record force data for around 50 pitching cycles. After filtering for noise, and by phase averaging over the 50 cycles, we obtain force data representing one complete pitching cycle. As we are interested in quantities like average thrust generated and power consumed over one pitching cycle, we take the time average of those quantities by integrating it over the pitching cycle (with time period T) as given below:

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this section, we present the phase-averaged force measurements for the three pitching waveforms for a rigid foil. Fig.4 shows the phase-averaged angular position (θ), angular velocity (θ), coefficients of thrust contributed from normal (C ) and axial (C ) directions, and coefficient of power (C ) for triangular TN TA P (K=-1), sinusoidal (K=0) and square-like (K=3) pitching waveforms at St = 0.4 & θ =150. The forces and 0 moments due to inertia of the foil are already being subtracted from the loadcell measurements, so that

| 37 | we are looking at forces exerted by the fluid on the foil due to its pitching motion. Fig.4(b) shows that, for the sinusoidal waveform motion and forces

Fig.4. Time trace signals for angular position (θ), angular velocity (θ), normal (C ) and axial (C ) contribution of thrust coefficients TN TA & power coefficient (C ) for (a) triangular (K=-1), (b) sinusoidal (K=0), (c) Square-like (K=3) waveforms at St=0.4 & θ =150 for P 0 a rigid foil. vary smoothly unlike square waveform (Fig.4(c)), where the foil stays at the two extreme ends for a large fraction of cycle time with a sudden sweeping motion in between, and we can observe spikes in the force and power coefficients during the sudden motions. For all three waveforms, C is large and positive meaning thrust producing, whereas C comes as TN TA small and negative implying drag producing. This means that the maximum contribution of thrust comes from the normal force, as expected for rigid foils. It is interesting to note that the cycle average of the quantities like C , C & C matches to a very close extent for triangular and sinusoidal waveform for the TN TA P same St and θ (Fig.4(a) & 4(b)). This implies that from the propulsive point of view, sinusoidal and 0 triangular waveforms are very similar. But it can be seen from the Fig.4(c), that for the square-like waveform, the magnitude of force signal, mainly C which predominately indicates the total thrust TN produced, is much larger compared to the other two waveforms. These observations are further backed by Fig. 5(a), which shows the variation of mean thrust (C ) with Strouhal number for a rigid foil, clearly T indicating that the square-like waveform produces higher mean thrust compared to the other two at a given Strouhal number. However, efficiency is also an important parameter in characterizing propulsion. The propulsive efficiency for the square waveform turns out to be the least compared to sinusoidal and triangular waveforms, where its values are almost the same.

| 38 | Fig.5. Variation of cycle-averaged thrust coefficient with Strouhal number for triangular (K=-1), sinusoidal (K=0), and square-like (K=3) waveforms at θ =150 for (a) rigid foil, and (b) flexible foil of R*=18. 0 Fig.5(b) shows the thrust characteristics for a flexible foil with non-dimensional flexural rigidity parameter R*=18. It is interesting to note that, the thrust has improved by introducing chordwise flexibility when compared with the corresponding waveforms in its rigid counterpart (Fig.5(a)). However, similar to the rigid foil, a square-like waveform (K=3) produces the highest thrust in case of the flexible foil as well. 4 CONCLUSIONS In the present work, we experimentally studied the effect of non-sinusoidal waveforms on propulsive characteristics of a pitching foil by direct force measurements. We have considered three basic variations of pitching waveforms, i.e. triangular, sinusoidal, and square-like waveforms and compared their thrust and power inputs obtained from the force measurements at a given Strouhal number and pitching amplitude in the previous section. It was observed that sinusoidal and triangular waveforms have similar propulsive characteristics when we compare the cycle-averaged thrust and power. On the other hand, a square-like waveform gives rise to higher thrusts but with lower efficiency than the other two waveforms. Moreover, this present study implies that by tailoring pitching waveform, we can obtain desired types of swimming, like efficient cruising with sinusoidal pitching and higher speeds with a square-like waveform. Introducing chordwise flexibility has shown promising improvement in the thrust, compared to its rigid counterpart (Fig.5). Furthermore, it would be interesting to study over a wide range of flexible foils (varying R*) to look for optimal flexibility and pitching waveform for achieving better thrust and efficiency. Few more experiments in this direction are in progress and these results will be discussed at the conference along with the rigid foil case. References W.J. McCroskey, Unsteady airfoils, Annual review of fluid mechanics, 14(1) (1982) 285- 311. J.M. Anderson, K. Streitlien, D.S. Barrrett & M.S. Triantafyllou, Oscillating foils of high propulsive efficiency, J. Fluid Mech., 360 (1998) 41-72. A.W. Mackowski & C.H.K. Williamson, Direct measurement of thrust and efficiency of an airfoil undergoing pure pitching, J. Fluid Mech., 765 (2015) 524-543. A. Das, R.K. Shukla & R.N. Govardhan, Existence of a sharp transition in the peak propulsive efficiency of a low-Re pitching foil, J. Fluid Mech., 800 (2016) 307-326. M.M. Koochesfahani, Vortical patterns in the wake of an oscillating airfoil, AIAA J., 27 (1989) 1200-1205. F.S. Hover, O. Haugsdal & M.S. Triantafyllou, Effect of angle of attack profiles in flapping foil propulsion, J. Fluids Struct., 19 (2004) 37-47. T. Van Buren, D. Floryan, D. Quinn & A.J. Smits, Nonsinusoidal gaits for unsteady propulsion, Physical Review Fluids, 2 (2017) 53101-53113. K. Lu, Y. H. Xie & D. Zhang, Numerical study of large amplitude, nonsinusoidal motion and camber effects on pitching airfoil propulsion, J. Fluids Struct.,36 (2013) 184-194. J. Katz & D. Weihs, Hydrodynamic propulsion by large amplitude oscillation of an airfoil with chordwise flexibility, J. Fluid Mech., 88 (1978) 485-497. M. J. David, R.N. Govardhan & J.H. Arakeri, Thrust generation from pitching foils with flexible trailing edge flaps, J. Fluid Mech., 828 (2017) 70-103. | 39 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/6 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK IN SILTATION STUDIES

Dhanya S. and H. V. Warrior Department of Ocean Engineering & Naval Architecture, IIT Kharagpur, West Bengal, India [email protected] (corresponding author)

ABSTRACT The Bay of Bengal is one of the most complex water systems in the world and so is its circulation and hydrography. This is mainly because of the semi-annual reversing monsoons and the associated heat and freshwater fluxes. Besides this, the inflow of warm saline waters of the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea origin, and a number of synoptic disturbances (cyclones) originating during both pre-monsoon and post-monsoon period in this region, also affect the sediment dispersal pattern in the Bay of Bengal. Despite numerous studies and abundant literatures, the siltation rates of the Bay are not well estimated and is the motivation for the current work. Delft-3D is the most commonly used model to study the sedimentation along coasts. But we see that high errors are produced in the model as the distance from coast increases. This is because, these models simulate the tidal currents very well but do not consider the basin-scale circulation. In the far-shelf region (50m to 500m isobaths), there is a combined influence of tidal currents as well as basin scale velocity components. In this paper, as a solution to reduce the errors produced by the model, another method of determining the siltation rates is proposed, which is by using Artificial Neural Network (ANN). In this study, the ANN seems to provide a reasonable estimation of siltation rates considering the influence of both tidal velocity components and basin scale components along with surface elevation at deeper regions off the continental shelf. Keywords: Siltation rate, Artificial Neural Network, Delft3D-Flow

1. INTRODUCTION The Bay of Bengal is about 2090 km long and 1610 km wide, bordered on the west by Sri Lanka and India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and Thailand. This unique semi-enclosed basin experiences seasonally reversing monsoons and depressions, severe cyclonic storms (SCS), and consequently receives a large amount of rainfall and river run-off in the tropics. The impacts of the enormous discharge of riverine fresh water and sediments in the Bay are least understood. Due to the influence of water density and monsoon wind, the seasonal changes of the sea level in the Bay are remarkable and one of the highest in the world. However, towards the southwestern coast near Chennai and Vishakhapatnam, the range is small compared to the northern and northeastern coasts of the Bay. Hence, it is very important to monitor and understand the fate of the freshwater discharge and the sediments in the northern bay. Despite numerous studies worldwide, it is still a challenge to estimate suspended sediment concentration and its siltation characteristics in the continental shelf of the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges-Brahmaputra River System carries the world’s highest annual sediment load at one billion tons (Milliman and Meade, 1983; Milliman and Syvitski, 1992), and yet because of its remote location, research on sediment transport and accumulation in the delta has been limited (Barua et al., 1994;

| 40 | Goodbred and Kuehl, 1999). The rivers drain the Himalaya Mountains and flow through the Bengal Basin before debouching into the Bay of Bengal. Seasonal overbank flooding (Allison et al., 1998a) and high flood stages (Coleman, 1969) result from annual monsoons, which have a primary impact on river flow and sediment discharge; 80% of the annual water discharge and 95% of the annual sediment load is debouched during the four summer monsoon months (Goodbred, 2003). Siltation is one of the most striking oceanographic features of the continental shelf zone of the northern Bay of Bengal. Denudation of the Himalaya has resulted in the formation of the world’s largest delta, which is still active, growing at a rate of about 70 m3/s every thousand years (Curray and Moore, 1971 and Biswash, 1978). The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system brings this sediment down and drains it into the Bay of Bengal. Around 6 million m3/s of water carrying an estimated 2,179 million tons of sediment is carried down to the sea each year by the Ganges-Brahmaputra river system (Curray and Moore, 1971). In the Bay of Bengal, mainly terrigenous and calcareous types of sediments dominate the continental shelf and deep sea respectively (Duxbury et. al., 2005). The Swatch of no Ground, also known as the Ganga Trough, has a comparatively flat floor 5-7 km wide and walls of about 12° inclination (Fig. 14). At the edge of the shelf, depths in the trough are about 1200 m. The Swatch of no Ground has a seaward continuation for more than 2000 km down the Bay of Bengal in the form of fan valleys with levees. The sandbars and ridges near the mouth of the G-B delta pointing toward the Swatch of no Ground suggest that sediments are tunneled through this trough into the deeper part of the Bay of Bengal. Sediment characteristics and distribution pattern in the shelf region are controlled by a number of environmental, oceanographic and climatological factors, i.e., riverine supply of sediment to the neighbouring seas, coastal erosion, human intervention in the coastal front etc. Physical processes such as wave, tide and current regimes also can transport and influence the distribution of sediments. Sediments are fine seaward and westward with the thickest accumulation of mud near the submarine canyon, the Swatch of no Ground. High accretion rates in the subaqueous delta and Swatch of No Ground (SoNG) indicate that these portions of the delta are presently only in the construction phase of the delta cycle (Wilson and Goodbred Jr., 2015). Suspended particles of a grain size do not reach the bed at the same time, but they will be distributed at different depths. The rate at which the sediments gets deposited depends on more than just the decrease in current speed. The time the particles take to settle depends on the settling velocity as well as on the degree of turbulence in the water column and while the particles are settling, they continue to be transported in the net current flow direction. Very small particles settle slowly than the larger particles and hence, they will reach the bed some distance away from where they began settling i.e. settling lag will be there.

Fig. 1. Contour map for the Bengal Shelf

| 41 | There are many codes like DELFT 3D, Mike 21, etc which are routinely used to predict the siltation in the continental shelf. In this paper, we show the error of one basic premise of these models- the neglect of basin-scale velocity in the Bay, which gives larger errors for the siltation rates on continental shelf, especially between the 50m and 500m isobaths. For the purpose of this study, the total continental shelf is divided into 3 regions- Region 1 with depth less than 50m; Region 2 with depths from 5m to 500m isobaths; and Region 3 which is mainly the deep ocean region. 2. METHODOLOGY Fig. 2 shows the methodology of the proposed numerical scheme. The idea is to augment the velocity in the shelf with the basin scale velocity (taken from measured values like OSCAR) and then apply the ANN to predict the enhanced siltation rates.

Fig. 2. Methodology 2.1 Numerical Model- Delft3D Delft3D-FLOW is a multi-dimensional (2D or 3D) hydrodynamic (and transport) simulation program which calculates non-steady flow and transport phenomena that result from tidal and meteorological forcing on a rectilinear or a curvilinear, boundary fitted grid. In 3D simulations, the vertical grid is defined following the ó co-ordinate approach. The Delft3D modelling suite contains the grid generator program RGFGRID that generates a curvilinear grid (in Cartesian or spherical co-ordinates) with the required resolution and properties. Another utility program QUICKIN enables to select a sequence of data files and to control the interpolation areas and the interpolation method. Bathymetry can be created or modified without samples data, by changing grid depth values interactively of by specifying sample data using a polygon. Delft3D-QuickPlot program can be used to visualize and animate numerical results produced by the Delft3D modules. The program has been developed using MATLAB. The Delft3D-MATLAB interface contains a version of Delft3D-QUICKPLOT that integrates seamlessly with the MATLAB environment. 2.2 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Neural networks are composed of simple elements operating in parallel. These elements are inspired by biological nervous systems. As in nature, the network function is determined largely by the connections between elements. A neural network can be trained to perform a particular function by adjusting the values of the connections (weights) between elements. They can been trained to perform complex functions in various fields of application including pattern recognition, identification, classification, speech and vision and control systems. Today neural networks can be trained to solve problems that are difficult for conventional computers or human beings. Throughout the toolbox emphasis is placed on neural network paradigms that build up to or are themselves used in engineering, financial and other practical

| 42 | applications. Commonly, neural networks are adjusted or trained, so that a particular input leads to a specific target output (Deo 2007). 3. NUMERICAL MODELLING 3.1 Delft-3D Flow Model The study area ranges from 20.55°N to 23.77°N latitudes and from 87.74°E- 91.78°E longitudes covering around 420 kms in the x-direction and 140 kms off the coast. The model grid was generated in Delft3D suite, with grid size 0.01º x 0.01º, with the number of grids being 407 x 325. The maximum water depth in the area is 130m except near to the Swatch of No Ground (SoNG)- a submarine canyon where the depth goes beyond 130m up to 1100m as taken from GEBCO 08 (Fig.3.). The model was run for 10 months from 01-01- 2018 to 13-10-2018 with 120 minutes time interval and 1-minute time step. The open boundary conditions for the model were forced with amplitude and phase of 11 tidal constituents

Fig. 3. Grid and Bathymetry for study area 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The DELFT3D output file was post processed using the QUICKPLOT tool. The required output parameters are the depth averaged velocity and cumulative erosion/ sedimentation. The output parameters were extracted from 01 January to 13 October with a time interval of 120 minutes for different depths from 2m to 700m. The Fig.4. shows velocity and cumulative erosion/sedimentation plots for January, May and October. The velocity values ranged from 0.08 m/s to 0.92 m/s the former being the velocity at deeper region and the latter being the value at the shallow region near the river discharge areas. Similarly, the cumulative erosion and sedimentation was also extracted for the respective time interval. Many studies have been made in the shelf region of Northern Bay of Bengal. The data collected from this region using core samplers showed that the sedimentation rate has been varying from the northern shelf to the canyon in the region, with values ranging from 5cm/year to more than 50 cm/yr (Wickmann et al, 2001; Wilson and Goodbred Jr., 2015; Rogers et. Al., 2015). It was observed that by October, the cumulative erosion or deposition has negative values near the river discharge region, where the water depth is less and positive values towards the end of the continental shelf where the depth is beyond 30m. It implies that, near to the coastal region, erosion occurred whereas towards the open sea, sedimentation was taking place. Near the river mouth, there was sedimentation and erosion taking place simultaneously though the erosion dominates. The average erosion rate was found to be around 3.7cm/yr. at 2m water depth. Moving towards the deeper areas, though there is sedimentation and erosion, sedimentation prevails, which accounts to a sedimentation of 70cm and beyond by the end of the year.

| 43 | Fig. 4. Velocity and Cumulative erosion/sedimentation for January, May and October The current velocity at a depth of around 150m in the study area was extracted for the entire year from Ocean Surface Current Analysis Real-time (OSCAR) (Fig.5.), and was combined with Delft3D, to understand the effect of the currents from the Bay basin. The data has a spatial resolution of 0.33 degree x 0.33 degree latitude and longitude with a 5 days temporal resolution. The OSCAR contains near-surface ocean current estimates, derived using quasi-linear and steady flow momentum equations. The horizontal velocity is directly estimated from sea surface height, surface vector wind and sea surface temperature. These data were collected from the various satellites and in situ instruments.

Fig. 5. Velocity Vectors from OSCAR for January, May and October

| 44 | A neural network was set up (Fig.6.) for predicting the cumulative erosion/sedimentation for the new velocities, (a sum of the Delft predicted velocity and the basin velocity). For that, MATLAB Neural Network Toolbox is used. A set of data, with time, depth and old velocity as inputs and cumulative erosion/ sedimentation as output was created. This data consisting of the input as well as the target (output) is used as the training dataset, which trains the network.

Fig. 6. Neural Network Setup A feed-forward back-propagation network was created in NN Toolbox with 2 layers and 30 neurons and tansig as the transfer function. Multiple-layer networks are quite powerful. For instance, a network of two layers can be trained to approximate any function (with a finite number of discontinuities) arbitrarily well. The simulation data consists of the time, depth and the new velocities as input for the network and the weights as obtained from training the network is used for simulating the new target values. Fig.7. shows the comparison between the velocities from DELFT3D alone and from DELFT3D and OSCAR combined, with varying depth. The difference between both the methods is significantly visible beyond 50m water depth compared to that till 50m. Thus, it could be concluded that DELFT3D gives better values for nearshore calculations for up to a depth of 50m. From 50m to 500m, there is a combined effect of the tidal current velocities as well as basin velocity and, beyond 500m water depth, the influence of the basin velocity dominates and hence the comparatively higher difference..

Fig.7. Velocity variation for January, May and October. In Fig. 8, the difference in the values of the sedimentation/erosion rates between Delft3D and ANN predicted are alone plotted. From these plots, it could be observed that the difference in the values i.e., the errors could be significantly reduced if ANN is used for far-shelf region, i.e., beyond 50 m water depth.

| 45 | Fig. 8. Difference between DELFT3D and ANN outputs

CONCLUSIONS The reason for occurrence of sedimentation towards the end of continental shelf could be due to turbidity currents and sediment cascades, where turbidity currents are driven by gravity acting on high- density sediments suspended temporarily within the fluid and the sediment cascade represents the sediment transport from all sediment sources through the river network as individual cascading transport processes. The sediments stop moving when the bed shear stress is slightly lower than the critical shear stress and they starts to settle as soon as the gravitational force is greater than the buoyant force. The time the particles take to settle, depends not only on the settling velocity, but on the degree of turbulence in the water column as well, and while the particles are settling, they continue to be transported in the direction of the net current flow. From the graphs plotted, it can be seen that the Delft3D gives more reliable results where the tidal velocity dominates, i.e., till 50m depth. This could be supported with the help of literatures, In this region, the Delft3D is enough to do the sedimentation modelling. When the depth increases beyond 50 m, the basin scale velocities (as given by OSCAR) become the same order as the shelf velocities and using Delft3D will be erroneous. However, a neural network could be set up efficiently for combining the effects of basin scale velocity and the tidal velocity, as well as for computing the sedimentation rates in the far-shelf region where the depth varies from 50m to 500m.

References: Ahumada, M.A. and Cruzado, A., Modeling of the circulation in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea with the Princeton Ocean Model, Ocean Science, 2007, pp: 77–89, 2008. Amoudry, Laurent O., Souza, Alejandro J, Deterministic Coastal Morphological and Sediment Transport Modeling: A Review and Discussion, Review of Geophysics, Volume 49, Issue 2, 2011. Barua, D.K., et Al, Suspended sediment distribution and residual transport in the coastal ocean off the Ganges- Brahmaputra River mouth. Marine Geology, pp: 41-61, 1994. Deo, M.C., Artificial Neural Networks in Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Indian Journal of Geo- Marine Science, pp: 589-596, 2007. Goodbred Jr., S.L. and Kuehl, S.A., Holocene and modern sediment budgets for the Ganges-Brahmaputra River System: evidence for highstand dispersal to floodplain, shelf, and deep-sea depocenters. Geology. 27 (6), pp: 559-562, 1999. Lesser, G.R., et. al, Three-dimensional morphological modelling in Delft3D-FLOW, SASME Book of Abstracts (2001) Mandal, S., Patil, Sanjay G., Manjunatha, Y.R., and Hegde, A.V., Application of Neural Networks in Coastal Engineering – an overview. The 12th International Conference of International Association for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG), 2008.

| 46 | Milliman, J.D. and Meade, R.H., World-wide delivery of sediment to the oceans. Geology, pp: 1-21, 1983. Milliman, J.D. and Syvitski, J.P.M., Geomorphic/tectonic control of sediment discharge to the ocean: the importance of small mountainous rivers. Journal of Geology, pp: 525-544, 1992. Mohanty, P.K., et al, Sediment Dispersion in Bay of Bengal, Monitoring and Modelling Lakes and Coastal Environments, pp: 50-78, 2008. Pierson-Wickmann, A.-C., Reisberg, L., France-Lanord, C., and Kudrass, H.R., 2001. Os-Sr-Nd results from sediments in the Bay of Bengal: implications for sediment transport and the marine Os record. Paleoceanography, 16(4):435– 444 Rogers, Kimberly G., Goodbred Jr. Steven L., Khan, Sirajur R., 2015, Shelf-to-canyon connections: Transport-related morphology and mass balance at the shallow-headed, rapidly aggrading Swatch of No Ground (Bay of Bengal), Marine Geology, pp: 288-299 Tayfur, Gokmen, Artificial neural networks for sheet sediment transport, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 47:6, 879-892, 2002. Wilson, Carol A. and Goodbred. Jr. Steven L, 2015, Construction and Maintenance of the GBMD:Linking Process, Morphology and Stratigraphy, Annual Review of Marine Sciences, pp: 67-88.

| 47 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/7 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

A GEOSTATISTICAL APPROACH FOR CONTOUR MAPPING AND SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF GROUNDWATER IN AND AROUND ROURKELA, ODISHA, INDIA

Rabindranath Barik Sanjaya Kumar Pattanayak Assistant Professor, Padmanava College of Engineering, Associate Professor, P.G. Department of Environmental Rourkela, Pin: 769002, Odisha, India Science, Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar, Burla, E-mail: [email protected] Sambalpur, Odisha, India, Pin: 768019 E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT An investigation on groundwater assessment was done in Rourkela, lying between 84.540 E longitude and 22.120 N latitude located in the Sundergarh district of Odisha, India. A study of Geostatistical approach for contour mapping and spatial variability of groundwater in and around Rourkela city was attempted to discover the dominant processes in influencing the groundwater quality. The parameters used for this study were pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Hardness, Sodium Absorption Ratio, Na %, Residual Soluble Carbonate, Residual Sodium Bicarbonate, Permeability index, Potential Salinity, Magnesium hazard, Magnesium/Calcium ratio, Kelley’s ratio and indices of base exchange. Data plot dispositions on Gibb’s diagram indicated that the chemistry of groundwater of the area is controlled by rock composition. Most of the samples with negative chloro-alkaline indices values suggested the predominance of chloro-alkaline disequilibrium process in the groundwater system. The contour mapping and spatial variability of the physico-chemical parameters suggests that the groundwater’s of Chhend colony, Civil Township, Sector 21, Uditnagar and Bandamunda are most suitable for irrigation, in contrast to that of Koel Nagar, Shaktinagar, Basanti Colony and northweast part of Jagda-Jhirpani. Keywords: Groundwater, irrigation, Rourkela

INTRODUCTION The rate of indiscriminate exploitation of groundwater has grown in the Asian countries in the past decade (Ravikumar and Somashekar, 2011). In India, the quantity as well as quality of water available for irrigation is depending on the geology and climatology of the site, and at the same time the demands on water use in agriculture, industry and urbanization processes have increased. The exploitation of groundwater has led to the lowering of water table and deterioration in water quality (Prasad et al., 2008). The aberration in the monsoon pattern and increase in impervious urban covers leading to decrease in percolation rate of surface water have also led to the degradation of groundwater quality. Therefore, A Geostatistical approach for contour mapping and spatial variability of groundwater in and around Rourkela was studied to know the quality of groundwater. THE STUDY AREA Rourkela is a city of Sundargarh district of Odisha in India, which lies at an elevation of 219 m above sea level and is placed around 84.54°E longitude and 22.12°N latitude (Fig.1). Rourkela is an important industrial city. The Rourkela city has a geographical spread over 264.7 km2 and it harbours a human

| 48 | population of more than 4 lakhs. There are iron ore, dolomite and coal belts surrounding the region. Durgapur hill range bifurcates the city into two parts – Northern and Southern Clusters. Koel River flows towards west in the north of Rourkela and confluences with east flowing Sankh River near Vedavyas. In the downstream of this confluence, the river is named as Brahmani which has a southward flow in the region. Brahmani river system is one of the large river systems of the country. With a mega steel plant in the area and many medium and large scale industries the Rourkela city is an Industrial Complex. With the monsoon period accounting for greater than 70% of the total annual rainfall, the average annual rainfall amounts to 137 cm. The air temperature in the region goes down to 6oC during winter (December-January) and rises up to 47oC during summer (May). The range for average relative humidity is 35 to 85%; the humidity is highest during July. The population density of Rourkela urban area is about 6,696 persons per km2 approximately. There is variation in land use/land cover pattern within the region. At the extremes, there are areas in rural sectors and areas that are considered urban. Between these two extremes there exists a vast geographical area. For this area, the discrete definitions of “rural and urban” settings are often blurred and such areas are considered “rurban settings”. However, Urban, Rurban and Rural setup are unified systems where people, ideas and materials circulate. METHODOLOGY This study was conducted during March to May, i.e. during Indian pre-monsoon seasons. Twenty five groundwater samples were collected from the study area from 25 locations lying in Urban, Rurban and Rural settings (Fig.1 and Table 2). The samples were collected from three types of wells viz. bore wells, tube wells and dug wells. The groundwater samples were collected after 10 minutes of flow in case of tube wells and bore wells. The samples were directly collected in pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles of 2 liter capacity and stored. Electrical conductivity, pH, temperature and total dissolved solids for the collected samples were measured in the field immediately after sampling using water analysis kit. The concentrations of major ions in the water samples were determined at the laboratory using the standard analytical procedures described in APHA (2005). The Ion charge Balance Equation and Ion Balance Error Computation methods (Mathhess, 1982; Dommenico, 1990) were used to check the accuracy of all chemical analyses. These methods considered the relationship between the total cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) and the total anions (PO 3-, NO -, SO 2-, CO 2-, HCO - and Cl-) for each groundwater analysis and calculated the error 4 3 4 3 3 percent/reaction error/cationic and anionic balance (E) of samples as

E = x 100

where the sum of major cations and anions are expressed in meq/L. The reaction error of all groundwater samples was less than the accepted limit of (Mathhess, 1982), thus supporting the precision of the data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Different analysed parameters and calculated indices values are given in Table 2 and discussed in the following sections. pH The pH value in groundwater is dependent on the carbon dioxide–carbonate–bicarbonate equilibria (Masters and Ela, 2008). The groundwater contains carbonates of calcium and magnesium at a pH range of 7.5 to 8, whilst the water with pH of 8.5 or higher carries appreciable exchangeable sodium. The pH values of the groundwater samples of the region vary from 6.5 to 7.8 and at five localities the pH values exceed the threshold limit of 7.5 (Table 2). The ranges of pH values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 6.5-7.8, 6.7-7.6 and 6.6-7.4, respectively. At this pH levels the groundwater is suitable for irrigation.

| 49 | Electrical Conductivity (EC) The EC value of groundwater samples of the area ranges from 228 to 303 µS/cm (Table 1) suggesting that the water is excellent to good for irrigation in accordance with the scheme proposed by Wilcox (1955). The ranges of EC values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 228-280, 230-277 and 230-303 µS/cm, respectively. Following UCCC (1974) scheme on degree of restriction on use based on EC values, the groundwater of the study area belongs to ‘none’ category and therefore suitable for irrigation purpose. Total Hardness (TH) The bicarbonate component of the soil indirectly affects the plant growth. Using this parameter, the groundwater samples of the region were classified into three different categories viz. soft, moderately hard and hard following the scheme of Sawyer and McCarty (1967) . The ranges of TH values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 63-230, 98-141 and 84-106 mg/L, respectively. Out of 25 groundwater samples, the numbers of hard, moderately hard and soft categories were, 3, 19 and 3, respectively. It appears that major portions of the groundwater of the region are only moderately hard and therefore suitable for irrigation purpose. Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) The waters in which sodium deposition is high are not considered suitable for irrigating the soils because sodium when occurring in higher concentrations negatively affects the soil characters. Particularly, the soil permeability is reduced by sodium, which in turn, inhibits the supply of water to crops. High SAR values indicate the dominance of sodium over calcium and magnesium considered together and is effectively used to understand the sodium hazard of high carbonate waters. It is a suitable index to estimate the alkali hazard in irrigation water and effectively suggests whether a particular water source can be used for irrigation. The groundwater samples of the region were classified based on SAR values using the scheme proposed by Todd (1959) and Richards (1954) . All the groundwater samples collected in this study have SAR values less than 10 suggesting that they are grouped into S sodium hazard class and are excellent for 1 irrigation purpose. The ranges of SAR values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 0.44-2.75, 1.19-3.44 and 1.88-5.65, respectively. Thus, SAR values were generally high for rural samples. Percent Sodium (%Na) Methods proposed by Richards (1954) and Wilcox (1955) were used to classify and understand the basic chemical characteristics of groundwater since its suitability for irrigation depends on the mineralization of water as well as its effects on plants and soil. In case of sodium rich irrigation water, the clay particles in soil absorb Na+, displacing the Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions from the lattice. This replacement of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in soil by Na+ from water affects the permeability and reduces the internal drainage within the soil. Therefore, air and water circulations are restricted under wet conditions and when dried such soils become hard (Saleh et al., 1999). Based on percent Sodium levels the groundwater samples of the region are classified into excellent, good and permissible categories. While only two samples are of excellent category, 8 samples are good and 15 samples are of permissible category. The ranges of %Na values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 18.38-55.09, 28.60-56.69 and 42.27-57.99%, respectively. Thus, %Na is generally high for groundwater of Rural setup. Soluble sodium percentage (SSP) The soluble sodium percentage (SSP) values for the groundwater samples of the region range from 23.27 to 95.77 (Table 2) suggesting that the water quality is excellent to good categories for the purpose of agricultural use. The ranges of SSP values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the

| 50 | region were 23.27-74.81, 33.62-69.79 and 48.10-95.75, respectively. Thus the Rural waters have high SSP values. Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) The excess concentration of CO -2 and HCO - in groundwater considered together over the sum of Ca+2 3 3 and Mg+2 also determines the usability of groundwater for irrigation purpose. In groundwater with high concentrations of HCO -, the Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions tend to precipitate. Sodium bicarbonate and carbonate, 3 when present in excess, affect the physical properties of soils. These ions together cause dissolution of organic matter in the soil and result in black stain when the soil surface is dried. US Department of Agriculture has proposed that water with more than 2.50epm of Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) is unsuitable for irrigation. In the study region, 16 groundwater samples showed RSC values greater than 2.50epm. These high RSC values suggest that the concentration of dissolved Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions were less compared to CO 2- and HCO - ions, thus making the water unsuitable for irrigation. The ranges of RSC values 3 3 of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were -1.94–4.28, 2.67–5.10 and 2.64– 7.40 epm, respectively. The study indicates that 64 % of the groundwater samples of the regions are unsuitable, while 6 samples (24%) have good and 3 samples (12%) have doubtful status with regard to RSC . In particular, the Rurban and Rural samples are unsuitable with regard to RSC. Permeability index (PI) Long-term irrigation affects the permeability of the soil due to presence of Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and HCO " 3 ions in water. Therefore, the Permeability Index (PI) values can be effectively used to determine the suitability of groundwater to be used for irrigation purpose. Because of low level of permeability of the soil the supply of water to crops is reduced and this affects the cropping process through crusting of seedbeds, water logging of surface soil and accompanying disease, salinity, weed, oxygen and nutritional problems (Michael, 1997). The permeability index values of the groundwater samples of the region ranged from 23.61% to 68.25%. The ranges of PI values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 23.61-68.25, 38.37-43.23 and 35.01-55.39%, respectively. Potential salinity (PS) The suitability of water for irrigation is independent of the level of soluble salts in it (Doneen, 1962 and 1964). In successive stages of irrigation, the low soluble salts are accumulated in the soil, and the presence of highly soluble salts increase the salinity of the soil. The Potential Salinity (PS) of the groundwater samples of the study region varied from 1.50 to 7.29 (Table 2). The ranges of PS values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 1.50-7.29, 1.90-4.84 and 1.88-3.60 meq/L, respectively. Kelley’s index (KI) The KI index is same as Exchangeable sodium ratio (ESR) proposed by U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954). The Kelley’s index (KI) value of groundwater greater than one suggests that the water has Na in excess of Ca and Mg. Therefore, the water to be suitable for irrigation should have KI value <1. The KI values in the study region varied from 0.23 to 3.31 and eighteen (72%) groundwater samples are considered suitable for irrigation (Table 2). The ranges of KI values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 0.26-1.41, 0.44-1.49 and 0.81-3.31, respectively. Magnesium Hazard (MH) Calcium and magnesium remain in an equilibrium state in water; however, these ions do not exhibit similar behavior in soil. Sodium-dominated, highly saline water, if rich in magnesium, affects the soil structure. The exchangeable Na+ in irrigated soils controls the level of Mg2+ in it. High level of Mg2+ concentration in water makes the soil alkaline, which adversely affects the crop yields. When the Magnesium Hazard (MH) value of water is >50%, the crop yield is affected adversely because the soils become more alkaline. The MH values of groundwater samples of the region varied from 11.25% to 81.93%. Out of the

| 51 | 25 groundwater samples, 5 samples had MH index values below 50%, suggesting their suitability, while 20 samples fall in the unsuitable category with MH more than 50% suggesting that this water will have adverse effect on crop yield (Table 2). The ranges of MH values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 37.29-81.93, 42.29-62.24 and 11.25-68.73%, respectively. Magnesium/Calcium ratio (MR) Irrigation water having higher magnesium concentration than calcium is likely to decrease soil productivity. The Mg/Ca ratio classifies water it into three categories for the purpose of irrigation – safe, moderate and unsafe. In the study region, 13, 9 and 3 groundwater samples belong to the safe, moderate and unsafe category. The ranges of MR values of water samples from Urban, Rurban and Rural setup in the region were 0.59-4.53, 0.73-1.64 and 0.12-2.14, respectively. Controlling Mechanisms for groundwater chemistry The data suggests that the chemical composition of the groundwater in the region is affected by dissolution of minerals in rocks by circulating groundwater. The groundwater of the region is suitable for irrigation in terms of their pH, EC, SI, CI, TH, SAR, SH, %Na, SSP, PI and PS . Most of the samples are unsuitable for irrigation in terms of MH values, the Magnesium/Calcium ratio values suggest that only 50% of the samples are unsuitable. The contour and spatial variability in the values of physico-chemical parameters of groundwater samples indicates that the groundwater of i) Chhend colony, Civil township, Sector 21, Uditnagar and Bandamunda are most suitable for irrigation, ii) Koel Nagar and Shaktinagar area are moderately suitable and iii) Basanti Colony and northwest of Jagda-Jhirpani area are least suitable. CONCLUSIONS Suitability assessment of the groundwater available at different locales of the city for irrigation purpose is essential. Single water quality index value is not generally useful for this purpose. It is essential to examine different parameters/indices values such as pH, electrical conductivity, total hardness, sodium absorption ratio, sodium percentage, residual soluble carbonate, permeability index, potential salinity, magnesium hazard, Mg/Ca ratio, meaningfully conclude that the ground water of a particular region can be suitably used for irrigation of green spaces. Since the city development takes place with the fringe growth, such investigations must be carried out in the urban and its associated Rurban and Rural setup. This approach tested in the Rourkela city in India, can be used as a model for sustainable urban planning in the context of green development in developing countries.

References: APHA (2005). Standard Method for Examination of Water and Wastewater. 21st Edn., American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C. 541p. Domenico, P.A. and Schwartz, F.W. (1990). Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, Wiley, New York, 410 p. Doneen, L.D. (1962). The influence of crop and soil on percolating water. In: Proceedings of the Biennial Conference on Ground Water Recharge, pp.156–163. Doneen, L.D. (1964). Notes on water quality in agriculture. In: Water Science and Engineering, Paper 4001. Dept. of Water, Science and Engineering, Univ. of California, Davis, USA Kelley, W.P. (1940). Permissible composition and concentration of irrigation waters. Proc. ASCE. v.66, pp.607. Kelley, W.P. (1951). Alkali Soils – Their Formation, Properties and Reclamation. New York, Reinhold. 176 p. Masters, G.M. and Ela, W.P. (2008). Environmental Engineering and Science, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 708 p. Michael, A.M. (1997). Irrigation theory and practice. Vikash publishing house, New Delhi. 801 p. Prasad, R.K., Mondal N.C., Banerjee, P., Nandakumar, M.V. and Singh, V.S. (2008). Deciphering potential groundwater zone

| 52 | in hard rock through the application of GIS, J.Environ. Geol. v.55, pp.467–475. Ravikumar, P. and Somashekar, R. (2011).Geochemistry of groundwater, Markandeya River Basin, Belgaum district, Karnataka State, India, Chin. J. Geochem, v.30, pp.051-074. Saleh A., Al-Ruwaih F. and Shehata M. (1999). Hydrogeochemical processes operating within the main aquifers of Kuwait. J. Arid Environ. v.42, pp.195–209. Sawyer, G.N. and McCarthy, D.I.(1967). Chemistry of Sanitary Engineers (2nd Ed.), McGraw Hill, New York, 518 p. Todd, D.K. (1980). Groundwater Hydrology. John Wiley and Sons, 535 p. UCCC (1974). University of California Committee of Consultants Guidelines for Interpretations of water Quality for Irrigation. Technical Bulletin, University of California Committee of Consultants, California, USA pp. 20-28. Wilcox, L.V. (1955). Classification and Use of Irrigation Waters. US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC, Circular 969, 19p. Zektser, S., Loaiciga, H. A. and Wolf, J. T. (2004). Environmental impacts of groundwater overdraft: Selected case studies in the southwestern United States. Environmental Geology, v.47 (3), pp.396–404.

Fig.1 Location map of Rourkela city with sample locations (S1 to S25). Sectors (Sec.) refers to Human Settlements.

| 53 | CONTOUR MAP FOR GROUNDWATER

Fig.1 : Contour map showing conc. of Ca in Groundwater Fig.2: Contour map showing conc. of Cl in Groundwater 2

Fig.3 : Contour map showing conc. of CO in Groundwater Fig.4: Contour map showing conc. of HCO in Groundwater 3 3

Fig.5: Contour map showing conc. of K in Groundwater Fig.6: Contour map showing conc. of Mg in Groundwater

| 54 | Fig.7 : Contour map showing conc. of Na in Groundwater

Table 1 Values of different physicochemical properties and calculated indices/parameters of groundwater samples from Rural- Rurban-Urban set up of Rourkela

| 55 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/8 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

STUDY ON THE VULNERABILITY OF INDIAN WATER RESOURCES FROM THE ASPECT OF CLIMATIC UNCERTAINITY

Sneha P S, Amaljith Sivan, Chippy Lucy and Ashlin Joy Undergraduate Civil Engineers, Mar Athanasius College of Engineering Kothamangalam, Cochin, Kerala

ABSTRACT Much of the climatic change will be felt through changing patterns of water availability, with shrinking glaciers and changing patterns of precipitation increasing the likelihood of drought and flood. If climatic change is the shark, then water is its teeth and it is an issue on which businesses need far greater level of awareness”. The effect of global warming further intensifies temporal and spatial variations in precipitation, melting of snow and water availability. The NASA ranked 2017 the second warmest year after 2016.Seventeen of 18 Earth's warmest years have been since 2001.Occupying 17.74 percent of the world's population, India is second only to China in terms of manpower. The hike in population and the rate at which water resources are polluted for industrial and economic development; there is a need to protect the available fresh water resources. The abnormal recurrence of floods in Kerala and the damage done by the Assam floods have given necessary alarms, highlighting the need to strike a balance between development and conservation. This paper aims at analyzing studies done previously on this topic, getting acquainted with the threats posed and arriving at possible solutions so that natural calamities can be prevented in the future. Keywords: Climate Change, Global Warming, Water Resources, Temperature Variation, Water Management

INTRODUCTION There is a widespread consensus about the warming trend in global air temperatures. Steady increases in temperatures have been observed since the 1950s, with 1983–2012 identified as the warmest 30-year period on record over the last 1400 years (IPCC et al., 2014)..In this context one of the more widely researched impacts of global warming is the trends in extreme weather events, which have significant impacts on water resources. Additionally, the length of warm spells, including heat waves has increased since the middle of the 20th century in parts of Asia, Europe, and Australia. Specifically, most studies examining the long term trends in monthly temperatures in India, extending until 2003, show steeper positive trends for maximum temperatures, and almost neutral to sometimes more variable trends for minimum temperature. More recently, there have been several studies focusing on spatial patterns of trends in extreme temperatures in India using both station level and gridded datasets. Kumar et al. (2017) examined trends in extreme temperature indices from 1969 to 2012 at the station level, and showed substantial variations in the increasing trends of extremely hot days and decreasing trends cold nights during winter and summer seasons. The positive trends in DTR dominated the western half of India during the drier winter and summer seasons; while it was mostly limited to the peninsular and parts of central and northwestern India for rest of the year. The negative trends were mostly concentrated in the southern peninsula of India. [1]

| 56 | According to World Meteorological Organization (2019),the five-year period 2015–2019 is likely to be the warmest of any equivalent period on record globally, with a 1.1 °C global temperature increase, since the pre-industrial period and a 0.2 °C increase compared to the previous five-year period. Continuing and accelerated trends have also predominated among other key climate indicators including an acceleration of rising sea levels, a continued decline in the Arctic sea-ice extent, an abrupt decrease in Antarctic sea ice, continued ice mass loss in the glaciers. The global mean sea-surface temperature for 2015–2019 was approximately 0.8 °C above pre-industrial and 0.13°C warmer than 2011–2015. Higher sea-surface temperatures endangered marine life and ecosystems. Higher temperatures threaten to undermine development through adverse impacts on gross domestic product (GDP) in developing countries. The total elevation of the global mean sea level over the altimetry era has reached 90 mm. The capacity of the ocean to absorb heat is a critical part of the climate system. It is estimated that more than 90% of the radiative imbalance associated with anthropogenic climate change is taken up by the oceans. Ocean heat content has reached new records since 2015. Measured over the layer from the surface to 700 meters depth, 2018 had the largest ocean heat content values on record, with 2017 ranking second and 2015 third. The ecological costs to the ocean however are high, as the absorbed CO2 reacts with seawater and changes the acidity of the ocean. This decrease in seawater pH is linked to shifts in other carbonate chemistry parameters such as the saturation state of aragonite, the main form of calcium carbonate used for the formation of shells and skeletal material. For all years from 2015 to 2018, the Arctic’s average September minimum (summer) sea-ice extent was well below the 1981–2010 average. Arctic sea-ice extent for July 2019 set a new record low. Average summer sea- ice extent during 2015–2018 was less variable compared to 2011–2015 when the record low summer sea-ice extent occurred in 2012. 2015–2018 was marked by a considerable retreat of the Arctic sea- ice extent towards the Central Arctic particularly prominent in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. The long- term trend over 1979–2018 indicates that the summer sea-ice extent in the Arctic has declined at a rate of approximately 12% per decade. According to IOC-UNESCO, significantly higher sea-surface temperatures, as much as 3 °C above average in some areas are implicated in dramatic changes to the physical, chemical and biological state of the marine environment, with great impacts on food chains and marine ecosystems as well as socioeconomically important fisheries. OC-UNESCO also reported that oxygen is declining in the open and coastal oceans, including estuaries and semi-enclosed seas. Since the middle of the last century, there has been an estimated 1–2% decrease in the global ocean oxygen inventory. [2] The International Monetary Fund found that for a medium and low income developing country with an annual average temperature of 25 °C, the effect of a 1°C increase in temperature leads to a growth decrease of 1.2%. Countries whose economies are projected to be adversely affected by an increase in temperature produced only about 20% of global GDP in 2016. However, they are currently home to nearly 60% of the global population and are projected to be home to more than 75% by the end of the century. CONTENT According to Pratab Singh (2008) the heaviest rain of the year has increased from 9–27 mm per 100 years over different river basins with a maximum of 27 mm for the Brahamani and Subarnarekha river basins. A combination of increase in heaviest rainfall and reduction in the number of rainy days suggest the possibility of increasing severity of floods. From the studies conducted on 9 river basins in north west and central India, in which major basins was Indus, Tapi, Brahamani, Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, an increase in annual mean relative humidity for six river basins has been found in the range of 1–18% of mean per 100 years, while a decrease for three river basins from 1 to 13% of mean per 100 years was observed, providing a net increase in the study area by 24% of mean per 100 years. It is understood that an increase in areal extent of vegetation cover as well as rainfall over the last century has increased moisture in the atmosphere through enhanced evapotranspiration, which in turn has increased the relative humidity. [3] Lal (2001) has also discussed the implications of climate change on Indian water resources. He identified that the Indian climate is dominated by the southwest monsoon, which brings most of the

| 57 | precipitation over the country. It is critical for the availability of freshwater for drinking and irrigation for agriculture. Changes in climate over India on different spatial and temporal scales will have a significant impact on agricultural production, water resources management and the economy. The consequences of climate change on Indian water resources are poorly understood. An understanding of the hydrological response of a river basin under changed climatic conditions would help to resolve potential water resource problems associated with floods, droughts and availability of water for agriculture, industry, hydropower, domestic and industrial use. Changes in runoff and its distribution depend on future scenarios adopted for hydrological estimates. Using these scenarios assessment of water availability is made for different basins. Increasing demands for water sustainable development and economic growth are all taken into account. They were able to identify surface water and ground water as major water resources and pointed to the lack of proper management systems to estimate its potential and careless attitude towards replenishing them. Lal (2001) suggests on the development of micro water sheds in which the basic principle is to use land according to its capability and water according to its availability. He reminds that traditional methods of water harvesting are still feasible and can be 3 modified to roof top harvesting to meet domestic needs. [4] According to Manish Kumar Goyal (2018) rainfall is distributed unevenly in the spatial-temporal space, with the highest rainfall-receiving region on the planet in northeastern (NE) India, in contrast to Thar Desert in western India. There has been a significant change in precipitation and temperature during 2000–2015 in India in comparison to the last 100 years. This could indicate a signature of climate change in India. Manish has also observed the temperature trends all across India and found that the annual mean temperature was about 25.06°C during the period 1951–2014 across India, whereas the mean temperature has increased about 0.25°C in the last 15 years (2000–2014) compared with 1951–2014. Similarly, mean maximum temperature and mean minimum temperature have increased about 0.28°C and 0.22°C in the last 15 years (2000–2014), respectively. Analysis of the drought trends found an increasing trend in drought severity and frequency during 1972–2004 in comparison to 1901–1935 and 1936–1971.The effects of climate change on water resources differ substantially among different regions and river basins and cannot be generalized. Still, there is a lacuna in interdisciplinary amalgamation of the knowledge of climate change impacts on water resources in India. Reliance on historical climate conditions will no longer be tenable since climate change generates conditions well outside past parameters for current and future planning. Therefore, it is essential to improve assessment of the climate change effects and to adapt techniques using future scenarios. [5] Global assessment of water resources indicate that it will be subjected to an increasing stress projected in the context of predicted climate change and population growth scenarios in many parts of the world, including India. Higher temperatures and lower precipitation would lead to reduced water supplies and increased water demands; this might cause deterioration in the quality of water in freshwater bodies, exerting severe strain on the already fragile balance between supply and demand in many countries. [6] According to the hydrological studies done by Roy P.K et al (2015), that are undertaken for assessment of water resources under changed climatic conditions, the reduction in the stream flow volume is at a maximum in the Durgapur sub- catchment in the second decade. About 60% reduction in stream flow volume at Naraj Outlet point from basin average has been observed during ten out of twenty projected years. The annual stream flow volume reduced by about 70 to 75% of the basin average during the remaining ten years. The only notable peak observed in the stream flow by hydrograph of 2054 lies in the low flood range of Mahanadi. The monthly stream flow hydrographs depict a gradual shifting of the occurrence of peak flow from the month of September and August to the month of July and June for the projected years. The changes in annual stream flow volume has been found to be less than the average flow in the projected years.[7] Pechlivanidis et al, (2015) also found the impact of climate change on the hydro-climatology of the Luni River in India, based on the CORDEX-South-Asia framework and bias- corrected using the DBS method.

| 58 | The hydrological model showed ±20% change in the long-term average precipitation and evapo-transpiration, whereas more pronounced impacts i.e. ±40% change are expected for runoff. The surface water availability of the Subarnarekha basin based on the population (GOI, Census, 2001) of 2001 was estimated as 458 m3/ capita/year. However, this may go up to 749 m3/capita/year in the projected periods (2040-60) considering the population projection as predicted by the UN (1998). [8] For proper prediction of the f scenario of future water availability, the model needs to be calibrated with past diurnal hydrological data (i.e. rainfall, temperature and discharge). But extensive hydrological simulation is required over the total basin instead of an isolated sub basin of the respective basins. The runoff hydrographs clearly depict that in spite of a lack of data (characteristic soil slope, land use pattern) the efficiency of the model in simulating the runoff is of high order. It is imperative to say that the availability of hourly rainfall data would simulate the flood peak more accurately. Raneesh K Y (2014) has done studies on the issue by using Global Climate Models (GCMs), which try to mimic the functioning of the atmosphere and the oceans, together with likely future emission scenarios outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to predict the anticipated climate patterns. Studies have shown that climate change impacts on water resources may differ from region to region depending on the regional geographic characteristics and climate. Even where precipitation might increase, there is no guarantee that it would occur at a time of the year when it could be useful. In addition, some of these studies revealed that there is a likelihood of increased flooding. Any rise in sea level will cause intrusion of salt water into estuaries, small islands and coastal aquifers and flooding of low-lying coastal areas; putting low-lying countries at great risk. He reminds that one of the most severe consequences of climate change will be the alteration of the hydrological cycle, and this in turn, will affect the quantity and quality of regional water resources and technical measures could be taken to avoid or reduce the negative impacts of climatic change on the natural environment and society. Understanding the possible impacts of climate change on water resources is of utmost importance for ensuring its appropriate management and utilization [9]. CONCLUSION It is clear that the global warming threat is real and the consequences of the climate change phenomena are many, and alarming. The impact of future climatic change may be felt more severely in developing countries such as India whose economy is largely dependent on agriculture and is already under stress due to current population increase and associated demands for energy, fresh water and food. In spite of the uncertainties about the precise magnitude of climate change and its possible impacts particularly on regional scales, measures must be taken to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects. In addition, the uncertainty involved in predicting extreme flooding and drought events by the models are large. It can be concluded that Indian region is highly sensitive to climate change and demand for water from groundwater may increase if precipitation decreases and surface water inflow decreases. This leads to a decrease in discharge elsewhere. Climate change may have both direct and indirect effects on both recharge and discharge to an aquifer. Increased temperature may lead to higher potential evapo-transpiration and increased water use demand. Therefore, an effective management of groundwater resources requires an integrated approach in both planning and implementation of schemes. Different agencies related to water resources, climate, agriculture and other sectors should coordinate and bring out policies on scientific considerations for effective management of ground water resources in a changing climate. A future increase in demand of water is likely to have a much greater impact on groundwater than reduced recharge due to climate change. With increased scarcity of groundwater, the time has come when government and community should work together for an integrated management targeted towards providing water to all on a sustainable basis. The development of a research programme based on national climate change and water monitoring forms the foundation of any strong planning technique. Another key aspect that should be considered is that

| 59 | general and rigid plans are to be avoided. Any decisions about future water planning and management should be flexible. Expensive and irreversible actions should be avoided, especially in climate sensitive areas. For this to be put into practice decision makers at all levels should re-evaluate technical and economic approaches for managing water resources in the light of future climatic changes. Central government can play a major role here. The state governments which manage national water systems should be directed to assess climatic impact and effectiveness of various operational and management options. Another factor that should be kept at short notice is that efficiency in end uses and management of water demands should be improved. These should further be used as major tools for meeting future water needs, especially in water scarce areas. Thus water demand management and institutional adaptation should form the primary components for increasing system flexibility to meet climatic uncertainties. Water managers should begin a systematic re-examination of engineering designs, operating rules and water allocation policies under wider range of climatic conditions and extremes, rather than the traditional approach. One example that could be sited here is moving away from the standard engineering practice of designing for the worst case as obtained from historical observation record. Measures including timely flow of information between the climate change scientists and water management community should be considered. Development of such communication lines can prove to be mighty effective. Traditional and alternative water supply forms should be considered while addressing supply and demand changes that can occur as a result of changes and variability in climate. Options that could be considered include waste reclamation, rain water harvesting and waste water reuse. Desalination at a controlled rate is another viable option that could be considered especially in areas where cheaper alternatives are not available. But the sad truth is that none of these options helps us in altering the trend of increasing water demand. Water costs could be hiked and incentives could be provided for using less water while not compromising with production rate. This can improve the balance between demand and supply of water. These measures are important particularly from the view point of increasing no of environmentally damaging, politically controversial and expensive construction projects. Thus it is high time that awareness about the current climatic condition is raised. As socially responsible citizens we should be able to contribute to the environment. With the increasing cases of rivers getting polluted and deemed unfit for use, we should at least be able to realize the fact that no development is possible if the ecological balance is disturbed. References: Shouraseni Sen Roy, “spatial patterns of trend in seasonal extreme temperatures in India during 1980 – 2010” , weather and climate extremes 24 -2019 , “The global climate in 2015-19”, world meteorological organization (2019) Prathab Singh,” Changes in rainfall and relative humidity in river basins in the north west and central India”, hydrological processes, vol 22, issue 16, (2008) Murari Lal,”Climate change – Implications for India’s water resources”, Journal of social and economic development, Vol 3, (2001) Manish Kumar Goyal, “Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in India” J. Environ. Eng., 2018, 144(7) Milly PCD, Dunne KA, Vecchia AV, “Global pattern of trends in stream flow and water availability in a changing climate”. Nature 438: 347-350. (2005) Roy P.K., Samal N.R., Roy M.B. and Mazumdar A. , “Integrated assessment of impact of water resources of important river basins in Eastern India under projected climate conditions”, Global NEST Journal, Vol 17, 2015 Pechlivanidis I.G., Olsson J., Sharma D., Bosshard T. and Sharma K.C,”Assessment of the climate change impacts on the water resources of the Luni region, India”, Global NEST Journal, 17(1), 29-40. (2015), Raneesh K Y “Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources.” J Earth Sci Clim Change 5: 185. (2014) Arnell NW, Liu C, Compagnucci R, da Cunha L, Hanaki K, “Hydrology and water resources; In Climate Change 2001: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability”. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (2001)

| 60 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/9 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

CHARACTERISTICS AND VARIABILITY OF SEA STATE IN GULF OF MANNAR- AN ANALYSIS USING MOORED BUOY OBSERVATIONS AND MODEL RESULTS

K.N. Navaneeth, K. Jossia Joseph, M. Kalyani, Reddy Janakiram and R. Venkatesan National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai-100 Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The sea state characteristics are decisive for everyone who ventures into the sea particularly for port operations. The satellite information and model results are less accurate, when it comes closer to the coastal area and necessitates measured data for accurate information. Gulf of Mannar occupies a strategic position and significantly impact socio-economic and political realms. The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) maintains the moored buoy network in the Indian Seas, in which two buoys were operational in Gulf of Mannar, one in Tuticorin Port limits and the other in offshore waters during the period 2000 to 2007. The measured wave data from these buoys are utilized in this study to estimate the characteristics and its variability in this region. The analysis of wave measurements from the moored buoys exhibit significant variability with calm sea conditions during pre-monsoon season followed by moderate to rough sea state during monsoon. The post monsoon season exhibits intermittent high waves associated with local weather systems. The southern ocean swells plays a significant role in the sea state in this region throughout the year. The numerical model results WaveWatch-III is also utilized to estimate the spatial variability of sea state characteristics. The study provides significant input in view of the recent trends in climate change and the associated changes in cyclone activity in this commercially active vessel traffic region.

1. INTRODUCTION Ocean waves are critical for people who venture into the sea and play a significant role on air sea flux exchange and mixed layer dynamics. Besides, waves remain dominant factor of the design of coastal/offshore structures, shoreline stability, sailing notifications and port/harbour operations. The importance of waves on scientific as well as marine operations necessitates systematic measurement. The time series measurement for sufficiently long period is required for assessing the wave characteristics, which is essential for preliminary planning of various coastal structures. The systematic measurement of waves in North Indian Ocean initiated in 1997 with the inception of moored buoy network established under National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai. At present Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad operates a wave rider buoy network along the coastal waters of India. The availability of satellite data and numerical models provides the spatial variability of waves. This has in general helped to identify the major characteristics of waves and its variability. The ocean wave forecast has advanced significantly in the recent decade, however remains tricky for the swell wave prediction. North Indian Ocean records significant contribution from swell waves and hence accurate prediction requires the simulation of swell wave part of the wave spectra. The validation of satellite measurements & model data and ocean state forecast greatly depends

| 61 | on the validity of the ground truth, since buoy measurements provide the sole source of ground truth. The wave information is a decisive factor in sailing notifications and hence wave measurements were carried out routinely in ships. The visual observations were the first source of wave information, which were restricted to the ship track, mostly during fair weather conditions and were prone to human error. The systematic measurement of waves started along with tide measurements in ports and harbour with installing a wave staff, but limited to wave height information. The invention of Directional Wave Rider (DWR) buoys paved the way for systematic wave measurements by providing spectral wave data including, sea and swell wave details. Datawell Wave Rider Buoy measures vertical acceleration by means of an accelerometer. It consists of a spherical buoy designed to float on the sea surface and is moored to the seabed with special arrangement to maintain the free floating characteristics of the buoy. The wave elevation can then be obtained by twice integrating the acceleration. The horizontal acceleration is measured using two accelerometers and an onboard compass gives the directional displacement in two horizontal axes. The vertical displacement and wave slopes are utilized to compute the wave direction and other spectral wave parameters. The major disadvantage of DWR is the restriction of its use to only coastal waters. The moored data buoys integrated with Seatex wave sensor MRU (Motion Reference Unit) evaded the limitations of DWR, with the feasibility to be deployed in coastal as well as Deep Ocean. It is in this context moored instrumented buoys offer the most suitable and dependable platforms for uninterrupted data collection at selected locations during all types of weather throughout the year and for real time collection/ dissemination through satellite communication networks [1].The wave sensor MRU is an inertial altitude heading reference system with dynamic linear motion measurement capability. The MRU outputs absolute Roll, Pitch along with Heading and relative heave in addition to acceleration, velocity of linear motions and angular velocity. The wave data is measured at a rate of 1 Hz for 17 minutes at every three hours. The processor on the buoy applies wave analysis software, which uses a Fast Fourier Transform on the wave record to obtain wave spectra. Both directional and non-directional analysis was carried out to calculate a range of wave parameters. The insitu measurements from buoys give the accurate information, but are limited in time and space. The modeled wave data compliments the measured data and provides a spatial and temporal coverage, but with limited accuracy. The present study synergises both measured and modeled data available to study the characteristics and variability of Sea State in Gulf of Mannar.

Fig. 1: Locations map of measured and modeled data utilized in this study

| 62 | 2. DATA SETS The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) maintains the moored buoy network in the Indian Seas, in which one buoy was operational off Tuticorin Port limits (SW05) during 1997 to 2007 and one offshore buoy (OT1) during the year 2000 to 2007. The Wave Watch –III model data set available in the study area during 2011 to 2017 is also utilized to analyse the sea state characteristics. Two coastal locations with depth around 50m and three offshore locations with depth around 1000m are used in this study. 3. RESULTS 3.1 Measured Wave Data using Moored Data Buoy The analysis of wave measurements from the shallow water moored buoy ‘SW05’ exhibits a calm sea state during the month of April with average wave height of 0.77m (Fig. 2). However the month of May exhibits slightly higher wave height with an average of 1.0m. The nine year average significant wave height varies between 0.54m and 1.45m with an average of 0.91m. In general the distribution of wave height exhibits a slowly increasing pattern during the period of interest.

Fig. 2: Time series plot of measured sign. wave height during 2005 (top panel), 9 year average (middle panel) and 9 year maximum (Bottom Panel) at coastal buoy location SW5.

| 63 | The offshore buoy OT1 exhibits highly variable sea state with a sudden increase in wave height in the last week of April/first week of May, which changes the wave height from less than 1.0m to more than 2.0m (Fig. 3). The five year average significant wave height ranges from 1.08m to 2.45m with an average of 1.61m during the period of interest. The offshore location exhibits considerably higher sea state in the month of May compared to that of April.

Fig. 3: Time series plot of measured sign. wave height during 2002 and 2003 (top panel), 5 year average (middle panel) and 5 year maximum (bottom Panel) at offshore buoy location OT1 The moored data buoy observations exhibits comparatively calm sea state during the month of April whereas that of May exhibits higher sea state. Gradual increase in wave height is observed in coastal buoy location, but the offshore location exhibits sudden change in wave height.

| 64 | 3.2 Simulated Wave data using Wave Watch-III The seven year (2011 – 2017) averaged significant wave height in shallow water indicates comparatively calm sea state with an average wave height around 1m during April (Fig. 4). The significant wave height shows an increasing trend in the month of May and reaches upto more than 2.0 m by the end of period under consideration. However the change in wave height is not very significant as observed in offshore waters. The percentage of occurrence of model data exhibits the clear picture of wave height distribution. It is observed that the maximum occurrence of wave height is in the class interval of 1-1.5m. The waves off 8oN/78oE exhibits comparatively higher occurrence of waves under the class of 1.5-2 m. The northern location 9oN/79oE exhibits comparatively calm sea state with majority of waves under the class 0.5-1m. The simulated wave height in the offshore waters of the area of interest also exhibits similar pattern of comparatively calm sea state during the month of April (Fig. 5). There is significant increase in wave height during the month of May.

Fig. 4: Time series plot and percentage of occurrence of seven year average wave height in shallow water from WW-III model

| 65 | Fig. 5: Time series plot and percentage of occurrence of seven year average wave height in deep water from WW-III model Majority of the waves fall under the class interval of 1.0-2.0m with highest occurrence under the class interval of 1.0-1.5m. All the three locations exhibit nearly steady wave height with less than 1.5m during the month of April. The month of May exhibit an increasing trend which reaches more than 2.0m.

| 66 | 3.3 Influence of cyclones on wave charactersitics of Gulf Of Mannar The possibility of tropical cyclone passage in the area of interest is analysed the cyclone database with Joint Typhoon Warning Centre (JTWC). There is no record of cyclone passage in the area during the past 25 years during the period 16 April to 15 May. However the genesis of the pre-monsoon cyclone ‘Cyclone -1’, during 13 to 20 May 1998 in Bay of Bengal occurred close to eastern coast of Srilanka (Fig. 6). The occurrence of a similar tropical cyclones may affect the study area. However the pre-monsoon cyclones in Bay of Bengal are less intense and are only at the initial stages of intensification in the southern latitudes. This suggests lesser impact at the area of interest.

Fig. 6: cyclone track of ‘Cyclone-1’ in Bay of Bengal during 13-20 May 1988 In view of significant changes in climate pattern and recent trends in tropical cyclone occurrence, it is advised to check the forecast and warnings issued by relevant organisations befre venturing into the sea 4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The area of interest exhibits comparatively calm sea state with majority of average significant wave height less than 1.5m during the period of 16 -30 April. Significant increase in average wave height is observed in the month of May particularly in offshore locations which recorded more than 2.0m. It is also observed that the maximum wave height values goes more than 2.0m during April and reaches upto 3.0m during the Month of May. There is no record of cyclone passage in the area for the past 25 years at the area of interest. However the genesis of the pre-monsoon cyclone during May 1998 in Bay of Bengal occurred close to eastern coast of Srilanka. As per the available measured wave data (1998-2007), simulated wave data ( 2011 to 2017) and past cyclone data base from JTWC, the period of 16-30 April appears to be comparatively calm (average significant wave height < 1.5m) and higher sea state is observed in the month of May. References: Venkatesan, R., Shamji, V.R., Latha, G., Simi Mathew, Rao, R.R., Arul Muthiah, M., Atmanand, M.A. 2013. New in-situ ocean subsurface time series measurements from OMNI buoy network in the Bay of Bengal, Current Science, 104(9):1166- 1177.

| 67 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/10 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW IN A HUMID TROPICAL BASIN USING HYDROLOGICAL METHODS

Alka Abraham Subrahmanya Kundapura Research Scholar, Department of Applied Mechanics Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangaluru 575 025, India; Mangaluru 575 025, India, Faculty, Mar Athanasius College of Email: [email protected] Engineering,Kothamangalam, Kerala Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Environmental flow is a key parameter to define the river health.The flow regime of a river should resemble its natural pattern so as to perform its functions such as maintaining ecological diversity, ground water recharge as well as supporting spiritual and cultural activities of the people. Among the various methods, hydrological methods are the most widely used techniques for the assessment of environmental flow. In the present study environmental flow of Pamba river basin, Kerala has been evaluated by the hydrological methods Tennant, Tessman, Flow duration curve analysis and low flow indices method.Tennant method and FDC Q95 recommends 54% of MAF as the required E-flow in the river, but it is 40% MAF for Tessman method.. Flow corresponding to Q95 and Q90 are 14.23m3/s and 16.42 m3/s respectively from FDC analysis. Low flow indices are estimated for different return periods. Environmental flow assessment studies provide an insight in allocating the quantity of water in water resources management activities. Keywords: Environmental flow, hydrological methods, Pampa river basin

1 INTRODUCTION Environmental flows are the quantity, timing and quality of water flows required to sustain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems and the human livelihoods and wellbeing that depend on these ecosystems[1].It can be considered as a link between river flow and river health as well as a key parameter to define ecological flow requirements in a river. Increased awareness on environment protection as well as increasing water demands provide more attention toEnvironmental flows (E-flow) studies [2] during the last few decades. As each river has a unique ecological system, there is no single E-flow for it, but depends on how the flow is utilizedand are site specific[3].There are more than 200 methods for assessment of environmental flow and can be grouped in to four, as hydrological, hydraulic rating, habitat simulation and holistic methods[4]. Among these, hydrological methods are considered as the simplest as they depend on historic flow data for E-flow recommendations. It assumes a relationship between flow and ecological parameters[5]. Numerous studies were carried out around the globe with different hydrological methods[2, 6-7]. Studies on E-flow quantification in India is at its primitive level only[8] and E-flow has been considered in the country as the flow that has to be released form the dams to sustain ecosystem

| 68 | health[9]. However, when the level of understanding of an ecosystem is lesser or protection for an existing ecosystem is alarming, hydrologic or hydraulic methods are suitable. As far as Indian scenario is considered, due to data scarcity as well as its inconsistency, the historic flow data can be simulated with hydrologic simulation models which are capable of generating data up to past 100 years. For hydraulic methods, the braided nature of Indian rivers are a serious issue while obtaining the wetted perimeter and depth of the river[10].Most of the E-flow studies in the country are based on hydrological methods[11-12] and few with other methods also [13]. The focus of this study is the assessment of E-flow in a humid tropic river basin with some selected hydrological methods. Hydrological methods considered are Tennant, Tessman, Flow duration curve (FDC) Analysis and low flow indices. 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Study area

Fig. 1. Pamba river basin

The study area selected is Pamba river basin, the third longest river in the state Kerala, India.The river is originated in Pulachimalai in western ghats at an elevation of 1650m and havinga basin area of 2235km2.The river is having a length of about 176m, and the major tributaries are Kakkiyar, Arudai, Kakkadar, Kallar, Pambi and Pambiar. The annual average rainfall in the basin is above 3500mm,major part receiving during South west monsoon.Temperature in the basin varies between 28°C to 33°C. The famous Ayyappa temple at Sabarimala is located in this river basin and so the river is having high religious importance. With the lack of ecological information in the catchment, hydrological regime is used to evaluate [6] environmental flow.E-flow assessment at the Thumpamon gauging station of the Pamba river basin is carried out considering flow data of the period 1978 to 2015. 2.2 Tennant method Tennant method was the earlier attempt to estimate E-flow,developed by[14] and is reported as the most common hydrological method[4]. Tennant,based on the study on 11 rivers in Montana, U.S.A, developed certain empirical relations which recommends certain percentages of mean annual flow(MAF) as the minimum environmental flow.

| 69 | Table 1. Recommended flow regime by Tennant method

Description of flows Recommended flow regime(percentage of MAF) October -March Flushing or Maximum 200 Flushing or Maximum Optimum range 60-100 Optimum range Outstanding 40 Outstanding Excellent 30 Excellent Good 20 Good Fair or Degrading 10 Fair or Degrading Poor or minimum 10 Poor or minimum Severe Degradation <10 Severe Degradation

2.3 Tessman method This method is a modification over Tennant method and suggested environmental flow considering monthly time steps in a hydrological year[5,16].This method was developed by Dunbar in Canada and received good feedback in the country[4]. The E-flow for each month is considered as follows: 1. MMF, if MMF < 40 % MAF; 2. 40 % of MAF, if 40 % MAF < MMF < 100% MAF; and, 3. 40 % of MMF, if MMF > MAF. 2.4 Flow Duration Curve (FDC) method Flow Duration Curve is a plot of discharge against percentage time a particular discharge was equaled or exceeded some specific value.Low flow indices of a FDC are usually considered as E-flow. The design low flow range of a flow duration curve is considered as between Q70 to Q95 [16], but Q95 and Q90 are the most widely used low flow indices[7,17] to set the minimum E-flow requirement. 2.5 Low flow indices method: This is the second widely used hydrological method after Tennant[4].Low flow indices include various 7Q flows and the most common low flow index is 7Q10[5].It is the lowest recorded seven day average flow for a return period of 10 years. This is considered as the minimum E-flow throughout the year. Various 7Q indices are also considered for the study with different return periods.The 7-day moving average eliminatesday-to-day variation or smoothening out the high frequencyfluctuations of time series data. The procedure for obtaining FDC for various return flows[18]are as follows: a. Construct FDC for each water year and read the values of flow corresponding to suitable intervals of exceedence probability. b. The discharge values from each annual FDC should be arranged in ascending order and calculate plotting position by using Weibull plotting formula. c. Visually fit a straight line through the estimated extreme values and for the chosen exceedence probability, find the discharge values for various return periods and the same has to be done for suitable intervals. d. Plot a smooth FDC for various return periods. 7Q10 is used widely as low flow index due to variety of reasons such as protection of water quality, habitat protection, as local extinction flow and also as criteria for aquatic life[7]. FDC with 100 year return period are usually considered for the planning stages of water resources projects[19].

| 70 | 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The flow data of Thumpamon gauging station in Pamba river basin for the present study is obtained from Central Water Commission website. The mean annual flow of Pamba river at Thumpamon gauging station for the 38 year period is 26.4m3/s, maximum flow occurs during July. The recorded maximum annual flow is for the year 1992 and minimum for the year 2012. Fig. 2.Mean Monthly flow of Pamba River

Table 2. Environmental flow from Tennant method Description of flow Oct- March(m3/s) Apr-Sep(m3/s) Flushing or Maximum 48.00 94.71 Optimum range 14.40-24 28.41-47.36 Outstanding 9.60 28.41 Excellent 7.20 23.68 Good 4.80 18.94 Fair or Degrading 2.40 14.21 Poor or minimum 2.40 4.74 Severe Degradation <2.4 <4.74 Table2 shows the flows for various conditions based on Tennant method. The river ecosystem will be under severe degradation if the flow becomes less than 2.4m3/s during summer and 4.74m3/s during rainy season. Tessman method is based on comparison of mean monthly flow and mean annual flow and E-flow for each month is recommended. Table 3 shows the E-flow for various months in the Pamba river based on Tessman method. The recommended minimum flow by this method is 10.56m3/s. Table 3. Environmental flow from Tessman method Month MMF 40%MMF MAF 40%MAF Flow proposed by Tessman January 2.17 0.867 26.40 10.56 10.56 February 0.89 0.356 26.40 10.56 10.56 March 0.58 0.231 26.40 10.56 10.56 April 2.79 1.115 26.40 10.56 10.56 May 7.28 2.914 26.40 10.56 10.56 June 48.65 19.460 26.40 10.56 19.46 July 63.39 25.356 26.40 10.56 25.36 August 47.32 18.929 26.40 10.56 18.93 September 39.94 15.977 26.40 10.56 15.98 October 51.89 20.757 26.40 10.56 20.76 November 42.63 17.052 26.40 10.56 17.05 December 9.23 3.691 26.40 10.56 10.56

| 71 | Fig. 3.Annual Flow Duration Curve of Pamba River Q95 and Q90 are considered as the low flow indices from annual FDC. It is observed that 97.34% probability has been achieved. Out of the 38 year data, flow corresponding to 97.34% is 10.29m3/s which is minimum annual flow. Flow corresponding to Q95 and Q90 are 14.23m3/s and 16.426 m3/s respectively, flow below this can leads to ecological instability.

Fig.4 shows the plots of probability of exceedence equal to 95% and 90% at the gauging station in the basin. From low flow indices plot, regression equations are found out for individual flow indices and FDC for the return periods 2, 5,10,20,50 and 100 are plotted. The minimum flow from the graph which is corresponding to 95% varies between 0.4m3/s to Fig. 4.: Return period vs Q95and Q90 for 7-day discharge. 2 m3/s for the return period 2 to 100 respectively.

Fig. 5. 7-day mean FDCs for 2,5,10, 20,50 and 100 year return period at Thumpamon.

| 72 | Table 4. Results of FDC indices method to assess Environmental Flow Return Period 2 5 10 20 50 100 7-day Q90 0.43 2 4.62 9.85 25.6 51.8 Q95 0.53 0.724 1.05 1.69 3.61 6.81

Table 5. Results of various hydrological methods for Environmental Flow Assessment Environmental flow Environmental flow % of MAF assessment method requirement (m3/s) Tennant Apr-Sep 14.21 54 2.4 9 Tennant Oct-march 10.56 40 21.88 82 20.43 77 Tessman 19.48 74 FDCA,Q70 18.06 68 FDCA,Q75 16.2 61 FDCA,Q80 14.23 54 FDCA,Q85 0.53 2 FDCA,Q90 0.724 2.7 FDCA,Q95 1.05 4 7Q2 1.69 6.4 7Q5 3.61 14 7Q10 6.81 26

Tennant method recommends E-flow nearly 54% of the mean annual flow during wet season and 9% of MAF during dry season in the study area. Subsequently Tessman method demands 40% of MAF and FDC Q95 is 54% of MAF. However, low flow indices reported E-flow from 2 to 26% of MAF for the return period varying from 2 to 100. 4 CONCLUSION The present study focused on E-flow with four hydrological methods in Pamba river basin. Tennant method and FDC Q95 recommends 54% of MAF as the required E-flow in the river, whereas 40% MAF for Tessman method. The most common low flow indices is used for daily flow analysis and based on this E- flow requirement in the river is about 4% of MAF. Appropriate values for E-flow can be taken based on the utility of the river.Evaluation of E-flow provides an insight to water resources management for considering a tradeoff between water use and ecosystem functions. With proper understanding on the hydrology and ecological importance of a catchment,specific E- flow evaluation sites have to be selected for analysis. However, the present study examined flow data from a single gauging site, analysis can be improved with more specific E-flow locations.

| 73 | References Brisbane Declaration,:The Brisbane declaration. In: 10th International RiverSymposium and International Environmental Flows Conference, Brisbane,Australia,(2007) Caissie, J., Caissie, D., & El Jabi, N.:Hydrologically based environmental flow methods applied to rivers in the Maritime Provinces (Canada). River research and applications, 31(6), 651-662(2015). Dutta, V., Sharma, U., & Kumar, R:. Assessment of river ecosystems and environmental flows: Role of flow regimes and physical habitat variables. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability, 5(1), 20-34 (2017). Tharme, R. E.: A global perspective on environmental flow assessment: emerging trends in the development and application of environmental flow methodologies for rivers. River research and applications, 19(5 6), 397-441(2003). Gopal, B. R. I. J.:Methodologies for the assessment of environmental flows. Environmental flows: An introduction for water resources managers, 129-182(2013). Karimi, S. S., Yasi, M., &Eslamian, S.: Use of hydrological methods for assessment of environmental flow in a river reach. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 9(3), 549-558(2012). Jha, R., Sharma, K. D., & Singh, V. P.: Critical appraisal of methods for the assessment of environmental flows and their application in two river systems of India. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 12(3), 213-219(2008). Nale, J. P., Gosain, A. K., &Khosa, R.: Environmental flow assessment of River Ganga–importance of habitat analysis as a means to understand hydrodynamic imperatives for a sustainable Ganga biodiversity. CURRENT SCIENCE, 112(11), 2187(2017). Jain, S. K., & Kumar, P.: Environmental flows in India: towards sustainable water management. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 59(3-4), 751-769 (2014). Baghel, D. S.,Gaur, A., Karthik,M.&Dohare, D.:Global Trends in Environmental Flow Assessment/ : An Overview Global Trends in Environmental Flow Assessment/ : An Overview.J. Inst. Eng. Ser. A, (2018). Padikkal, S., Sumam, K. S., &Sajikumar, N.: Environmental flow modelling of the Chalakkudi Sub-basin using ‘Flow Health’. Ecohydrology& Hydrobiology, 19(1), 119-130 (2019). Abe, G., & Joseph, J. E.: Changes in streamflow regime due to anthropogenic regulations in the humid tropical Western Ghats, Kerala State, India. Journal of Mountain Science, 12(2), 456-470(2015). Tare, V., Gurjar, S. K., Mohanta, H., Kapoor, V., Modi, A., Mathur, R. P., & Sinha, R.: Eco-geomorphological approach for environmental flows assessment in monsoon-driven highland rivers: a case study of upper ganga, India. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 13, 110-121(2017). Tennant, D. L.: Instream flow regimens for fish, wildlife, recreation and related environmental resources. Fisheries, 1(4), 6-10(1976). Tessmann, S.: Environmental assessment, technical appendix E in environmental use sector reconnaissance elements of the Western Dakotas region of South Dakota study. Water Resources Research Institute, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD(1980). Smakhtin, V. U.: Low flow hydrology: a review. Journal of hydrology, 240(3-4), 147-186 (2001). Pyrce, R.: Hydrological low flow indices and their uses. Watershed Science Centre,(WSC) Report, (2004). Sugiyama, H., Vudhivanich, V., Whitaker, A. C., &Lorsirirat, K.: Stochastic Flow Duration Curves for Evaluation of Flow Regimes in Rivers 1. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 39(1), 47-58(2003). Verma, R. K., Murthy, S., Verma, S., & Mishra, S. K.: Design flow duration curves for environmental flows estimation in Damodar River Basin, India. Applied Water Science, 7(3), 1283-1293(2017).

| 74 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/11 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

HIGH SPEED COASTAL PATROL VESSEL CUM EMERGENCY FLOOD RESCUE VEHICLE

Bharath Murali, Adityan A. K. and Rishikesh U. UG students, Cochin University of Science and Technology

ABSTRACT Coastal Security is of prime importance for a peninsula like India, whose sea borders extents upto a whopping 7512 km. A high speed vessel for emergency response in the coastal regions of India is therefore inevitable. The Indian coast Guard has lot of high speed vessels for this purpose, which ensures the coastal security. An ACV is proven to be good patrol vessel, given its maneuverability and ability to withstand wave slams even during a rough weather. In recent days we have witnessed the devasting floods in the states of Kerala, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Assam etc. which claimed hundreds of innocent lives. From this fact we could learn that there is a huge scope of improvement in the present rescue and evacuation technique. So it is important to have a rescue vehicle which can be operated in both land and water. As air rescue operations are more expensive and rescue capacity is very less. The use of boats are not efficient in city areas and where water is less due to draft constraints. Thus, we suggest a modified Air Cushion Vessel(ACV). This vehicle can be operated in both land and water. This can go up to 50 knots and can be used in any terrain. This vessel is having an endurance of 36 hrs. without any replenishments. It is powered by a gas turbine. This vessel also has a telescopic ladder on its side for rescuing people from tall buildings. This rescue boat will be under the combined custody of Indian Coast Guard and NDRF who is primarily responsible for encountering the natural calamities. The max crew is of 10 people and they will be experts in diving and survival techniques. 25 to 30 people can be evacuated at a time.A drone which is having a range of 15 km can be operated from the ACV. The drone will be fitted with heat sensing camera and phraselator. The ACV will be provided with basic life saving apparatus like life jacket, life buoys etc. In addition to this tinned food and water will be available in the vessel which would be sufficient for 30 people to survive for 04 days. Natural calamities cant be avoided ,but we can minimize the impact by proper planning and execution. This craft will revolutionize the rescue and evacuation operations during floods.

INTRODUCTION India has a total coastline of 7516.6 km, out of which mainland coastline consists of 6100 km and islands’ coastline consists of 1197 km. It is believed that formation of coastline of India is the result of continental drift of Gondwanaland. India’s mainland coastline is divided into two parts- Eastern coastline and Western coastline. Indian coastline touches nine states and four union territories. The nine states are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal. Union Territories include Daman & Diu, Puducherry, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands.Gujarat has the longest sea coastline in India of 1,600 km.

| 75 | 01. NEED FOR COASTAL SECURITY India’s coasts have always been vulnerable to criminals and anti-national activities. Numerous cases of the smuggling of goods, gold, narcotics, explosives, arms and ammunition as well as the infiltration of terrorists into the country through these coasts have been reported over the years. Factors that add to vulnerabilities of Indian coastline: 1.1 Maritime terrorism: hijacking, attacking, and sinking ships, taking hostages, sabotaging pipelines, and attacking cities and strategic installations like naval bases and petrochemical storages.

l Attacks on commercial centres: the 26/11 terror strike in Mumbai in 2008 targeted two iconic hotels (the Taj Palace and Towers and the Oberoi Trident) and a Jewish centre (the Chabad House).

l Attacks on Ports and other strategic facilities: ports handling large volumes of traffic especially oil and other goods and having a large population centre in its vicinity are most valued targets for the terrorists.

l Attacks on Ships: ships are soft targets for the terrorist groups as, except for their enormous size, they have practically no means of protection.

l Ships could be hijacked, attacked by rockets, grenades and firearms, or packed with explosives and destroyed. 1.2 Piracy and armed robbery pose a major threat to sea navigation. Shallow waters of the Sunderbans have been witnessing acts of violence and armed robbery. 1.3 Smuggling and trafficking: Indian coasts have been susceptible to smuggling of items such as gold, electronic goods, narcotics, and arms.

| 76 | 1.4 Infiltration, illegal migration and refugee influx: large scale refugee influxes over the decades have resulted in widespread political turmoil in the border states. For example- 1.5 The creek areas of Gujarat which has its geographical proximity to Pakistan and has complex terrain conducive for infiltration. 1.6 Political turmoil, religious and political persecution, overwhelming poverty, and lack of opportunities in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh is an ideal situation for illegal migration of Bangladeshi citizens to India. The frequent straying of fishermen into neighbouring country waters has not only jeopardised the safety of the fishermen but has also raised national security concerns. 02. MEASURES TAKEN 2.1 Coastal security has been a priority in India’s national security agenda. To secure the country’s critical coastal infrastructure against possible insurgent attacks, as well as improve the general state of law enforcement, maritime agencies have undertaken a series of measures aimed at improving surveillance and crisis response capabilities in the littoral seas. The enterprise includes the installation of a three-tier security arrangement (with the Indian Navy (IN), the Coast Guard (ICG) and the marine police, jointly safeguarding India’s maritime zone), the creation of coastal police stations and surveillance infrastructure under a Coastal Security Scheme (CSS), the commissioning of radar stations along the coastline, and the installation of Automatic Identification Systems and Joint Operation Centres (JOCs). Each undertaking is aided by intelligence networks to ensure effective monitoring of maritime activity in the near-seas. 2.2 Marine Police Force: under the Coastal Security Scheme (2005) marine police force was created with the aim to strengthen infrastructure for patrolling and the surveillance of the coastal areas, particularly the shallow areas close to the coast.

l The marine police force was required to work closely with the ICG under the ‘hub-and-spoke’ concept, the ‘hub’ being the ICG station and the ‘spokes’ being the coastal police stations. 2.3 Coastal Security Architecture: post the 26/11 Mumbai attacks, the existing multilayered arrangements have been further strengthened, and other initiatives like:

l National Investigation Agency, was set up in 2009 to deal with terrorist offences.

l National Security Guard have been created to ensure rapid response to terror attacks.

l The National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID) has been constituted to create an appropriate database of security-related information.

l A three-tier security grid was installed with the Indian Navy, the coast guard, and the marine police jointly patrolling India’s near-seas. 2.4 Electronic Surveillance: National Command Control Communication and Intelligence Network (NC3I) has been launched to provide near gapless surveillance of the entire coastline and prevent the intrusion of undetected vessels, the coastal surveillance network project. It comprises:

l Coastal radar chain

l Automatic identification system (AIS)

l Vessel traffic management and information system (VTMS) 03. CHALLENGES

l A cumulative shortfall (over 90 percent) in the patrolling efforts, especially at night.

l A decline in physical checks on fishing vessels by the Coastal Police.

l Acute shortage of manpower; “persons in position” in police stations, (only 25 percent of the sanction).

| 77 | l Inadequate training for marine police.

l Delays in land acquisition and support infrastructure, such as barracks and staff quarters, were yet to be constructed at several locations.

l Jetties under the Coastal Security Scheme were yet to be constructed. Use of fisheries’ piers by coastal police at extended distances from Coastal Police Stations (CSS).

l Inadequate utilisation of funds received under CSS Phase II, for establishing basic infrastructure.

l Low infrastructure creation (only 31 percent).

l Below par state-level monitoring mechanisms. Operational assets along the coastline S.No State Coastal Boats Four Two Jetties Check Outposts Barracks Police Stn. Vessels Wheelers Wheelers Posts 1 Gujarat 22 30 32 125 0 25 46 — 2 Maharashtra 19 28 32 71 14 32 — 24 3 Goa 7 9 6 9 0 — — — 4 Karnataka 9 15 13 12 0 — — — 5 Kerala 8 24 26 44 0 — — — 6 Tamil Nadu 32 24 42 96 0 — — — 7 Andhra Pradesh 21 18 27 48 0 40 12 — 8 Odisha 18 15 23 41 0 — — — 9 West Bengal 14 18 20 28 0 — — 6 10 Daman& Diu 2 4 5 9 2 — — — 11 Puducherry 4 3 5 9 1 — — — 12 Lakshadweep 7 6 11 14 0 — — — 13 Andaman & 20 10 38 40 6 — — — Nicobar Islands Total 1183 204 280 546 23 97 58 30

04. FLOODS Extreme monsoon rains have come to India for the second year in a row, causing millions to flee their homes and leading to more than a thousand deaths since May.Both 2018 and 2019 brought flooding that would be expected only once every hundred years. Several Indian states experienced extreme precipitation in early August, causing rivers to flood their banks and hillsides to give way. In the state of Kerala, on India’s southwest coast, 121 people have died, and more than 83,000 have taken refuge in relief camp. The most casualties have occurred in the state of Maharashtra, where 245 people have died. The flooding comes on the heels of disastrous flooding last year that left nearly 500 dead in Kerala and over 1,200 causalities across India. Both 2018 and 2019 brought flooding that would be expected only once every hundred years.The rain also triggered destructive landslides in mountainous regions. A landslide on 8 August killed 46 at Kavalappara in Kerala’s Malappuram district, and officials are still searching for 13 missing One of the major problems faced by the rescue personnels is the difficulty in rescue operations in remote areas. These isolated areas are hard to access and is not reachable by conventional vessels due to draft limitations. Marshy lands and formation of quick sands in the flood affected areas also prove to be fatal for rescue operations. Hence, there rise a need for a more practical and safe way by which we can ensure the safety of both the victims and rescuers.

| 78 | 05. A COMBINED SOLUTION - HOVERCRAFT This type of hovercraft is amphibious and is supported totally by its air cushion, with an air curtain [high pressure jet] or a flexible skirt system around its periphery to seal the cushion air. These craft possess a shallow draft (or a negative draft of the hull structure itself) and hence amphibious characteristics. They are either passive (being towed by other equipment) or active i.e., propelled by air propellers or fans. 5.1 Requirements (a) The ship is a high speed, over the beach, fully amphibious landing craft capable of transporting personnel, weapons and equipment of the assault element of marine forces from ship to shore and along the beach. (b) It also performs high speed coastal patrol in shallow waters, marshy areas and deep seas. (c) Search and rescue operation during floods. 5.2 Advantages of ACV

l The ability to travel at high speed over a wide variety of surfaces.

l The reliability and low maintenance of the modern diesel engine.

l The simplicity but ruggedness of construction.

l The ease of operation and maintenance.

l The high degree of manoeuvrability.

l Smooth and comfortable ride

l Berthing is easy

l Hove rcraft ride much smoother than boats because they travel over the surface of the water, not through it. It travels over water with no concern for depth or hidden obstacles. They will go against the current of a river with no speed reduction.

l A well-designed hovercraft is superior to a boat because it has less drag and requires less horsepower to operate.

l A hovercraft is 100% more fuel-efficient than a boat with similar capacity or size. Rising fuel prices and shortages will make the hovercraft a desirable form of transportation in the future.

l Hove rcraft will launch from almost anywhere and does not require a special launching ramp like a boat. 06. PARTICULARS OF THE VESSEL 6.1 OUTLINE SPECIFICATION

l Lc 21.52 m

l Bc 11m

l D 1m

l HSK 1.74 m

l Service Speed 45 knots

l Number of Personnel 104

l Radius of action 300 Nautical miles 6.2 PROPULSION ENGINE PARTICULARS [2 NOS.]

l Make Caterpillar

l Model 3508 B

| 79 | l Rating 600 kW

l Speed 2200 rpm

l Fuel Consumption 156 l/hr

l Number of cylinders 6

l Displacement, total 34.5 L 6.3 EQUIPMENTS o Standard Navigation equipment

l Echo Sounder 1

l Radar 1

l Gyro Compass 1

l Magnetic Compass 1

l Remote control of engine and propellers with panel in pilot cabin

l Electronic pressure gauge [For Monitoring Cushion Pressure]

l Rim Indicator

l Heel Indicator

l Load Indicator

l Duct angle Indicator and steering system failure alarm

l Medium Frequency/High frequency Transmitter

l Distress alarm receiver

l Intercom

l 11. Loud Hailer

l 12. NSV heavy machine gun X 03 nos 6.4 MINIMUM NUBER OF PERSONNAL REQUIRED FOR MANAUVERING

l Pilot 1

l Engineer 1

l Cabin Crew 2

l Total 4 6.5 WEAPONRY INSTALLED

l The vessel is fitted with 3 NSV medium range heavy machine guns on port, starboard and the top deck for security purpose. Due to its high rate of fire, 700-800 rounds per minute, It is used as a close range, anti aircraft weapon against enemy ships, helicopters and aircraft.

l NSV features advantages as relatively low weight and manoeuvrability. The design of the machine gun and the mount ensures precise aiming high accuracy. 07. ABOUT THE VESSEL 7.1 SPEED Hovercrafts are high speed vessels with speed range of ferries varying between 40-55 Kn. For this ship 45 knots is chosen as the design speed since the range is 300 nautical miles.

| 80 | 7.2 PROPULSION SYSTEM Separate high speed diesel engines are used for lift and propulsion system. Propulsion system uses ducted fixed pitch propellers. Power is calculated separately for each system. 7.3 SHAPE OF HULL Hull form of hovercraft has little effect on its performance. This is because it is Operated in non – displacement mode. Normally, a cubical hull with more curvature at fore end and lesser curvature at aft end is preferred. Hull form should satisfy seating arrangement and footprint area for passengers. It must also host the equipment and machinery. 7.4 LADDER A ladder is given at the forward region of the main deck for pilot for access to pilot cabin. In addition to the hydraulic ladder provided for flood rescue. 7.5 BOLLARD Two bollards are given at the forward region in the main deck for securing when the craft is towed in its hull borne mode. 7.6 ANCHORS The craft has to be anchored in the event of failure of lift system to prevent drifting. Anchor selected is FX 125 with a weight of 32 kg. 7.7 INFLATABLE RIBS Six inflatable life rafts are given port and starboard. Dimensions of the stowing container of life raft are 180 cm length, 80 cm diameter, Capacity of each life raft is 25 persons. These ribs can be used for rescue of personnel where the vessel will not be able to reach due to its size. 7.8 DRONES Two drones destined for observation. These are equipped with a series of sensors. Ground control stations for controlling the drones and receiving data from the sensors. Micro UAV which has max takeoff weight of 20 kg is designed. This has got a range of 140 km and an endurance of 18 hrs. It can cruise at speed of 1000km/h with an altitude of 4000 m and 8 kg payload. 7.9 FOLDABLE LADDER Hydraulic ladder of 20 m height and 200 kg capacity is installed in the ACV. Special stability criteria are followed in the construction so that even even max height and max load the vessel is quiet stable. 7.10 FIRE AND SAFETY EQUIPMENTS Fire fighting systems are to be installed in accordance with SOLAS rules. The engine box are equipped with fire detection and fire suppression systems .Portable hand operated fire extinguishers are also carried in the control cabin and passenger cabin. These are given at both sides on forward and aft of the passenger cabin and near the machinery boxes port and starboard aft of the passenger cabin. Automatic fire detection system is also given in the passenger cabin. 7.11 PROVISION FOR FOOD STORAGE Availability of packed and tinned food is also ensured in the vessel so as to be given to the persons rescued during floods in case of emergencies.

| 81 | 8. CONCLUSION The vessel should be managed by the joint venture of the Indian coast guard and the marine police so that an efficient system can be developed for both surveillance and rescue during floods. The crew should be trained in both manoeuvring the vehicle as well as the use of the arms present in the vehicle. There should also be a good communication between the headquarters and the vehicle so that it can be used to its maximum utility in both surveillance as well as flood rescue operations in the regions.

Refrences: National disaster management authority guide lines. Author SLt Sourabh Singh – BTech Project report (Gajendra) www.drdo.gov.in www.indiancostguard.gov.in www.wikipedia.org www.microdrones.com www.drishtiias.com

| 82 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/12 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

SMART JETTY

Prayag Raviprakash Syam Sreedhar K.N Dr. K. Sivaprasad UG student, Department of Ship UG student, Department of Ship Professor, Department of Ship Technology, Cochin University of Technology, Cochin University of Technology, Cochin University of Science and Technology Science and Technology Science and Technology

ABSTRACT The development of inland waterways created a necessity for the advancement of the jetty used. Presently, jetty which is present has a difference between the platform and deck of the vessel. Since there are no particular depth criteria for an inland vessel the difference in height varies. So it is1 needed to have a comfortable distance between the height of the deck and platform of the jetty. This can be compensated by this new concept of a smart jetty. This can be incorporated into any water body and can be started manually or automatically. The smart jetty is ballast tanks where water is stored in and valve to enable inflow and outflow of liquid. This ballast tank is controlled by a photodetector which analyses the depth of the vessel and adjusts its height according to it. This ballast tank is incorporated by a pump which pumps out water from the tank according to the requirement. Thus allowing the passenger to comfortably onboard the vessel.

1. INTRODUCTION Smart jetty provides an alternate and more reliable method to onboard and deboards an inland vessel usually found in regions where vessels operate. Usually, jetties made up of concrete are found and the ones which are floating can be seen. The need for a smart jetty lies in the fact that it takes into consideration the height of the platform of the vessel and operates accordingly . Such a mechanism will ensure the onboarding and deboarding of passengers safe and comfortable. Smart jetties use a ballasting mechanism to adjust the level of the platform according to the deck. This concept can be introduced in varying tidewater bodies where the jetty surfaces according to the water level. These jetty are also moored to make the jetty intact concerning the land and doesn’t move along with the stream. The electricity that is to be provided to the functioning of the jetty can be maintained by installing a solar power system on the land which can enable the powering of pumps and lighting devices. Our idea modifies the presently used floating jetty in Veli, Trivandrum which can be used at other locations with vessels different types having different freeboards and where the level of water varies due to the rise of tides.

| 83 | 2. CONCEPTUAL DRAWING

Fig 1 Dimensional drawing (not for scale)

Fig 2 Schematic Diagram (not for scale)

| 84 | 3. FEATURES OF SMART JETTY The smart jetty comprises a floating platform along with two finger-like protrusion from the floating platform which serves the purpose deboarding and onboarding of the passengers. A photodetector is placed on the end of the finger which receives the signal from the vessel and adjusts the finger according to the height of the deck of the vessel. The finger is always connected to the floating platform with the help of hinges. Reinforced concrete can be used to construct the floating jetty as it can hold high compressive and tensile stress and is durable. The platform is made hollow to float. The interior of the platform is divided into many compartments for increased stability against flooding. Manholes are also provided for accessing the interior of the platform for Fig 3 Floating jetty in Veli maintenance in scenarios like the flooding of the internal compartment. The floating platform is connected to the land by using a bridge hinged at the land. This bridge inclines according to the rise and fall of the platform which makes it easy for the passengers to enter the platform from the land. The platform is secured by mooring done by ropes connected with land. Initially, the tank is ballasted till the finger projection reaches its lowest maxima. A pump set is placed on land which is powered by solar and the pump is controlled by the response from the photodetector. A locking mechanism is also present between the finger and jetty which can make the finger stationary after docking of the vessel allowing the restriction of movement of the finger. The locking is done with the help of constructing a teeth-like structure under the platform which allows a rode from the jetty to stop the finger from moving down when weight is increased. The dimension of the floating platoon is 7.5*8.5*1 m3 with an initial draft of 40cm. The finger platform is recommended to be made of fiberglass and has a dimension of 3*1.25*2m3. The range recommended for movement of finger is from 30 cm to -50 cm. A ballast tank is present whose selection and structural design is explained below: 3.1. Ballast Tank Design The ballast tank is designed such that it provides tolerance for getting overboard without compromising the safety of the passenger. We have taken consideration of the two models that we find optimum. Each of the models has an extra moulded body which is designed accordingly to give tolerance to the ballast tank can withstand. The extra moulded body is made such that its waterplane area increases in more rate which will accommodate an increase in higher weight on the body. The two models are created using rectangular prism. It is chosen so that the waterplane area increases linearly when the finger moves down during ballast. The two cases are analyzed so that the better structure is decided from both and their computation are shown below: Case 1 Rectangular prism with prism axis perpendicular with the axis of finger A rectangular prism is constructed with the triangular side is of an equilateral triangle of side 2m. The length of the prism is 1.5m. Initial freeboard is 0.6m. The computation considering the rise in freeboard is shown below-

Fig 4 Diagrammatic view of case 1 finger from (a) side view (b)Cross section cut by waterline

| 85 | Waterplane area= DF*length of prism Tonnes per cm (TPC) = WPA*0.01

Case 2 Rectangular prism with prism axis parallel with the axis of finger A rectangular prism is constructed with the rectangular plane coincide with platform. The base of the triangle is 1.5m and the triangle is also isosceles.

Fig 5 A diagrammatic view of case 2 finger (a) side view (b) front view (c) Cross section of WPA We can find that the waterplane formed by the section is similar to that of a trapezium and its area can be computed using simple trapezium equation. For getting h to be about 2m take ±=70°. We get,

The graphical comparison from both cases are stated below. TPC V/S RISE OF PLATFORM

RISE OF PLATFORM FROM INITIAL LEVEL Graph 1: TPC vs Rise of Platform The graph helps us to evaluate the change in freeboard with increase in weight. From the calculations, it is clear that case 2 is much preferred. To accommodate more safety, the TPC can be increased by creating an extra hollow structured body connected above the tank with can provide tolerance. This tank is trapezoid whose sides which are parallel to the axis are flared such that waterplane area increases as its freeboard decreases with initial base with the triangular ballast

| 86 | 4. TRIM CALCULATION WHEN THE FINGER PLATFORM IS LOCKED When the finger is locked to the floating platform both will start to act like a single body. The locking mechanism is employed when the vessel docks. Passengers will then be allowed to enter the finger platform . As a result there will be a moment induced on the finger due to the weight of the passengers. This moment have different point of action corresponding to different cases .As the locking mechanism is employed the platform and finger will behave as a single body so the moment on the finger will cause a trim in the floating platform. The Trim can be calculated as below

Fig 6 Calculation of moment

BML is the longitudinal metacentric radius Where IL is the longitudinal moment of inertia of the entire waterplane area about a transverse axis through the longitudinal center of flotation LCF

Here the weight of the finger is small compared to the platform that is why the ‘d’ Is taken from the centre of gravity of the platform

| 87 | CHANGE OF TRIM V/S WEIGHT OF PASSENGERS

Graph 2: Variation of COT wrt weight of passengers From the graph, it gives us that the weight variation imparts a moment which causes a trim. This trim calculated is under permissible limit and such a method can be implemented.

5. OTHER EQUIPMENTS 5.1 Pump System A Pump system is required to pump in and pump out water from the ballast tank in the finger so that the height of the ballast tank can be adjusted. The pump system consists of two pumps, each pump for each finger. Each pump in and pump out water from corresponding fingers. The pump’s location is arbitrary. The more economical and convenient position of the pumps is just behind each finger in the floating platform .The advantage of the position is that it reduces the length of the pipe running from the pump to the ballast tank and as each pump is located on another side of the center of gravity at equal lengths so the weight distribution remains the same. As the pumps are at the forward of the platform it can cause a trim but the magnitude of the trim will be less as the weight of the pump is less. Each pump has two pipes connected to it one is always under the water line which is used the pump in and pump out water from and to the water body. Another pipe is connected to the ballast tank to pump in and out of the ballast tank. The first pipe is laid into the water through a hole at the lowermost side of the platform the hole is then made waterproof by applying proper sealing agent. The pump will always be active. The rating of the pump is determined according to the user’s choice. It is mainly based on the time required to ballast the tank and the effective weight it holds in the jetty 5.2 Photodetector A Photodetector is a sensor of light or other electromagnetic radiation. A Photodetector is placed on the tip of both the fingers. There will be a switch on a button on the land which switches on both the Photodetector and the pump. The Photodetector emits the laser light throughout its operation. A reflector is attached to the deck of the vessel on its docking side. Initially, the finger will be at its lowermost point as the ballast tank is filled. As the vessel docks, the power switched on then the pump begins to take the water out of the ballast and pump it out into the water body. Then the finger begins to rise. When the photodetector placed at the finger platform’s tip reaches the deck level of the vessel. The laser emitted from the vessel reflects from the reflector on the deck to the photodetector which senses it and stops the operating pump so that the finger will be at the same level as the deck. When the vessel leaves the jetty the photodetector then no longer receives the

| 88 | reflected light so it then operates the pumps to pump in water to the ballast to lower the finger. This is how a photodetector is used here. 5.3 Power Production A solar cell is used to power the equipment and lighting the smart jetty. The power is determined by the summing power of the pump, photodetector and lighting equipment. Solar cell can be placed on the land. It is also possible to create roofing over the floating jetty which can incorporate the solar cells. A battery is also used which can store excess power and can be used during night or cloudy climate. 6. ALTERNATE METHOD A system can also be introduced which in turn control the finger where a chain is connected with the finger and the floating jetty. This chain controlled by a windlass at the end near to the platform and interconnected with the other end. A pulley system is attached using a pillar through which the chain passes. It is passed to a u- shaped hook at the end of the finger which then is connected permanently fixed near to the joint of the finger and jetty at the jetty. When the windlass is turned on such that is takes on the chains, the pulley pulls the u shaped hook and the hook moves upwards until the hook touches the pulley. The distance between the fixed part and the hook remains constant and the distance between the pulley and hook varies. For each alternate conditions the windlass is controlled and the finger platform is oriented according to its needs.

References: Edward V. Lewis, Principle of Naval Architecture D. R Derrett, Ship Stability for Master and Mates Design Criteria for Floating Walkways and Pontoons https://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/-/media/busind/techstdpubs/Bridges- marine-and-other- structures/Design-criteria-Marine/DesignCriteriaFloatWalksPontoons.pdf?la=en Maharashtra Maritime board http://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/FormB/EC/Risk_Assessment/ 071220150QIPYEH7Annexure-documentofRiskAssessment.pdf Paschotta, Dr. Rüdiger. “Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology - photodetectors, photodiodes, phototransistors, pyroelectric photodetectors, array, powermeter, noise”. www.rp-photonics.com. Retrieved 2016-05-31.

| 89 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/13 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

STABILIZATION AND SHIP MOTION SIMULATION USING WI-FI ENABLED AUTONOMOUS SHIP MODEL

Prof. V. Anantha Subramanian Awanish Chandra Dubey Naga Venkata Rakesh N. Department of Ocean Engineering, Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Ocean Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Ocean IIT Madras Engineering, IIT Madras Engineering, IIT Madras Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper reports a unique development in the national arena with regard to the hydrodynamic assessment of an oceanographic coastal research vessel for the National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India. This paper focusses on two aspects of the study – free-running model simulations in the wave basin facility at IIT Madras and the performance assessment of the passive Anti Roll Tank (ART) stabilisation system. The paper describes practical deployment of the system in the laboratory with some sample results to highlight the new features of the developed system and the efficiency of the technique. The key development is the use of WiFi enabled (wireless) autonomous ship model in a simulated wave environment and the design of the controller based on system identification for the free-running model for simulation of all speed conditions in different wave headings. The passive ART system requires to be designed and verified for most favourable roll reduction. Analytically, the ship roll motion is characterized as a coupled system consisting of the ship system in waves and the oscillating fluid system in the U-Tube tank. This paper describes different experiments to establish the tank characteristics and damping of the ship roll motions through laboratory-scale simulations. Conducting free-running model tests, simulating the full speed of the vessel in any given wave direction and sea state, requires an active controller and integration of essential hardware elements in the model. Onboard data acquisition and wireless transmission to the shore base station, and closed-loop control of the rudder motor for effective directional control are some of the challenges in this development. Keywords: Free-running, self-propelled, WiFi-enabled, PD controller, autonomous ship model, Anti-Roll Tank, passive stabilisation

1. INTRODUCTION Systematic studies on the analysis of ship motion and control started in the early twentieth century. The studies started rather late compared to other aspects of ship hydrodynamics because of the difficulty in the assessment of the different hydrodynamic forces acting on the ship system. The assessment of ship motion characteristics and dynamic effects require testing in simulated sea conditions in a large laboratory wave basin. With the rapid development of electronics and communication, WiFi-enabled systems today provide reliable bandwidth for effective communication, data transfer and control. The system has two modes of operation; one is the autonomous mode, and the other is the remotely controlled mode. In the autonomous mode the onboard computer follows a prescribed path using closed- loop feedback control in an externally uncertain (wave/current/wind) environment. The controller executes

| 90 | all manoeuvres such as straight-line path, zig-zag or steady turn in the autonomous mode. In the remotely operated mode the base computer sends command to control the speed and course of the vessel in real- time. In the autonomous mode the onboard controller provides necessary controlling actuator signals to the propulsion motor and steering motor. The on-board controller receives continuous heading data from the Motion Reference Unit (MRU) and sends continuous feedback corrective signals. The main components of the on-board system are (i) single-board programmable controller, (ii) data acquisition system which consists of the MRU and the portable data recorder (iii) BLDC motor with controller (iv) twin rudder system with stepper motor controller and (v) the WiFi-based communication system. The controller integrates the functioning of all the above units and commands the ship based on a Proportional Derivative (PD) control algorithm. The surface ship model has battery packs for all the power requirements. This system has the advantage of several protocols available, high bandwidth and making the set up independent of the operating system. 1.1 Anti-roll tank design and analysis The experiments provide a basis to validate the results from the analysis of the coupled Ship Anti Roll Tank system. The modelling requires establishing the natural oscillation characteristics of liquid in the U-tube tank, and the roll response of the ship without and with the influence of the U-tube tank. The ship model was constructed on scale 1:17 and the principal dimensions are given in Table 1. Table 1: Principal data of the ship Table 2: Important tank parameters Parameter Value Particulars Length 43.0 m Width of cross duct, b 4.17m m Breadth 9.0 m Length of cross duct, d Draught 2.5 m (measured along ship length) 1.500 m Displacement 616 t Height of cross duct, P 0.660 m Block coefficient 0.65 Water level in tank, h 1.375 m GM 0.74 m Length of vertical limb, D 2.250 m T KM 4.52 m Sectional area of cross duct, A 0.990 m² T d Estimated roll period T 8.10 s Sectional area of reservoir, A 10.25 m² s r

The tank dimensions are obtained by a rigorous analytical and optimisation study and are outside the scope of this presentation. Only typical dimensions are given here and the performance evaluation performed for these dimensions. The tank dimensions are given below in the Table 2 and the modelling parameters of the ART system are described in Table 3. It is to be noted that the length of tank is measured along the length direction of the ship. Similarly, width of the tank is measured along the breadth of the ship. Table 3: Modelling parameters of the tank Parameter Value Remarks GM /B 0.083 if GM /B<0.1, then the effect of vertical location T T can be neglected Tank frequency, ω 0.841 rad/s t ω/ω 1.081 Ideally must be 6-10% more than ship frequency t s δGM (free surface effect reduction) 0.196 m δGM/GM 0.262 typical values lie between 0.15-0.30 Volume of fluid in the tank 16.083 m³ Tank mass/ displacement 2.6%

| 91 | The liquid oscillation frequency in the tank is 8.1% higher than the ship roll frequency and this ratio is in the favourable ratio range for the design of the ART. In the static condition, the free surface effect of liquid in the tank will cause 26% reduction of the in-tact GMT of the ship. The recommended permissible range is between 15 and 30%. The natural liquid oscillation period should be within 10% less than the natural roll period of the ship. Controlling the cross- sectional area of the cross- duct enables controlling the liquid oscillation period in the tank. Hence the principal operational parameter is the ratio of cross-section of horizontal limb to vertical limb. Overall tank length will influence the magnitude of righting moment to reduce roll, though this will also cause enhanced free surface effect. The dynamic analysis of the coupled system of oscillation is performed with a computer code specifically developed for this purpose. Fig. 1: Test set up devised to establish liquid oscillation frequency The test set up shown in Fig. 1 for anti-roll tank is analogous to a natural roll decay test for a vessel in the laboratory environment. The non-dimensional damping ratio of the tank, ξ was determined by t logarithmic decrement method using the data from the plot given in Fig. 2. The expression for the same is as follows:

Using the above method, the natural frequency of oscillation of fluid in the tank was maintained at the desirable ratio with respect to the ship natural roll frequency.

Fig. 2: Liquid oscillation decay in the tank

| 92 | The non-dimensional damping ratio, 5ØCß5Ø Ü = 0.071 Period of tank oscillation = 2.24 s (model) = 7.37s (prototype) Tank period / ship roll period = 8.56/8.08 = 0.91

Fig. 3: Roll decay plot for the vessel with U-tube and without U-tube

Fig. 4: Roll reduction from experiments Fig. 3 gives roll decay tests data with and without U-tube tank stabilisation is shown in From Fig. 4, the peak roll reduction achieved is close to 80% in the regular sea. It is essential to understand that the oscillations are executed as a coupled system. In conclusion there is significant roll reduction for the prototype in the period range of 7 to 10s. 2. AUTONOMOUS SHIP MODEL DEVELOPMENT FOR FREE RUNNING TESTS 2.1. Model description The objective of this effort is to design a self-supporting ship model for free running ship motion studies at design speed. The basic requirements in model preparation are geometric, kinematic and

| 93 | dynamic similarities. The model is built complete with all features of the superstructure and fitted with twin skewed five bladed propellers and twin Becker rudder system as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: Ship model in the wave basin 2.2. On-board system layout The main components of the on-board system Fig. 6 are (i) single-board programmable controller, (ii) data acquisition system which consists of the MRU and the portable data recorder (iii) Propulsion system which includes BLDC motor with controller (iv) twin rudder system with stepper motor controller and (v) the WiFi-based communication system. The controller integrates the functioning of all the above units and commands the ship based on a Proportional Derivative (PD) control algorithm. The controller integrates the functioning of all the above units and commands the ship based on a Proportional Derivative (PD) control algorithm.

Fig. 6: System layout

| 94 | 2.3. Nomoto first-order model and programmable controller In the case of large-displacement vessels, steering dynamics can be described as first-order equation of motion relating to the rudder angle to the yaw rate at a given constant forward speed; the effective time constant of first-order system can be written as:

When the ship’s dynamic character cancels the effects of and as it happens, fairly decent results are obtained for the ship with relatively small . Steering motion of ships follow substantially first-order phenomenon and consequently the steering qualities of ships are described in brief by two fundamental indices, index of turning ability and , index of quick response in steering and dynamic stability on course. The first-order equation of motion is described as:

Applying Laplace transformation to the above equation, the system transfer function is:

To get the heading information as output, the equation (3.22) is integrated and can be written as:

Single board programmable controller is shown in Fig. 7. It is the heart of the entire control and command system and generates computed control signals for control of the main propulsion motor as well as the stepper motor to operate the twin rudders. It also interfaces with the motion measurement and heading angle sensor unit, i.e., the Motion Reference Unit (MRU). A 4-channel 24V relay module is the interface between the propulsion motor and the Electronic Speed Controller (ESC) and also for the steering stepper motor and data acquisition.

Fig. 7: Controller and its sub-modules

| 95 | 2.4. Data acquisition system The roll, pitch, heave and heading are measured electronically using a Motion Reference Unit (MRU). The MRU is placed at the centre of gravity of loaded ship model. The MRU data is stored in a USB flash drive onboard and at the same time data is transferred from the ship model to the base station through wireless communication. The two-way data acquisition storage, i.e. via USB and Wi-Fi gives data redundancy. Secondly when data from multiple controlled platforms is required for group control, this is a minimum requirement. 2.5. Propulsion system The primary propulsion system consists of a 440 watt BLDC motor, a pair of transmission shafts, 1:1 counter-rotating gearbox and twin skewed five-bladed propellers, seen in Fig. 8. The BLDC motor is interfaced with the main controller through an electronic motor drive. The drive gets the control signals from the main controller through a switching relay circuit. The RPM of the BLDC motor is controlled through the analogue voltage generated by the controller. These analogue voltage values can be changed using a virtual knob placed on a Graphical User Interface (GUI) window on the base station. 2.6. Twin rudder steering system The steering system consists of a twin rudder, shown in Fig. 8, installed with a stepper motor with the help of timing belt and pulleys. A stepper motor actuates the rudders with a holding torque capacity of 1.26Nm. The stepper motor is interfaced with the main controller through a stepper drive. The stepper motor operates in open-loop as well as in closed-loop modes. In open-loop mode, the rudder deflection commands are given by the user from the base station over wireless communication to carry out course correction in real-time. In closed-loop the system is set to follow the desired path where the steering control takes real-time position data from the MRU, and the control law generates the actuator signal to perform heading correction to keep the desired course. In the event of external disturbances only closed-loop control will work.

Fig. 8: Propeller and Becker-rudder 2.7. Communication system The onboard system and the base station computer communicate over wireless link. This end-to-end communication uses client-server model, where the onboard system works as server, which shares its resources to the base station, which acts as a client. This architecture provides the operating system independence and scalability of the whole setup. A wireless dual-band router is used for

| 96 | wireless communication. The router uses the latest high-speed wireless technology to bring lightning- fast WiFi speeds of up to 433 Mbps on the 5 GHz frequency band and 300 Mbps on the 2.4 GHz frequency band. 2.8. Power All the components on board are powered by three sets of lead-acid batteries, as shown in Fig. 9. i. 12 Volt 26Ah batteries: A set of 4 batteries is connected in series to power the BLDC motor. ii. 12 Volt 7Ah batteries: A set of 4 batteries is connected in series which powers the Stepper motor, Controller unit and MRU. iii. 12 Volt 7Ah batteries: A single battery is used to power the Wi-Fi Router.

2.9. General arrangement of components

Fig. 9: Hardware arrangement in the model 2.10. Base station The base station includes a computer with LabVIEW software and a control algorithm with a user interface. A data flow programming language is used to develop a graphical user interface on the base station computer, which allows the user to input the command to the onboard system over wireless link. The BLDC drive receives logic signal generated from main controller, which controls the direction of rotation. On-chip ADC generates analogue signal corresponding to the digital command generated by virtual knob on base station, to control the rpm of the main propulsion system. Under the motor control tab, different buttons are assigned to set different commands. Setting command in terms of heading angle and rotation velocity controls the stepper motor. The heading angle is converted to position signal, which further compares with the current position of the motor and allows stopping the motor if set position is achieved.

| 97 | The GUI provides control buttons to send commands to the BLDC and stepper motor. The BLDC Motor control panel is shown in Fig. 10. The speed control is achieved by setting the rpm to a constant value by generating an analogue signal from main controller. There are numerous virtual knobs to control the BLDC motor. The ‘Start/Stop’ knob is used to activate and de-activate the motor. The ‘Forward/Reverse’ knob is used to change the direction of rotation of motor shaft. ‘RPM’ knob helps to adjust the speed of BLDC motor.

Fig. 10: BLDC control panel Steering Control: To perform motion tests and station keeping it is essential to keep the model in the desired course when subjected to external disturbances. The stepper motor control panel is shown in Fig. 11. This panel allows the user to operate the steering mechanism. The ‘Rudder Control’ knob is used to input the required rudder angle. The stepper motor can be operated in Open-loop or Closed loop with the help of ‘Open Loop’ knob Fig. 11. The ‘Zig-Zag’ knob is used to manoeuvre ship in a Zig-Zag pathway.

Fig. 11: Stepper control panel

| 98 | GUI also allows the user to store the data in USB flash drive and the base station for further analysis to quantify the ship motion in different wave conditions. The MRU data integrated with a proportional controller is used to keep the model in the desired course while doing the straight-line test. The model is commanded to a desired heading and difference with MRU heading data goes to the proportional controller. 3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experimental setup consists of three main components i) a twin Becker rudder steering system and propulsion system ii) MRU and power source and iii) main controller with its submodules with a WiFi router. The above-mentioned setup is implemented on a scale ship model of 2.5m length with superstructure as shown in Fig. 12. All required ship motion tests to obtain the direct motion characteristics, as well as dynamic effects, are effectively simulated with this new design set up. The tests cover stationary condition regular and irregular wave responses in different directional waves – head sea, beam sea, oblique sea as well as at speed conditions. The robust autonomous control allows quick starting, stopping and manoeuvring and therefore full speed tests are also conducted effectively. The superior control characteristics make it possible to quantify speed loss in head sea condition, dynamic roll responses in beam sea condition at forwarding speed and seakeeping test in 3D irregular sea-states from moderate to heavy sea conditions.

Fig. 12: Experimental Setup To minimize reflection effects the following procedure is adopted. a. Model is set to full rpm and held restrained. b. Waves are generated. c. When waves reach the model, the model is released. Hence the model head into undisturbed incident waves. d. When the model approaches close to the wave maker, the propeller is stopped and reversed, effectively braking the model and making it stationary.

| 99 | The model is equipped with a power source, propulsion and steering motor. When the waves are generated using the Multi-element wave maker (MEWM), the shore station computer generates the signal to activate the propulsion motor. An on-board computer with chassis sends signals for the control of the propulsion motor. Heading angle sensed by the MRU is fed back to the on-board computer and knowing the deviation as compared with the desired heading angle, appropriate correction signal is generated and sent to the appropriate device such as steering motor. The MRU data is transmitted over Wi-Fi to the ground station computer, where all post-processing and data analysis are performed.

Fig. 13: Ship in irregular moderate and heavy sea condition

| 100 | Fig. 14: Dynamic effects in different sea conditions

| 101 | Fig. 15: Ship in head sea condition

| 102 | Fig. 16: Bow emergence at speed in head sea condition

Fig. 17: Bow emergence in head sea condition

| 103 | 4. CONCLUSION This paper reports two developments in design evaluation namely, that of the Anti-Roll Tank stabilisation system verifying the high-performance characteristics and conduct of free-running Wi-Fi enabled autonomous ship model in the laboratory environment. The techniques facilitate conduct of state- of-the-art full free self-propulsion manoeuvring simulation system in laboratory environment using robust, hi-fidelity wireless-enabled WiFi-based communication protocol. This is a national first-time breakthrough development providing an exciting tool to perform simulations. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The development of the know-how has been implemented for the demonstration on a candidate oceanographic research vessel designed for the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) Chennai and is gratefully acknowledged.

References: Dubey, A. C., Rakesh, N.N.V.,, Subramanian V.A., and Jagadeesh, K.V. “Wi-Fi enabled autonomous ship model tests for ship motion dynamics and seakeeping assessment” IIRE Journal of Maritime Research and Development (IJMRD-2017) Vol.1, 29-42. Dubey, A. C., Subramanian, V. A., Kumar, V. J., and Bhikkaji, B. (2016, September). Development of autonomous system for scaled ship model for seakeeping tests. In OCEANS 2016 MTS/IEEE Monterey (pp. 1-5). IEEE. Dubey, A. C., Subramanian, V.A. and Jagadeesh, K.V. (2018) ‘ Embedded system design for autonomous Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) in laboratory environment’, 4th International Conference in Ocean Engineering (ICOE), February (19-21), IIT Madras, India. T. I. Fossen, Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicle. New York: Wiley,1994. Bjorn Jalving, “The INDRE-AUV flight control system”, vol 19 IEEE Journal of Ocean Engineering 1994. F. Lopez Peña, M. Miguez Gonzalez, A. Deibe, D. Pena, F. Orjales, “An autonomous scale ship model for towing tank testing” 7th IEEE International conference on intelligent data acquisition and advance computing systems September 2013. Yuriy P. Kondratenko et.al, Advances in Intelligent Robotics and collaborative automation, River Publishers. Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME), “Nomenclature for treating the motion of a submerged body through a fluid. “Tech.Res.Bull., vol.1-5,1950

| 104 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/14 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

RESURRECTION OF THE GEO-CHEMICAL MORPHOLOGY OF RIVER GANGUA TOWARDS ITS RESTORATION AS A RIVER FOR TOURISM AND FLOOD CONTROL

Sri J K Rath Dr P Misra President MECHEM group of Companies, FROST Vice-president, FROST [email protected], Mob.: 9437000270 [email protected], Mob.: 8249742134

ABSTRACT Gangua once a historic river,takes on the load of the Bhubaneshwar city’s domestic and industrial waste, which runs into it from the natural drainage channels. Without an operational sewerage system in the city, the water body has become a “living sewerage line’’ for the city. There are more than 100 industries and two industrial clusters in the city, of which 34 are potential water polluters. They discharge their effluents into Gangua through the drainage channels. Thus it is essential that gangua be restored to its original pristine glory and be used as a tourist resort on lines of those abroad as well as free it of its pollution and decimation which will enable flood control and water preservation. The process proposed and needs to be implemented is a complex combination of dynamic water,soil,river course,sedimentation,subsoil hydrology evaluation combined with focussed dredging defined by aerial surveys,hydrology and bathymetric plans. This entire restoration plan is the subject matter of presentation

INTRODUCTION Gangua was once a moat around the historic SisupalGarh (fort), which historians say was probably the fort of emperor Kharavela. Known as Gandhabati in ancient times, the transformation of the beautiful moat into a waste water nullah has become a shame for the city.According to a scientific study, the 35.7km Gangua nullah discharges approximately 652 cusecs of water into the river Daya on the outskirts. The following are the geo-environmental problems of the city relatingto management of natural drainage systems and water bodies.

l Large scale land conversion due to urbanization

l Unplanned development along marginal locations / valleys

l Drainage congestions

l Reduction in surface water spread of wetlands

l Drying of natural streams

l Mixing of untreated sewage with natural drainage

l Rapid growth around heritage water bodies

l Water logging in monsoon months Population increase (Necessity of water)+ reduction of ground water recharge = Downfall of the city

| 105 | PROPOSED COURSE OF ACTION Preparation of a master plan for an Integrated development program requires division of this plan into individual projects to be executed by authorities in an integrated manner. The plan should address issues of

l sustainability

l discharge of excess water quickly

l waterways to generate employment

l waterways to generate economic activity

l beautification Connections of Gangua Nala with Kuakhai river on one hand and Daya on the other have to be surveyed and established.Dredging plan made and openings at both ends must be properly established.This will require estimation of discharge volume during rains. FLOOD WATER AND WASTE WATER There is a clear distinction between rain water drain off and sewage water run through.One of the important tasks would be to segregate this water atleast to grey usable and treatable sewage.hence the following would be neccessary

l Estimate of storm water volume and flood water volume to be discharged through drains and GanguaNala.

l Estimation of discharge water in drains 1 to 10 opening to Gangua.

l Estimation of overflow plain or flood plain of all the drains and GanguaNala based on estimated discharge volume.

l Problems of discharge to Daya river must be identified and solved.

l Estimation of land requirement for flood plains of drains and GanguaNala and land availability.

l Estimation of dredging requirement and selection of dredger type(s)

l Dredge material discharge.

l To ensure that culverts on the water ways are in right locations avoiding bends and the length of culverts should ensure smooth flow of water without increasing velocity.

l Ensure no discharge of sewage, garbage and other wastes. However grey water (properly monitored for BOD and mineral content) can be discharged into the water way. TOPOGRAPHY OF BHUBANESWAR Most cities grow unplanned horizontally eating into vital water ways (drainage), green areas(cities lungs), protected heritage sides, lakes/lowlands that help detention of severe storm flow (recent Chennai flood and regular Mumbai flood are examples).Bhubaneswar urban area sloping from west to east has undulating topography with prominent valleys and ridges.Characteristic western upland spreads over 250 km2 with eastern flatland over 150 km2. Three major river network flanking the city are Kuakhai, Gangua and Daya with 12 major channels draining the city.Several man made and heritage water-bodies exist within urban limits and are prone to accidental human interference than any other habitat. Problems in these water-bodies are

l Non-point Sewage / Sullage water inflow causing eutrophication, increase in BOD, COD levels and salinity.

l Land conversion and encroachment with peripheral land filling and garbage dumping.

| 106 | GEO-CHEMICAL MORPHOLOGY The following map is a general outline of drains joining the gangua

Water sources in and around Bhubaneswar are under constant stress.Safe drinking water to the ever increasing urban population is transported/pumped water from several nearby reservoirs Kuakhai, Naraj and Daya which solves the immediate requirement temporarilyThe need is not just for providing urban drinking water

l For Recharging the urban groundwater regime

l Minimum constant flow of water on natural drainage to flush off urban sewage

l Water for recreational

l Religious

l Industrial

l Other environmental conservation

l Planning purposes, keeping a future reserve One of the proposed methodology Fig-1 of separation of mixed flow ,treating and segregational discharge is shown below Dr karl e lorbrer. The process involves segregating the flow after a settling period in which the gray water is drained off and treatable segment is then chemically and mechanically cleared.Utility of each segment of water separated would be decided on final achievable state of the water.the drains will have to be led to a settling basin from where the various levels of water can be led to treatment centres.Instead of a central treatment plan the treatment options need to be separated as per requirements. One of the key options would be diversion of the water drain runway into the settling basins and creation of weirs to run off rain water.

| 107 | Fig.1: proposed chemical morphology of water IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES Prioritizing renovation of the main Gangua channel of almost 38 Km to ensure absolute free flow during heavy storm precipitating 200mm over 2 days.

l All the 10 primary drains need renovation to discharge into Gangua the storm water flow and all secondary and tertiary drains need lined channels to feed the primary drains unobstructed, but can create small water bodies on its way.

l To ensure minimum flow of 15 Cumec (500 Cusec) in a 25m wide and 2 m deep clear channel in the urban area over 20 Km to provide a river view (Water front) for boating and recreation.

l To obtain the above a reservoir intercepting 100 Km2 on BudhiNalla about 5 km upstream of Nandankanan Road is mandatory.

l Developing parks of at least 1 Ac. Area at 3 Km interval on the bank of Gangua.

l Greening of Gangua banks is urgent environmental need. POLLUTION CONTROL It is planned to have four STP in the city. The water discharge from each STP should be monitored on a continuous basis with proper records and if the BOD and mineral content is below standard level, this grey water can be discharged to Gangua and its drains.The solid waste from the STPs can be converted to compost and sold to such consumers. DREDGING While organizing all drains, simultaneously priority also should be given to dredging of Gangua River (Nalla word should be taken off from Gangua) making it a waterway through the city. We have to keep Gangua Stomach Big to accommodate entire Storm water without allowing to Run Off to sea.However little more planning can give tremendous value addition with a solution to storm water disposal system. POTENTIAL VALUE ADDITION River walk is not a new concept. Entire European countries have lot of them. But the example of San Antonio Riverwalk Fig-2 and Fig-3 of Texas is unique and very similar in nature suiting to River Gangua at Bhubaneswar. The type of Riverwalk Fig-4 and Fig-5 at San Antonio has made the city famous and

| 108 | Figure -2 Figure -3

Figure -4 Figure -5 increased its tourist inflow.Gangua river bed has the similar landscape as San Antonio and fortunately the environment has not spoiled too much by now to think of a similar project. But a proper planning has to be done simultaneously while correcting the 10 storm water drainages Fig-6 and Fig-7 for a smooth flow Fig-8.

Figure-6: Bhubaneswar and Gangua satellite imagery

| 109 | Figure-7: Proposal river walk area – 5 km long.

Figure-8: walkways with river stream

ECONOMIC VIABILITY PPP initiative (tourism) in which Lakes and water tanks are to be developed as tourist attractions with water based activityIf possible these are to be connected to the water ways which may be used for parking of waterborne vehicles.River side walkways studded with (floating and fixed) restaurants, pontoon bands, art villages so as to become most sought after tourism destinations.Trees on both sides are to be maintained and decorated to attract tourists

l Boats at low speed to move passengers along the water ways.

l Cargo and Passenger Transport

l Market survey required.

l To move passengers and cargo, proper study highlighting advantages over road transport has to be established.

l Type of vessels to move cargo and passenger has to be established.

l Can we have a floating market serving also a tourist attraction?

l This has to be developed in PPP mode over a period of time.

| 110 | l Public at large (through municipal wards)

l Private entrepreneurs INVOLVED STATE DEPARTMENTS The co participants in the resurrection of gangua would be many and are listed down below

l BMC-for ensuring the bifurcation of drains,creating of settling tanks and STP with the sewage board

l BDA-for ensuring the encroachments are removed and resettlement of the socially affected by the drain and river diversions

l Irrigation and water resource-for effective use of treated and segregated water

l Revenue-for the planning,budgeting,cost control etc

l Tourism-ensuring that gangue stream is put to god use for tourism

l Transport and commerce-utilise transport oppurtunities by creation of waterways CONCLUSIONS The imporatance of dealing with Ganguas decimation is as important as saving bhubaneshwar from catastrophic flooding and pollution leadind to severe effects on habitation The timely adoption of a water utilisation plan is key to dealing with it.The chemical treatment option coupled with segregation after a settling arrangement along with traditional mechanical aeration would be an effective solution to the Gangua issue.Such technology is easily available.cost effective and implementable.

References: Panigrahi, A.K. 1998, Chilika Lake – An Overview. Proc of the International Workshop on Sustainable Development of Chilika Lagoon,1998, Bhubaneswar, India. Taguchi, K., Nakata K. 1998. Analysis of water quality in Lake Hamana using a coupled physical and biochemical model, Journal of Marine Systems 16: Trimétrica - Engenharia, Lda. 2006. URL http://www.trimetrica.com.pt EMP (Environmental Management Plan) for Bhubaneswar http://www.odisha.gov.in/forest_environment Gulp R.L., Gulp G. L., Advanced Waste-water Treatment, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1971 Isoken Tito Aighewi, Osarodion Kingsley Nosakhare and Ali B. Ishaque, 2013, Land Use–Land Cover Changes and Sewage Loading in the Lower Eastern Shore Watersheds and Coastal Bays of Maryland: Implications for Surface Water Quality, Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 29 NaeemEjaz, HashimNisarHashmi and Abdul Razzaq G 2009, Water Quality Assessment Of Effluent Receiving Streams Paula Popa, MihaelaTimofti, Mirela Voiculescu, Silvia Dragan, Catalin Trif, and Lucian P. Georgescu, 2012, Study of Physico- Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater in an Urban Agglomeration in Romania, The Scientific World Journal, Vol. 2012, pp. 1-10 Ram Kumar Kushwah, Avinash Bajpai and Suman Malik, 2011, Wastewater Quality Studies of Influent and Effluent Water at Municipal Wastewater Treatment plant, Bhopal (India), International Journal of Chemical, Environmental and Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 2 (2-3), 131-134 Sandipan Ghosh and TithyMaji, 2011, An Environmental Assessment of Urban Drainage, Sewage and Solid Waste Management in Barddhaman Municipality, West Bengal, International Journal of Environmental Sciences, Volume 2 (1), pp. 93-105 The Telegraph, Calcutta, Thursday, June 9, 2017.

| 111 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/15 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

KOCHI WATER METRO – A PARADIGM IN INTER MODAL CONNECTIVITY

P.J. SHAJI JOE PAUL NISHANTH N General Manager Joint Gneral Manager Manager (Water Transport) (Water Transport) (Water Transport) [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Kochi Metro Rail Ltd. , A Joint Venture company of Govt. of India & Govt. of Kerala, Revenue Tower, Park Avenue, Kochi - 682 011, India

ABSTRACT Kochi, an Indian city located at the centre of a rapidly urbanizing coastal and estuarine region. In Kochi, a port city characterized by crisscrossing canals and rivers connected to a backwater system, waterways used to play a major role in the socio-economic and cultural development of the region. The Kochi Water Metro Project (KWMP) is a special innovative project whose ‘dejure’ owner is Government of Kerala, with an intent to improve urban water transport system in Kochi, connecting 10 islands around the Ernakulam mainland.The proposed waterways aim to integrate the system with the other modes of transport such as city buses, metro feeders, non-motorized transport etc. as well as the metro system over a period of time with an integrated fare and integrated timetable. The water metro project is envisaged as a game changer, to bring back water transport as one of the urban transport instruments, which are environmental friendly, safe and modern transport system. Keywords: Water Metro,Twin-screw Catamaran, Floating Pontoon, Backwaters, Eco-Friendly, Hybrid operated, Physically Challenged.

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background Kochi is a major port city on the west coast of the Indian Peninsula and also one of the most densely populated cities in the state of Kerala. As part of the public transport system, a mode of transport which has been ignored over the last few decades and has thereby been undergoing a steep decline in ridership and infrastructure is Inland Water Transport. Kochi Metro Rail Limited (KMRL) in line with the directives of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India has spearheaded the task of setting up the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA-KOCHI). The MTA-KOCHI has the objective of developing a seamless multi-modal transportation system in the Kochi City Region. 2. INTEGRATED WATER TRANSPORT SYSTEM FOR THE CITY OF KOCHI The water transport system envisaged for Kochi focuses not only on the ferry services as the mode of public transportation but also envisions a holistic development of the areas being connected by waterways as well as integrating the waterway system as a part of the entire public transport system of the city. Apart

| 112 | from the ferry service development, the project also looks into developing the existing and new roads providing increased access to the jetties and also within the islands, ensuring safety and security to all its users by way of active and well-lit streets, promoting use of small occupancy feeder modes to access the jetties, promoting property development around the jetties and place making. The Kochi Water Metro project has a total value of 819 crores and major part of which is financed under Indo-German Financial Cooperation with a long-term loan agreement of 85 million Euros (Indian Rupees 579 Crore) with German funding agency, KfW( Kreditanstault fur Weideraufbou) , for the development of an integrated water transport system for the city of Kochi. 3. WATERWAYS – KOCHI SCENARIO The Kerala backwaters are a network of brackish lagoons and lakes lying parallel to the Arabian Sea coast (known as the Malabar Coast) of Kerala state in southern India, as well as interconnected canals, rivers, and inlets, a labyrinthine system formed by more than 900 kilometers (560 mi) of waterways.Kochi is the largest city in the south Indian state of Kerala and the second largest along India’s western coastline, after Mumbai. In Kochi’s case, thanks to its location on the lower west coast of the Indian peninsula, it is less vulnerable to storm surges or cyclones compared to cities on the eastern coast of the country.The city sits within a complex estuarine system comprising Lake Vembanad and the many rivers flowing into the lake, including the Periyar and Muvattupuzha rivers. Kochi is abundantly blessed with waterways with over 1,100kms of waterways available. However, only 40kms out of these are considered navigable for motor boats since, according to the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) regulations a minimum depth of 2m is mandatory for their operations. The currently operational water transport system such as their routes, deployment of boats and its integration with the other existing modes of transport. State Water Transport Department (SWTD), operates the water transport in Kochi. 4. WATERWAYS AND IDENTIFIED ROUTES The project is intending to use the inland waterways in and around Kochi the major share of the waterways are -National Waterways ( NW3) – 40%, Cochin Port Trust Waters – 33%, existing routes under irrigation – 20%, other inland waters -7%. The proposed Water Metro Project comprises of fifteen (15) identified routes connecting thirty eight (38) jetties across ten (10) island communities and 2 boatyards. The overall length of the line lengths of these 15 routes is 76.2 line kilo meters. The water depth required (-2 to - 2.50m CD) in channels and -1.50mCD in approach and jetty pockets. Since major part of the channels are already in use, dredging in these are not significant whereas the approaches from the navigational channel to the terminal area constitute the main part of the dredging. The total dredging is estimated to be in the range of Fig.1. Identified Routes 0.65 million cubic meters. There are 15 routes planned as part of this project. These are highlighted in the sketch shown below. The headways shall vary between 10 minutes to 20 minutes across various routes at peak hours. There will be Navigational buoys and night navigational assistance throughout the routes. Water weed and floating waste management is envisaged in this project.

| 113 | 5. VARIOUS COMPONENTS – KOCHI WATER METRO PROJECT The various components involved in the Kochi Water Metro Project are:

l Boat Terminals and Access Infrastructure

l Boats

l Boatyards

l Dredging along the identified routes and terminals

l Systems - Navigation, AFC, PIS, VCS, CCTV and Operation & Control Centre 5.1. Boat Terminals and Access Infrastructure There are three types of boat terminals in the order of their size and capacity. Major. Intermediate and Minor Terminals. Features of the Terminals Kochi Water Metro terminals are designed/planned as a space for public gathering. Terminals are planned based on the Peak Hour Traffic (PHT). Accordingly, terminals having 1000PHT falls under major, less than 300PHT falls under minor, terminals with 300-1000PHT were considered as intermediate terminals.

All boat terminals are divided into paid and non-paid area. Ticketing facility, Ticket vending machine, Station control etc.were inunpaid area. Waiting area, Toilets etc are provided in paid area. All terminals are facilitated with Automated fare collection and turnstile system for passenger counting.

Fig.2. Typical View of a Terminal Floating Pontoons Floating jetties adopted to facilitate embarkation and disembarkation of physically challengedelderly commuters.Concrete pontoons proposed, Pontoons would be installed in the terminal waterfront where the water depths would be about -1.5 m CD to -2.5 m CD. Pontoons are connected to the terminal by means of a Aluminium gangway. The floating pontoons are provided to cater the tidal variation. Since the floating pontoons are designed with a freeboard of 0.8m in line with the freeboard of the boats, the same level will be maintained in case of tidal variations which in turn will facilitate the wheel chair movement.

| 114 | Fig.3. Schematic Layout 5.2. Boats There are 78 eco-friendly boats for passenger service 23 of them are 100 pax and the remaining 55 are meant for 50 passengers. In addition to these passenger boats, there are four numbers of Rescue cum Workshop vessels for supporting the main fleet in case of emergency and for maintenance. Twin-screw Catamaran hull is chosen for a better stability, safety and to cater the draft restrictions and low wake properties. The objective of the boat design was to develop a boat meeting the following requirements. a) Low Draft: The estuarine condition creates a challenge for restricted depth which decreases to less than 1meters in certain stretches. The silty mud which exists in the channels poses a challenge in terms of dredging. Consider the above it was decided to achieve a draft of 0.9 meters. b) Low Wake: The backwaters in Kochi are densely inhabited by fisherman communities and traders. The waterways are used extensively for fish farming and fishing. Hence it was necessary that the boats have low wake characteristics to subdue the wake and wash effects. c) Low Energy and Environmental Friendly: It was declared that boat would be environment friendly by the state Government and KFW. In order to achieve the objective it was decided that the boat would be electrically propelled and will have no outward discharge. The objective of the concept design led to the conclusion to adopt an Aluminum Catamaran hull twin screw electrically propelled vessel, which will operate at a draft of 0.9 meters. The vessel would be designed to achieve a speed of 8 to 11 knots in different speed regimes. Aluminum Hull Shipbuilding Aluminum Alloy plates and extrusionsare costlier but can reduce the overall weight of the hull when compared to carbon steel alloys further more aluminum alloys have excellent corrosion resistance and is comparable to the minimum yield strengthrequirement of mild steel or normal strength steels. The improvement in fabrication technology for aluminum has enabled shipyards to effectively undertake fabrication and production of Aluminum hulls even though it would account to a nominal increase in the overall cost of the vessel. However the Aluminum hull was favored by KMRL considering the lower cost of maintenance also. Moreover, the less weight of the boat will give less resistance and hence the less power requirements. The cost and weight of battery is a serious concern and the reduction in weight will yield a lesser power requirement and hence the battery size.

| 115 | Catamaran Hull Catamaran hull designs are more stable when compared to mono-hulls of the same capacity. Catamaran can also be designed to achieve lower draft and lower wake characteristics. The demi- hulls will be designed with better flow characteristics. The distance between the demi-hulls will be adjusted in such way that these will generate minimum waves or rather the effective wave height will be less. Thus the wave making resistance is made to a minimum to again take advantage on the power requirements. A proper model testing will be carried out to ascertain the actual power requirements.

Fig 4. Twin-Screw Aluminum Catamaran Electrical Propulsion Electrical propulsion or the use of the electrical motors to drive the screws of a boat eliminates the following requirements: a) Connection of the engine to the propeller. b) Alignment of the engine and the propeller. In addition, it also provides the builder with other options or added features like: a) Incorporation of a battery to store power. b) Acoustic decoupling of hull and engine to reduce noise pollution. c) Avoidance of the diesel driven internal combustion engine as the prime mover.

The Water Metro exercised the option of using batteries to store energy and drive the vessel upto 8 knots with this power. This speed regime will generally serve all practical requirements of the vessel. However, the greater challenge was to identify suitable battery chemistry and charging regime for the batteries. The following battery characteristics were analyzed and The Lithium Titanate Oxide(LTO) technology was zeroed in:

l Lithium – ion

l NMC The primary aim for the battery selection was to yield a better life time with maximum number of cycles and fast charging. The project has multiple number of fast charging stations capable of charging the batteries in less than 15 minutes.

Carbon Emission Boats planned for Kochi Water Metro Project are electrically propelled. A detailed model shift for the project has been carried out. Considering the model shift, the reduction in carbon foot print is

| 116 | estimated. In addition to reach this reduction in other pollution were also calculated in way of decongestion on the roads reducing the number of line buses, own vehicles like cars and motor bikes etc. on the roads and the impact is worked out as shown below: Table.1. Carbon Emission Parameter Reduction in Emission of pollutants (Tonnes/Year) 2019 2021 2025 2035 CO2 3103 8578 10237 16278 CO 21.01 60.10 72.21 114.28 HC 7.71 22.06 26.51 41.95 NOX 20.24 57.88 69.55 110.07 PM 1.06 3.02 3.63 5.75 Total 3153.02 8721.06 10408.9 16550.05 5.3. Dredging Along the Identified Routes and Terminals Major parts of the channels are already in use, dredging in these are not significant whereas the approaches from the navigational channel to the terminal area constitute the main part of the dredging. The water depth required (-2 to -2.50m CD) in channels and -1.50mCD in approach and jetty pockets. The total dredging is estimated to be in the range of 0.65 million cubic meters. 6. DESIGN OF WATERWAYS The design aspects are mostly cantered on the ship: its manoeuvringbehaviour underinfluence of wind, currents and waves, its vertical motions in waves and the horizontaland vertical motions at berth. It is therefore necessary to understand the manoeuvringbehaviour and hydrodynamic responses of the ship. Another aspect to be considered is sediment transport, how siltation can be minimized/managed inside the approach channel and navigational channel. Finally, environmental and safety aspects also play a role in thelayout design. A major issue in the expansion/deepening of existingchannels isthe removal and deposition of dredged material 6.1. Navigational Channel The design of Navigational channel is based on the guidelines provided in AS 3962, PIANC, IS 4651 Part V. Vessel characteristics The vessel characteristics determine the channel dimensions. The design boat considered for the project is 100 paxboat with the following dimensions: Table.2. Vessel Characteristic Boat Size LOA(m) Breadth(m) Draft(m) 100 Pax 22 6 0.9 50 Pax 16 5.1 0.9 Channel Alignment Channel alignment should be assessed with regard toShortest channel length, Conditions/basins, etc. at either end of the channel, Need to avoid obstacles or areas of accretion which are difficult or expensive toremove or require excessive (and hence costly) maintenance dredging, Prevailing winds, currents and waves, Avoiding bends, especially close to port entrances, Environment on either side of the channel, such that ships passing along it do notcause disturbance or damage

| 117 | Channel Depth The channel depth is based on the guidelines provided in AS 3962.The depth in the entrance channel should take into accountDraught of boats using the marina, Wave climate outside the marina basin, Nature of the bed material, Likely rate of siltation in the entrance channel, Future extensions to the marina, Construction considerations.It may be more economic to provide additional depth during construction and avoid or minimize subsequent development ormaintenance dredging.The minimum water depthneeded in the channel is calculated as below:

l Draft – 0.9 m

l Allowance for significant wave height* (Hs/2) – 0.3 m

l Allowance for bed material – 0.3 m

l Total water depth below CD – 1.5 m Channel Width The channel width required for the navigation of the boats along the identified routes has beencalculated as per the guidelines given in PIANC. The channel width is designed basically for one way straight channel, one way curved channel, two way straight channels and two way curved channels which is having an outer channel width and inner channel width corresponding to 100 Pax and 50 Pax. Table.3. Channel Width Channel width (m) Inner One Way Straight Channel 50 Pax boat 12 100 Pax boat 14 One Way Curved Channel 50 Pax boat 13 100 Pax boat 15 Two Way Straight Channel 50 Pax boat 30 100 Pax boat 32 Two Way Curved Channel 50 Pax boat 32 100 Pax boat 35 Channel Bends The channel bends are provided as per guidelines of IS 4651 Part V. The minimum radius of thechannel bends is proposed as 5L. Thus the minimum radius of the channel bends work out to 110m. Side Slopes The side slopes are provided as per PIANC guidelines. As the soil is clay and silty clay, it isproposed to provide a side slope of 1:5. The same side slope is also observed in NW3 channel. 7. CONCLUSION The water transport system envisaged for Kochi focuses not only on the ferry services as the mode for public transportation but also envisions a holistic development of the areas being connected by

| 118 | waterways as well as integrating the waterway system as a part of the entire public transport system of the city. Apart from the ferry service development, the project also looks into developing the existing and new roads providing increased access to the jetties and also within the islands, ensuring safety and security to all its users by way of active and well lit streets, promoting use of small occupancy feeder modes to access the jetties, promoting property development around the jetties and place making. Effective use of inland waterways with the environmentally friendly hybrid boats is offering multifold benefits. Benefits of the project are better connectivity to islands, increase tourism potential, Reduced travel time and increased reliability, Inter- modal connectivity,passenger centric terminals and boats,terminals conceived as social hot spots,socio-economic development of islands,dnhanced employment opportunities, Decongestion on roads.It is being planned to be a user oriented and socially inclusive transport system, rather than being just a point to point service. It is also part of a bigger concept of seamless integration for the city making the Kochi Water Metro Project a ‘unique of its kind’ among other water transport systems operating in different parts of the world. This innovative system being tried in Kochi could be implemented in different parts of India for sustainable development urban transport,

References: Praveen S, A Case Study on Inland Water Transportation System in Kochi City Region. International Journal For Technological Research In Engineering Volume 2, Issue 11, July-2015. Detailed Project Report, Kochi Water Metro Project. Yogi Joseph, A Study on Inland Water Transportation in Kochi City Region. Centre for Public Policy Research, Working Paper Series 2012. Inland Water Authority of India, Ministry of Shipping, Govt. of India, publications and website (www.iwai.nic.in) .

| 119 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/16 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

ADVANCED RADARS AND 5G TECHNOLOGY IN COASTAL SURVEILLANCE

Cdt Nishant Gurjar and Cdt Rishikesh U Department of Ship Technology, Cochin University of Science And Technology, Kalamassery, Kochi-022

ABSTRACT For a peninsula like India which has about 7516km of its border land shared with sea, coastal security is also a major significant factor to take into consideration for the protetion of the mainland. Most cargo ships that sail between East Asia, America, Europe and Africa pass through Indian territorial waters. According to the Ministry of Shipping (MoS), around 95% of India’s trade by volume and 70% by value is done through maritime transport. Special economic zones (SEZs) are being developed in close proximity to several ports, thereby providing a logistical advantage to industries within these zones. The government has announced plans to develop 14 coastal economic zones (CEZs) in a phased manner for port-led development in all of the nine maritime states. India’s long coastline pose a variety of security concerns: • Landing of arms and explosives at isolated spots on the coast • Infiltration/ex-filtration of anti-national elements • Use of the sea and offshore islands for criminal activities • Smuggling of consumer and intermediate goods through sea routes, etc. Today, emphasis is being placed on the costal security infrastructure in India; however, the threats to coastal security are varied and complex: • The remoteness of the vast coastline makes coastal areas susceptible as boats can land stealthily without being detected. • The creek areas of Gujarat and the Sunderbans are particularly vulnerable to clandestine activities as they are interconnected through small islands where mangroves and sandbars provide shelter. • Dhows (large wooden boats), which are extensively used for trade, are often involved in illicit trade and smuggling. • Fencing of land borders has increased infiltration through sea routes.• Unavailability of a monitoring mechanism to monitor coastal security across coastal states and union territories Coastal Surveillance Systems (CSS) with integrated sensors and functionality toprotect borders, lifes, the environment and offshore critical assets. Radars design, build and integrate state of-the-art border surveillance systems for coastal supervision. These systems integrated with modern technology like 5G technology could help to make a major leap for coastal security services in India. Keywords. 5G, Radar, CSS(Coastal Surveillance Systems)

| 120 | INTRODUCTION In order to strengthen coastal security of India, a Coastal Surveillance System was launched in 2005 across all its coastal states & Union Territories. The main objective of the scheme was to strengthen infrastructure of the marine police force in order to improve patrolling and surveillance of the coastal areas, especially the shallow areas close to the coast. The CSS was to be implemented in two phases, with Phase I to be launched in 2005 for a period of five years, which was later delayed by one year and ended up being completed in 2011. Phase II was then implemented in 2011 for five years, which was again extended due to delays in implementation and is now likely to be completed by 31 March 2020. Phase I was extended by one year and was completed in March 2011. By September 2016, of the 131 sanctioned CPSs, 109 had been operationalised and 85 constructed. Main elements of the Coastal surveillance system are Radars, digital data processing, electro optical systems, artificial intelligence, sensor stations etc. since all the systems need a large amount of data transfer from station to station and local to global networks for surveillance, introduction of 4g for fetching large data can be extremely beneficial. 5g will provide security from pirate threat, prevent smuggling through seaways, attacks from foreign boats or ships. Speed and Latency provided by 5g will also avoid saturation of radar receiver in case of jamming. Being told the best tool for surveillance in military services it is equally effective in small target suspects detection. The key benefit is that it will provide a great support to advanced modern radars being developed nowadays. The Real Time Recording capability will improve and any kind of lagging will not be a thing of future. 5G will make the Station Surveillance systems More Automatic and Human errors causing great danger for nation or causing a great loss of property due to tiredness and not being attentive on surveillance will be a thing of past. Totally 5G will work as a Backbone for Coastal surveillance as well as help us improve functioning of Modern Radar systems. RADAR Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain, a transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the same antenna is used for transmitting and receiving) and a receiver and processor to determine the properties of the object(s). Radio waves (pulsed or continuous) from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the object’s location and speed. During the Second World War, it was ûrst used to notify the approach of hostile aircraft and for routing antiaircraft weapons. The modern RADAR system can be used to extract much more information from the reûected signal and got broader applications but still the range detection is one of its important functions. Till now, there is no electronic system which can replace the RADAR for its accuracy and efûciency in sensing and detection. During the Second World War, it was ûrst used to notify the approach of hostile aircraft and for routing antiaircraft weapons. The modern RADAR system can be used to extract much more information from the reûected signal and got broader applications but still the range detection is one of its important functions. Till now, there is no electronic system which can replace the RADAR for its accuracy and efûciency in sensing and detection. 2.1 Types of RADARS • Bistatic: the transmit and receive antennas are at different locations as viewed from the target (e.g., ground transmitter and airborne receiver). • Monostatic: the transmitter and receiver are collocated as viewed from the target (i.e., the same antenna is used to transmit and receive). • Quasi-monostatic: the transmit and receive antennas are slightly separated but still appear to be at the same location as viewed from the target.

| 121 | Radar Functions Normal radar functions: 1. range (from pulse delay) 2. velocity (from Doppler frequency shift) 3. angular direction (from antenna pointing) Signature analysis and inverse scattering: 4. target size (from magnitude of return) 5. target shape and components (return as a function of direction) 6. moving parts (modulation of the return) 7. material composition The complexity (cost & size) of the radar increases with the extent of the functions that the radar performs. Elecromagnetic spectrum range for RADAR systems:

2.2 Radar detection system for naval surveillance The Naval radar systems comply with the justification and operational requirements on board naval vessels to:

l Provide backup to primary surveillance radar system

l Assist on-board tactical task functions

l Helicopter landing control

l Perform sea and short-range air surveillance with automatic target tracking

l Provide safe navigation for year-round operation.

l The need to minimize radar emission while optimizing target range detection

l The avoidance of receiver saturation in case of jamming. 2.3 Power of a RADAR It is the ability to detect the return energy from moving scatterers — determining an object’s position or obstruction in the environment. This includes field of view in terms of solid angle and maximum unambiguous range and velocity, as well as angular, range and velocity resolution. Radar

| 122 | sensors are classified by application, architecture, radar mode, platform, and propagation window. Applications of radar include surveillance, radar altimeter, air traffic management, early-warning radar, fire-control radar, adaptive cruise control, forward warning collision sensing, ground penetrating radio detection , autonomous landing guidance , and weather forecasting 3. COASTAL SURVEILANCE SYSTEM The system is able to deal with user defined movements of the cameras, targets having very different size, reflections and wakes on the water surface, and apparently motionless boats anchored off the coast. The main goal of the system is to provide the user a global view of the situation at hand adding a visual dimension to AIS data. By using Passive bistatic radar (PBR) system in surveillance or monitoring an area can provide many benefits and advantages. This is due to the fact that PBR utilizes any available signal of opportunity (eg. broadcasting, communication and radio navigation signals) for its purposes, thus it provides many research area to be explored especially the capability of signals from the existing and future communication system such as 4G and 5G. Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is the current communication system that actively been deployed throughout the world. In response to that, Details are provided about aspects such as signal characteristics, experimental configurations and SNR studies. Six experimental scenarios were carried out to investigate the detection performance of the proposed system on moving targets. The ability to detect is demonstrated through the use of Cross Ambiguity Function. The detection results suggest that the LTE signals is suitable as a signal source for PBR. The Costal Surveillance Radar is the primary sensor for Integrated Costal Surveillance System (ICSS). It is capable of detecting sub 20 meter boats such as county boats, dinghies and fishing vessels in heavy sea clutter environment in all weather conditions. The radar is capable of operating 24x7. It has networking facility to operate either remotely or locally. Primarily, radar operates in X band and resorted to S band during inclement weather. The radar is designed in India according to DRDO specifications with instrumented range of 50 Km. The radar detection range for small county boats are up to 20 km. Radar has been successfully evaluated as a part of “Proof-of-Concept” trials of ICSS and recommended for transfer-of-technology (ToT). 3.1 Potential users (a) The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) for coastal security (b) Indian Navy for surface target surveillance (c) Director General of Light Houses and Light Ships (DGLL) (d) Ministry of Shipping for National Coastal Vessel Traffic Services (NCVTS) (e) Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) of public/private ports/facilities 3.2 Operation Swan In response to the 1993 Mumbai blasts, Operation Swan was launched in April 1993 as a joint operation of the Indian Navy and the ICG in conjunction with the respective state administration. The primary aim of this operation was to prevent the unauthorised and illegal entry of men and landing of arms, explosives and contraband along the coast of Gujarat and Maharashtra by sea. It also focused on obtaining intelligence about unusual movements or activities of personnel near the coastline having a bearing on security and to facilitate immediate actions to stall attempts at violating the sea frontiers for nefarious purposes. 3.3 Challenges ahead Multiple stakeholders make coordination and execution of coastal security measures a challenge, resulting in limited focus from the Central and state government. • Inadequate arrangement for maintenance of boats • Provision of jetties in the vicinity of marine police stations

| 123 | • Delays in the creation of shore-based infrastructure • Manpower shortages along with inappropriate training • Unavailability of a monitoring mechanism to monitor Inclusion of private players in maritime security • Integration of marine police in the coastal security chain to track coastal fishing activity • Setting up of Central Marine Police Force to standardise equipment and seamlessly integrate all the realms of costal security. • Fast-tracking the setting up of the National Marine Police Training Institute in Dwarka (Gujarat), followed by intense interaction between the institute and the Marine Police Training Centres in state and UTs • All coastal states and UTs to set up maritime boards • Setting up of a multi-disciplinary National Maritime Authority (NMA) under the aegis of MHA • Creation of modern fishing harbours as part of Sagramala • Strengthening the human intelligence (HUMINT) capability • More emphasis on port security infrastructure • Deployment of a satellite constellation for coastal surveillance • Creation of a joint technical cadre along with logistics infrastructure for maintenance of boats used for patrolling so as to address the issues related to operational availability of these assets • Optimum utilisation of funds allocated under the CSS • Enactment of the Coastal Security Bill which has been pending since 2013 • Creation of the National Coastal Security Corps (NCSC) of National Cadet Corp (NCC) • Increased interaction with other countries so as to adopt and customise the best practices being followed by them • Formulation of standards and policy for the procurement of equipment for coastal security • Induction of hovercraft and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as part of the CSS coastal security across coastal states and union territories 4. 5G TECHNOLOGY 5G is the next generation of wireless communications. It is expected to provide Internet connections that are least 40 times faster than 4G LTE. 5G technology may use a variety of spectrum bands, including millimeter wave (mm Wave) radio spectrum, which can carry very large amounts of data a short distance. The drawback of the higher frequencies is that they are more easily obstructed by the walls of buildings, trees and other foliage, and even inclement weather. 5G can support up to a million devices per square kilometer, while 4G supports only up to 100,000 devices per square kilometer. 4.1 Working of 5G 5Gmillimeter waves. Millimeter waves have shorter range than microwaves, therefore the cells are limited to smaller size; The waves also have trouble passing through building walls. Millimeter wave antennas are smaller than the large antennas used in previous cellular networks. They are only a few inches long. Another technique used for increasing the data rate is massive MIMO. Each cell will have multiple antennas communicating with the wireless device, received by multiple antennas in the device, thus multiple bitstreams of data will be transmitted simultaneously, in parallel. In a technique called beamforming the base station computer will continuously calculate the best route for radio waves to reach each wireless device, and will organize multiple antennas to work together as phased arrays to create beams of millimeter waves to reach the device.

| 124 | But when you dig deeper into the 5G evolution, you’ll find an array of 5G technology that will underpin future wireless communications. The main technologies involved in establishing 5G technology are: mmWave technology; small cells; massive multiple input, multiple output (MIMO); full duplex; and beamforming. Millimeter wave: Millimeter waves are broadcast at frequencies between 30 GHz and 300 GHz, compared with the bands below 6 GHz used for 4G LTE. The new 5G networks will be able to transmit very large amounts of data—but only a few blocks at a time. Although the 5G standard will offer the greatest benefits over these higher frequencies, it will also work in low frequencies as well as unlicensed frequencies that WiFi currently uses, without creating conflicts with existing WiFi networks. For this reason, 5G networks will use small cells to complement traditional cellular towers. Small cells: Small cells are low-powered portable base stations that can be placed throughout cities. Carriers can install many small cells to form a dense, multifaceted infrastructure. Small cells’ low- profile antennas make them unobtrusive, but their sheer numbers make them difficult to set up in rural areas. As 5G technology matures, consumers should expect to see ubiquitous 5G antennas, even in their own homes. Massive MIMO: 5G technology enables base stations to support many more antennas than 4G base stations. With MIMO, both the source (transmitter) and the destination (receiver) have multiple antennas, thus maximizing efficiency and speed. MIMO also introduces interference potential, leading to the necessity of beamforming. Beamforming: Beamforming is a 5G technology that finds the most efficient data-delivery route to individual users. Higher-frequency antennas enable the steering of narrower transmission beams. This user-specific beamforming allows transmissions both vertically and horizontally. Beam direction can change several times per millisecond. Beamforming can help massive MIMO arrays make more efficient use of the spectrum around them. Full duplex: Full duplex communication is a way to potentially double the speed of wireless communication. By employing a 5G full duplex scheme on a single channel, only one channel is needed to transmit data to and from the base station, rather than two. A potential drawback of full duplex is that it can create signal interference. 5. 5G, DRONES AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) – AKA drones – are already used by the military. However, they don’t transmit and share real-time 4K video and other data across command-and-control centers, and units in the battlefield. With 5G comes 4K video, object recognition, faster data processing and artificial intelligence (a good example is Project Maven), which will help reconnaissance missions and giving army units information on what they’re about to come up against. 5G could also help in more accurately and intelligently targeting weapons. The detection module aims to find the boats in the current frame obtained from the PTZ camera. Since the camera is frequently moved by the user, a foreground/background modelling approach to detect vessels is ineffective. Thus, we decided to adopt a classifier based detection. In order to obtain real-time performance, which is possible only if data processing is fast enough to download and upload MBs of data in seconds. Which is possible with 5G use. Today, emphasis is being placed on the costal security infrastructure in India; however, the threats to coastal security are varied and complex: • The remoteness of the vast coastline makes coastal area susceptible as boats can land stealthily without being detected.

| 125 | • The creek areas of Gujarat and the Sunderbans are particularly vulnerable to clandestine activities as they are interconnected through small islands where mangroves and sandbars provide shelter. • Dhows (large wooden boats), which are extensively used for trade, are often involved in illicit trade and smuggling. • Fencing of land borders has increased infiltration through sea routes. • Discovery of vast hydrocarbons within the Indian EEZ has complicated the situation. Multiple stakeholders make coordination and execution of coastal security measures a challenge, resulting in limited focus from the Central and state government. • Inadequate arrangement for maintenance of boats • Provision of jetties in the vicinity of marine police stations • Delays in the creation of shore-based infrastructure • Manpower shortages along with inappropriate training • Unavailability of a monitoring mechanism to monitor coastal security across coastal states and union territories 6. CONCLUSION For the improvement of coastal surveillance systems, it is evident that introducing 5G technology can prove to be very useful. The scope of integration of 5G with radar technology has been briefly acknowledged in this paper. 5G Technology is still in its primitive form, and needs a lot of work to be done upon, which will allow us to access the technology without any major hindrances. This paper takes into consideration only the primitive 5G technology and how to establish a real-time coastal surveillance system with this prototype technology. As the technology further develops, the security system is also bound to develop and will eventually turn out to be the most efficient technology ever existed for coastal surveillance. As the 5G Technological advances brings us the use of AI and drones too, this technology is certainly one that we have to keep an eye upon.

References: Prof David Jenn; Radar Fundamentals J G Andrerws, Stefano Buzzi, Wan Choi; “What will 5G be?”; IEEE Journals: Vol. 32 Issue 5(2014) Coastal Surveillence: FCCI-PWC report (2011)5. Terma Co. Home Page https://www.terma.com/surveillance-mission-systems/radar-systems/ Defence Research and Development Organistaion Website https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/English/107-5CIR- 107______CAT-A___CSR.pdf

| 126 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/17 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

BIOMIMETIC PROPULSION SYSTEMS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS TO MARINE VEHICLES

Anties K Martin and P. Krishnankutty Naga Praveen Babu M Department of Ocean Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Madras, Shenzhen Graduate School, Chennai, India Shenzhen, China Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Imitation of models, systems, and elements of living beings in nature for effective utilization in human activities and related engineering applications is generally termed as biomimetics. Observations of highly- efficient swimming capabilities of aquatic animals have paved the way for studying oscillating foil as a propulsion mechanism for marine vehicles. This paper presents some of the biologically inspired propulsion systems and their applications. Keywords: Biomimetics, CFD, Flapping Foil, Fish Propulsion, Self-propulsion tests

1 INTRODUCTION Biomimetic or biomimicry can be defined as the imitation or replication of biological systems to real- life engineering systems. Researchers have done experimental and numerical studies to analyze the feasibility of using flapping foil as a propulsive mechanism. Marine animals are known to have efficient means and mechanism of propulsion [1]. Thunniform type of fish (eg. Tuna) uses mainly its tail (caudal) fin for propulsion, whereas pectoral fins (pair of forward side fins) for turning, position keeping and direction changing. The streamlined shape of aquatic animals put least obstructions to the flow past it and hence reduces the adverse wake effects and thereby enabling it to achieve higher efficiency. Higher efficiency and other advantages of aquatic animal propulsion mechanisms have motivated researchers to consider implementing biomimetic flapping foil mechanisms, replicating the fish fin movements, for marine vehicles. 1.1 Propulsion Mechanism of Fishes Locomotion of different types of fishes are achieved by its body and/or fin oscillations. Based on the body/fin oscillation, they are classified as anguilliform, subcarangiform, carangiform, thunniform and ostraciiform. In anguilliform, like eel, the entire body is oscillated from head to tail. Fishes like trout which has less body flexibility and major part of the propulsion work done by the aft part of the body come under the class of subcarangiform. In carangiform fishes, only the aftmost part of the fish body oscillates along with caudal fin, like pampanos and mackerels, and the major contribution on total thrust comes from the caudal fin. Thunniform fishes, like tuna and white sharks, are high speed and long distance swimmers for which the caudal fin is large and crescent-shaped. Fishes like boxfishes

| 127 | and cowfishes, which oscillates only the caudal fin to generate the propulsive force, come under the category of ostraciiform. Lang and Daybell [2] explained about the dolphins which are known for better natural swimming. The average dolphin speed is around 4.57 m/s with a Reynold number of around 8 x 10^5. Bainbridge [3] studied in detail about the bream fish where the tail beat frequency is around 3.7 Hz and speed is 47.5 cm/s. The length of the fish is around 19 cm and the double amplitude of tail oscillation is 4.12 cm which is 22 % of body length. 1.2 Oscillating Foil Study Knoller and Betz [4] conducted an experiment where they created an angle of attack to the foil and found that a parallel force is generated which is called thrust force and also known as the Knoller- Betz effect. Karman and Burgers [5] explained the theory behind thrust and drag on the foil and found that the primary reason for the production of thrust is the von Karman vortex which is outward vortex shedding and drag is due to the inward vortex shedding which is clockwise in direction.

Fig.1: Lift based propulsors Fig. 2: Example of lift based Propulsion System

Koochefahani [6] demonstrated thrust production due to pure pitching experimentally. He conducted an experiment where the foil is undergoing only pure pitching. Omoware et al [7] conducted a numerical study of pitch motion of a flat plate. The amplitude and frequency of fin oscillation are varied. Anderson et al [8] used a mechanism that can undergo both translation and rotation. The high efficiency accompanied by a thrust coefficient of order one is obtained at the Strouhal number range of 0.3 - 0.4. The maximum efficiency noted is 87 % which is better than the conventional system. Schouvelier et al [9], conducted an experiment where the rigid foil undergoes both heave and pitch motion. The velocity of flow is fixed and an efficiency of 70 % noted which is considered to be better than the conventional screw propeller system. 1.3 Oscillating Foil Application Lai et al[10], placed a small flexible fin behind a small model yacht of 0.33m long. It is found that the model is moving forward under the influence of fin while drifting back without the fin under head sea condition. He also reported that the Foils can act as a wave energy absorber. Yamaguchi and Bose [11] have compared the open water and behind hull efficiency of flapping foils (both rigid and flexible foils) with conventional propeller numerically. The flexibility is introduced only to the half of the chord length of the foil. The open water efficiency of flapping foil is 17 -25 % higher than that of the conventional screw propeller. They also tested the behind condition by placing the foil behind a small model and found that the efficiency of the system is higher than the conventional system. 2. METHODS OF LOCOMOTION Locomotion can be defined as the movement that results in progression from one place to another. It can be divided into Fossorial Locomotion, Terrestrial Locomotion, Aerial Locomotion, and Aquatic Locomotion. Fossorial locomotion can be considered as the underground movement of worms, calms

| 128 | insects, etc. Terrestrial locomotion is walking, jumping, crawling, hopping, etc. Aerial locomotion is considered as the gliding (Flying snake), soaring, etc. For locomotion, aquatic animals used fins, body oscillations, waterjet principle, etc. 2.1 Aquatic Locomotion Lift Based Propulsion System: In lift based propulsion, thrust and lift are generated by using the flapping foils or wings. The pressure difference between the top and bottom of the foil results in a lift force. The sea turtles and penguins use their paired fins to create thrust and lift forces (See Fig. 1). Shark fish has the ability to vary its angle of pectoral fin thereby keeping a neutral position. Seal generate thrust by oscillatory caudal fin where the sea lions with a pair of pectoral fin. The ship fitted with penguin inspired propulsion system is shown in Fig. 2. And it is an example of lift based propulsion system which will be explained in the later section. Drag Based Prolusion System: Birds like ducks use drag based propulsion system where they use the cyclic motion of their limbs to push the water backward to get the power stroke while returns their limbs forward called recovery stroke (Fig.3.a). In power stroke, animal push water backward and move forward, during recovery stroke, they come back to its initial position. Reduction of drag force during the recovery stroke is essential for increasing the efficiency and also used in the design of marine vehicles. Drag based propulsion is used in oar propulsion which is also known as paddling.

(a) (b)

Fig. 3: Drag based propulsion (a) Duck swimming (b) Paddling

Figure 3.b is an example of drag based propulsion, where water is pushed backward results in the forward motion of the boat. UndulatoryPropulsors: In undulation mode, animals move in water by creating undulation or flag movement of their bodies like the oscillation of caudal fin. Oscillatory motion of fin can cause a horizontal force which is the thrust force in the direction of propagation of the fish and also a side/ vertical force. Figure 4 shows the fish fins used by fishes to move and maneuver.

Fig. 4: Fish fins

| 129 | Undulation mode propulsion is classified into body caudal fin (BCF) prolusion and median paired fin (MPF) propulsion. BCF mode is again classified into a) anguilliform b) sub-carangiform c)thunniform d)ostraciform modes. Pectoral fins which are at the sides of the fish are used for changing the direction of motion. Figure 5 shows some examples of undulatory based propulsion.

(a) Eels (b) Shark

(c) Tuna (d) Box Fish

Fig. 5: Undulatory based propulsion (a) anguilliform (b) sub-carangiform (c) thunniform (d) ostraciform

Figure 6 shows the application of an undulatory based propulsion system. Fin is fitted at the aft of the hull mimicking the tail fin of Dolphin. Fin has the provision to oscillate with different frequency and thrust developed by the fin will be transferred to the hull which results in the forward motion of the hull.

Fig. 6. Ship model with tail fin (Dolphin inspired)

Jet Propulsors: In jet propulsion (see Fig. 7), aquatic animals intake water into its cavity then compresses and water is then ejected to propel in the opposite direction of the ejected fluid. Jet propulsion mechanism will be different for different animals. Jelly fish’s intake and eject the water through the same cavity, where squids use one funnel for in taking and other for ejection. While expelling, animals accelerate and in vacuuming, water phase deceleration is achieved. Figure 8 shows the jellyfish robot.

| 130 | Fig. 7: Jet based propulsors Fig. 8: Jellyfish propulsion system 3. SOME SAMPLE STUDIES 3.1 Surface ship model with tandem flapping foils Experimental studies are carried out to ascertain the thrust producing mechanism of flapping foils. The propulsive performance of flapping foils fitted to surface ships in tandem mode at its midship position is studied. This work attempted to investigate the thrust generation capability and efficiency of the rigid and flexible hydrofoil in self-propulsion mode. The lift-based penguin type propulsion system installed in a ship model, used in the study, is shown in Figure 9. A pair of flexible flapping foils are attached to the ship model bottom. The amplitude and frequency of these flapping foil oscillations are varied using the electromechanical systems. In the experimental study, ship model resistance tests, bollard pull tests, and selfpropulsion tests are carried out in the towing tank.

Fig. 9. Ship model fitted with flapping foils

Model tests for resistance are conducted and the results are shown in Figure 10. In Bollard Pull tests, the ship model is tied to a stationary post and the flaps oscillate at different frequencies and amplitudes corresponding to different Strouhal numbers. The thrust developed by the flapping foils is measured in each case using a load cell. In self-propulsion tests, the ship model is fitted with an electric motor and load cell to measure the thrust force generated by the flapping foils. The ship model speed is matched with towing carriage speed to determine the speed achieved by the ship at different frequencies and amplitudes and the forces are measured using the load cell and data acquisition system. The measured thrust force is shown in Figure 11.

Fig 10. Resistance tests of the ship model with Fig 11.Thrust developed in self-propulsion mode (V=0) and without the foils fitted

| 131 | 3.2 Fish locomotion study using digital x-ray fluoroscopy Carangiform fishes play a major role in propulsion and maneuvering performance. In this section, the skeletal view of the carangiform fish spine and caudal fin kinematics during forward swimming are presented using a digital x-ray fluoroscopy technique. The aim of this study is to obtain the 3D Kinematics of the fish spine and caudal fin motions. Biplanar high-speed cineradiographic fluoroscopy with an image resolution of 1536 x 1024 was taken from the top view. The fish swims freely in a glass tank during the experiments. The experimental set up is shown in Figure 12. The spinal cord and caudal fin motions were recorded during fluoroscopy tests. These motions are tracked manually for all the videos in which fish swims straight and achieves steady-state locomotion. The fluoroscopy images of the fish spine and caudal fins are shown in Figure 13 and Figure 14.

Fig.12. Digital fluoroscopy Fig.13. Fluoroscopy image of Fig.14. Manual tracking of fish recording of fish swimming fish swimming – skeletal view spinal cord joint and caudal fin

3.3 Fish locomotion study using 2D particle image velocimetry Two-dimensional flow visualization experiments are carried out to visualize the flow pattern around the caudal, pectoral, anal and dorsal fins of a freely swimming fish using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) system. A freshwater black shark fish with a body length of 26cm is used for the present experimental study. The fish is placed inside a glass tank and it is allowed to swim freely in the tank. The PIV technique involves the introduction of tiny particles called ‘seeder particles’ into the fluid path. Hollow glass spheres with a mean diameter of 10 ¼m are used as the tracer particles. The flows around the fins of freely swimming fish are analyzed and the velocity vector fields are presented here. Figures 15 & 16 show the CCD image and velocity vector field around adipose and anal fins for Δt = 900 ms. 3.4 CFD study on oscillating foils

Fig. 15. CCD image and velocity vector field around Fig.16. Consecutive CCD image and velocity vector field adipose (upper one) and anal (below one) fins around caudal fins stroke at the center in YZ plane for Δt = 900 ms for Δt = 900 ms

| 132 | Fig. 17: Average thrust coefficient -2D and 3D study Fig. 18: Efficiency of the foils-2D and 3D study

Hydrodynamic performance of a harmonically oscillating 2D and 3D flapping foil is analyzed in open water conditions using CFD. Strouhal number (FA/U) is varied from 0 to 0.4 in steps of 0.05 by varying the frequency foil in oscillation. In the 2D study indicates the foils span as infinite whereas in the present 3D study the foil aspect ratio used is 5. Foil is allowed to oscillate in the combined mode of heave and pitch with a phase difference of 90 degrees. Results show that the 3D foil performance is always inferior to 2D foil performance due to the end effect. Figure 17 shows the thrust coefficient and Figure 18 shows the propulsive efficiency. 3.5 Ship model propulsion with foil at aft aperture Numerical investigation of a dolphin inspired propulsion system is explained here. Foil is fitted at the aft aperture of a model where the foil is allowed to oscillate in the combined heave and pitch motions (see Fig. 19). Figure 20 shows the speed achieved by the ship model in self-propulsion mode at different frequencies of fin oscillation.

Fig. 19. Self-propulsion under calm water Fig. 20. Model speed induced by oscillating foil

4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Hydrodynamic aspects of fishes and some of the aquatic animals and hydrodynamic performance of some of the biologically inspired propulsion systems are presented. Foil is fitted at the midship of the hull bottom which mimicks lift based propulsion system and studied its propulsive performance. A flow visualization experiment on live fish is conducted to understand the flow behaviour around different fins using PIV system. CFD study on foils in free stream is carried out and the influence of end effects on thrust is noticed. Self-propulsion tests on ship models using oscillating foils are carried out to find the effects of oscillation frequency on thrust and propulsive efficiency.

| 133 | References: Rozhdestvensky, K. V., &Ryzhov, V. A. (2003). Aerohydrodynamics of flapping-wing propulsors. Progress in aerospace sciences, 39(8), 585-633. Lang TG, Daybell DA. Porpoise performance tests in a seawater tank. NOTS TP 3063 (NAVWEPS Report 8060). China Lake, CA: Naval Ordnance Test Station; 1963. Bainbridge, R. (1963). Caudal fin and body movement in the propulsion of some fish. Journal of Experimental Biology, 40(1), 23-56. Knoller, R. (1909). Die gesetze des luftwiderstandes. Verlag des OsterreichischerFlugtechnischenVereines. Von Karman, T., & Burgers, J. M. (1943). General Aerodynamic Theory–PerfectFluids, Division E, Vol. II, Aerodynamic Theory, Ed. Durand, WF, 308 Koochesfahani, M. M. (1989). Vortical patterns in the wake of an oscillatingairfoil. AIAA Journal, 27(9), 1200-1205 Omoware, W. D., Maheri, A., &Azimov, U. (2014, November). Aerodynamic analysis of flapping-pitching flat plates. In Environmental Friendly Energies and Applications (EFEA), 2014 3rd International Symposium on (pp. 1-5). IEEE Anderson, J. M., Streitlien, K., Barrett, D. S., &Triantafyllou, M. S. (1998). Oscillating foils of high propulsive efficiency. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 360, 41-72. Schouveiler, Lionel, F. S. Hover, and M. S. Triantafyllou. (2005) “Performance of flapping foil propulsion.” Journal of Fluids and Structures 20.7: 949-959. Lai, Peter SK, Neil Bose, and Robert C. McGregor. (1993) “Wave propulsion from a flexiblearmed, rigid-foil propulsor.” Marine technology 30.1: 30-38. Yamaguchi, H., and N. Bose. (1994) “Oscillating foils for marine propulsion.” Oscillating Foils for Marine Propulsion 3: 539-544.

| 134 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/18 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

NANO FUEL ADDITIVES: AN INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR SHIP EMISSION REDUCTION

D. Rajasekhar, D. Narendra Kumar, P.S. Deepaksankar and Anantha Krishna Rao Vessel Management Cell, National Ins titute of Ocean Technology, Chennai

ABSTRACT One of the prominent issues that the world is confronting today is air pollution. Various innovative technologies are used to reduce emission and its harmful effect. The rapid growth of nanotechnology has gained a great deal of interest. Nano technology improves efficiency of the fuel which in turn enables reduced fuel consumption. In this paper various types of available nano fuel additives and their effective utility to minimize emission from ships are discussed. Use of nano adsorbent is an effective tool for the removal of NOx. 85% of nitrogen oxide emissions can be reduced using this technique. Some of the other application of nano materials viz., nano coating will reduce fuel consumption by 30%. A case study has been discussed in this paper elaborating how nanofuel is prepared and the same was tested in a research vessel. Emission data collected prior and post utilization of nano fuel to the engine was recorded using a portable flue gas analyzer and the data was validated by using both empirical method and a web tool emission calculator. Keywords: Nano fuel additives, Emission, Nitrogen oxide, Flue gas analyzer

1. INTRODUCTION International shipping is a large and growing source of greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions are projected to increase significantly if mitigation measures are not put in place swiftly. Maritime transport, in addition to air transport, has become one of the major sources of emitting sulfur and nitrogen oxide. However, rigorous sulfur emission standards will come into force from 2020 as the International Maritime Organization has initiated stringent emission limits. Maritime transport emits around 940 million tonnes of CO annually and is responsible for about 2.5% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. 2 2. NANO FUEL ADDITIVES – A FUTURE FUEL With the advancement in nano technology during the past few years, the scientific community focuses on improvising the combustion behavior, stability aspects, various engine performance parameters, and emission characteristics of conventional diesel engines using nano-particle diesel biodiesel fuel blends [1]. Most recently, a few experimental works using nano-sized metallic, non-metallic, organic, and mixed particles in the base liquid fuel for diesel engines have appeared in the open literature [2]. The results obtained are very encouraging due to multifold enhancement in the thermo-physical and chemical properties of modified fuels, such as high surface to volume ratio, high reactive medium for combustion, enhanced heat and mass transport properties due to high thermal conductivity, and improvement in the flash point, fire point, pour point, etc., depending on the type of nano-particles used and their particle size and concentration with base fuels [3]. Further, the experimental results of different researchers are not generalized so far as to reach a common consensus about this new approach of fuel modification.

| 135 | 2.1 Types of Nano fuel additives for Diesel Engine Nano size material includes metals like, Al, Mg, Zr, Ti, Ni, boron (a metalloid), and metal oxides [4]. Recently, nano sized silicon powders and nano porous silicon wafers were considered for various applications. Major types of nano fuel additives are discussed below. 2.1.1 Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Cerium oxide has the ability to catalyze combustion reactions by donating oxygen atoms from its lattice structure. This catalytic activity is dependent on surface area; therefore, using nanoscale cerium oxide particles can offer distinct advantages over bulk material or larger particles [5]. Fig.1 shows how the hydrocarbon is left unburnt in the fuel. Adding cerium oxide nanoparticles to fuel can help assist in the decomposition of unburnt hydrocarbons and soot, thereby reducing the emission of these pollutants from the exhaust while simultaneously reducing the amount of fuel used as shown in fig.2. It was also noted that cerium oxide decreases the pressure in the combustion chamber, which reduces the production of NOx and makes combustion reactions more efficient [6].

Fig.1. Fuel oil without Cerium oxide Nano particles

Fig.2. Fuel oil with Cerium oxide Nano particles

Cerium oxide nanoparticles can also be used as a short-term treatment for particulate filters in diesel engines [7]. These nanoparticles help to clear away soot, which clogs up the filters, in an effort to drastically improve the performance of the filters and the overall cleanliness of the exhaust emissions. REDOX properties [8] of Cerium Oxide promote combustion and reduce NOx as shown below NOx reduction: xCe O + NO à2xCeO +N —— (1) 2 3 x 2 2 Soot Burning: 4CeO + C à 2Ce O + CO —— (2) 2 soot 2 3 2 Hydrocarbon Combustion: (2x+y)CeO + C H à (2x+y)Ce O /2 + CO +H O —— (3) 2 x y 2 3 2 2

| 136 | 2.1.2 Aluminium Nanoparticles Nanoparticles and microparticles of aluminum have also been extensively investigated as potential fuel additives. The main reason for this is because of aluminum’s ability to increase the power output of engines as a result of its high combustion energy. Recent advances in the fabrication and characterization of nanoparticles have provided researchers with a more detailed understanding into the relationship that exists between particle size and structure with performance benefit, thereby supporting research into aluminum nanoparticle fuel additives. In addition, the aluminum nanoparticle suspensions in ethanol-based fuels were much better than those in model hydrocarbons, suggesting that nanoaluminum could be effective in additive packs for bio-ethanol fuels [9]. In fact, a 2018 study found that incorporating aluminum oxide (Al O ) 2 3 nanoparticles into Jojoba biodiesel-diesel fuel significantly improved engine performance while simultaneously reducing the NOx emissions by 70%, carbon monoxide (CO) emissions by 80% and smoke opacity by 35% [10]. 2.1.3 Magnesium-Aluminium and Cobalt Oxide Nanoparticles In a 2011 Ganesh et.al, India investigated the potential of cobalt oxide (CO O ) and magnesium- 3 4 aluminum (magnalium) nanoparticles as additives for biodiesel fuels [11]. The oxygen atoms in CO O particles can moderate the combustion reactions in a similar mechanism as to how cerium 3 4 oxide nanoadditives function. As a result, when CO O nanoparticles were applied to the fuel, the 3 4 combustion was cleaner and both CO and unburnt hydrocarbon emission were significantly reduced. The cobalt nanoadditives were also shown to reduce NO production. This is especially significant x with biodiesel combustion, since biodiesel fuels are often prone to high NO emissions as compared x to regular petrochemical diesel. Magnalium nanoparticles serve a similar function as fuel additives as compared to aluminium nanoparticles, in that these nanoparticles exhibit a high energy combustion that produces micro explosions. These micro explosions ultimately improve combustion efficiency to help to improve fuel efficiency or increase power output. 3. NANO FUEL PREPARATION For this study a mixture of Cerium oxide and Aluminum nano particle soaked in Ethanol is being analyzed. Material existing in nano scale (1-100 nm) is easier to disperse in a fuel and they are highly reactive as compared with conventional particle size [12]. Due to higher specific surface area, strong interaction is developed between fuel and particles. Particle will suspend in a stabilized condition for a longer period. A charged layer is formed as a result of absorption of ionic groups of a fuel by nano particle [13]. Due to the repulsive forces, particle agglomeration will be minimized. Nanoparticles of 5 nm and 10 nm are considered for the experiment. These particles are spherical in shape with smooth surface. Ethanol soaked nano-particles are mixed thoroughly with a mixture of fuel and surfactant. Special mixing technique sonication (pressure induced through ultrasound waves) is used in order to have a homogeneous, stable, long term suspension and very less agglomeration of nano particle. Constant temperature for the mixture was maintained. There are different nano additives available and being developed for different applications. Laboratory experimentation works are being carried out with the combination of different base fuels and oxygenated fuels. Our study stood apart from others in matter of blending of different oxygenated fuel additives. In our study we are using surfactants along with nano fuel additives and oxygenated fuel additives added to base marine fuel. Using a surfactant, blending both nano additives and oxygenated fuel additives to a base marine fuel is a novel technique which has been developed.

| 137 | 3.1 Case study For this study, prepared nanofuel was tested onboard a research vessel engaged in a suitable cruise. The emissions from the exhaust of the ship before adding nano fuel additives are recorded with a portable flue gas analyzer - Testo 350 as shown in fig.3 below. The TESTO 350 MARITIME Exhaust Gas Analyzer is a certified instrument for measuring emissions at ship diesel engines, specifically for measuring gaseous exhaust concentrations of O , CO, CO , NOx, and SO . 2 2 2

Fig.3. Portable flue gas analyzer – Testo 350 A schematic diagram showing the conventional fuel oil supply arrangement and modified setup for nano fuel additive supply is shown in fig.4 below.

Fig.4. Schematic diagram of Conventional and modified nano fuel dosing systems onboard Research vessel

Cerium oxide and aluminium nanoparticles are a thermally stable oxidation catalyst to promote oxidation of hydrocarbon fuel [14]. When the combined nano fuel is used as an additive in CI engine, it reduces NOx emission [15]. After blending the nano additives in the fuel oil service tank, again emissions are recorded form the exhaust by the portable flue gas analyzer. By comparing the data recorded before and after adding nano fuel additives, it was observed that the NOx emission was reduced by 20%, CO and CO show a reduction of 10% for alumina and cerium oxide nano particles due to fast evaporation rate. 2 The recorded emission data is validated using an online ship emission calculator by Laboratory for Maritime Transport, National Technical University of Athens and also by using empirical formulae. Table.1 shows the data recorded using a portable flue gas analyzer.

| 138 | | 139 | 3.2 Ship emission Calculator It is an open source web-based tool created by the National Technical University of Athens, Laboratory for Maritime Transport for calculating the exhaust gas emissions (CO , SO and NOx) of specific types of 2 2 ships under a variety of operational scenarios. By feeding the details of the ship and ship’s voyage plan in the specified fields, emission data shall be obtained using an inbuilt algorithm. A sample data is shown in the table-3 below. Table 3: Emission data obtained from Web tool S.No Date CO (g/km) NOx (g/km) Mode Remarks 2 1. 22-9-19 161.974 1.72 NA Emer. Gen. 2. 22-9-19 374.2 15.89 Drift NA 3. 23-9-19 278.7 8.51 DP NA 4. 23-9-19 310.6 9.30 DP NA

3.3 Validation of the data The Testo 350 values recorded are in ppm. Using the empirical formula conversions it is converted to g/km. Previous research conducted in this field has established the relationship between the emission gas concentration (ppm) and specific fuel consumption. To compare the EU standard in g/km to the results obtained in ppm, the conversion employed (equations 4 -6) was based on the assumptions of Alkama et al., [16] and conversions adopted by Pilusa et al., [17]. The results of this work have proven that 1 ppm of a specific pollutant gas is 8.4 times its density in milligrams per kilometer.

CO (g/km) = 9.66 * 10-3 * CO (ppm) —————— (4) CO (g/km) = 166.3 * CO (vol %) —————— (5) 2 2 NOx (g/km) = 28.56 * 10-3 * NOx (ppm) —————— (6) The table.4 below shows the values obtained from the ship emission calculator and also the values calculated using the empirical formulas. Fig.4 shows the CO and NOx values got from the ship emission 2 calculator and empirical formulas with a variation of ± 2% . CO (g/km) = 166.3 * CO (vol %) 2 2 = 166.3 * 0.98 = 162.974 NOx (g/km) = 28.56 * 10-3 * NOx (ppm) = 28.56 * 10-3 * 60 = 1.713 Table 4: Validation between ship emission calculator and empirical formulas CO (g/km) NOx (g/km) 2 Ship emission Empirical Ship calculator Empirical calculator values emission values 161.974 162.974 1.72 1.713 374.2 372.512 15.89 15.99 278.7 279.38 8.51 8.56 310.6 310.98 9.30 9.36

| 140 | Fig.5: CO and NOx emissions of validation by Ship emission calculator and Empirical formulas 2

4. CONCLUSION Range of nano fuel additives can be used as additives in diesel and biodiesel due to increased surface area to volume ratio and increased catalytic activity in nano size metal oxides and metals. Nano fuel increases better combustion due micro explosion phenomenon. The results of the study may be summarized as follows: l Most of the additives showed reduction in NOx and SOx due to higher cetane number and reduction in HC due to higher evaporation rate and catalytic oxidation. l Lower smoke emission was observed due to higher evaporation rate, reduced ignition delay. l There is a decrease in CO emission due to improved ignition characteristics with nano fuel additives. l At higher concentration of nano fluid additives, the higher CO emission was observed. Thus a novel approach of implementing nano technology i.e, nano fuel additives has been proven to be a promising technique for abatement of emissions from ships.

| 141 | References: Sajeevan AC, Sajith V. Diesel engine emission reduction using catalytic nanoparticles: an experimental investigation. Adv Mech Eng 2013:1–9. Bulent Koc A, Abdullah M. Performance and NOx emissions of a diesel engine fueled with biodieseldiesel- water nano emulsions. Fuel Proces Technol 2013;109:70–7. Kannan GR, Karvembu R, Anand R. Effect of metal based additive on performance emission and combustion characteristics of diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel. Appl Energy 2011;88:3694–703. Tock Richard W, Hernandez Arlene, Sanders Kenneth J, et al. Nano-sized zinc oxide particles for fuel. US Patent Application 20120204480; 2012. Sajith V, Sobhan CB, Peterson GP. Experimental investigations on the effects of cerium oxide nanoparticles fuel additives on biodiesel. Adv Mech Eng 2010:1–6. Mehta RN, Chakraborty M, Parikh PA. Nanofuels: combustion, engine performance and emissions. Fuel 2014;120:91– 7. Selvan VAM, Anand RB, Udaykumar M. Effect of cerium oxide nanoparticle addition in diesel and diesel-biodiesel-ehanol blends on the performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci 2009;4(7):1–6. Selvan VAM, Anand RB, Udayakumar M. Effect of cerium oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes as fuel-borne additives in Diesterol blends on the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a variable compression ratio engine. Fuel 2014;130:160–7. Mehta RN, Chakraborty M, Parikh PA. Impact of hydrogen generated by splitting water with nanosilicon and nano- aluminum on diesel engine performance. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2014;39:8098–105. El-Seesy, Ahmed & Attia, Ali. (2018). The effect of Aluminum oxide nanoparticles addition with Jojoba methyl ester-diesel fuel blend on a diesel engine performance, combustion and emission characteristics. Fuel. 224. 147-166. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2018.03.076. Ganesh D, Gowrishankar G. Effect of nano-fuel additive on emission reduction in a biodiesel fuelled CI engine 978-1- 4244-8165-1/11; 2011. p. 3453–59. Sarvestany Farzad A, Bajestan EE, Mir M. Effects of magnetic nanofluid fuel combustion on the performance and emission characteristics. J Dispers Sci Technol 2013 10.1080/01932691.2013.874296. Yang WM, An H, Chou SK, Vedharaji S, Vallinagam R, Balaji. Emulsion fuel with novel nano-organic additives for diesel engine application. Fuel 2013;104:726–31. Sadhik Basha J, Anand RB. An experimental study in a CI engine using nanoadditives blended water–diesel emulsion fuel. International journal of green energy, vol. 8 (3); p. 332–48. Basha JS, Anand RB. Role of nanoadditive blended biodiesel emulsion fuel on the working characteristics of a diesel engine. J Renew Sustain Energy 2011;3 (023106):1–17. Alkama, R., Ait-Idir, F. and Slimani, Z. (2006). Estimation and Measurement of the Automobile. Global Nest J. 8: 227– 281. Pilusa T.J., Mollagee M.M., Muzenda E. Reduction of Vehicle Exhaust Emissions from Diesel Engines Using the Whale Concept Filter. Aerosol and Air Quality Research 12, 994, 2012.

| 142 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/19 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

STUDY OF EFFICIENCY, PERFORMANCE AND RELIABILITY OF ORV SAGAR NIDHI USING GENETIC ALGORITHM

D. Rajasekhar, D. Narendra kumar, P. S. Deepaksankar and Anantha Krishna Rao Vessel Management Cell, National Ins titute of Ocean Technology, Chennai

ABSTRACT Genetic algorithm is a method for solving both constrained and unconstrained optimization problems that is based on natural selection, the process that drives biological evolution. Present study investigates use of genetic algorithm for improving engine efficiency and reliability of propulsion system of Oceanographic research vessel (ORV) Sagar Nidhi. Sagar Nidhi uses low sulphur high flash high speed diesel (LSHFHSD) as a fuel and specific fuel consumption at 1000 RPM is optimized. Fuel consumption is optimized for both in transit, maneuvering and dynamic positioning (DP) mode using genetic algorithm. Effect of genetic algorithm in reducing failure rate and improvement in reliability is explained in detail. Keywords: Diesel Electric Propulsion, Propulsion Power, Reliability, Genetic Algorithm

1 INTRODUCTION: Highly sophisticated state of art ice class research vessel Sagar Nidhi is equipped with world class equipments. Sagar Nidhi provides platform for launching and recovery of remotely operable vehicle (ROV), Deep sea mining crawler (DSMC), Tsunami systems and Autonomous coring system (ACS) and etc., in Indian, International and Antarctic waters. The ship has twin screw diesel electric propulsion system along with dynamic positioning capability (DP-2).

Fig.1. ORV Sagar Nidhi.

| 143 | 1.1 Objective The main objectives present research is as follows: a. To optimize specific fuel consumption b. To increase the reliability of vessel 1.2 Advantages of Diesel-Electric Propulsion Following are the major advantages of Diesel-Electric propulsion a. Reduced fuel consumption b. Vibration and noise reduction c. Improved efficiency d. Low maintenance e. Better propulsion control Schematic representation of conventional and Diesel-electric propulsion is shown in Fig.2 and Fig.3.

Fig. 2. Conventional Mechanical Propulsion Source: Research Gate

Fig.3. Diesel Electric Propulsion

| 144 | In conventional system required power will be obtained from Diesel engine which will be transferred to propeller through gear box and propeller shaft. In Diesel-electric propulsion, electric power is generated and supplied to AC motor which drives the thruster. The specification of the diesel electric propulsion system onboard ORV Sagar Nidhi is given in the Table 1. Table 1. Vessel Propulsion System Specifications System component Specifications Power Generation 4 x 1710 KVA Power Distribution 690 V MSB Azimuth Thruster Motor 3 phase, 1600 kW Bow Thruster Motor 3 phase, 800 kW

Vessel Sagar Nidhi has 4 Diesel generators, each with power output of 1710 KVA which caters entire power requirement of ship. Present arrangement utilizes electric power from 2 generators during transit and in DP mode depends on external loading 3rd and 4th Generator may auto start. Present research investigates for the power optimization at varying load conditions. The specific fuel consumption at varying load conditions is calculated experimentally. Formula for calculating SFC is: SFC = FC/P SFC: Specific fuel consumption (g/kWh), FC: Fuel consumption (g/h) P: Power (kW) Table 2. Fuel consumption at varying load conditions Engine Load Fuel Consumption SFC (Kg/h) (g/kWh) 100% Load 312 195.3 85% Load 261 192.2 75% Load 231 192.8 50% Load 160 200.6

In order optimize fuel consumption; modeling of SFC is of great importance. The classical method of optimization techniques viz., direct search method and gradient search method which needs high number of iterations and unsuitable for non-differential functions. 2. GENETIC ALGORITHMS (GA): Genetic algorithm is influenced by natural selection process. The major application of Genetic algorithm is found in oil rigs and power system stabilizer for optimization of power generation scheduling. GA generates multiple solutions and selects the solution based on minimization criteria. All solutions are evaluated for fitness and based on evaluation the solution is discarded or further developed. In this paper Genetic algorithms is used to optimize specific fuel consumption of ORV Sagar Nidhi -DP-2 research vessel. Brake specific fuel consumption data is obtained for SFC optimization. The plots of SFC for varying loading conditions are shown in figure-4.

| 145 | Fig.4. SFC of Generator for varying load condition Fig.5. Power generated at varying speed

For interpolation, engine speed is chosen as 1000 RPM. Genetic algorithm is used to optimize fuel consumption of ORV Sagar Nidhi. Minimum load considered is 1000 kW and maximum load considered is 6000 kW (maximum capacity of all the four generators is 6400 kW). 3.0 EXPERIMENTAL AND RESULTS: The following two criteria is considered for comparison a. Equal loading of Generator b. Loading of Generator with GA optimization Equal loading of Generators: In equal loading of generator, the total load is shared by a single generator till it reaches its maximum capacity. Once the load reaches beyond maximum capacity of a generator, the second generator auto starts and the total load is shared equally by two generators. The third generator auto starts once total power requirements exceeds their maximum generation capacity both generators. The total load is then equally shared equally by all the three generators. The 4th generator auto starts once the power requirements exceeds total capacity of three generators. The total load is then shared equally by the entire four generators. Table-3 shows equal loading of generators. Table 3. Equal Loading of Generator Load (kW) G1 G2 G3 G4 1000 1000 0 0 0 1500 1500 0 0 0 2000 1000 1000 0 0 2500 1250 1250 0 0 3000 1500 1500 0 0 3500 1166.7 1166.7 1166.7 0 4000 1333.3 1333.3 1333.3 0 4500 1500 1500 1500 0 5000 1250 1250 1250 1250 5500 1375 1375 1375 1375

| 146 | Loading of Generator with GA optimization: In this method, Genetic algorithm is used for optimization of specific fuel consumption. Depends on load requirement each generator auto-starts. The load on each generator varies and it is trying to fix in the economic zone (75-85% in present case). Genetic algorithm optimizes load on each generator by choosing minimum specific fuel consumption. Table- 4 shows loading of each generators. Table 4. Loading of Generator with GA optimization Load (kW) G1 G2 G3 G4 1000 1000 0 0 0 1500 1500 0 0 0 2000 1300 700 0 0 2500 1250 1250 0 0 3000 1500 1500 0 0 3500 1200 1150 1150 0 4000 1350 1350 1300 0 4500 1500 1500 1500 0 5000 1250 1250 1250 1250 5500 1400 1400 1350 1350 6000 1500 1500 1500 1500

GA optimization is considered for different operating modes viz., Transit, Maneuvering and Dynamic positioning. Fuel utilization is compared with equal load conditions. Table-5 shows the fuel utilization and saving for each operational mode both “Equal loading of generator” and “Loading with Genetic Algorithm”. Table 5. Fuel savings at different modes

Mode Total Load Equal GA Fuel Savings Annual (kW) Loading Optimized (Kg/day) Fuel Savings G1 G2 G1 G2 Steaming 2900 1450 1450 1500 1400 95 34675 Maneuvering 2460 1230 1230 1230 1230 0 0 Dynamic positioning 1850 925 925 925 925 0 0

CONCLUSIONS:

Ø Genetic algorithm results in significant fuel reduction and huge savings in operational cost. Ø Significant reduction of harmful emissions viz., SOx, NOx, CO, CO , PM. 2 Ø The cruise endurance can be enhanced by saving huge fuel. Ø GA optimization also provides additional redundancy and increased reliability

| 147 | References:

Deb, K., Gupta, S., Daum, D., Branke, J., Mall, A., and Padmanabhan, D., 2009. “Reliability-based optimization using evolutionary algorithms”. IEEE Trans. On Evolutionary Computation, 13(5), pp. 1054–1074. Yu-xin Zhao, Wang Li, Shaojun Feng, Washington Y. Ochieng and Wolfgang Schuster, 2014. “An Improved Differential Evolution Algorithm for Maritime Collision Avoidance Route Planning”, Abstract and Applied Analysis, Volume 2014, pp. 1-10. Vivi Nur Wijayaningrum, Wayan Firdaus Mahmudy, 2016. Optimization of Ship’s Route Scheduling Using Genetic Algorithm, Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Vol. 2, No. 1, April 2016, pp. 180- 186. Wen M, Ropke S, Petersen HL, Larsen R, Madsen OBG. Computers & Operations Research Fullshipload tramp ship routing and scheduling with variable speeds. Comput Oper Res. Elsevier. 2016; 70: 1-8. Changqing C, Yiqiang W. Route Optimization of Stacker in Automatic Warehouse based on Genetic Algorithm. TELKOMNIKA Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering. 2013; 11(11): 6367-6372. Laura WALTHER, Anisa RIZVANOLLI, Mareike WENDEBOURG, Carlos JAHN, “Modeling and Optimization Algorithms in Ship Weather Routing”, International Journal of e-Navigation and Maritime Economy 4 (2016), pp. 031-045. Suleyman Tosun and Tohid Taghizad Gogjeh Yaran, 2019. Genetic Algorithm-based Reliability Optimization for High-Level Synthesis, Journal of Circuits, Systems and Computers, Vol. 28, No. 03, 1950039. Pedram Edalat, Amirhossein Barzandeh, Fuel efficiency optimization of tanker with focus on hull parameter, Journal of Ocean Engineering and Science 2, 2017, pp 76-82. Jun-jie Zhao, Song-lin Yang, Kun Li, The Optimization of Navigation Performance for High-Speed Ship Based on an Improved Parallel Genetic Algorithm, International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Software Engineering, 2010. S L Yang, R Q Zhu, D Wang Zh, H M Zhang, “The overall optimization of speed and maneuverability for large medium- speed vessel [J]”, Ships, vol. 5, pp. 18-223, 2003. M H Zhu, “Power prediction method for high-s peed transom stem ship based on the speed return [J]”, Chinese and foreign ships and Technology, vol. 4, pp. 33-242, 2004. H M Zhang, S L Yang, “The penalty strategy of genetic algorithm is ship navigation performance optimization [J]”, Transaction of East China Shipbuilding Institute, vol. 4, pp. 13219, 2001. S L Yang, “Optimizing-computation of controlling parameters of intelligent propulsion system of a hydrofoil sliding craft propelled by adjustable-pitch screw” in , NCM2009, Seoul, Korea, August. 2009. Merlin Chai, B. Dastagiri Reddy, Lingeshwaren Sobrayen, Sanjub Kumar Panda, Wu Die, Chen Xiaoqing, “Improvement in efficiency and reliability for diesel-electric propulsion based marine vessels using genetic algorithm, 2016 IEEE conference. C Nuchturee, A review of energy efficient methods for all-electric ships, IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 188 (2018).

| 148 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/20 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

PROJECTION OF WAVE CLIMATE INTO THE FUTURE DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

R.S. Bhavithra S.A. Sannasiraj Research Scholar Professor & Head Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT The study of wind and wave climate in the Bay of Bengal region is necessary to decide on the important coastal activities as most of the population lives along the east coast of India. The wind and wave characteristics of severe cyclonic storm Vardah which occurred in the year 2016 have been chosen for the present study to project for different Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios RCP4.5, RCP6, RCP8.5 for Near-Future (2035) and Far-Future (2075) categories. The waves were simulated using the WAM (Wave Analysis Model). The surface wind above 10m height is obtained from the WRF (Weather Research Forecasting) model which is then forced into the WAM model to predict the wave climate. The significant wave height (Hs) obtained for the Far-future case of RCP8.5 is found to be higher compared to all other cases. Keywords: Cyclonic Wave climate, RCP scenarios, WAM.

1 INTRODUCTION The intensity and frequency of extreme events such as heat waves and intensity of cyclones and tornadoes are getting higher because of the global change in the climatic conditions. The change in climatic conditions is due to the increase in global warming caused by the increase in greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2018). Climate change plays a major role in the changing wind and thus, wave climate. Wind and wave climate are the most important factors that need to be considered for the planning, designing and constructing the coastal and offshore structures. The change in wind speed, the duration of the wind, wind direction and fetch are the main factors that directly influence the wave height pattern in the sea (Shirkhani et al., 2015). The increase in wind speed results in increased wave height. Cyclone Vardah which was categorised as a severe cyclonic storm, occurred during 9–13 December, 2016 had brought massive damage to human lives and properties. The wind speed of this cyclonic storm was about 130 km/hr with 3 minutes sustainable wind at its maximum, and made landfall on 12th December 2016 with a wind speed of about 105 km/hr (Wikipedia). The main objective of this study is to estimate the change of wave climate in the future along the Bay of Bengal region due to the impact of changing wind due to different emission scenarios. 2 STUDY AREA The area chosen for the study is the Bay of Bengal region (0.8° N-17.5° N, 75.3° E-95° E) since it is experiencing several cyclonic storms along the east coast of India every year (Mishra, 2014). This region experiences two types of monsoons, the North-East (NE) monsoon and the South-West (SW) monsoon. The length of the coastline is longer along the east coast than the west coast covering about 2545 km.

| 149 | 3 MODELS AND DATA USED The input parameters required for the study of wave climate are the 10m surface wind speed and the bathymetry. The model used for wind prediction is the Weather Research Forecasting (WRF) model which is a numerical weather prediction system and used to predict the atmospheric composition. The surface wind data at 10m height for future prediction including both the Near-Future (NF) (2035) and Far- Future (FF) (2075) were obtained for different RCP scenarios (RCP4.5, RCP6, RCP8.5) using this model. The wind speed components (U10 and V10) obtained were of a resolution of approximately 3 km grid spacing and 3 hrs time interval. The simulated winds are then forced into the Wave Analysis Model (WAM), a third- generation spectral wave model (Komen et al., 1984) to predict the wave climate for future scenarios. The model was performed for a resolution of 0.2°x0.2° and 3 hr time interval. The bathymetry data used in the WAM model was obtained from the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) for 15 arc-second interval. The model was validated using buoy measurements in an earlier work (Goldstein and Sannasiraj, 2006). The study was performed for the cyclone period starting from 9th December (12 UTC), 2016 to 13th December (00 UTC), 2016. 4 RESULTS & DISCUSSION The wind speed and the wave characteristics such as significant wave height (Hs), wave direction (¸) and wave period (Tp) were obtained from the WAM model. The wind speed and Hs for the different RCP scenarios for Near-Future and Far-Future were compared with the 2016 year cyclone wind and wave data to find out the influence that would occur in the future wave climate if such a cyclone occurs in the future with the projected climate change scenarios. The various RCP scenarios have been simulated using the WRF model for wind climate and the details of which are not given in this paper. Initially, the wind-wave model, WAM has been setup for the present scenario to simulate wave climate due to Vardah cyclone which formed in the Bay of Bengal during December 2016. Fig.1 shows the pattern of Hs along the domain on 12th December, 12 UTC during which, the cyclone had generated the severe wave climate. The maximum Hs of 12.3m had occurred during 12th December 1800UTC. The corresponding mean wave period is 13.75 s. Fig.2 to Fig.8 show the contour plots of significant wave height along with the wind vectors over the entire domain for the present scenario and for different RCP scenarios such as RCP4.5 (NF & FF), RCP 6.0 (NF&FF) and RCP 8.5 (NF&FF), respectively.

Fig.1. Plot showing the actual Hs along the domain for the Fig.2. Present scenario of wind and wave pattern during present scenario Vardah, 12th Dec. 2016 1200UTC

| 150 | Fig.3. RCP4.5 (NF) scenario of wind and wave pattern during Fig.4. RCP4.5 (FF) scenario of wind and wave pattern during Vardah, 12 Dec. 2016 1200UTC Vardah, 12th Dec. 2016 1200UTC

Fig.5. RCP6.0 (NF) scenario of wind and wave pattern during Fig.6. RCP6.0 (FF) scenario of wind and wave pattern during Vardah, 12th Dec. 2016 1200UTC Vardah, 12th Dec. 2016 1200UTC

Fig.7. RCP8.5 (NF) scenario of wind and wave pattern during Fig.8. RCP8.5 (FF) scenario of wind and wave pattern during Vardah, 12th Dec. 2016 1200UTC Vardah, 12th Dec. 2016 1200UTC

| 151 | The wave height is found to be intensified for the RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 scenarios which can be observed in Fig.6 and Fig.8. The maximum wind speed and significant wave height obtained over the domain for the present scenario was 44.19m/s and 12.3m. For RCP4.5 (NF), it is 44.28m/s and 13.9m, for RCP4.5 (FF) it is 45.82m/s and 13.64m, for RCP6.0 (NF) it is 44.01m/s and 13.85m, for RCP6.0 (FF) it is 46.42m/ s and 14.31m, for RCP8.5 (NF) it is 44.28m/s and 13.53m, for RCP8.5 (FF) it is 46.84m/s and 14m. The wave height, Hs of RCP4.5, RCP6, RCP8.5 for Near-Future case shows 4.63% decrease, 4 % increase, 5.6% increase, respectively, while, and for Far-Future, it shows 9.27% decrease, 6.5% increase, 6.73% increase than the present scenario. The wave height obtained for RCP6 and RCP8.5 for Far-Future scenarios is higher since the sustainable wind speeds are higher in such scenarios. 5 SUMMARY In the present study, the cyclonic wave climate in view of climate change has been analysed in detail. Various RCP scenarios have been analysed following the wind climate from WRF model. The projection of the wave climate due to Vardah cyclone that occurred during Dec. 2016 has been attempted to the future climate. It is found that RCP 6.0 (FF) and RCP8.5 (FF) are severe in terms of wave intensity. However, near- future scenarios have not been affected by climate change. References : Goldstein, M.G. and Sannasiraj, S.A. (2006). Wave hindcasting using third-generation wave model, WAM in the Indian waters. 15th APD-IAHR, Chennai, 9-11 Aug. IPCC (2018). Summary for Policymakers of IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C approved by governments Komen, G.J., Hasselmann, K., and Hasselmann, K. (1984). On the existence of a fully developed wind-sea spectrum. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 14 (8), 1271-1285. Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pörtner, H. O., Roberts, D., Skea, J., Shukla, P. R., & Connors, S. (2018). IPCC, 2018: Global warming of 1.5° C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of, 1. Mishra, A. (2014). Temperature Rise and Trend of Cyclones over the Eastern Coastal Region of India. Journal of Earth Science & Climatic Change, 5(9), 1. Shirkhani, H., Seidou, O., Mohammadian, A., & Qiblawey, H. (2015). Projection of significant wave height in a coastal area under RCPs climate change scenarios. Natural Hazards Review, 17(1), 04015016. Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone_Vardah.

| 152 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/21 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

REVIEW OF COASTAL SURVEILLANCE REQUIREMENTS AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FROM THE SECURITY PERSPECTIVE

Jojish Joseph V and Ajith Kumar K Naval Physical & Oceanographic laboratory [NPOL], Kochi, India

ABSTRACT The Indian Peninsula surrounded by the Arabian sea, Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal with its long coast line is a very unique eco system with many features. The climate, the marine life, presence of large number of offshore installations and the proximity to shipping lines of commerce etc are all important and has to be continuously monitored and protected. The vast coast line comprising more than 7500 km needs to be continuously monitored from the security point of view. The paper attempts to identify the requirements for integrated surveillance of the vast coast line from the security perspective and review available technologies for local and integrated surveillance solutions. The major stake holders, their roles and the need for a synergetic approach is also elaborated. The paper also identifies focus areas for study and research to achieve effective coastal surveillance.

1. INTRODUCTION India is endowed with a long coastline touching nine states and four union territories. The entire coastline is divided into the Gujarat region, the west coast, the east coast and the islands. One fifth of the national population lives along the coasts and three of the major metropolitan cities are along the coast. The coastal belt is also home to a wide variety of ecosystems including the sandy beaches, mangroves, coral reefs and marshy lands. Coastal area also contributes in a major way to the economy of our country. Coastal fishing alone employs more than a million people in addition to employment offered in fisheries / ancillary industries. The major and minor ports are life lines for transport and commerce for the entire nation. The offshore installations are critical to India’s energy sector. Hence we find coastal surveillance is an imperative need to maintain India’s energy and trade security as well as territorial integrity [1]. Figure 1.1 shows the various steps in developing integrated surveillance solutions for coastal and harbor areas. The development needs to begin with need identification and then proceed to map them into requirements to be met by an integrated system. Then technology solutions which can meet each Fig1.1 : Flow chart for developing an requirement can be proposed and detailed specifications of the integrated surveillance solution

| 153 | components which form integral parts of the solution can be arrived at. Finally we also need to develop algorithms for combining different sensor inputs and giving a combined threat perception scenario in real time. In this paper we elucidate upon this process and try to elaborate the requirement specifications needed for an integrated coastal surveillance system and also identify grey areas which need further research. 2. NEED FOR COASTAL SURVEILLANCE Indian has a long coast line which is porous and also deficient of round the clock security surveillance system. Multiple agencies controlled by both central and local state governments are tasked with patrol and interdiction activities. Quite often we find a joint approach for an effective surveillance net for the coast is wanting that which shall be more effective. Recent incidents have brought to attention the necessity of preventing non state players infiltrating our main land through the coast. To be on alert and to prevent such activities in future we need to have a system for effective and continued surveillance. To define the requirements of a surveillance system it is necessary to think about the probable targets which need to be monitored. From a national security perspective there are three broad categories of targets[2]. The first category belongs to objects of small size, which may be buried mines or fixed objects which are moored to the sea bottom. The objective of these kinds of weapons is to lay siege to a harbor and deny entry or exit to important ports. These targets are underwater and cannot be detected by radars or other electro-optic means. In times of national crisis such a situation will leave the country without access to even essential goods and fuel. It will also lead to closure all sea lines of trade and will result in a blockade where we will be hard pressed for any response. The second category of targets are larger in size, but mobile. Typical examples are autonomous underwater vehicles and unmanned aerial vehicles. Both these types of targets can be launched from an enemy ship near the coast and can inflict considerable damage on key installations like fuel storage stations, off-shore installations and key defense as well as commercial ports. There are also threats like divers who may be launched from a mother ship and can create havoc to our coastal assets. The third category of targets are boats or ships which can be used for offensive purposes. It is the easiest way of targeting a coastal installation in a surprise attack. This necessitates the need for a system to monitor the boats and other fishing or merchant vessels in the coastal areas on a real time basis and if needed to interrogate them or interdict them at sea. Finally we also must include enemy submarines which can inflict serious damage by remaining underwater in our coastal areas. Also, we need to have a system employing multiple sensors for detection, classification of various targets, do data association and present an integrated assessment or display to the users. Only then can a meaningful countermeasure can be initiated. The individual sensors have to be combined and then a value added picture has to be made. This picture has to be communicated to the respective agencies which can decide on any necessary action to alleviate this threat. So having an integrated system is not enough but it is also important to have the information passed to the action stations.

ID User needs in Qualitative terms UN-01 Safe passage of transport craft through harbor channels and sea lanes close to the shore UN-02 To monitormovement of autonomous under water vehicles and other non state players near harbours and coastal areas. UN-03 Monitoring all legal fishing and other sea going vessels in coastal waters to identify an intruder. UN-04 Ensure safety of shipping near coast UN-05 Unified picture of surveillance in the harbor and coast for timely decision making. Table 2.1 : User need identification

| 154 | 3. DEVELOPING NEEDS TO QUANTITATIVE REQUIREMENTS To develop and map the need to quantitative requirements is the first stage of the solution design process. The needs identified and listed in Table 2.1 has to be further expanded quantitatively as a requirement which can then be addressed with a technical solution. The first need was to identify buried objects like mines which are static but underwater. The requirement can be spelled out as to detect and classify an underwater object of less than one cubic meter volume at a distance of at least hundred meters. With this requirement specification we would be able to screen any small object and classify it as a mine or not. The second felt need was small underwater vehicles and probable divers which may be threats. Here the requirement is to detect, localise, track and classify any remotely piloted or autonomous underwater target or even divers and provide a warning or alert at least at a distance of one kilometer. The third need was to monitor all boats and sea vessels in a continuous manner. The requirement is to identify and track all boats and other sea vessels closer to coast till a distance of around 100 km from the shore line at all times. The need for underwater surveillance can be spelt out in the requirement to detect, localize , track and classify any underwater vessel of more than a few hundred tons of displacement at a minimum range of say, 10 kilometers. The fourth requirement is to have a combined picture which integrates all individual sensor data and gives a final value added single tactical picture which will show on targets(both underwater and floating) and with an assigned threat perception to each target with specific alerts for immediate warning and action. This picture needs to be shared in real time with all the concerned agencies stations for further action. ID System Requirements in specific terms Corresponding Need SR-01 Detect and classify an underwater small object at a minimum range of 100m UN - 01 SR-02 Detect, localise, track and classify any autonomous unmanned underwater vehicle at a range of one km UN - 02 SR-03 Detect, localise, track and classify an approaching diver at a minimum range of one km UN - 02 SR-04 Detect, track and identify all fishing and other sea-vessels in the near coast in a hundred km zone UN - 03 SR-05 Detect, track and classify a mini submarine class or above vehicle at a minimum range of ten 10km UN – 03 SR-06 Present an integrated picture from all sensors to attain continuous surveillance of all domains in a 100km range with target threat perception and specific alerts UN – 04 SR-07 Communicate the integrated picture over the command and control network to all units forming part of the response chain UN – 04 Table 3.1: Requirement Mapping from Needs 4. TECHNOLOGY SOLUTIONS The next step in designing the solution is to identify the technology options to meet the individual requirements. The sensors and systems which would form the specific components of a system which can meet the requirements have to be evolved from the requirement table. For each requirement the technology solution might be different and specific systems tailored to meet the requirement needs to be thought of. Starting from the requirement matrix table we can identify the technology areas and solution methods which needs to be part of the total solution. Requirement id SR-01 can only be met with high frequency sonars. Typical solutions in the high frequency area use frequencies of the range 75kHz and above. They have to be portable solutions which

| 155 | can be mounted on boats which can move over an area and scan for moored mines. These high frequency sonars can also be mounted on unmanned underwater vehicles which can then be used for scanning and sanitizing an area. SR-02 and SR-03 are also high frequency systems but they have to have the capability to detect and track small moving objects in real time. They also need advanced technologies for classifying targets detected. These systems are therefore more intensive in advanced processing algorithms. SR-04 needs a coastal surveillance radar to provide over the horizon detection of boats and also needs an automatic identification system to validate each target as a known or unknown entity. SR-05 needs a medium frequency fixed sonar at the coast, typically a configuration like a sea bed array. It is the technology solution of choice for sustained surveillance in a given area for submarines. It can work in both active and passive modes of operation and has a range of about 10 kilometers. SR-06 and SR-07 necessitate the capability to have multi-sensor data fusion and to interconnect multiple sensors over the network for seamless integration with different agencies. Technology Solutions Description Requirement Met High frequency Allows the detection and classification of objects such as mines SR-01 imaging sonars Sonars on AUVs Ability to detect and track underwater objects SR-02 Portable Diver Ability to detect, track and classify enemy divers detection Systems SR-03 Coastal Surveillance Ability to detect and track fishing boats on sea Radar SR-04 AIS Systems Allows classification of targets as friend or foe SR-04 Sea bed arrays Capability to detect submarines in both passive and active modes SR-05 Integrated solutions Single combined presentation of all data in a simple user interface SR-06 from multiple sensors Table 3 : Technology Solutions for Requirements 5. MAJOR COMPONENTS Now that the technology solutions are identified a typical specifications for each of the major components that go to make the individual subsystems need to be worked out. Typical values necessary for each of the technology solutions identified in section 4 are presented here. Imaging Sonars : Imaging sonars provide high resolution acoustic images at short ranges and are primarily used to detect static underwater objects of small sizes. They are the ideal sensors for scanning for moored mines and other objects and used extensively for harbor / ship channel sanitization. Typical specifications for imaging sonars are given below [3]. Sl No. Feature Specification 1 Frequency Around 1 MHz 2 Range Around 25m 3 Number of beams 256 4 Beam-width 1 degree 5 Update rate 30hz 6 Range resolution 0.2m 7 Sector/Scan view 45-90 degree 8 Depth of operation 50m 9 Power Consumption Around 100W

| 156 | AUV based sensors : To cover a large area an AUV based approach is needed. The high frequency sonars on the AUVs are used to cover a larger and wider area for smaller objects. AUVs can also be used from mother-ships or offshore installations for hull inspection and any underwater surveillance applications. Typical specifications of Sensors and AUV given below [4]. Sl No. Feature Specification 1 Frequency 400-900kHz 2 Operating Depth 100m 3 Maximum range 200m 4 Endurance Around 10 hrs 5 Battery Capacity 5KW or more 6 Velocity 2-3knots 7 Side-scan sonars Available 8 UW Camera and Lights 45-90 degree 9 Communication with mother-ship Using RF or Acoustic modem

Diver Detection System: Diver detection systems offer protection against approaching hostile divers. They detect a diver at a distance of typically about a kilometer and give an early warning so that necessary countermeasures can be taken[5].

Sl No. Feature Specification 1 Frequency 60-75KHz 2 Max. Source Level 220dB re 1uPa at 1m 3 Maximum range 1000m 4 Pulse widths 1 - 40ms 5 Range Accuracy 0.5m 6 Bearing Accuracy 0.1 deg 7 Coverage 360 degree 8 Communication with mother-ship Wireless over TCP/IP

Coastal Surveillance Radar : Coastal surveillance radars are in service at each harbor for monitoring the ingress and egress of commercial traffic. Often the surveillance radar is a mix of two or more radars operating at different ranges of frequencies, high resolution short ranges and low resolution high ranges. With such a system wide coverage and higher resolution for targets closer to shore are possible. They are also able to be integrated with AIS systems which are already in service on-board commercial ships [6].

Sl No. Feature Specification 1 Frequency Band X band and S band 2 Max. Range Around 100km 3 Min. Range for boats with RCS 1sq.m 25km 4 Interoperability With AIS targets

Sea-bed Arrays: Sea-bed arrays offer larger ranges of underwater surveillance against targets like submarines and mini-submarines. They can be active or passive in operation and provide continuous coverage underwater for large targets like dived submarines which may not detected by other means [7].

| 157 | Sl No. Feature Specification 1 Frequency Band (Typical) 100Hz to 10kHz 2 Max. Range 10km 3 Modes Active and Passive modes 4 Feature Target Classifier and signal processing

Likewise for each component the detailed specifications can be elucidated which needs to be met for the requirements to be satisfied. 6. TECHNOLOGY ROADMAPS FOR MEETING THE REQUIREMENTS The major technology challenge would be to find innovative algorithms to merge all the data and information emanating from the different sets of individual sensors mentioned in section 5 and to present a combined meaningful visual image of the same. It calls for improvements in methods of processed data fusion and also real time communication methodologies to enable seamless integration of these sensors. The technologies like Internet of things may also be extended to sensor systems to provide for multiple sensors combining seamlessly to provide value added surveillance solutions. Another important area would be the need to automate much of the surveillance decision making. With larger number of sensors continuously feeding data it would become impractical to have human intervention in the loop and any level other than the topmost level. This calls for subsystems or components which are the primary sensors to be more and more autonomous in decision making. Increased use of artificial intelligence and deep learning can help in achieving this goal. Detection, tracking and classification of targets at each sensor should happen automatically with minimum human intervention. This calls for improved focus on such technologies in these areas and more research to be done to achieve automation in surveillance systems including decision making. A point of concern in the implementation of integrated surveillance solutions can be different variety of stake holders who are directly or indirectly participating in this program. For example, the Indian Navy, Coast guard, state police machinery and the local administration are partners to achieve total surveillance for the entire coast. But often their internal systems and procedures are not compatible with information sharing and joint operations. At a national level the need to establish better synergy between the stakeholders who are tasked with surveillance and countermeasures, through uniform architecture and technology solutions as well as through shared practices also needs to be a prerequisite for a successful implementation. 7. CONCLUSION The paper has attempted togenerate the requirements for an integrated coastal surveillance system for a country with a vast coastline. An integrated solution for coastal surveillance including the various components and technology solutions is presented. The paper help in understanding the requirements, solutions and also identify grey areas for further research and study. References: Ensuring Secure Seas - Indian Maritime Security Strategy, Indian Navy, Naval Strategic Publication(NSP) 1.2, Oct. 2015 Technology Perspective and Capability Roadmap (TPCR) – 2013, Headquarters Integrated Defence Staff, Ministry of Defence Users Manual, BV5000 S3 series, Teledyne Blueview, Revision A, February 2016 Product brochure, REMUS 600, Autonomous Underwater Vehicle, Hydroid, Kongsberg Germany Product Brochure, Aqua Shield, Diver Detection Sonar, DSIT Solutions Ltd, www.dsit.co.il Safe VTS, Coastal Surveillance Radar system, www.safevts.com Sea Shield, Under water Coastal Surveillance System, DSIT Solutions Ltd. www.dsit.co.il

| 158 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/22 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

PARADIGM SHIFTS ESSENTIAL FOR RESTORING WATER HEALTHIN INDIA

N. Ramaiah Former Chief Scientist, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT India with less than 2.4% of the global land area enjoys sizable 4% share of global freshwater resource. Our 200 nautical mile-limit exclusive economic zone (EEZ) adds23.06 million sq. km equalling 1.6% share in world’s ~1372 million sq. km EEZ area. This implicitly good feeling wanes rather distastefully when the fact of the worst water quality index mocks us. Such poor-qualityindex ranks us near-bottom at 120th of 122 nations reviewed. We are the third largest groundwater extractors, although being blessed with some very high rainfall regions. From pristinely pure in rain drops or in the upper reaches of high Himalayas (plus some mountains) our pan-India water bodies are extremely toxics-amalgamated-slurries in many of our heavily industrialised locations and, numerous overly crammed urban settlements lacking adequate wastewater treatment, management or recycling practices. Due to direct open dumping, prolonged open stagnation, natural lakes and rivers are mute receptacles for all sorts of wastes. Our water ways indeed are filth-drains across this vast nation. In view of this, there is an urgentand serious need for revitalizing existing policies for sustainable ecological harnessing, and benefiting economically by keeping our aquatic bodies clean, healthy and pollution-free. Further, keeping our seas clean and healthy are pivotal for blue economy prospecting through marine aquaculture, marine chemicalsand freshwater generation among others. In view of these, strict implementation of available national water conservation and protection policies and, steps mandatory for improving and upkeeping water health are putforth.

INTRODUCTION Water: the elixir of life. The precious gift of Mother Nature. Pollutants: toxic substances. When present in detrimental concentrations in the environment (air, water and land), pollutants are harmful, adversely affecting the health of almost all life forms. In water bodies, their toxicities pose various adverse effects on all water dependent avian, aquatic and terrestrial biota. Despite our age-old knowledge on the importance of clean water, it is not immodest, therefore, if someone pointed out to us of our callous civic sense, disuse, misuse or abuse of water. Pollution happens because of disregard, unmindful defiance by common public, civic authorities and, indecorous governance of ecosystem health protection measures. The very primary role of water is life sustaining. This vital quality takes precedence over any of its countless other roles and/or uses. Agriculture, industry, trade, trans-oceanic shipping, aqua sports,tourism etc., though variously important, cannot jeopardise or diminish its primary role as life sustaining. This article too, may beconstrued as another of innumerable accounts concerning water and, all man- made crises to it.Nonetheless, this APPEAL is for providing some practical steps to safeguard the health of water to bring-forth why safeguarding water-health is essential for its sustainable use and, how to achieve the same. Overviews drawn here are based on certain data available in public domain.

| 159 | INDIA’S WATER RESOURCES India receives rains every month.Albeit high, low or nonein different regions and, in differentmonths.The pan-India monsoon months areJune, July, August and September. The 1871-2016 period mean rainfall respectively for these months being 163.1, 272.5, 242.2 and 170.3 mm (Kothwale and Rajeevan 2018). There issubdivision-wise significant increasing (Konkan and Goa; Coastal Karnataka; Coastal Andhra Pradesh) or decreasing (Assam and Meghalaya; Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura; East Uttar Pradesh; West Uttar Pradesh; East Madhya Pradesh; Chhattisgarh and Kerala) trend in rainfall pattern during this 145-year period. Together with glacier melt flow, the monsoon rains bestow India with a high 4% share of global water. The 1985-2015 average annual water availability from the major river basins is estimated at 1913.60 billion cubic metres (BCM; CWC 2017). The mean annual rainfall during this 30-year period was 1105 mm amounting to 3880 BCM of water. Maximum and minimum rainfall recorded by IMD during this period were estimated at 1255 mm in 1990-1991 and, 889 mm in 2002-2003. These values respectively correspond to 4412 and 3125 BCM. Thus, the average annual water resources of the basins in the 30 year-period (1985-2015) was assessed as 1913.60 BCM (CWC, 2017). Mainland of India is blessed with 12 major riverine systems(Table 1) with numerous tributaries, rivulets and creeks. Rivers Sharavathi, Kali, Nethravathi are sizable of many west flowing short-lentgth (<150 km long) and swift rivers sourced from the rugged topography of the western ghats. Our riverine fluvial-paths, natural lakes, ponds, manmade reservoirs together occupy 9.56% of the total land surface area. Our 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone offers us the resources-ownership rights to over 23 million square kilometres of maritime area and waters. Indeed, with this EEZ share which accounts for 1.6% in world’s ~1372 million sq. km. we rank 16th in the comity of 195 nations. Table 1. Major Riverine Systems of India* River Length Basin Area Place of Origin (Km) Sq. Km East Flowing Rivers Joining the Bay of Bengal Ganga (Bhagirathi) 2525 1080000 Gangotri in Uttrakhand Yamuna (Jamuna) 1376 366223 Yamunotri in Garhwall Brahmaputra (in India) 916 194413 Angsi glacier in Tibet Kaveri 765 81155 Brahmagiri hills in Kogadu, Karnataka Godavari 1465 312812 Triambakeshwar in Maharashtra Krishna 1400 258948 Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra Mahanadi 858 141600 Sihava mountains of Chhattisgarh Vaigai 258 7741 Varusanadu Hills Thamirabarani 185 4400 Agastyarkoodam peak of Pothigai hills West Flowing Rivers Joining the Arabian Sea Indus (Total 3180 km) in India 1114 321289 Northern slopes of Mount Kailash, Tibet Narmada 1312 98796 Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh Tapti 724 65300 Betul in the Satpura range,Madhya Pradesh Periyar 244 5398 Sivagiri peaks of Sundaramala, Tamil Nadu

*Modified from https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/india-river-map.htm

| 160 | Significant progress has been made post-independence in increasing the storage potential of the available water. This is achieved by building dams on various rivers. Through many major and medium barrages, the total storage capacity of 212.78 BCM is created. Additional storage capacity close to 80 BCM is possible by completing the construction of projects underway. India has plans under consideration for creating storage to the tune of another 107.54 BCM (ADB, 2009). This capacity would enable India retaining and using ca. 400 BCM (~10-12% of rain/river water) annually. In many river basins, the per capita water availability is declining due to pressures of population, agriculture and industrial expansion. Causes and Sources for Deplorable Levels of Water Pollution Major causes of water pollution in inland rivers, lakes and adjacent coastal marine areas includewastewaters from municipal sewage outlets, variety of industrial (tannery, textile, automobile, battery manufacturing, petrochemical, fertilizer, pharmaceutical, solvents and other chemical manufacturing, ore and metal processing, pharmaceutical etc) effluents, agricultural and other land runoffs. Indiscrete dumping of solid wastes and litterswith invariably high concentrations of harmful chemicals and toxins is another major cause. Acid rains due to polluted air also cause water pollution. Increased concentrations of nutrients reaching natural water bodies due human activities of all sorts cause eutrophication leading to frequent episodes of harmful algal blooms, the decay of which causes oxygen depletion with deleterious effects on all aquatic life forms. In addition to all such wastes invariablereceived in the seas, oil spills from ships and tankers either accidentally, deliberately, indiscriminately dumped by all marine fleet (from fishing boats to luxury yachts to cargo, container, ore, bulk and oil carriers) is a big threat to marine life. All fractions of spilled oil would not dissolve in seawater leading to formation of thick sludge which cuts off dissolution/exchange of atmospheric gases until the slick is either mechanically strained out, moved away by currents or dissolved using dispersants/solubilizers. Increasing temperature in these climate change decades is exacerbating coral bleaching and, destruction of coral reef and other ecologically fragile marine habitats. Amind-blowing 1.7 million tonnes of faecal waste is generated dailyin India (Centre for Science and Environment, 2019). Conversely, the nation is certainly not geared-up for managing to treat this waste effectively or safely. Hence, most repulsively enough, as much as 78% of the sewage generated is untreated and disposed-off directly into lakes, rivers, canals, ponds, coastal waters, or groundwater via open stagnation in many of tier II and III cities/towns. Thus, unpreparedness to handle particularly the sewage effluent and in general other wastewater effluents, originating from all above-mentioned sources isa much bigger cause of unchecked water pollution. India ought to deal with this on priority. Table 2. Concentration ranges of different water quality parameters reported in published literature from different types of wastewaters Parameter MixedIndustrial Tannery Textile Aquaculture Municipal Waste pH; units 7.2 3.0-9.0 7.5-9.8 7.2-8.5 6.0-8.5 BOD; mg L-1 155-370 528-1600 1400-3300 2.6-8.5 20-307 COD; mg L-1 380-843 2500-10000 1367-10000 — 84-458 TDS; mg L-1 706-1609 12000-16000 1900-3000 — 1200-4000 Cl; mg L-1 — 1200-8000 350-2400 — — Phosphate; mg L-1 31 — 650 0.4-10.0 3.0-7.5 Nitrogen; mg L-1 2.7 — — — 7.4-342 Sulphate; mg L-1 — 1000-1500 930 — — Cr (III); mg L-1 — 2.0 — — — Color; units — — 694-3340 Pt-Co — — Reference : El-Bestawy 2008 Isarain-Chávez et al., 2014 Balapure et al., 2016 Milhazes-Cunha and Atero 2016 Mahapatra et al., 2013; Thomas et al., 2016

| 161 | For a quick perusal, ranges of concentrations of different pollution indicator parameters reported in literature are put together in Table 2. A comparison of safe limit for open disposal set by WHO (2002or Bureau of Indian Standards, BIS 1994) for tannery wastewater are furnished in Table 3. It is evident thatall parameters considered as pollution indicators point to the fact that even in their lower concentration limits, the effluents of all wastewater samples analysed by Isarain-Chávez et al (2014) are unfit for disposal into any natural water bodies. Table 3. Safe limits set by the WHO (revised 2002*; and previously adapted by BIS ,1994) for different parameters for safe,open discharge of treated tannery wastewater Parameter Permissible limits pH 5.5-9.0 TS (mg.L-1) 2200 TSS (mg.L-1) 100 TDS (mg.L-1) 2100 BOD (mg.L-1)30 COD (mg.L-1) 250 H S (S2-; mg.L-1)2 2 SO -S (mg.L-1) 1000 4 NH -N(mg.L-1)50 3 PO -P (mg.L-1)* 5 4 Phenols (mg.L-1) 5-50 Cl- (mg.L-1) 1000 Pb, Cu, Fe (mg.L-1)* 0.1, 0.1, 10 Cr, Cd, Zn, Ni ((mg.L-1)* 2, 2, 1, 3 Consequences of water pollution are multidimensional.In polluted waters, there is nothing eco-safe. There isloss of aesthesis with a plethora of diseases. There are sickening stinksand deeper ground- penetration of toxicants. Overload of parasites, microbes, viruses, persistent organic pollutants, excessive inorganic nutrients, toxic-heavy metal complexes detriments water quality. Together these pose additive, compounding adversities on sensitive biota.Multiple metals even at lowerconcentrations cause additive toxicity. Innumerable gastric dysenteries (giardial, amoebic, bacillary, colic, haemorrhagic), toxaemic- hepatitis, typhoid fevers, parasitic worms (hookworm, pin worm/threadworm,roundworm, whipworm) incapacitate tensof million Indians yearly causing over half-a-billion man-hour losses.Plus, untold/unreported number of fatalitiesspecifically of under 5-year olds, largely in rural areas.Day-to-day losses of fish, birds, other aquatic fauna or flora in polluted waters are hardly quantified. Statistics on water-borne diseases in and from India can numb our senses(videhttps:// www.indiaspend.com 2018:https://www.indiawaterportal.org 2019,https://www.who.int).Over a five year- period of 2013-2017, the reported deaths due to diarrhoea were 6514, the most water-borne of diseases in India. Other major killers among water-borne diseases were viral hepatitis (2143), typhoid (2061) and cholera (20). It is important to note that India has managed to decimate – indeed close to eliminate- cholera caused deaths. Project “NamamiGange”,thenational flagship mission,is aimed to clean up Ganga in all stretches of her deteriorated bank-and-water ecosystem. As many as 155 different projects have been striving to clean up the River variously through treatment of municipal sewage and industrial effluent, river surface cleaning, rural sanitation, reforestation and, biodiversity restoration etc. Despite the best of efforts, there still are long stretches where BOD levels “are more than permissible limits”. Moreover, the “entire stretch of river Ganga has high levels of faecal coliform against the prescribed limits” (https://www.indiawaterportal.org).

| 162 | Our mainland coastline of over 7500 km receives river-drainages, monsoon run-offs and, dumping of innumerable types of largely untreated/partially industrial and domestic wastewatersas well as solid wastes. The coastal water quality is also quite poor. This can be summed up from visible evidences of ‘vanished’ artisanal canoe-rowing fishermen within 3-5 kms offshore. Pollution in nearshore waters has driven away many of once abundantly shore-seine-caught commercial fish species. Shellfishbeds along the rocky shores have also declined, pollution being the main of causes. Depletion of nearshore fisheries has created two-fold strife. First and foremost, artisanal, small, non-mechanised dugout canoe/boat operating fishermen are affected. Secondly, steaming off to (and back from) distant offshore for fishing by over 202000 boats (Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, 2018) has added to carbon footprint and fuel subsidy burden on fishing industry. Extant Policies for Management of Water as a Resource Numerous frameworks of environment conservation, protection and sustainable long-term harnessing of water as a natural resource are documented and, approved for implementation by both the state and national administration authorities. Suitable and practicable amendments to these policies are made from time to time when faced with increasing water pollution and/or acute shortage during summer months in most cities or in many water scarce parts. Following are some of the key policy highlights. Basin-level Governance: Consolidation of several river authorities into Central Ministry of Water Resources, for better decision-making on surface water projects and allocation. Groundwater Bill: Drafting and discussion of a Model Groundwater Bill that defines groundwater as being held ‘in trust’ by the government and specifies a decentralized structure for its governance. Innovative Irrigation: Renewed focus on micro-irrigation adoption by farmers in the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) to enable efficient on-farm water use. Global Partnerships: Formalization of a partnership with Israel, the world leader in water governance and conservation for leveragingIsrael’s experience and knowledge for water conservation. The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change together with Central Pollution Control Board has stipulated several policies to safeguard the quality of natural aquatic ecosystems. Many advisories for safeguarding ecosystems are available. Apparently however,strict compliance for achieving safe limits are monitored only for potable water in most water processing and supplies facilities. In an excellent compilation, the UNICEF, FAO and SaciWATERs (2013) have brought out the water and its various dimensions viz, its resource budgets, scarcities, sanitation, pollution and ever-increasing demand owing to explosive population growthand prospects. It is obvious that increasing demand would force the reuse of wastewater which certainly is a valuable resource. NITI Ayog’sReflectionon Current State of Water Resource and Health NITI Ayog (2018) in its Composite Water Management Index stated: “India is undergoing the worst water crisis in its history. Already, more than 600 million peopleare facingacute water shortages. Critical groundwater resources – which account for 40% of our water supply – arebeing depleted at unsustainable rates.Droughts are becoming more frequent, creating severe problems for India’s rain-dependent farmers(~53% of agriculture in India is rainfed). When water is available, it is likely to be contaminated (up to70% of our water supply), resulting in nearly 200,000 deaths each year”. It also highlighted rising interstate disagreements leading to lack of frameworks andinstitutions for national water governance. Pertinent as well as highly noteworthy for this article is another set of facts highlighted by NITI Ayog (2018) in its Composite Water Management Index. They are: “A whopping600 million people face high-to- extremewater stress. As much as75% households do not have drinkingwater on premise. A high of 84% rural householdsdo not have piped water access.Staggering 70% of our water is contaminated and, Indiais currently ranked 120 among 122 countries in the water quality index”.

| 163 | Water and Water PollutionControl Laws In 2010, the India Water Portal, Government of India, complied and posted many policies and laws related to water bodies, water pollution and regulation. Many revisions made over the years to the policy of water bodies, their management and regulation are put together in this collection.Following policies are pertinent for safeguarding water health. Policies related to conservation of water bodies: Guidelines for repair, renovation and restoration of water bodies with external assistance and domestic support Ministry of Water Resources (2009); Guidelines for national lake conservation plan - Ministry of Environment and Forests (2008); Model bill to regulate and control the development of groundwater - Ministry of Water Resources (1996). Descriptions of these policies placed on https://www.indiawaterportal.org/ Water Policies: National Water Mission - National Action Plan on Climate Change –(The details described in Volume I and Volume II)- Ministry of Water Resources (2009,2008); The National Water Policy - Ministry of Water Resources (2002). Guidelines/rules for prevention and control of water pollution: The water (prevention and control of pollution) rules - Ministry of Environment and Forests (1975); The water (prevention and control of pollution) act - Ministry of Environment and Forests (1974).This Act provides for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintenance/restoration of wholesomeness of water; and aids the establishment of a board, which owns the powers and functions of conducting activities and interventions in the context of prevention and control of water pollution. The document provides the details of the steps to be undertaken to implement the Act. An overview of existing framework and proposed reforms for management of water and water laws in India are documented with adequate details by Gadre(videhttp://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/ l420-Water-Management.html). It is pertinent to note from his document that the Indian “National water law is more developed than international water law. Nevertheless, India lacks an umbrella framework to regulate freshwater in all its dimensions”. Apparently,the current water-law framework is characterised by a co-existence of several different principles, rules and acts adopted over many decades. Gadre also cautions that “lack of an umbrella legislation at the national level has ensured that the different state and central legal interventions and other principles “not necessarily coincide and, may in fact be in opposition in certain cases”. Thus, corrective steps are essential from the wholistic management point of view of water resources. Current Water Health: A BleakReality There is an urgent need for change in mindsetsto safeguard and up-keep of our water health. This need stems from many stark realities that we are currently face-to-face. The major ones being, rapidly and additively failing water quality, fast-paced climate change caused water scarcity, unscrupulously overexploited groundwater resource, haphazard to unplanned but swift urbanization as well as disproportionately increased water demand for cattle and crop raising.It is common knowledge that water quality is the worst, pan- India. Among 122 reviewed nations reviewed, we rank 120th for worst water quality. Such low qualityprevails along many stretches of our coasts too.We must challenge and, overcome this blasphemy. Recognizing this sickness of our waters is the first step. Indeed, our standing as worst-water-quality- nation must itself stir us inside out to bring-forth restoration of water health. Rectifying steps for this conundrum of dirty water saga must be our prestige-reinstating national mission mode effort on war- footing. The most logical thought for restoring and maintaining the water quality is,‘no point source pollution’. Zero discharge of health hazardous substances into any and all our natural water bodies. Following is an account of attainablesteps to achieve total health of the water. Abatement of pollution of all sorts, specifically the water pollution, should be the first and top priority of the nation. Exclusion of harmful substancesreaching natural water bodies must be round the

| 164 | clock and, must happen withoutneedless emphasis. The most major polluters are cities and towns that allow open drainage of the human faecal sewage. Apart from the sixmegacities (cumulative 2011 census population close to 43 million), there are 67 tier II (>100 million) and over 230 tier III (ca 150 million) cities.Besides these, there are another ~5100 towns within a total of 5464 tehsils/taluks in India with an approximate 200 more million human inhabitants. Knowing that close to 40% of India’s population is urbanised, logical and immediate questionsthat arise are, how much sewage they daily produce? how many sewage treatment plants are there? and what percentage of this wastewater is treated? In 2015 (CPCB, 2015), the tier I and II cities produced 61754 million litres of sewage, every day. The industrial use of waterestimated by World Bank (2001) is 15 BCM every year (or 41096mld).As much as 80% of ~135litre per capita water supplied daily in tier I cities, is put out as sewage effluent. The installed/existing capacity for sewage wastewater treatment is only for ~ 37% or 22963mld. To state CPCB 2015 verbatim: “Moreover, most sewage treatment plants do not function at maximum capacity and do not conform to the standards prescribed”. With only 47 commissioned CETPs in the country, needless to state that there is not enough capacity to treat even 25% of the industrial effluents (CPCB, 2012). Thus, over 70% of all the wastewater generated in the country flows out into natural water bodies, untreated.Most of whatever treated wastewater is hardly reused.Worse still, most of it is pumped back into streams and rivers which are already of despicable water quality. As per Kamyotra and Bhardwaj (2011) projections, in 2051 one billion urban dwellers in India with a supply of 121 litres per capita per day would generate 120 billion litres (equalling ~4.24 TMC) of sewage daily. Outlook and Prospects of Wastewater as a Resource Pragmatic rethinking on wastewater management pan-India is mandatory. Our country receiving excess rains is also a home to many regions that are highly water-stressed, prone to draughts or seasonal scarcities. In these situations, perennial supply of treated wastewater is an assuredwealth generating resource. Unfortunately,the insignificantvolumes of wastewater being treated on one hand, and grossly inefficient use of treated wastewater on the other arehinderingthe nationfrom benefitting economically. To put it figuratively, a simple arithmetic of India’s wastewater is both whopping and mind blowing. At nearly 102 billion litres of effluent generated daily in the country from sewage and industries, the annual volume of wastewater available (at zero discharge of hazardous chemicals [ZDHC]) is 37.23trillion litres. Assuming 20% processing losses, the ZDHC water available post-treatment in the country would be 29.78 trillion litres a year. For instance, 2515 litres of water needed to produce 1kg sugar.This volume of 29.78 trillion litres (~1050 TMC) treated wastewater is therefore enough to produce ~11 million tons of sugarby flood-irrigating ca 1.5 million hectares of sugarcane fields. To work this approximation out, data oftotal sugarcane growing area of 4.61 million hectares, national average of 62 tonnes per hectare and an average yield of 120 kg sugar/tonne are used.India produced ~32 million tonnes of sugar during 2018-2019 (http:// www.sugarcanecrops.com/108/). Sugarcane grown using treated wastewater should certainly be valuable for production of bioethanol, bagasse, molasses, fodder etc.Afifi et al (2011) suggested growing vegetables recycling wastewater. For a discernment of the significance of treated wastewater as a dependable resource all through the year, an estimate of water demand for different crops itmeets is provided in Table 4. For example, as much as 10 million tonnes of rice is producible using ~84% ofannually available 29.78 trillion litres of treated wastewater. Its percentagerequired to produce 10 million tonnes of differentcropsis also given in the Table. Creation of urban green spaces (UGS) is feasible and among very promising prospects for using treated wastewater rather swiftly and, within a short distance of its generation. Ramaiah and Avtar (2019)

| 165 | have provided detailed accounts of how the use of sewage and other effluents generated in the urban setting can be effective in substantially lowering urban heat island effect, local land-surface temperature and, in sequestering sizable volumes of carbon within the hub-hubs of the urban area itself. Also, these authors have reviewed and provided many useful strategies for wastewater treatment. Our tier I and II cities using this resource must create and sustain considerable spans of UGS for beneficially thwarting the imminent adversities from climate change impacts. Table 4. Volumes of water needed to produce 10 million tonnes of different crops and estimates of annual production of these items using treated wastewater Crop Water (L) needed to produce 1kg@; Demand (%) of [for 10 million tonnes] treated wastewater ** Rice 2497; [24970 X 109] 83.85# Potato 287; [2870 X 109] 9.64 Tomato 214; [2140 X 109] 7.18 Cucumber 235; [2350 X 109] 7.89 Cabbage 1222; [12220 X 109] 41.03 Wheat 1350; [13500 X 109] 45.33 @select data from Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011); **Percent of treated wastewater in the annual total of 29.78 trillion litres needed to produce 10 million tonnes; #meaning to produce 10 million tonnes of rice, 83.85% of 29.78 trillion litres of wastewater is required. An ambitious plan is under consideration in India is creation of 1400 km long 5 km wide”Great Green Wall of India” from Gujarat to Delhi-Haryana boarder (https:/timesofindia.indiatimes.com/). This provides a great opportunity for gainfully using treated wastewater. Itis an assured source for supply of much needed water for this visionary climate control initiative.There is innate non-acceptance amongst some/ most of us about reusing once used water, even if it is for growing crops. Thus, allocation and supply of treated wastewater for green walling could besoothing. However, we must totally avoid hasty and unsound ‘abuse’ of untreated effluents of any sort for irrigating and sustaining this green wall. This is because, ill- effects of obnoxious chemicals, virulent pathogens and microbes in very high concentrations in polluted, untreated effluentson plants and foliage are devastating. Pollutants-free land and river discharges into coastal waters has many ecological and socio-economic gains. India’s blue economy dreams can be realised through various uses of healthy nearshore regions. Mari-culture, extraction of varieties of fine chemicals, edible salt, effective sustenance of all existing marine protected areas for conservation of marine flora and fauna, healthy fish-harvests add exponentially to the GDP. Eager and cleanliness conscious tourists would be flocking at cleaner seas and beaches. We can use such clean and healthy seawater for desalination only in worst-water-scarcecoastal locations mainly for generating drinking water. This is, if after all the wastewaters are recycled and some locations still deficient of freshwater. Consider mari-culture,for instance, in the healthy nearshore seas. Based on semi-intensive rearing technique and by earmarking just 25% of 7500 km coastline safe-enough for cage culture, we can harvestevery year as much as2 million tonnes (equalling current 50% of marine capture fisheries) within 3-5 km inshore. This economic activity, strictly without causing undue stress to the waters, can generate several thousands of jobs, reduce carbon footprint and above all, yield high quality seafood. Such activities in our health- restored coastal waters can continuously spur the blue economy prospects. Water-Health Resurgence:The Most Must “Healthy waterbodies” must never remain as distant pipedreams. We were inspired collectively to achieve Open Defecation Free (ODF) India, the Swachcha Bharathorthe Swasthya Bharath.We must collectively reinstate water-health, swiftly and, soon. From governance policies to grassroot populations,

| 166 | there should be unifying resonation to resolve to revert to healthy waters that the subcontinent enjoyed until late 1800s. With strict compliance and single most aim of clean and healthy water, we all must strive. The draft of National Water Framework Act (2011) states: “Water is a common natural heritage of humanity and shall be used, protected and preserved as such. It shall be the duty of the state at all levels, the citizens, and all categories of water-users, to protect, preserve and conserve all water sources, and pass them on to the next generation”. The worst water-pollution post-industrial revolution was brought under control in the US through Clean Water Act (vide USEPA 2018), in Europe through Water Framework Directive (WFD, https://ec.europa.eu/ environment/water/ 2000). Our many initiatives and often re-revived efforts including theNational Water Framework Act (NWFA, 2011) notwithstanding, our waters, River Ganga (despite the humongous national efforts and resources invested) included, are certainly far from being clean. “Reclaim, Refresh, Reuse” must be the ultimate goal of wastewater treatment efforts. Efficient and transformative steps (water infrastructure financing, sludge management and data modelling) and innovations (real- time analytics, machine learning, artificial intelligence, biotechnology/bioremediation) would enable effective wastewater treatment. These advances in wastewater treatment technologies are rapid. India too is striving well in this direction. We must often remindourselves that in the world facing climate change adversities and freshwater shortages, cleanliness andhealth of all precious resources of water must be safeguarded. In this regard, suitable cost- effective solutions for removing foul odour, managingbiosolids, reducing energy consumption and,scrupulously improving effluent quality to the highest acceptable levels are urgently essential. In addition tothe foregoing account, important and feasible steps to achieve clean and healthy waters in India are depicted in Figure 1. Various factors therein mightappearfamiliar. To achieve the vision however, these inclusive, generic factors would serve as a guidance.

Fig 1. Core factors mandatory for achieving the vision of Clean and Healthy Waters in India

Dealing with challenges of pollutants-caused retardation of our aquatic, atmospheric and terrestrial ecosystems should be upfront. We must be guided by a firm resolve to arrest all types of pollution to restore the ecosystem homeostasis. We need to call on all sorts of wisdom from the wisest and, adopt time-tested ethics of respecting nature. If need be, invite any and all workable philosophies. It is contextual

| 167 | here to quote from “How to know God” by Deepak Chopra (2000): “We are more fortunate than rose, since we are not a prisoner of seasons, but in another sense, we are much less fortunate, because we can misuse our freedom of choice and turn to self-destructive behaviour . It is common for anyone to have mastered one aspect of life, . while being poor at another, such as maintaining a loving relationship. In all cases of imbalance, events will be organised to bring weak parts into focus, even though it is still our choice whether or not to follow where nature wants to lead us.” Like with air, it is water that lets life to live. Purer it is, healthier the life is. Jal se heejeev. Nirmal jal se niranjanJeevan.

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| 168 | Kothawale D.R., Rajeevan M. Monthly, Seasonal and Annual Rainfall Time Series for All-India, Homogeneous Regions and Meteorological Subdivisions: 1871-2016 ISSN 0252-1075 Contribution from IITM Research Report No. RR- 138 ESSO/IITM/STCVP/SR/02(2017)/189. (2017). Maps of India Homepagehttps://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/india-river-map.htm Mahapatra D. M., Chanakya H. N., Ramachandra T.V., Treatment efficacy of algae-based sewage treatment plants. Environ. Monit. Assess. 185: 7145–7164. (2013) Milhazes-Cunha H, Otero A Valorisation of aquaculture effluents with microalgae: The Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture concept. Algal Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.12.011. (2016) Mekonnen M. M., Hoekstra A. Y. The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products Hydrology Earth System Science, 15, 1577–1600 (2011). Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). State of Environment Report, 2009. New Delhi: MoEF, Government of India (2009). Ministry of Environment and Forests. https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/guidelines-national-lake-conservation- plan-ministry-en. (2008). Ministry of Environment and Forests - India Environment Portalhttp://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/DraftE- waste-Rules30.3.10.pdf Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974). (1974). Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) Homepage- India Water Portalhttps://www.indiawaterportal.org/author/ministry- environment-forests- Control of Water Pollution (Procedure for Transaction of Business) Rules - (1975). Ministry of Water Resources, RD & GR National Water Development Agency. Expression of Interest for Consulting Services for Establishment of “Project Management Unit” For Monitoring and Management of “Pradhan Mantri Krishi SinchayeeYojna”. (2016). Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) Homepage - India Water Portalhttps://www.indiawaterportal.org/author/ministry- water-resources-mowrNational water policy - Ministry of Water Resources... drop of water - Report by the advisory council on artificial recharge of groundwater (2002) Ministry of Water Resources Central Water Commission. http://mowr.gov.in/sites/default/files/ Guidelines_for_improving_water_use_efficiency_1.pdf Guidelines for Improving Water Use Efficiency in Irrigation, Domestic & Industrial Sectors. (2008). Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) Homepage - India Water Portalhttps://www.indiawaterportal.org/author/ministry- water-resources-mowr National Water Mission under National Action Plan on Climate Change: Revised Comprehensive Mission Documents - Ministry of Water Resources (2009) National Water Framework Act - of Planning Commissionhttp://www.planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/ wrkgrp12/wr/wg_wtr_frame.pdf. (2011) NITI Ayog, Composite Water Management Index: A Tool for Water Management. In association with Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, and Ministry of Rural Development. (2018). Ramaiah M., Ram Avtar R. Urban Green Spaces and Their Need in Cities of Rapidly Urbanizing India: A Review Urban Science, 3(3), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci3030094. (2019). Times of India Homepage: https:/timesofindia.indiatimes.com TNAU Homepage. http://www.sugarcanecrops.com/108/ UNICEF, FAO, SaciWATERs, Water in India: Situations and Prospects (2013) United States Environmental Protection Agency. Final 2016 Effluent Guidelines Program Plan. EPA-821-R-18-001. USEPA Office of Water (4303T), 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20460 (2018). Water Framework Directive (WFD) Homepage - European Commissionhttps://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water- framework/index_en.html (2000). World Health Organization (WHO). Water pollutants: Biological agents, Dissolved chemicals, Non dissolved chemicals, Sediments, Heat, WHO CEHA, Amman, Jordan.(2002) WHO homepage https://www.who.int: Waterborne disease related to unsafe water and sanitation.

| 169 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/23 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

THE IMPACT OF SEASONAL AND SPATIAL CHANGES IN THE LAGOONAL WATER CHARACTERISTICS ON THE BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA

Sushree Sova Barik and Raj K. Singh School of Earth, Ocean, and Climate Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Aragul, Jatni - 752 050

ABSTRACT The lagoonal lake water characteristics significantly change due to freshwater influx from the continental rivers and seawater influx from the seasidethat makes a unique transitional system. This study aims to assess the impact of seasonal and spatial changes in lagoonal water characteristics on the benthic foraminifera. Sediment and water samples were collected during three different seasons viz., September (SWM), January (NEM),and May (PSWM) from 22 fixed stations of Chilika Lake spreading from freshwater to saline water end. Physicochemical parameters of the lake bottom water were determined in-situ. The data suggest that the lake water changes from fresh to marine in different seasonsand supportthree diverseecosystems. The benthic foraminifera abundances and diversity in the lake bottom sediment are found more responsive towards the spatial variation in comparison to the seasonal changes in the lake. The freshwater ecosystem near the river mouth does not support brackish water benthic fauna. Interior lake with brackish water ecosystem promotes the flourishing of calcareous Ammonia genus of benthic foraminifera. However, the abundance of trace elements (Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn) creates a stress conditionthat causesthe small size and short life span of foraminifera. The brackish to marine ecosystem near the sea mouth supportsdiversification of benthic foraminifera marked by the presence ofboth calcareous and agglutinated species, but higher energy conditions constrained their abundance and may cause morphological abnormality in the shells. This study suggests that both seasonal and spatial changes in the sediment flux and bottom water chemistry have an essential role in benthic foraminiferaecology and population abundance in the coastal lagoons. Keywords: Ecosystem, Benthic foraminifera, Trace element, Coastal lagoon

1 INTRODUCTION Tropical coastal lagoons are associated with the highly diversified habitat of salt-marshes, mangrove forests, and brackish to seawater systems, which arerich in biological diversity and havecomplex food chains [1]. Lake or marine sediments behave as a sink for the pollutants and influencethe trace element concentrations in both sediment and water, which significantly affectthe biological ecosystem. The interaction of variousnatural and anthropogenic processes atthese transitional systems creates a challenging and stressful environment for the growth of biological community [2]. This differential changes in various biotic (food, organic matter, diversity, competition, and space) and abiotic parameters (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, sediment pattern, etc.) affect the population, diversification, growth, reproduction, shell morphology, etc. of benthic foraminifera, the most diversified unicellular faunal group [3]. Foraminifers are the most crucial link between lower and higher-level food web of an ecosystem and generally consumed by a variety of organisms, including selective and non-selective deposit feeders and

| 170 | specialised predators [4]. This study highlights the seasonal and spatial response of the benthic foraminifera populationtowards the stress environment created either due to the changing ecosystems, anthropogenic disturbance or trace element concentrations. 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Study region Chilika lake is located along the East coast of India and is the largest brackish water lake in Asia spreading over Puri, Khurda, and Ganjam districts in the state of Odisha [5]. This lake receives freshwater from distributaries of the river Mahanadi (Daya, Luna and Bhargabi) in the northern sector (NS) and seawater from the Bay of Bengal in the outer channel (OC; Fig. 1).Diverse anthropogenic activities and shifting of lake mouth cause threats to the ecological environment of the lake[3], [6], [7]. The interaction of both fresh and marine water develops a spatio-temporal environmental gradient in the lake (fresh, brackish, and saline) and makes a natural laboratory setting to study the changing ecosystem in the intertidal environment.

Fig.1. Location map of Chilika lake in India the divisions (NS – Northern Sector, OC – Outer Channel, SC – Southern Sector, CS – Central Sector), sea mouth changes over the time since 2000 AD and the seasonal monitored stations in NS and OC sector (Modified after Barik et al., 2019)

2.2 Sample Collection and Methodology Lake floorsediment samples were collected from 22 stations using Ekman box corer during Southwest Monsoon (SWM, September-2016), Northeast Monsoon (NEM, January-2017) and Pre-Southwest Monsoon (PSWM, May-2017). Four stations were not approachable by during PSWM. The physicochemical parameters viz. pH and Conductivity (EC) of the surface and bottom water were measured inthefield using a portable multi-parameter system (Orion Star A329), which has accuracy of ±0.002 for pH and 0.5% of reading ±1 digit >3 ìS; 0.5% of reading ±0.01 ìS d”3 ìS for conductivity. The data are further cross-checked with measurements taken by CTD (RBR Concerto). The grain size and foraminiferal analysis of lake floor sediments were carried out and expressed as Mud% (silt%+clay%) and foraminiferal density (FD) respectively. FD is the total number of foraminifera (live

| 171 | + dead) count per gram of dry sediments [3]. The overall percentage of abnormal foraminiferal specimens in each sample (Foraminiferal abnormality index - FAI) was calculated from FD [8]. The sediments were digested using the microwave digestion system, and trace element concentrations (Fe, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Mn, and Co) were analysedusingICP-OES (5110, Agilent) [9].Theaccuracy of datawas cross-checked usingmarine sediment certified reference material (CRM) HISS-1 and the error percentage waswithin 10%. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION There are no significant changes observed between the surface and bottom water characteristics as the lake is very shallow, but seasonal and spatial variations are substantial (Fig. 2). Very lessvariationsin surface (Fig. 2) and depth water properties[3] suggest less stratification of lake water, which has a significant role in lake biology. The stratification and water movements (convection/advection) always affect the productivity and metabolic processes of coastal lagoons [10].

Fig.2. Seasonal variation in electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of surface and depth water in Northern sector and Outer Channel of the lake

During SWM,an increased influx of freshwater gives rise to a freshwater ecosystem near the river mouth stations and brackish water ecosystem near the sea end (Fig. 3ai, ii) [3]. During NEM, the decreased influx of freshwater from riversincreased the salinity of lake water and developed a brackish ecosystem in the lake(Fig. 3b i, ii) [3]. During PSWM,the freshwater influx from the rivers is negligible and develops a marine water ecosystem in the OC of the lake (Fig. 3c i, ii) [3]. The freshwater condition at the stations proximal to the river mouth does not support the benthic foraminiferapopulation(Fig. 3 iii, iv).The higher sediment influx from the catchment further raises the mud content (Fig. 3v). The interiorstations of NS and OCpossess brackish water conditionsduring the monitored seasonswith high pH andhigher concentrations of trace metals (Fig. 3 vi - xii) [3]. This region shows very high population of foraminifera with an averageof 50-55%mud during the monitored seasons (Fig. 3 iii, v) and has crucial role in CO 2

| 172 | | 173 | Fig.3. Contour plots of water parameters (i) EC and (ii) pH, biotic parameters (iii) foraminifera density (FD) and (iv) foraminiferal abnormality index (FAI), and abiotic parameters (v) mud, (vi) Cr, (vii) Co, (viii) Cu, (ix) Fe, (x) Pb, (xi)Mn, and (xii) Zn in NS and OC of Chilika Lake generated by ArcMap using Inverse distance weighting (IDW) method with Natural break; (a) SWM (b) NEM (C) PSWM sequestration in the Chilika lake [3].The foraminiferal abnormality index (FAI) in total foraminifera assemblages is less than one in interior stations of NS and OC during SWM and NEM, while it ranges between 4.8 and 5.9 during PSWM (Fig. 3iv). The higherpollution load index (>1)[9] for the trace metals makes the region challenging for the biological habitat. Higherconcentrations of Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn arefrequent and have adverse effects on the lake biota[9]. Theimpact of trace metal contamination and seasonal salinity variation creates local stress conditions in the lake. Due to this stress condition, the foraminifera population in this region is very less diverse and has short life span marked by the dominanceof63-125 µm size test[3]. The Ammoniagenusdominated the foraminifera thatadopted to higher reproduction but has limited growth without significant morphological distortion of test (<1 FAI%, Fig. 3iv). Dissolution and pyritizationarewidespread in both live and dead tests ofAmmonia beccarii and Ammonia tepidafurther suggest seasonal anoxic conditions and adverse effects of higher trace metal concentrations. Thehigh concentration of Fe with seasonal oxygen deficiency creates an anaerobic condition that accelerates the pyritization of foraminifera test in this region[3], [9], [11]. The stations towards the sea end of OC have a declining trend in benthic foraminifera abundance (Fig. 3iii) but have higherdiversity [3]. The FAI is high in this region in comparison to NS (Fig. 3iv) and rangesbetween1.3 and 5.8 during SWM; 0 and10.1 during NEM; 0.1 and 10.3 during PSWM (Fig.3iv). The OC stationshave less metal concentration than NS stations, but foraminifera morphological abnormality is very high and prominent.It suggests that the trace metal concentration is not only the parameter that affects the foraminifera morphological abnormality. The reason for the more FAI at OC may be associated with the high energy condition due to frequent tidal ingress, waves, and interference of Bay of Bengal current. The entering waves and tides frequentlychurnedthe lake sediments that create a precarious habitat for the foraminifera, which is reflectedin their abnormal growth of the test andchamber, and coiling pattern. The

| 174 | higher number of broken foraminifera tests additionally supports the high energy condition. The anthropogenic disturbances (boating, fishing, regular ferry service, etc.) make the OC furthermore unstable and challenging for the benthic lake biota. Hence, these stations have medium FD, but higher FAI%. The morphological abnormalities are common in the live and dead foraminifera specimens ofAmmonia beccarii, Ammonia tepida, Elphidiumadvenum, Elphidium excavatum, Quinqueloculinaseminula, Textulariaagglutinans, Nonionfabum, and Biloculinacyclostoma. This study suggests that thespatial and seasonal changes in sediment flux and bottom water chemistryhave a significant influence on the coastal benthic foraminifera in terms of its abundance, diversity, and morphological abnormality. 4 CONCLUSIONS This study over the transitional ecosystemsuggests that the trace metal contamination has a significant effect on the foraminiferasize, but not the only parameters for foraminifera morphological abnormality and growth. The calcareousAmmonia genusadapted toreproduce despite high mud and heavy metals (viz. Fe, Cr, and Cu) concentrations in the interior stations of the lake. Besides trace metals, high energy conditions in addition to anthropogenic disturbance cause morphologic abnormality and influenced the growth of benthic foraminifera. Both natural and anthropogenic disturbances have a significant effect onbenthic micro-organisms habitat, and its detail assessment is essential to protect the transitional zone ecosystem and supported indigenous species.

References: Flores-Verdugo, F., González-Farías, F., Ramírez-Flores, O., Amezcua-Linares, F., Yáñez-Arancibia, A., Alvarez-Rubio, M., Day, J.W., Gonzalez-Farias, F., Ramirez-Flores, O., Yanez-Arancibia, A.: Mangrove Ecology, Aquatic Primary Productivity, and Fish Community Dynamics in the Teacapán-Agua Brava Lagoon-Estuarine System (Mexican Pacific). Estuaries 13(2),219,(1990). Baustian, M.M., Meselhe, E., Jung, H., Sadid, K., Duke-Sylvester, S.M., Visser, J.M., Allison, M.A., Moss, L.C., Ramatchandirane, C., Sebastiaan van Maren, D., Jeuken, M., Bargu, S.: Development of an Integrated Biophysical Model to represent morphological and ecological processes in a changing deltaic and coastal ecosystem. Environ. Model. Softw.109, 402–419, (2018). Barik, S. S., Singh, R.K., Jena, P.S., Tripathy, S., Sharma, K., Prusty, P.: Spatio-temporal variations in ecosystem and CO 2 sequestration in coastal lagoon: A foraminiferal perspective. Mar. Micropaleontol. 147, 43–56, (2019). Gooday, A.J., Levin, L.A., Linke, P., Heeger, T.:The Role of Benthic Foraminifera in Deep-Sea Food Webs and Carbon Cycling.Deep-Sea Food Chains and the Global Carbon Cycle, Springer Netherlands,Dordrecht, 63–91(1992). Gopikrishna, B., Sinha, J., Kudale, M.D.: Impact on salinity of Chilika Lake due to changes in the inlet system. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 43(7), 1–6 (2014). Panda, U.S., Mohanty, P.K., Samal, R.N.: Impact of tidal inlet and its geomorphological changes on lagoon environment: A numerical model study. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 116, 29–40(2013). Sahu, B.K., Pati, P., Panigrahy, R.C.: Environmental conditions of Chilika Lake during pre and post hydrological intervention: An overview. J. Coast. Conserv.18, 285–297 (2014). Frontalini, F., Buosi, C., Da Pelo, S., Coccioni, R., Cherchi, A., Bucci, C.: Benthic foraminifera as bio-indicators of trace element pollution in the heavily contaminated Santa Gilla lagoon (Cagliari, Italy). Mar. Pollut. Bull.58(6), 858– 877 (2009). Barik, S. S., Prusty, P., Singh, R.K., Tripathy, S., Farooq, S.H., Sharma, K.: Seasonal and spatial variations in elemental distributions in surface sediments of Chilika Lake in response to change in salinity and grain size distribution. Environ. Earth Sci. (Under revision). Gagliardi, L.M., Brighenti, L.S., Staehr, P.A., Barbosa, F.A.R., Bezerra-Neto, J.F.: Reduced rainfall increases metabolic rates in upper mixed layers of tropical lakes. Ecosystems, 1–18(2019). Yanko, V., Arnold, A.J., Parker, W.C.: Effects of marine pollution on benthic Foraminifera. Modern Foraminifera, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 217–235(1999).

| 175 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/24 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

CAPACITY AND MANOUEUVERING OF INLAND VESSELS IN RIVERINE WATERWAYS

Inderveer Solanji Indian Maritime University, Visakhapatnam Campus

ABSTRACT The transportation by water is the cheapest mode of transport as compared to road and railways on ton per km basis. Waterway freight can further be reduced by harnessing economies of scale vessel that is optimally fit for the waterway like the Panamax and Suezmax vessels. The sizeof these vessels is limited by width and depth of the canal or dimension of the navigation lock. In case of riverine waterways with serpentine channels, strong currents and shallow water effects, controllability of Inland Vessels is a major factor that determines optimal capacity of the vessel by limiting the length of vessels. The vessels that traditionally ply in National Waterways in India carry conventional flat plate rudders and fixed pitch open propellers. The factors on inland ship manoeuvres that correspond to limited channel breadth and shallow water were more or less ignored in initial ship design. The paper analyzes how the dimensions of waterways are interlinked with manoeuvering characteristics and size of inland vessel. It identfes the navigation tests to be conducted to determine manoeuverability of Inland Vessels. Based on the Design Guidelines for Inland Waterway Dimensions(PIANC, 2019), the critical bends on National Waterway-1 have been iden tified.Thereafter as part of the ongoing thesis on “Improving Manoeuverability of Inland Vessels in Riverine Waterways” at IMU, adetail field study to be conducted on inland cargo vessels to determine how by improving the maneuverability the carrying capacity may be increased. The critcal bends identified in the paper to be used for field study on manoeuvrability of the Inalnd Vessel. Keywords: Capacity,criteria,design, inland vessel, manoeuverability, riverine, transportation,waterway.

1 INTRODUCTION The efficiency of the waterway transport can be further improved if the size of inland vessel is optimally designed suitable for the waterway. The suitability of the vessel for a given waterway can be optimally and safely utilised if the vessel is designed to carry maximum cargo for the given width, depth of the channel and has controlling mechanism to round bends in the riverine waterway when navigating upstream as well as downstream. Safe navigability of the vessel is accounted for during design stage. The vessel control mechanism taken in account during design stage is verified and determined by performing Full Scale Manoeuvring Trials (IMO 2002) for SOLAS compliant vessels. The ship manoeuvring characteristics determined as a reaction to rudder and engine actions are recorded and presented in Wheelhouse Posters (IMO, 1987) of ships as guidance for shipmasters. In spite of the manoeuvring criteria requirement of SOLAS compliant vessels the analysis of grounding cases of vessels by Swedish Club shows that in about 16% cases the cause was ship losing anoeuvrability and over 70% of cases have occurred in restricted waters. Thus the manoeuvrability of SOLAS vessels in restricted and shallow waters also needs to be improved.

| 176 | The vessels that traditionally ply in National Waterways – I and II carry conventional flat plate rudders and fixed pitch propellers. In European waters the conventional vessels like the péniche-spits, the Campine barge etc. are being modernized to increase their carrying capacity and maneuverability. Moreover the factors on inland ship manoeuvres that correspond to limited channel breadth and shallow water were more or less ignored in initial ship design. The navigability and maneuverability of inland vessels to be checked by means of navigation tests has been recently specified by Inland Transport Committee(UNECE, 2011). Similar navigation tests for maneuverability of inland vessels are specified by Russian Register, and CCNR (2012) Rhine River etc. There is no such standard criteria or requirement for inland vessels on verification of manoeuverability (IMO 2002, 2002) and more so assessment of its navigability in the dynamic riverine waterway.

“There may be more than a dozen forces acting about the vessel’s axes at a given moment and the resultant may not be estimated but due partially to a force that has escaped discovery. This is not mysticism as much as lack of research which takes the art of ship handling into the finite world of applied science”. – P.F. Willerton, Basic Ship handling The controllability and manoeuvring of Inland vessels becomes further more important as these vessels mainly operate in restricted and shallow waters and are designed to carry optimum load in a given parameters of waterway. The controllability of the vessels needs to be further augmented when the inland waterways are riverine with currents about 6 Knots. To be able to safely navigate around the bends downstream in meandering rivers like the Ganges (NW-1), Brahmaputra (NW-2) etc. it is required that manoeuvrability of Inland Vessels is verified and if required improved. The impact factors on inland ship manoeuvres that correspond to limited channel breadth & shallow water are more or less ignored in initial ship design and the knowledge is insufficiently available for inland vessels as research into inland ship optimization is usually omitted from the design process due to the high cost compared to the design budget.Moreover adequate empirical power prediction methods have not been developed for inland ships due to lack of data.(Jialun Liu, 2019). However a River Navigation Assessment procedure (RiNA - River Navigation Assessment) for assessing and evaluating trafficability of inland waterways has been developed(Dennis Harlachera). The criteria of assessment of manoeuverability and method of collection of data from field towards the assessment has been developed and is elaborated in the paper. The paper is part of an ongoing thesis on “Improving Manoeuverability of Inland Vessels in Riverine Waterways” at IMU. Improving manoeuvring capabilities of a vessel contributes to safety of navigation and in inland waters is likely to augment cargo carrying capacity by increasing length and beam of vessel for the same draft. 2 CAPACITY OF THE BARGES AND MANOEUVRABILITY IWT is environment friendly, economical and has ability to transport large volume of cargo per vessel. Moreoverit has a highlevel of safety, low infrastructure costs and has free capacity. The cargo carrying capacity of inland vessel can be augmented by increasing the dimension of the barge provided the vessel is manoeuvrable in the given waterway and traffic flow. The major weaknesses of this mode of transport are its dependence on the variablefairway characteristics (depth, width, bend radius and vertical clearance) in free-flowing river stretches and the associated navigability, variable cargo carrying capacity ofthe vessels and comparatively low transportation speed(Bastian Klein, 2016). Inland Waterways Authority of India has classified Waterways (classes I to VII) based on the depth, bottom width, bend radius, vertical clearance and distance between piers. The regulations also specify the approximate sizes of vessels and cargo carrying capacity respective to the class of waterways(IWAI, 2019). The European classification of waterways (classes I to VII) is according to maximum dimensions of vessels which are able to operate on the specific waterway and class IV can be considered as inland waterways of international importancein the Pan-European network (“E waterways”), like Rhine, Danube and Elbe.The

| 177 | ECMT/UNECE criteria for determining classarethe horizontal dimensions of the vessels or units(length and maximum length) and vertical criteria,such as draft and maximum height under bridges(ECMT Resolution , 2019). In practice modern inland ships do not have significant problems to comply with the CCNR criteria and to increase the class of the European waterways. A wide range of scenarios were analysed, and typical navigation was performed on a ship manoeuvring simulator, Eloot & Delefortrie (2012), which of course requires the availability of realistic manoeuvring models in restricted watersto investigate whether an inland waterway can accept a larger class inland vessel. This research consists of. Hasegawa (2013) also sums up the difficulties and challenges of river transportation in Asia. The Design Guidelines for Inland Waterway Dimensions has developed concept design, practice, detail design approach and extended detail design for specific cases(PIANC, 2019). The guidelines use the simplified Safety and Ease approach (S&E) and Detailed S&E design approach to arrive at decision on parameters related with dimensions of waterways. Explicit results can be achieved by using the detailed S&E design approach. The detailed design approach uses simulation techniques or field investigations. In the given waterway dimensions with hydrology and weather conditions vessel dimensions may be increased if its manoeuvrability is effective and efficient. Primarily the width of the waterway and bend radius limits the dimensions of the vessel, however with better manoeuvrability of vessels the dimensions may be increased. As regards to bends, theStudy (Move, 2019)specifies that the minimum bend radius to be 500m, and the Netherlands Water Transport department specifies minimum bend radiuses (R)is 6*L and 4*L for normal and narrow profile. The study conducted on the National Waterway-1 (NW-1) on IWT Sector Development Strategy and BusinessDevelopment Study for Capacity Augmentation of the waterway, specifies bend radius less than 600m on the river. The author has analysed between Kolkata and Farakka and found that there are three bends on the waterway that are critical and are about 300m. The study on Design of standardized vesselson National Waterway-1 by DST specifies that there are 64 critical bends on the whole of NW-1 on the analysis of navigational charts published by IWAI and Google Earth as well as practical navigation on the route by the author and on discussion with master of vessels 3 bends are critical. The criticality is against the requirement of radius of turn to be 4L i.e. 440m for a vessel of size 110m x 12m designed by DST.

| 178 | However if the vessel has good manoeuvrability with bow thruster and the width available at the curve is 3B + 0.6L^2/R(Curve Effect)+.02L(wind) i.e. (36m+30m+3m) i.e. 69m(PIANC, 2019). Since the width at the curve available is about 90m a detailed study with field investigation of manoeuvring of inland vessel at the above identified bends may result in safely allowing a vessel of larger dimension then the present vessel sizes between 65 to 80m for one-way navigation. If the manoeuvrability of inland vessel navigating round the bends such that the turn radius of the turning circle is substantially less than the minimum radius of turn accounting for shallow water effect and current, the vessel may be allowed to operate in the sector. Similar limitation has been adopted on the upper stretches of the Yangtze river the where the maximum length of a vessel has been limited to 150m on account of sharp bends and strong currents. 2.1 Criteria for Assessment of Manoeuvrability The dictionary meaning of manoeuvrability is easy to move and direct. The manoeuvring capabilities should permit the ships in course, to turn, to check turns, to operate at acceptable slow speeds and to stop in a satisfactory manner. The manoeuvring characteristics are such as turning, yaw-checking, course-keeping and stopping abilities of the ship. The manoeuvrability of a ship comprises the ability to control its direction of motion and includes:

l Ability to change direction.

l Ability to maintain a constant direction.

l Ability to start and stop changing direction quickly.

l Ability to start, accelerate, decelerate, stop and reverse. Manoeuvring performance of a vessel is judged based on navigation tests meeting manoeuvring criteria which are characteristic of several manoeuvres. These manoeuvres and their criteria, as well as the required numerical values, are described below as per regulations and guidelines developed by various institutions like IMO, UNECE, CCNR and China. 2.2 Navigation Tests and Manoeuvrability Navigability and manoeuvrability ischecked by means of navigation tests. The following parameters are examined in accordance with the requirements of the regulatory agency. The summary of the tests and nomenclature is given below: The tests must concernfollowing characteristics for seagoing vessels, which have been identifiedby IMO(IMO 2002): a) inherent dynamic stability, b) course- keeping ability, c) initial turning/course-changing ability, d) yaw checking ability, e) turning ability, The manoeuvrability of the seagoing ship is considered satisfactory if the following criteria are complied with: a) Turning ability:The advance should not exceed 4.5 ship lengths (L) and the tactical diameter should not exceed 5 ship lengths in the turning circle manoeuvre. b) Initial turning ability:With the application of 10° rudder angle to port/starboard, the ship should not have travelled more than 2.5 ship lengths by the time the heading has changed by10° from the original heading.

| 179 | c) Yaw-checking and course-keeping abilities: a. The value of the first overshoot angle in the 10°/10° zig-zag test should notexceed: - 10° if L/V is less than 10 s; - 20° if L/V is 30 s or more; and - (5 + 1/2(L/V)) degrees if L/V is 10 s or more, but less than 30 s, where L and V are expressed in m and m/s, respectively. b. The value of the second overshoot angle in the 10°/10° zig-zag test shouldnot exceed: - 25°, if L/V is less than 10 s; - 40°, if L/V is 30 s or more; and - (17.5 + 0.75(L/V))°, if L/V is 10 s or more, but less than 30 s. - The value of the first overshoot angle in the 20°/20° zig-zag test should notexceed 25°. d) Stopping ability: The track reach in the full astern stopping test should not exceed 15 ship lengths.However, this value may be modified by the Administration where ships of largedisplacement make this criterion impracticable but should in no case exceed20 ship lengths. Internationally no standard tests have been developed for measuring controllability of Inland Vessels, however for Inland Vessels registered in the European Union countries Resolution 61, Technical Requirements of Inland Navigation vessels (UNECE, 2011) regulates the minimum requirements ofmanoeuvring behaviour of inland vessels. The Central Commission for Navigation onthe Rhine (CCNR) has issued manoeuvring criteriafor vessels sailing on the river Rhine (CESNI, 2019).These criteria concern speed, stopping andturning abilities and evasive capabilities. The vessels must be loaded to 70% of capacity or more and tests conducted in a channel of sufficient width and minimum 2km straight run. The minimum under keel clearance is20% of the draft, but never lower than 0.5 m. a) Speed: The minimum speed of Inland vessels, including convoys ahead is 13 km/h and 6.5 km/h astern. b) Stopping ability: Vessels that are up to110 m x 11.45m need to be able to stop from 13 km/h within 305 m, whereas the larger vessels have tostop within 350 m. c) Evasive manoeuvre: It is to be performed at 13 km/h and the rudder checking is performedbased on the yaw rate instead of the heading deviation in a zigzag manoeuvre. The yaw rate to be checked dependson the ship’s size, the rudder angle and on the under keel clearance. Table1: Evasive Manoeuver requirement Dimensions of vessels or convoys Required turning speed Limit values for the time 5ØaÜ4 (s) L x B 5Ø_Ü1 = 5Ø_Ü3 [°/min] in shallow and deep water d” 20° d” 45° 1.2 d” h/T d” 1.41.4 < h/T d” 2 h/T > 2 1 All motor vessels; single-in-line convoys 20°/min 28°/min 150 s 110 s 110 s d” 110 × 11.45 2 Single-in-line convoys up to 193 × 11.45 or 12°/min 18°/min 180 s 130 s 110 s two- abreast convoys up to 110 × 22.90 3 Two-abreast convoys d” 193 × 22.90 8°/min 12°/min 180 s 130 s 110 s 4 Two-abreast convoys up to 270 × 22.90 or 6°/min 8°/min *) *) *) three- abreast convoys up to 193 × 34.35 *) In accordance with the decision of the nautical expert.

| 180 | d) Turning capacity: Vessels and convoys with a length 5Ø?Ü of not more than 86 m or with a breadth 5Ø5Ü of not more than22.90 m shall be able to turn in good time. That turning capacity may be replaced by the stopping capacity. The turning capacity shall be proven by means of turning manoeuvres against the current. The Chinese classification society has divided the river in navigation areas according to hydrological conditions of the river, namely, in increasing order of difficulty, A, B, C and J (J1: very turbulent, J2: turbulent) and developed the following regulations for manoeuvrability of Inland vessels. The maximum length of the vessels or convoys is 150 m. The requirements to be met for each manoeuvre and each navigation class is given in the table below. In this table the following variables are used: l ÄC : the allowable course variation at ä = 0°, measured over 3min. 0 l ä : the allowable rudder variation to keep a prescribed course during 5min. 0 l y : the minimal allowable yaw rate when moving towards 15°/min with a rudder angle of 15° 0-15 l D and A represent the dimensionless tactical diameter and trackreach; 0 h l ä : the allowable rudder variation to keep a prescribed course astern during 3min. A The manoeuvres have to be carried out at a steady speed, the value of which is not specified. Due to water level variations in the Three Gorges dam, the navigation conditions can vary significantly. In deep conditions navigation needs to occur in the vicinity of flooded banks, while in shallow conditions 180° turning is impossible. The strong current (~3m/s) of the river challenges both downstream navigation (less rudder efficiency) and upstream navigation (powerlacking). Table 2: Yangtze river manoeuvring requirements (Standard Ship Type Index System of Inland Transportation Vessel).

| 181 | The manoeuvrability has two components namely the turning capability and route retention capability, which are contradictory design features (Sukas etal, 2017). The standard manoeuvring criteria and navigation tests for sea going vessels operating most of the time in unrestricted deep waters and assisted by tugs in restricted shallow waters augers well for safe and economic operations. The criteria is more focussed towards course keeping capability then course changing ability. The inland vessels mostly operate in restricted shallow flowing waters forming of serpentine dynamic channels that may vary seasonally indepth, width and bend radius. Thus the manoeuvring standards and criteriafor inland vessels must account more for course changing then course keeping capability and be according to the operational area and the dynamic requirement of the area. On analysing a typical riverine waterway like National Waterway-1 (the Ganges) it is found that the Inland vessel mustexecute the following manoeuvres on regular basis: Manoeuvres in Inland Waterways

The IMO Criteria may only be used a guideline because possible potential damage due to contact by inland vessels as compared to sea-going ships is less on account of lower mass and speed. The capability to avoid dangerous situation is also higher for Inland vessels as propulsion and rudder forces are about 4 times higher for Inland vessels than for sea-going ships. Reaction time for seagoing ships is also higher as seagoing vessels have more direction stability(Bernhard Söhngen, 2014). Based on the discussions above and analysing the different tests recommended by UNECE, Chinese Classification Societyand Russian Classification Society for the purpose of safe navigation in riverine waterways the following criteria is important:

| 182 | l Initial turning/course-changing ability, l Stopping Ability, l Yaw checking ability, l Turning ability, l Stern Manoeuvre The following additional tests for slow speed manoeuvring and shallow water will be carried out for an Inland Vessel: l Turning circle at half speed and slow speed. l Turning circle in shallow water (depth anddraught ratio is less than four and as low as 1.2 to1.5). l If the vessel is unstable in shallow water or at slow speed: Assess Path Instability in Shallow water and at slow speed (at least half speed and slowspeed). l Zig-zag in shallow water and at slow speed standard 20/20 zig-zag or modified as required The following data shall be recorded with time stamp and analysed against the trial data when the vessel is operating on National Waterway-1: l Position (Northing and Easting) l Heading Angle (Degrees) l Rudder Angle (Degrees) l Depth l Speed Over Ground l Engine RPM and Shaft RPM l Wind speed and Direction l Area of tests and operations l Riverbed type 3. CONCLUSION The waterway, its dimensions and manoeuvrability of inlandvessels determine vessel capacity or vice versa i.e. vessel dimension and its manoeuvring characteristics along with the operating environment determine the parameters of waterway. Inland Waterways Authority of India through a consultancy contract has developed Standard design of inland vessels with improved manoeuvrability. The dimension of the waterways are being augmented by increasing and assuring least available depth (LAD) and Width of Navigation channel. Improving manoeuvrability of Inland Vessels operating in riverine waterways in addition toincreasing safety of operations and may augment thecarrying capacity of the waterway. .

References: Bastian Klein, D. M. (2016). Improving Predictions and Management of Hydrological Extremes. European Union. Bernhard Söhngen, K. E. (2014). UPDATE PIANC INCOM WG 141 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR INLAND WATERWAYS. PIANC World Congress San Francisco (pp. 1-20). San Francisco: PIANC. Retrieved from INCOMWG. Bernhard Söhngen, Y. C.-M.-J. (2018). DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR INLAND WATERWAY DIMENSIONS. PIANC-World Congress Panama City (pp. 1-20). Panama: Panama. CESNI. (2019). Technical Requirements for Inalnd Navigation Vessels. European Standard - Technical Requirements for Inalnd Navigation Vessels (ES-TRIN). European Committee for drawing up Standards in the field of Inland Navigation (CESNI). Dennis Harlachera. (2016). Assessment procedure of the trafficability of inland waterways. 12th International Conference on Hydroinformatics, HIC 2016 (pp. 146 – 153). 21-26 August 2016, Incheon, South Korea: Procedia Engineering, Science Direct, Elsevier. ECMT Resolution . (2019, October 11). UNECE. Retrieved from ECMT REsolution 92: https://www.itf-oecd.org › sites › default › files › docs

| 183 | IMO. (1987). Provision and display of maneuvering information on board ships. Resolution A.601(15), 19 Nov 1987. IMO. IMO 2002. (2002). Standards for ship manoeuvrability. MSC Resolution 137(76). ITTC. (2014). Manoeuvering Committee Final Report and Recommendations to the 27th ITTC. Manoeuvering Committee Final Report and Recommendations to the 27th ITTC (pp. 38-39). Copenhagen: ITTC. IWAI. (2019, October 11). Rules and Regulations. Retrieved from Inalnd Waterways Authority of India: http://iwai.gov.in Jialun Liu, R. H. (2019, August 25). A Proposal for Standard Manoeuvres and Parameters for the Evaluation of Inland Ship Manoeuvrability. Retrieved from semanticscholar: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/19f1/ 3f8bb7bfcc602c060e053cf5a1f5f02616ba.pdf Move, D. (2019, October 11). Good Navigation Status. Retrieved from Inland Navigation EU: www.inlandnavigation.eu › GNS_Task-2-Report_AplusB_final_disclaimer PIANC. (2019). Design Guidelines for Inalnd War=terway Dimension. Brussel: INGWG 141, PIANC. Sukas etal, Ö. F. (2017). A Review on Prediction of Ship Manoeuvring Performance, Part 1. GMO-SHIPMAR, 38-75. UNECE. (2011). RECOMMENDATIONS ON HARMONIZED EUROPE-WIDE TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR INLAND NAVIGATION VESSELS, ECE/TRANS/SC.3/172/Rev.1. Geneva: United Nation Publications.

| 184 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/25 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

REDUCTION OF CARBON FOOTPRINT AND OPERATING COSTS OF VESSELS OPERATING IN INLAND WATERWAYS BY REDUCING FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE

Lieutenant Commander Paul S Moses 43497-F, Indian Navy

ABSTRACT India has an extensive network of inland waterways in the form of back waters, canals, rivers etc. with a total length of about 14,500 Kms of which about 9200 Kms can be used by mechanised vessels. The total weight of cargo transferred through these motorised vessels this year amounts to 72 Million tonnes and the Indian Government aims to increase this quantity to 120 Million tonnes by 2023. This would need an augmentation in the number of vessels and the infrastructure of National Waterways. All the inland vessels transporting cargo, passengers and undertaking other functions have a certain carbon foot print and operating cost. Even a fractional reduction in the operating cost and carbon footprint of these vessels would add up to a large amount when seen on the national scale in terms of National Carbon Footprint reduction and the benefit to the national economy. This paper aims to devise a method to further reduce the frictional resistance of the vessels thus achieving reduction in Op. costs and Carbon footprint. This paper deals with a study on a specific method of installation of polyolefin-based paint protection films to the underwater hull to reduce the frictional component of resistance and brings out the tangible benefits in terms of cost and environmental protection accrued from this method. Keywords: Carbon Footprint, Operating Costs, Frictional Resistance, Indian Waterways, Effects of Fouling, Use of Polyolefin paint protection films.

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Indian Inland Waterways India has an extensive network of inland waterways of rivers, canals and backwaters. The total navigable length of Inland waterways in India is 14,500 km, of which about 5,200 km of rivers and 4,000 km of canalsare exploitable by mechanized crafts. Most of the waterways suffer from navigational hazards like shallow waters and narrow width of the channel during dry weather, siltation, bank erosion, absence of infrastructure facilities like terminals and inadequacy of navigational aids. Freight transport by waterways is highly under-utilized in India compared to other large countries like USA, China and the European Nations. The total cargo moved by inland waterways in India was 0.1% of the total cargo in India, compared to the 21% for the United States of America[1]. In India cargo transported in an organized manner is confined to a few waterways in states like Goa, West Bengal, Assam and Kerala. Inland waterways consist of the Ganges-Bhagirathi-Hooghly rivers, the Brahmaputra, the Barak river, the rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala, inland waters in Mumbai and the deltaic regions of the Godavari-Krishna rivers. The cost of water transport in India is roughly 50% lower than railways and about 65% lower than roads.

| 185 | 1.2 Policies for Indian Inland Waterways Water transport in India has received significant attention from the government in recent times due to logistical costs in India being among the highest among major countries - 18 % in India versus 8-10 % in China and 10-12 % in the European Union.To increase the share of waterways in inland transport, the National Waterways Act, 2016 was passed which proposed the operationalisation of 106 additional National Waterways and to further improve the existing waterways with facilities for better navigation with the necessary infrastructure such asterminals, navigational aids etc. so that the inland water transport becomes competitive and can attract cargo transport stakeholders.This move of moving cargo from the rail and roads to waterways will greatly reduce the cost of transportation and the nation’s carbon footprint.

Figure 1: Some Important Waterways in India.

Merchant Shipping Act, 1958. The Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 has provisions for regulation and legal action for specific environmental issues regarding merchant vessels operating in Indian Waters. The Director (Marine Department) and Director General of Shipping were appointed under this act to supervise various aspects of shipping in India. This act encapsulates the IMO regulations of ban on Tributyltin and all other latest amendments as directed by IMO. 1.3 India’s Global Commitment At the Paris summit of UN FCCC about 200 nations of the world including India have pledged to reduce their carbon emissions in order to ensure that the global temperature rise stays below 2°C.India is the third largest contributor to the worlds carbon footprint at approximately 6.3 %. India is also among 170 countries to sign the treaty with IMO and UN to reduce shipping emissions by 2050. This deal is a proposal by International Maritime Organisation, which wishes to bring down emissions to at least 50% of 2008 emissions by 2030 and to at least 80% of 2008 emissions by 2050.

| 186 | 2. MARINE FOULING Marine Fouling, Biofouling or biological fouling is defined as the accumulation/ infestation of microorganisms, macro-organisms, plants, algae, or animals on wetted surfaces. There are about 1700 species and 4000 organisms causing bio fouling [3]. Fouling can be generally classified into two types Micro fouling and Macro fouling. Micro fouling is the biofilm formation and bacterial adhesion due to microorganisms. Macro fouling is the subsequent attachment of larger organisms on to the biofilm. Biofouling is also classified into Calcareous (hard type) and Non-Calcareous (soft type) fouling which indicate the harness of the organisms and the layer formed due to them [3]. 2.1. Stages of Marine Fouling Organic Film Formation. The first stage of marine fouling commences when the ship is immersed into sea water. The wanderwalls interaction forces cause the ships surface to be covered with a conditioning film or layer of organic polymers. Due to these forces the organic molecules are adsorbed onto the surface and form a uniform layer. Duration of this stage is 24 Hours. Bacterial Adhesion. This stage involves the bacteria and diatoms likevibrio alginolyticus, pseudomonas putrefaciens etc. attaching to the conditioning layer to form a bio film. Duration of this stage is 48 Hours. Secondary Colonisation. The availability of a nutrient rich biofilm and due to the ease of attachment into the biofilm. Secondary colonizers of spores of macroalgae like enteromorpha intestinalis, ulothrix and protozoans like vorticella, Zoothamnium sp. attach themselves onto this biofilm. This stage is completed within one week after bacterial adhesion. Tertiary Colonisation.After the second stage the tertiary colonisers and macrofoulers attach themselves. These macro organisms include tunicates, mollusks and sessile Cnidarians. The duration of this stage is two weeks after the secondary colonisation.

Figure 2: Stages of Marine fouling.

| 187 | 2.2 Effects of Fouling Fouling increases the degree of roughness of a ship’s hull, this roughness can substantiallyincrease frictional resistance and wall shear stress and hence fuel consumptionandgreenhouse gas emissions.Adequate research has found that fouling can increase the Ships fuel consumption by upto 80% [5][6]. Fouling annually costs the shipping industry about 65 Billion USD. Additionally, for Naval vessels it affects the manoeuvrability (rudder/propeller fouling) and increases the acoustic signature of vessels. 3. METHODS FOR REDUCING MARINE FOULING 3.1 Old Age Manual Methods In ancient times, men used to rub them off with the weeds, ooze, and fit from the ships’ sides sharp brushes, and scrape them away with irons so that the ship may sail faster this can be called as manual method of removal of fouling. Ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians used pitch and copper sheathing on the hulls of their ships. Wax, tar, and asphaltum have also been used from very early times to prevent fouling. 3.2 Anti-Fouling Paints Biocide Based.Anti-fouling paint can be termed as a protective coating that is applied to the hull (especially underwater areas) and propellers of marine crafts. Anti-fouling paint serves two purposes, viz.: it prevents corrosion and prevents the settling and growth of microscopic marine animals and plants on the hull. Typical anti-fouling paint in the early 20th century contained a biocide or a toxin in the paint, which is released into the area surrounding the hull to poison any attached organisms and prevent others from adhering to the paint.These biocides included organotin tributyl tin. These biocides were banned in 2001 during the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships by IMO after being ratified by about 81 countries. Ablative Paints. It is the most common type of Anti-Fouling paint. It wears away like a bar of soap. This paint works well on animals like the zebra mussel, which find it difficult to form a firm hold. The fouling is generally pulled off as the vessel moves through the water. Self-Polishing Copolymer Paints. These paints are currently used on Ships. They have a slower rate of ablation as compared to a pure ablative paint. They also keep themselves polished by shedding layers from the top[7]. Hydrogel based Paints[8]. Silicone Hydrogel based paints were developed after SPCP paints. These paints were much more resilient to the initial biofilm formation as compared to the SPSP paints.

4. POLYOLEFINS Polyolefin is a polymer of any alkene i.e. C H . Polyolefins have a varied range of properties ranging n 2n from liquid like structure to rigid solid structures which are caused as a due to the different lengths of polymer’s crystallizable sequences established during polymerization. In the process of polymerisation Low degrees of crystallinity (0-20%) is associated with liquidlike-to-elastomeric properties. Whereas, degrees of crystallinity within the range (20-50%) is associated with ductile thermoplastics, and degrees of crystallinity greater than 50% are associated with rigid and sometimes brittle plastics.These polyolefins have excellent chemical resistance, low surface energies, can be adhesively bonded using surface treatment like super glues, reactive glues and thermalwelding, they are also chemically inert. Polyolefins in low crystalline forms are used in the marine industry in anti-fouling paints. Polyolefins on the other hand are being used in the automobile, military and electrical industries for paint protection, surface protection etc.

| 188 | Figure 3&4: Application of the Polyolefin paint protection film in the Automobile Industry.

Figure 5: Use of the Polyolefin Protection Film on the leading edge of a helicopter.

4.1 Why Polyolefin Paint Protection Films Biofouling or marine fouling on a body exposed to seawater depends upon the rate at which biofilm adhesion occurs. Biofilm adhesion is the first step towards marine fouling.The ability of bacteria to adhere to a particular surface and begin the formation of a biofilm is determined by the enthalpy of adhesionof the surface, surface energy andthe roughness of the surface. Surface roughness can also affect biofilm adhesion. Rough, high-energy surfaces like steel are more conducive to biofilm formation, while smooth surfaces are less susceptible to biofilm adhesion. Therefore, use of polyolefin paint protection films on the as a sheet covering (heat shrink sheet/coating) the outer surface of the hull of motorised marine vessels will provide the microorganisms a very low energy and stable surface which is not conducive for bio film formation and Biofouling[11]. These materials also have a very long life in the marine environment due to their inert nature [12]. 4.2 Installation of Marine Polyolefin Paint Protection Films The polyolefinpaint protection films can be installed on the outer parts of the ships hulls which are exposed to seawater and fouling. These paint protection films can be installed as mentioned below:-

| 189 | Thermal Application. Thermal application involves using adhesives on the surface for forming an adhesive surface bond between the steel surface and the polyolefinpaint protection film and using heat/ hot air for shrinking the polyolefin for obtaining a snug fit.

Figure 5: Application of the Polyolefin Protection Film on an Automobile[13]

Figure 6: Polyolefin Protection Film installed on an Aircraft[14] Adhesives. The polyolefinpaint protection films can be pasted onto to the hull surface using chemical adhesives. Other methods of installing thepaint protection films using fasteners/ Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding may also be used. 5. RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 National level Policy for the following:- Hull Cleaning for all the Marine Vessels.It is recommended that a regulation akin to the Motor Vehicle Act 2019 used for regulation of Motorised Vehicles on Indian Roads should be developed and enacted encapsulating the aspect of Hull Cleaning analogous to Pollution Under Control

| 190 | Certificate.Alternatively, the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 may be suitably amended to incorporate the necessary changes. National Level Agency for Hull Fouling Inspection in Indian Vessels. A National level agencyis recommended be formed under the aegis of the ‘Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change’which can be tasked with inspection of all motorised vessels operating in the inland waterways and littoral areas in addition to the ocean-going vessels owned by citizens of India/ operating in India. 5.2 Development of Marinized Polyolefin Paint Protection Films Polyolefinpaint protection films most suited for use on motorised vessels in the marine environment may be developed. In order to decrease the overall fuel consumption and carbon footprint. Research fields include type of material and method of installation. 5.3 Anticipated Result from Polyolefin Coatings. The advantages expected from installation of paint protection films on ships hulls will be manifold i.e. protecting the hull from corrosion and on the other hand reducing marine fouling. This is expected to give an improved lifetime fuel efficiency of about 10% by reducing the additional power consumption due to fouling over the underwater hull of ships. This would go a long way in reducing the carbon footprint in the global shipping industry. 6. CONCLUSION This paper is astudy about the existing ground level problems caused due to marine fouling.This paper also includes an innovative concept of reducing Marine Fouling by installing polyolefinpaint protection films on the outer hull surface of the ships. These polyolefin paint protection filmsoffer a very low energy, inert and smooth surface which inhibits biofilm formation which is the very first step of the entire biofouling process wherein the bacterial microorganisms get adsorbed into the surface. This paper brings out necessary recommendations to reduce the negative effects of Marine Fouling in the country (with global applicability), to reduce the operating costs and in the overall larger picture reduce the net carbon footprint.

References: The History of the Prevention of Fouling, Contribution No:580 Marine Fouling and prevention, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Annapolis, Maryland. National Waterways of India, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ListofNationalWaterwaysinIndia. Stanczak, Marianne (March 2004), Biofouling: It’s Not Just Barnacles Anymore, ProQuest, retrieved 21 May 12. L.D. Chambers, K.R. Stokes, F.C. Walsh, R.J.K. Wood (2006), “Modern approaches to Marine antifouling coatings”, Surface & Coatings Technology 201 (2006) 3642–3652 Yigit Kemal Demirel, Dogancan Uzun, Yansheng Zhang, Ho-Chun Fang, Alexander H. Day & Osman Turan (Oct 2017), “Effect of barnacle fouling on ship resistance and powering”. Yann Giorgiutti, Flavia Rezende, Sergio Van, Claudio Monteiro, Gustavo Preterote (Nov 2014), “Impact of Fouling on Ships Energy Efficiency”, 25º Congresso Nacional de Transporte Aquaviário Construção Naval e Offshore, SOBENA 2014- 160. Almeida, E; Diamantino, Teresa C.; De Sousa, Orlando (2007), “Marine paints: The particular case of antifouling paints”, Progress in Organic Coatings, 59 (1): 2–20. Peter THORLAKSEN, Diego M. YEBRA, Pere CATALÀ (2010), “Hydrogel­Based Third Generation Fouling Release Coatings”, Royal Belgian Institute of Marine Engineers 2010. DetailXperts homepage, https://www.detailxperts.net/blog/2014/09/15/5-ways-car-paint-protection-film-can-damage-car, last accessed

| 191 | Rotorway with leading edge tape, https://www.google.com/imgres? imgurl= https Trishul Artham, M. Sudhakar, R. Venkatesan, C. Madhavan Nair, K.V.G.K. Murty, Mukesh Doble, “Biofouling and stability of synthetic polymers in sea water”, International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 63 (2009) 884–890. Tim O’Brine, Richard C. Thompson, “Degradation of plastic carrier bags in the marine environment”, Marine Pollution Bulletin 60 (2010) 2279–2283 Paint protection film application on Vehicles, https://exclusivedetail.com/about-paint-protection-film/. Paint protection Wraps for aircrafts, https://www.3domwraps.com/aircraft-wraps/. Yebra, Diego Meseguer; Kiil, Soren; Dam-Johansen, Kim (July 2004), “Antifouling technology- past, present and future steps towards efficient and environmentally friendly antifouling coatings”, Progress in Organic Coatings, 50 (2): 75–104.

| 192 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/26 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

3-D MARINE WEATHER FORECAST DISSEMINATION SYSTEM – PANORAMA

Commodore Manoj Kumar Singh PDNOM, Indian Navy [email protected]

ABSTRACT Indian Navy undertakes wide variety of operations on different scale of time and space across the globe. This broad continuum of operations is scaled down into distinct roles, each demanding a specific approach to the conduct of operations in contrast to commercial maritime activities wherein the weather information is primarily used for safe and economical navigation. To meet these specific Op driven requirements, Panorama, a marine weather decision support system has been developed. It is a ‘Make in India’ initiative. This GIS based software is an engine to process and visualize observational and forecast data at both ground stations and onboard ships in all the three dimensions of the operating environment, viz., surface, sub- surface and air. This is a complete automated system which has real time data download from multiple sources, database management, multi-parameter visualization, extreme event analysis, alerts and real time data dissemination to ships sailing across the globe with voyage planning support. It has the state of the art data compression. Keywords : NRB, Voyage, Data Deck, Forecast Dashboard, Seaview.

1 MARINE OPERATIONS Marine operations, e.g., the sea transport of heavy objects and the installation of offshore units and equipment, need to be planned and executed with proper consideration for environmental conditions and operational limits with respect to vessel motions and structural loads. Marine operations with a limited duration, usually less than 72 h, are typically designed as weather-restricted operations. The environmental design criteria are thus predefined, and the actual weather conditions are confirmed by weather forecasts issued immediately prior to the start of such an operation. Marine operations of longer duration are typically designed as weather-unrestricted operations, and the environmental conditions are calculated based on long-term statistics, possibly depending on the season. More detailed information about uncertainties in weather forecasts could increase the feasible duration of weather-restricted operations [1]. Weather forecasts are inevitable for safe and profitable shipping. Optimum ship routing is to find the best route for a ship based on the existing weather forecasts and ship characteristics, to avoid all adverse weather and to find the best balance to minimize time of transit and fuel consumption without placing the vessel at risk to weather damage or crew injury. Thus easy to handle systems are required to support the navigator’s decision process, hence a weather and ocean forecasting system on board ship is needed to reduce the risk and loss. 2 OPERATING ENVIRONMENT Naval operations represent a complex interplay of a variety of missions; thus the meteorological and oceanographic (METOC) system must be flexible enough to meet a variety of demands on many timescales,

| 193 | driven by the specific objective of a given operation. The various actions undertaken by different components of the fleet are grouped into mission warfare areas. These areas generally center on actions or assets with a common theme and include, among others, aviation and strike warfare, submarine and antisubmarine warfare, surface warfare, naval special warfare, and amphibious warfare. The diversity of naval warfare missions is illustrated by Table 1 [2].

Table 1. Naval Mission Areas included in the General Requirements Relational Database

Indian Navy is mandated to undertake wide variety of operations on different scale of time and space ranging from Coastal water to Deep Oceans across the globe. These operations are categorized as – Military Role, Diplomatic Role, Constabulary Role and Benign Role. This broad continuum of operations can be broken down into distinct roles, each demanding a specific approach to the conduct of operations in contrast to commercial maritime activities wherein the weather information is primarily used for safe and economical navigation. Therefore, the weather support system available to maritime services is dominated by commercial interest. The commercial marine weather forecasting and dissemination system were found to be inadequate to meet Indian Navy’s requirement. To overcome this challenge and provide warfighters at sea with necessary weather support in all three dimensions, Indian Navy conceptualised the development of a GIS based 3-D dissemination and visualisation system for marine forecast, to replace the foreign origin weather based voyage routing/planning systems for IN Ships. 3 PANORAMA-THE DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM The ocean environment system is very complex even if less dynamic than the atmospheric system. Understanding the ocean environment system requires information of host of parameters and relations between them. Indian Navy has an ocean environment data repository that gets augmented from various sources on a regular basis. This data repository has a regular inflow of data for comprehending spatial and temporal changes within marine environment. Apart from continuous observations, considerable amount of data and information is also generated through various models. To derive the optimal benefit of such a huge amount of data, a robust database management system is required that not only facilitates efficient

| 194 | storage but also retrieval and analysis. Another major challenge is to visually represent the dynamics of the 3D marine environment system to facilitate the understanding of its impact on the operations. To meet above-mentioned challenges, a GIS based database management system that can capture, archive, analyze, manage, and visualize multi-dimensional (2D/3D), multi-temporal, multi-spatial data relating to the marine environment is required. This system has advanced functionalities including 2D & 3D visualization, data interpolation, contour generation & analysis and management of scientific marine data. This decision support system displays the weather warnings, forecast and helps to analyze the weather or ocean state over the next few days and plan the voyage. This system aids the decision makers and users by providing them inputs about the ocean environment for effective planning of operations. 3.1 Development Process Forecasting the weather has evolved considerably from Crick’s case study method of comparing synoptic charts, Bjerkne’s discovery of fronts, and Rossby waves to numerical integration of the governing equations on supercomputers. Numerical weather forecasting has become the need of the hour and Indian Navy has also made steady progress in that direction. However dissemination and visualization of the weather inputs to end user was a big challenges. Therefore in recognition of the need, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC), Pune was engaged for developing a suitable system addressing the Indian Navy requirements of visualising environment forecast in a user friendly manner under the Naval Research Board (NRB) funding. The project, called Panorama the 3-D Marine Weather Forecast Dissemination System, was accorded sanction by DRDO in Aug 14. The project was undertaken in mission mode with Directorate of Naval Oceanology and Meteorology (DNOM) being the consultant and user. Besides the User being the integral part of DPR formulation, Eight Beta-versions were subjected to field users for their comments and suggestions. The volume and scale of the project can be assessed from the fact that more than 800 Mb data size has been compressed to 60 Mb that contains information for 41 layers on global scale. 3.2 System Architecture and Methodology Panorama processes numerical weather and ocean state global and regional forecast output, global observations, and satellite images in aid of naval operations at sea. It enables user friendly on-board 2D and 3D visualization of atmosphere as well as ocean forecast for 10 days. The complete automated system has real time data download from multiple sources, database management, state of the art data compression, multiparameter visualization, extreme event analysis, alerts and real time data dissemination to ships sailing across the globe. The System architecture is comprises : Data Deck-the data download component, Forecast Dashboard-is the processing engine and both are installed at ground base (INMAC). Whereas SeaView-the data visualization component and is installed onboard Naval Ships (see Fig. 1).

Fig.1. Parorama – Schematic representation of System Architecture

| 195 | Data Deck (DDec). Data Deck computer is connected to Internet and it downloads the data from various Internet sources; NCEP GFS, NCMRWF Global and Regional models, NOAA CFS, NOAA, WWIII, Satellite Images, GTS. Data is processed for 2D and 3D visualization, data patch generation, cyclone track preparation and data compression, which is transferred to forecast dashboard server for further processing. Forecast Dashboard (FDASH). FDASH is the processing engine and is responsible for transforming data in a usable form. It accepts data from DDec via data basket as well as WWIII model data from NODPAC. In FDASH, the GRIB2 data is converted into netCDF. Automatic scripts regrid the data sets into a uniform resolution. Marine forecast parameters: Sea State, Cloud cover, stability indices, ASW, MLD are derived and included in the data patch. GTS data is decoded using NCEP decoders and is converted in WMO standard format. In FDASH, number of parameters are processed, analyzed by FDASH Administrator. Table 2 elucidates the list of FDASH parameters. The data patch is then compressed using customized parameters conversion algorithms. The compressed data patch is broadcasted to all the ships and receiving stations through secured Network. Table 2. List of FDASH Parameters

| 196 | SeaView. SeaView is the Decision Support Component and end-user GUI for navigation operations. The data patch received from the forecast dashboard is imported, decompressed and used to visualize various data components. The users load the latest or desired data patch through SeaView and visualize the forecasted data, alerts and advisory. Tools Used. High Charts, Matlab Compiler Runtime, Open Layers, Open CV, Cairo Graphics, Vapour, NCAR Command Language (NCL), Shell Programming, Base 64 coding, wgrib2, CDO, sPlot have been used as software tools in this system. 3.3 SEAVW – The User Interface The user interface, SEAVW, the icon-driven graphical marine weather briefing system, has GIS map covering the entire globe with facility to zoom to at least city/ town level resolution. All major and minor ports names are geo tagged. The module provides the atmosphere and ocean parameters pertaining to entire globe and are required for safe naval operations -Sea Level Pressure, 500 hpa Height (gpm), Surface and upper winds at various levels, Sea State as numerical value, Waves (height & direction), Swell (height & direction), Currents (speed & direction), Sea Surface Temperature, Horizontal Visibility, Vessel Icing, Precipitation/ weather, Cloud Cover, Air Temperature, Salinity and Temperature profiles Vs Depth, and Mixed Layer Depth (MLD).In addition, some of menu driven useful features present are illustrated below. Enroute Forecast. It caters for creation of route for intended voyage and display of weather information over the marked way points. Cyclone. Caters for automatic identification of location of Cyclone and depiction of its past track, present location and forecast track in different colours for easier understanding. Meteogram. Various atmospheric parameters such as Sea level Pressure, Dry bulb temperature, Relative humidity, Surface Winds and Precipitation etc for a selected location are displayed as line, bar chart in a single image with dedicated icons as indicators. Marinogram. The chart can be used to infer the ocean forecast data. Ocean parameters such as Sea Surface Winds, Sea Surface Temperature, Wave Height, Wave Direction, Salinity, Swell etc are displayed over ocean area in a single diagram for any particular location. Elevation/ Depth. The ocean depth/ elevation above mean sea level data (in meters) is available along the Lat/ Long data on the go as the user moves the mouse cursor over any location at land or at sea. Satellite Imageries. Users can view Satellite Images of various locations collated from various sources for global coverage and displayed as per selected region. Alerts. Weather alerts are generated and depicted graphically for parameters such as Surface Winds, Visibility, Rainfall, Air Temperature and Sea State based on predefined threshold values promulgated by National Weather Agency. Overlays. The software is capable of overlaying multiple parameters at the same time for better forecast appreciation. The overlaid parameters can be a combination of one scalar and one vector data. For example, wind and sea state parameters can be overlaid in Seaview at the same time, since Wind is a vector parameter (has direction & magnitude) and Sea state is a scalar parameter (has only magnitude). 4 RESULTS/ACHIEVEMENTS Panorama is a ‘Make in India’ product. It is a complete end-end operational system with command and on-board operations with decision support. The architecture is flexible and scalable. 4.1 Key Features This software has the capability to ingest Navy’s own weather/ocean forecast data. It has facility to check ocean depth profile plots useful for Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), alerts and sea state. These

| 197 | facilities help to carry out safer ship operations during any hazardous weather or ocean conditions. The software has the capability to automatically download any type of data from various sources (internet/ intranet). User has the facility to schedule the data download time, data interval and period on daily/ weakly/monthly basis. FDASH module is used to generate/prepare the data patch, cyclone track forecast, 2D/3D visualization of model forecasted data, GTS observations, Satellite image, weather advisory. Compression/decompression of data patch. Global weather alerts classified as calm, moderate, rough, very rough etc. based on IMD criteria are provided. Voyage planning is also facilitated where the ETA/ETD is calculated based on ship speed and location. The software has the facility to modify ETA/ETD as and when is required. The software is user friendly and flexible. 4.2 Milestones The innovative aspect of the Panorama project has resulted in - Increase in Operational Efficiency. Panorama has been so designed that it can provide weather forecast for 10 days, in dynamic time and space domains as against static frames. The system receives data from 13 sources and five models in addition to GTS data and Satellite images, producing information having 1° X 1° resolution, comprising of about 61 layers in near real time mode. The System Administrator has the flexibility to select the most appropriate solutions for specific ship/ area of operation to provide right information in the desired format. Reduction in Human Effort. All major functions of Panorama is automated as it is IT intensive. Back end modules of Panorama handle sourcing, collation and processing of data from various sources including the open domain, with absolutely no human involvement. The human intervention is only required in Forecast Dashboard to prepare best solution depending on the type and area of operation. The forecast is disseminated in an automated mode so as to reach the user in his area of operation. Prior to the induction of Panorama the whole process from data sourcing to weather forecast dissemination was handled by a team of Met personnel with a lot of physical involvement at every stage. Induction of Panorama has not only benefitted navy to optimize the human resource but also aided in real time dissemination of weather forecast to the end user. Ability to meet User Needs. Forecasting weather accurately for longer period of time especially over sea areas always posed a challenge to naval meteorologists. The innovative Panorama has been able to address this long pending issue. Further, the requirement for sub surface ocean state forecasts, have been met for the first time, by the Panorama system. This feature is not available in any of the foreign origin COTS weather routing software.

References: Natskar, A.: Uncertainty in forecasted environmental conditions for reliability analyses of marine operations. Ocean Engineering, Volume 108, pp. 636-647, (1 November 2015). The National Academies Home page, https://www.nap.edu/read/10626/chapter/11, last accessed 2019/09/28.

| 198 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/27 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

ASSESSMENT OF IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON STREAMFLOW USING HEC-HMS: CASE STUDY OF KESINGA WATERSHED, ODISHA

Srinivasan D., Altafuddin, Md., Ramadas, M. and Panda, R. K. School of Infrastructure, IIT Bhubaneswar, Argul, Khordha-752050, India

ABSTRACT Hydrological modeling of watersheds coupled with simulations of projected future climate from general circulation models (GCMs) and regional climate models (RCMs) isbeneficial for the study of impacts of climate change on hydrologic variables at watershed scale. Owing to climate change, the hydrological response of watersheds and the streamflow pattern could significantly change, leading to erratic extreme events such as floods and droughts. In this study,continuous modeling approach throughthe popular hydrologic model HEC-HMSis carried out to simulate the water balance of Kesinga watershed in Mahanadi river basin, Odisha, India. The developed hydrological model for Kesinga has R2 value of 0.74 and 0.62 during calibration and validation respectively. Future climate projections corresponding to the representative concentration pathway (RCP) 8.5 scenario from the RCM COSMO-CLM model of the CORDEX areutilized for simulating the future streamflow after suitable bias correction. Climate change impact assessment on future streamflow is performed for two future periods: 2041-2070 (F1) and 2071-2100 (F2).Results from the study suggest that changes in streamflow pattern are possible due to potential future climate change.In general, average monthly flows are found to decrease in future when compared to baseline period. On the other hand, magnitude of peak flows are found to increase in futurein this watershed. The results of the study emphasize the need for climate change impact assessment studies at watershed scale for water resources management under potential future climate change. Keywords: Hydrological Modeling; Climate Change; HEC-HMS, CORDEX, Streamflow

1. INTRODUCTION Water is vital to life and development in all parts of the world. There is a general consensus that climate change could lead to changes in the climate variability around the world and impact the hydrological variables such as runoff, evapotranspiration and streamflow. In this regard, general circulation models (GCMs) and regional climate models (RCMs) have been developed by researchers to model the future climate assuming different greenhouse gas emission scenarios known as the representative concentration pathways (RCPs). Hydrological modeling when coupled with future climate information can provide simulations of future water balance at watershed scale that can then be utilized for assessment of impacts of climate change.Numerous studies have been conducted for different study regions around the world with the help of hydrological models and climate model projections for future. Verma et al. (2010) adopted the HEC-HMSand WEPP hydrological models for simulating watershed runoff for theUpper Baitarani basin of India. Their results indicated that HEC-HMS performed better than WEPP model for water balance studies.The semi-distributed hydrological model SWAT for basin level water balance studies of the Ken basin of central India was conducted by Murthy et al. (2013). The water balance

| 199 | analysis was carried using SWAT in Ken basin for 25 years (1985–2009). Similarly, Sindhu and Durga Rao (2016) developed a hydrological and hydrodynamic model for flood damage mitigation in Brahmani- Baitarani River basin in India. It was further suggested that use of high-resolution digital elevation model like ALTM will improve the accuracy of the model and to generate inundation map with high accuracy.Physically-based MIKE SHE model was used by Akbari and Singh (2012) to simulate water balance of the Salebhata catchment in Mahanadi basin. Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency performance statistic applied to analyze the performance of the mode was obtained as 0.78 for the calibration period was obtained. Meenuet al. (2012)evaluated the impacts of possible future climate change scenarios on the hydrology of the catchment area of the Tunga–Bhadra River, upstream of the Tungabhadra dam using HEC HMS model. The resultsindicate that during calibration and validation periods,33.5% and 30.4% of the high flows, respectively, areunderestimated, that is, the simulated high flows arebelow 85% of the magnitude of the observed highflows. The combined effect of land use and climate change on hydrology for a catchment in Denmark was studied by Karlsson et al. (2015). Hydrological models NAM, SWAT and SWAT were compared in their study. While landuse pattern was found to have less influence,climate change pattern dictated by the choice of climate model had a greater role in the future streamflow pattern. In this study, the possible impacts of potential climate change on streamflow in Kesinga watershed in Odisha are investigated. The HEC-HMS model is a popular semi-distributed continuous hydrological model that can simulate water balance at watershed scale, using simpler water balance computations even with constraints such as limited datawhen compared to other models such as SWAT and MIKE-SHE. The changes in streamflow pattern in two future periods: 2041-2070 (F1) and 2071-2100 (F2) is investigated in this study utilizing future climate projections from the COSMO-CLM RCM of the CORDEX model. 2. STUDY AREA AND DATA USED Kesinga watershed locatedin the lower reach of Mahanadiriver basin, Odisha, India is chosen as the study area and is shown in Figure 1.Rivers Udanti and Sundar joins with River Tel to drain 12285 km2 area of Kesinga watershedwhich lies between 19°00’0"N and 20°45’0"N latitudes and 82°00’0"E and 83°15’0"E longitudes. The elevation of the watershed ranges between109 m to 1175 m above mean sea level. The watershed receives ample rainfall during the monsoon months (June-September) of the year. 55% of the total watershed area is covered by agricultural land use. Loamy soil type is predominantly present in this watershed.

Figure 1. Map of the Kesinga watershed in Mahanadi river basin, Odisha

| 200 | Figure 2. Maps showing elevation, landuse/land cover and soil classes of the delineated Kesinga watershed

The watershed is delineated using the CARTOSAT 30m Digital Elevation Model (DEM) downloaded from the National Remote Sensing Centre’s (NRSC) BHUVAN portal.Watershed map generated from stream delineation process is shown in Figure 2 along with the landuse and soil map of Kesinga. Landuse map at 250K resolution from the NRSC is used in this study. Soil data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is extracted for the study area for use in hydrological modeling. Precipitation, temperature and streamflow are the major hydro-climatic inputs used in the study. Daily gridded precipitation data available from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and daily streamflow data measured at Kesinga gauging station for the period 2000-2010 obtained from the Central Water Commission portal are utilized. Details of different input data are provided in Table 1.Hydrological model for Kesinga watershedis calibrated using data from 2001-2005 period and validated for the period 2006-2010 in this study. For performing future hydrological model simulations, the CORDEX RCM model’s COSMO-CLM climate data inputs under representative concentration pathway (RCP) 8.5 scenario are used.The future data are bias corrected using quantile mapping technique before application in future water balance studies. Table 1. Details of Data Used in the Study

Sl. Data Data source Spatial Temporal Time period No resolution resolution 1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) BHUVAN, NRSC 30m - - 2 Precipitation (mm) IMD 0.25°x 0.25° daily 2000 - 2010 3 Discharge (m3/s) CWC Point data daily 2000 - 2010 4 Landuse BHUVAN, NRSC 1:250000 - 2010 5 Soil FAO HWSD 0.5°x 0.5° - - 6 Temperature (°C) SWAT TAMU Point data daily 2000 – 2010 7 Climate model data(Precipitation COSMOS RCM from 0.5°x 0.5° daily 2000- 2010; in mm; temperature in °C) CORDEX IITM, Pune 2041 - 2100

| 201 | 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Hydrological model HEC-HMS 4.2.1 In this study, the HEC HMS 4.2.1 model is used for hydrological water balance modeling. The model hasfour components: basin model, meteorological model, control specifications and time series data. The meteorological model is setup using the gauge weights technique. Thiessen polygon method was adopted for estimating the gage weightsfor IMD gridded data in the various sub-basins of Kesinga watershed.Hydrological parameterssuch as initial storage, crop coefficient, initial deficit, constant rate and maximum storage that influencerainfall abstractions in the watershed are calculated using soil texture and landuse information.Deficit constant loss model was chosen for modeling quasi-continuous variation of precipitation losses. Based on the hydrologic soil group, the loss rate is chosen. The popular Thornthwaite method is chosen for estimation of evapotranspiration losses.The Clark unit hydrographmodel chosen for calculating direct runoff isevent-based and lumped, and derives a watershed unit hydrograph (UH)by explicitly representing two critical processes: translation and attenuation. Muskingum channel routing method is then used for routing of runoff in this study. This method uses finite difference approximation.The hydrological model-based water balance simulation includes calibration and validationexercise. The HEC- HMS model has inbuilt optimization tools for manual and automatic calibration. Univariate gradient method is selected for calibration in this study and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), coefficient of determination (R2) and percent bias (PBIAS) areprimarily used for comparingthe performance of the simulated models. Hydrological parameters such asinitial storage, maximum storage, constant rate and Muskingum constantsareobtained during the calibrationexercise.NSE value close to 1 suggests that simulated and observed streamflow match well during calibration and validation. 3.2 Climate Change Impact Assessment using Future Climate Projections For utilizing the hydrological model for future streamflow projections, the bias-corrected simulations of RCM model are utilized. The CORDEX RCM model’s COSMO-CLM climate data is used. The baseline climate data after suitable bias correction are input to the calibrated and validated model to obtain the baseline streamflow projections. Soil type and landuse are assumed to be stationarythroughout the simulationsso that the projections for future are entirely dependent on the projected changes in climatic variables. Using future climate data and the hydrological model framework, the future projections of streamflow are obtained for F1 (2041-2070) and F2 (2071-2100) periods. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Hydrological Modeling of Kesinga Watershed The study watershed is divided to 6 sub-basins for hydrological modeling. The basin model setup using HEC-HMS with different sub-basins labelled W10, W20, W30, W40, W50 and W60, and their respective reaches are shown in Figure 3.Calibration is performed for the 2001-2005 period, during which the optimized parameter values are obtained. The calibrated model is then validated for the 2006-2010 period, keeping the parameters unchanged. The model performance statistics such as NSE, R2 and PBIAS during calibration and validation for Kesinga are given in Table 2. The values suggest that the calibrated model performs well, and could be helpful for conducting future water balance studies. The plot of daily observed and simulated streamflow for the watershed during 2003-2004 in calibration and during 2007-2008 in validationperiod are shown in Figure 4. The simulated low flows matched well with observed flows during both the periods.In some years, it is observed that the high flows are underpredicted by the model for instance, in 2001, 2006 and 2008. In general, there are differences evident in simulation of peak discharge values. Lack of extreme event modeling capabilities of the hydrological models have been reported previously in literature (Meenu. R et al 2012). The observed and simulatedaverage monthly streamflow during calibration and validation periods are in good agreement as shown in Figure 5. Differences are observed in June-September months’ flows compared to rest of the year during both calibration and validation. While average flows in month

| 202 | of June is overpredicted by the model, underprediction of flows is seen in months of August, October and November.

Figure 3.Basin model prepared for Kesinga watershed in HEC-HMS model

Table 2. Performance assessment for calibration and validation using Nash Sutcliff efficiency (NSE), coefficient of determination (R2) and percent bias (PBIAS) measures.

NSE R2 PBIAS Calibration 0.72 0.74 +15.0 Validation 0.63 0.62 +20.8

| 203 | Figure 4. Observed and simulated daily flows during (a) June 2003 –May 2004 (in calibration) and (b) June 2007-May 2008 (in validation) periods.

4.2 Impact of Climate Change on Streamflow The statistics of baseline and simulated future daily streamflow at the outlet of Kesinga are given in Table 3. The mean and maximum daily discharge values are found to decrease during F1 period, and are same as baseline values during F2 period. Plots in Figure 6 show the comparison among monthly streamflow values of baseline and future periods in a subbasin and the watershed outlet. The monthly average streamflow are found to increase during F2 period when compared to F1 period for sub-basin W40 in the watershed, as seen in Figure 6(a). During the months of January-April, flows are found to be same as baseline values. However, an overall decrease in monthly flows at the watershed outlet is evident during F1, whereas increase in flows is seen in few months (January-March and June-July) during F2 period (Figure 6(b)). This is clear from the percent changes calculated for flows in different months in the yearbetween baseline and future periods shown in Table 4. Figure 7 shows changes in maximum monthly discharge between baseline and future periods. In contrast to average flows, maximum monthly streamflow at the outlet is found to increase in future periods except for months of September, October and December.

| 204 | Figure 5.Observed and simulated average monthly streamflow during the (a) calibration and (b) validation periods. Table 3. Statistics of baseline and projected future daily streamflow

Statistic(m3/s) Baseline F1 F2 Mean 211.27 178.30 199.05 Standard 509.63 391.82 451.99 Deviation Maximum 7619.90 6429.60 7186.80 Minimum 40.80 40.80 40.80

Table 4. Percentage change in monthly streamflow between baseline and projected future at the outlet of Kesinga watershed Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec F1 3.0 3.4 -4.2 -2.7 -33.8 -17.7 1.5 -5.6 -24.4 -28.9 -10.0 -50.8 F2 12.8 4.1 12.3 -6.5 -17.2 36.0 23.9 -1.0 -28.3 -12.6 -30.0 -39.6

| 205 | Figure 6. Comparison between baseline and projected future (F1 and F2) monthly streamflow in (a) W40 sub-basin and (b) outlet of Kesinga watershed

Figure 7. Monthly maximum streamflow at the outlet of Kesinga watershed under baseline and projected future (F1 and F2) climate

| 206 | 5. CONCLUSIONS In this study, a hydrological model is developed for the Kesinga watershed lying in lower reach of Mahanadi river basin for investigating hydrological impacts of climate change on the watershed.Except for the high flows in some years, the HEC-HMShydrological model simulated the streamflow quite well. It is assumed that the soil texture and landuse remains stationary in future and changes in streamflow in the study watershed are due to climate change alone. Future streamflow predictions using RCM future climate projections show that there is decrease observed in monthly average streamflow in both the future periods,while the peak discharge values may increase in the watershed in future.The present study highlights the need for water resources management at watershed scale to mitigate the impacts of potential climate change such as decrease in flows and increase in intensity of floods. Using climate model simulations and calibrated hydrological models, climate change impact assessment studies could be carried out for vulnerable watersheds in the region.

References: Akbari S and Singh, R. (2012), “Hydrological modelling of catchments using MIKE SHE”, IEEE-International Conference on Advances in Engineering, Science and Management, 335–340. Arbind K., Verma, Madan K. Jha & Rajesh K. Mahana (2010), “Evaluation of HEC-HMS and WEPP for simulating watershed runoff using remote sensing and geographical information system”, Journal of Paddy Water Environment, Vol 8, pp 131 – 144. Karlsson I. B et al. (2015), “Combined effects of climate models, hydrological model structures and land use scenarios on hydrological impacts of climate change”, J. Hydrol., vol. 535, pp. 301–317. Meenu R., Rehana S and Mujumdar P. P (2012), “Assessment of hydrologic impacts of climate change in Tunga-Bhadra river basin, India with HEC-HMS and SDSM”, Hydrol. Process., vol. 27, no. 11, pp. 1572–1589. Murthy P. S., Ashish Pandey & Shakti Suryavanshi (2013), “Application of semi distributed hydrological model for basin level water balance of Ken Basin of Central India”, Journal of Hydrological Processes, Vol 28, Issue 13, pp 4119 – 4229. Sindhu K and Durga Rao K. H. V (2016), “Hydrological and hydrodynamic modeling for flood damage mitigation in Brahmani–Baitarani River Basin, India”,Geocarto Int., vol. 32, no. 9, pp. 1004–1016.

| 207 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/28 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

AUTONOMOUS UNDERWATER GLIDERS - A BRIEF REVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN AND A PROPOSED MODEL FOR VIRTUAL MOORING

Mukesh Guggilla and R Vijayakumar Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, India

ABSTRACT Underwater Gliders, primarily being used for oceanographic data collection, are a unique set of hull-forms traversing the ocean without using a conventional propulsion mechanism. They instead depend on buoyancy coupled with mass actuators which result in special maneuvering characteristics. Thus, they perform distinctive attitudes of motion such as saw-tooth and spiral maneuvers for lateral and longitudinal plane movements respectively. This paper deals with the review of the Autonomous Underwater gliders (AUGs) over the course of time with respect to the design and maneuvering attitudes produced, the hydrodynamics of the hull-forms evolved for particular design applications.A preliminary analysis of the gliders, both legacy (i.e., Slocum (Webb et al., 2001), Spray (Sherman et al., 2001) and Seaglider (Eriksen et al., 2001)) and modern XRay, ZRay (D Spain et al., 2005), Deep glider (Osse and Eriksen, 2007) and Sea-Explorer (Claustre et al., 2014) is undertaken to arrive at a model that can be used for virtual station keeping (Jenkins et. al., 2003) termed as Virtual Mooring (Nakamura et. al., 2013). Keywords: Underwater Gliders, Design, Virtual Mooring, Hydrodynamics.

1 INTRODUCTION Legacy Underwater gliders have been associated with low or minimal aspect ratios in terms of the modelled wings. These torpedo shaped models (Myring hull forms) are in use for the past few decades due to the balance of the model achieved for the streamlined case of propulsion in shallow to intermediate water depths. The buoyancy propelled gliders used the temperature difference of the layered ocean for energy consumption (Slocum). These gliders had an approximate capacity of 50,000 cubic centimeters housing the buoyancy engine, battery operated mass control for diving and surfacing (Fig.1), CTD, pressure and depth sensors, the iridium-based satellite communication antennae and hydrophones for locating the acoustic signatures. Although the design of the control system for the buoyancy engine required enough analysis of the pressure hull requirements of newly introduced concept of miniaturized submarines with minimal or no noise on both acoustic and visual fronts. A sample list of gliders stated above are shown in the Fig.2.

| 208 | Fig.1. Saw-tooth motion of an Autonomous Underwater Glider (designed in-house at IIT Madras)

Fig.2(a) Slocum Electric Glider showing the General Arrangement of the Payload (Webb et al., 2001)

Fig.2(b). Spray (Sherman et al., 2001) Fig.2(c). Seaglider (Eriksen et al., 2001)

Fig.2(d). XRay Blended wing AUG (D Spain et al., 2005) Fig.2(e). ZRay Blended wing AUG (D Spain et al., 2009)

| 209 | potential approach to enhance the inherent functionality of the model in terms of the payload capacity and endurance. The tactical approach in sustaining the speeds with very low energy consumption, due to the lower glide angles of the high aspect ratio models, is achievable for such glider configurations. The endurance of the glider in terms of the distance traversed (of the order of thousands of kilometers) for a battery capacity provided in a 50,000-cc volume speaks for the efficiency. But these slow- moving vehicles have an inherent lag in reaching the zone of interest for further oceanographic data collection which leads us to the introduction of high lift-to-drag ratio flying wing glider models for their higher speeds in longitudinal motion. These hydrodynamically sound models in terms of stability and performance have been in development during the past decade and the designs can still be varied for the various modes of operation as specified by (Jenkins et al., 2003).The Newtonian Equations of Motion are provided for the case of a rigid body (can therefore be used for underwater gliders) by Graver and Fossen (1992) which can be used for illustrating the hydrodynamic forces and moments for a detailed stability analysis of the modelled geometry. The Finite Volume based numerical modelling can be used for analyzing the hydrodynamic coefficients to plot the model trajectories for a given volume flow rate and movable mass control. The roll and pitch control can also be realized using the controls introduced in the micro controller module onboard, the code for which needs to be provided by the user before the process of operation is undertaken. A flow chart detailing the evolution of a glider body from underwater vehicles and types of such gliders produced based on various parameters is shown in the Fig. below.This gives the basic idea of the flow of design evolution achieved from unmanned underwater vehicles to autonomous underwater gliders which can be propelled using buoyancy or carry out the motion using hybrid propulsion systems. The associated design, modelling and control systems form an inherent part of the production design for given mode of operation.

Fig.3. Flow chart for the design and development of Underwater Gliders A typical legacy glider such as the Slocum (Fig.2(a)) has shown to possess the following characteristics. The Main Hull made out of Aluminum has a Length and span of 1.5m and 1.2m respectively with an outer diameter of 200 mm with wings rigidly fixed to the pressure hull. A rudder at the aft is introduced for the yaw stability ending with an antenna for satellite communication during the diving and surfacing cycles. The battery packs included act both as power source for the micro-controller units and as pitch and roll control mechanisms. This enables the glider to achieve a range of up to 1500km traversing the ocean at a velocity of 0.35 m/s and the maximum depth achieved is 200m.The payload included for the operation of the glider encompasses components viz-a-viz underwater camera, sonars (passive and side scan), vacuum sensor, altimeter, pressure sensor, controller for pitch and roll etc.

| 210 | Fig.2(f). Deep Glider (Osse and Eriksen, 2007) Fig.2(g). Sea-Explorer (Claustre et al., 2014)

2. HULL MODELLING USING MYRING EQUATIONS Drone level applications of underwater gliders include but not limited to the fields such as the study of aquaculture and their associated biological systems, oceanographic data collection precious for resource exploitation especially in exclusive economic zones of the coastal waters, military operations of reconnaissance, stealth with detection characteristics, etc. Due to the diversity in applications observed above, understanding the hull form forms a crucial part of designing any such glider for a given operation. Classical Underwater gliders have used the widely accepted Myring hull-form, 1976 (shown in the Equations 1 and 2 below) for the pressure sealed fuselage design, then fitting with the control surfaces, namely wings and rudder for longitudinal and directional stabilities. Design of any glider comes from the operation that it is to perform and the payload to be carried, over the course of a couple of months without the need of repair and maintenance which often hinders the operational range of underwater vehicles due to the propulsive mechanisms involved.

The Nose of the myring hull uses the first equation and the tail uses the second equation while the parallel middle body is obtained using the pressure hull length required for the given payload capacity and dimensions. The variables a,b,c and d represent the lengths of the nose, parallel middle body, tail and the diameter respectively. a represents the offset for the nose of the glider and the angle θ gives the offset direction of the paraboloid tail section. 3. DESIGN HISTORY AND MODERN DEVELOPMENTS The main areas of development have been associated with the design and development of the gliders as per the associated functions of the model. The rather unexplored areas of the design for increasing the endurance of the saw-tooth motion of the glider, thereby increasing the attainable design speed which further enhances the lift-to-drag ratio. The blended wing underwater glider design is a

| 211 | 4. CONCEPT OF VIRTUAL MOORING The concept of station keeping of the glider model at a particular depth was introduced by Jenkins et al., in 2003. This condition where the model is propelled to a particular location at a given depth condition and keep its position intact and then after a commanded sleep time, it resurfaces again to send out the data collected during that period where the model was not in motion. This station keeping, later termed as Virtual Mooring is a highly advantageous position to collect the oceanographic data for a long time at a particular area of interest. After a lot of preliminary numerical and experimental analysis, Nakamura et al., in 2013 (Fig.4) have designed a final model, called Tsukuyomi, towards this goal. The designed model could go up to a maximum depth of 6000 metres.

Fig.4(a), 4(b). Experimental and Numerical Models (Tsukuyomi, 2013) for Virtual Mooring

The later stages of such design lead to the Disk-shaped underwater glider, called Boomerang (Nakamura et al., 2013, Fig.5), has the unique characteristic of being omni-directional in nature with respect to the movement of the glider in longitudinal and transverse planes. The inflatable bladders are present in 4 regions diametrically opposite to each other leading to the emergence of ability. Thus, this model was used for virtual mooring.

Fig.5. Disk-type underwater glider – Boomerang (Nakamura et al., 2013)

Using the above models, the authors have tried to design a hull model with the objective of achieving the station keeping characteristic with which a new area of application can be unlocked for mineral resource exploitation, study of marine life, etc. From the above two models, one can qualitatively assume the shape that can be utilized i.e., a myring hull form with horizontal and vertical control surfaces for maintaining stability (in pitch and yaw motions respectively) as well as providing sufficient hydrodynamic force for it to achieve such huge depths where virtual mooring is possible. The initial design adopted is inspired from such an ideology. The reason why the disk shape was not taken to model the hull in this scenario is mainly due to the significant increase in complexity of modelling the arrangement of the

| 212 | inflatable bladders required for omni-directional propulsive nature of the model. The initial design for virtual mooring does not warrant the complexity presented by the model in Fig.5 above.

Fig.6. PreliminaryGlider design for Virtual Mooring

The model designed (Fig.6) as a part of this study is a myring hull with plate sections as wings swept similar to that of the Slocum glider. The total length of the glider is fixed at 1250mm with the pressure hull outer diameter of 200mm and the main wing span is 2500mm. These dimensions are obtained from the parent glider data and the general arrangement required for the payload to be carried onboard (mentioned in section 1). The wings are placed away slightly aft from the centre of gravity for pitch control. This model does not possess a rudder control surface, as taken from the analysis of the Sea-Explorer glider results from Claustre et al., 2014; this paper shows that the control surfaces required for station keeping may not be needed in the longitudinal plane. 5. CONCLUSIONS The major conclusions that can be inferred from the history of the underwater glider design and development include: l There is a significant increase in the application of underwater gliders due to their feasibility in operation and less repair to life ratio. l Glider modelling has drastically changed from the classical legacy gliders like the Slocum, the clear examples being the wingless Sea-Explorer, Blended XRay, ZRay and the Disk-type Boomerang gliders. l The operative mechanisms in the case of buoyancy engines have been evolving over time interns of operational efficiency due to the increased optimization achieved from the control mechanisms implemented using the micro-controller modules. l Different types of applications are being taken up using the glider models (including hybrid gliders) which were earlier majorly performed using underwater vehicles, due to their minimal acoustic noise characteristics which has been a major concern over the recent years due to the increased acoustic noise generated by various marine vessels. l The proposed model for virtual mooring is to be tested in the hydrodynamic facility to obtain the characteristic derivatives to look at the motion and give a quantitative analysis of the extent of operational capability that can be achieved which is the scope of future research.

| 213 | 6. References 1. R.G. Sproul (2007). ‘XRay Glider - Underwater Cruise Plan’, Office of Naval Research Report. 2. John A. Hildebrand and Gerald L. D’Spain (2010). ‘Glider-based Passive Acoustic Monitoring Techniques in the Southern California Region & West Coast Naval Training Range Demonstration of Glider-based Passive Acoustic Monitoring’, Scripps Institution of Oceanography Report. 3. Abbott, I-H (1959). “Theory of wing sections including a summary of airfoil data”, Newyork: Courier Dover Publications. 4. Asakawa, K. et al. (2016a) ‘Buoyancy engine developed for underwater gliders’, Advanced Robotics, 30(1), pp. 41-49. 5. Ashraf, M. Z. and Choudhry, M. A. (2013) ‘Dynamic modeling of the airship with Matlab using geometrical aerodynamic parameters’, Aerospace Science and Technology. Elsevier Masson, 25(1), pp. 56–64. 6. Baz, A. and Seireg, A. (1974) ‘Optimum Design and Control of Underwater Gliders.’, J Eng Ind Trans ASME, 96 Ser B (February 1974), pp. 304–310. 7. Cao, J. et al. (2017) ‘Toward Optimal Rendezvous of Multiple Underwater Gliders: 3D Path Planning with Combined Sawtooth and Spiral Motion’, Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems: Theory and Applications. Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems, 85(1), pp. 189–206. 8. Chiu, F-C, Guo, M-F, Guo, J, and Lee, S-K (2008). “Modular modeling of maneuvering motions of an underwater glider,” OCEANS, Quebec City.D’Spain, G-L, Jenkins, S-A, and Zimmerman, R (2005). “Underwater acoustic measurements with the Liberdade/X Ray flying wing glider,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 117(4), 2624. 9. D. F. Myring. ‘A theoretical study of body drag in subcritical axisymmetric flow’. Aeronautical Quarterly, 27(3):186– 94, August1976. 14, 15, 43 10. D’Spain, G-L (2009). Flying Wing Autonomous Underwater Glider for Basic Research in Ocean Acoustics, Signal/Array Processing, Underwater Autonomous Vehicle Technology, Oceanography, Geophysics, and Marine Biological Studies, Technical Report, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. 11. Ebata, S. et al. (2013) ‘A Study of Cross-Sectional Shape of Wing for Underwater Glider at Low Reynolds Number Region’, TRANSACTIONS OF THE JAPAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS Series B, 79(806), pp. 1886–1899. 12. Eriksen, C-C, Osse, T-J, Light, R-D, Wen, T, Lehman, T-W, Sabin, P-L, Ballard, J-W, and Chiodi, A-M (2001). “Seaglider: A long-range autonomous underwater vehicle for oceanographic research,” IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 26, 424-436. 13. Field, M., Beguery, L., Oziel, L., &Gascard, J. C. (2015). ‘Barents Sea monitoring with a SEA EXPLORER glider’. OCEANS 2015 14. Fossen, T-I (1994). Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicles, 4th Edition, Wiley & Sons. 15. Geisbert, J. S. (2007) Hydrodynamic Modeling for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Using Computational and Semi- Empirical Methods, Blacksburg, Va./ : University Libraries, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 16. Ghani, M-F, and Abdullah, S-S (2012). “Design of a body with depth control system for an Underwater Glider,” The 6th Asia-Pacific Workshop on Marine Hydrodynamics-APHydro. 17. Guo, J. and Chiu, F. C. (2001) ‘Maneuverability of a flat-streamlined underwater vehicle’, in Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. IEEE, pp. 897–902. 18. Harada, C. (2010) Ocean Gliders: A Technological Revolution for Oceanography - Protei. 19. Ichihashi, N., Ikebuchi, T. and Arima, M. (2008) ‘Motion Characteristics of an Underwater Glider with Independently Controllable Main Wings’, Proceedings of the Eighteenth, pp. 156–16. 20. Jenkins, Scott A Humphreys, Douglas E Sherman, Jeff Osse, Jim Jones, Clayton Leonard, Naomi Graver, Joshua Bachmayer, Ralf Clem, Ted Carroll, Paul Davis, Philip Berry, Jon Worley, Paul Wasyl, J. (2003) Underwater Glider System Study, Berkeley Planning Journal. 21. Jagadeesh, P, Murali, K, and Idichandy, V-G (2009). “Experimental investigation of hydrodynamic force coefficients over AUV hull form,” Ocean Engineering, 36(1), 113-118.

| 214 | 22. Jenkins, S-A, Humphreys, D-E, Sherman, J, Osse, J, Jones, C, Leonard, N, Graver, J, Bachmayer, R, Clem, T, Carroll, P, Davis, P, Berry, J, Worley, P, and Wasyl, J (2003). Underwater Glider System Study, Technical Report 53, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. 23. Kawaguchi, K. et al. (1993) ‘Development and sea trials of a shuttle type AUV “ALBAC”’, International Symposium on Unmanned Untethered Submersible Technology, (Photo l), pp. 7–13. 24. Leonard, N-E, and Graver, J-G (2001). “Model-based feedback control of autonomous underwater gliders,” IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 26(4), 633-645. 25. Mukesh G, Vijayakumar R (2019) ‘CFD Study of the Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Blended Winged Unmanned Underwater Gliders’, in International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference, Vol.1, Pages 1547-1552, ISBN 978- 1 880653 85-2; ISSN 1098-6189 26. Munk, M. M. (1924) The Aerodynamic Forces on Airship Hulls, Nationa; Advisory Commitee for Aeronautics. 27. Nakamura, M., Ito, Y., Koterayama, W., Inada, M., Noda, J., Marubayashi, K., Oda, H. (2013). ‘Development of Disk Type Underwater Glider for Virtual Mooring’. Journal of the Japan Society of Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers, 18(0), 157–166. 28. Nakamura, M, Kenichi, A, Tadahiro, H, Satoru, K, Hiroki, M, and Takuya, M (2013). “Hydrodynamic coefficients and motion simulations of underwater glider for virtual mooring,” IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 38(3), 581 – 597. 29. Ray, A., Singh, S. N. and Seshadri, V. (2011) ‘Underwater gliders - Force multipliers for naval roles’, RINA, Royal Institution of Naval Architects - Warship 2011: Naval Submarines and UUVS, Papers, pp. 29–30. 30. Sherman, J, Davis, S-E, Owens, W-B, and Valdes, J (2001). “The autonomous underwater glider ‘spray’,” IEEE Journal od Oceanic Engineering, 26, 437-446. 31. Shashank Shankar, R-V, and Vijayakumar, R (2018). “Effect of Rudder and Roll Control Mechanism on Path Prediction of Autonomous Underwater Gliders,” Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference in Ocean Engineering, 1, 491-506. 32. Stommel, H-M (1989). “The Slocum Mission,” Oceanus, 32(4), 93-96. 33. Sun, C, Song, B, and Wang, P (2015). “Parametric geometric model and shape optimization of an underwater glider with blended-wing-body”, International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, 7, 995-1006. 34. T. James Osse, Charles C. Eriksen (2007) ‘The Deepglider: A Full Ocean Depth Glider for Oceanographic Research’, OCEANS 35. Webb, D-C, Simonetti, P-J, Jones, C-P (2001). “Slocum: an underwater glider propelled by environmental energy,” IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 26, 447-452. 36. Zhang, F. (2014) ‘Modeling, Design, and Control of Gliding Robotic Fish’, p. 197. 37. Zhang, S. et al. (2013) ‘Spiraling motion of underwater gliders: Modeling, analysis, and experimental results’, Ocean Engineering. Elsevier, 60, pp. 1–13. 38. Ziaeefard, S. (2018) Extending Maneuverability of Internally Actuated Underwater Gliders, An Attempt to Develop an Open Platform For Research and Education. Michigan Technological University.

| 215 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/INV-1 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

INLAND VESSEL DESIGN FOR HYDRODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY

DS Praveen & Mohammed Ashiqu O P Sha Bijit Sarkar Former postgraduate students, Professor, Department of Ocean Consultant Naval Architect, Department of Ocean Engineering Engineering and Naval Architecture, Kolkata and Naval Architecture, IIT Kharagpur IIT Kharagpur

ABSTRACT In a developing country like India, there is enormous potential for its inland waterways where most of the land masses are connected through inland waterways. As demand for transportation of cargoes through water is increasing, it becomes more important to estimate the power of the vessel and optimize the design so that the entire voyage becomes economically beneficial. Unlike conventional deep water cases, the flow characteristics around the hull in shallow water changes significantly. These changes result in an increase in resistance, and it is crucial to know the maximum speed which can be attained by minimum fuel consumption, and it varies depending on few parameters like depth of the channel, beam of the vessel, etc. Here, in this paper, we will discuss the estimation of resistance and powering of the vessel in shallow water by using established empirical methods and do a comparative study among different methods. Keywords: Inland vessels, shallow draught, resistance, depth Froude number, depth to draft ratio, squat, wake.

1 INTRODUCTION The development of inland waterways gained impetus from the 19th century when the steam engines were replaced by internal combustion engines. The reduction in space and weight of the machinery made inland transportation competitive with railways. Inland vessels are predominantly used for transportation of bulk cargo at low speeds. Maritime transport is most fuel efficient, cost effective and environment friendly transport system. Carrying goods on water is cheaper, more reliable & less polluting than by road or rail. Fig. 1 shows the cost of transportation in Rs/tonne/km in India as per World Bank estimates of 2017. The need to increase the vessel carrying capacity with minimum increase in power is essential. At the same time, energy savings through improved hydrodynamic efficiency have a predominant role to make cargo shipment profitable with less pollution India being seventh largest country and its three sides surrounded by water bodies, it has a huge potential for Inland Water Transport. A large number of networks connected by rivers, canal, etc. add more scope of IWT in cargo transportation. However, compared to other developed countries less than 0.5% of freight is moved by IWT in India compared to road (50%), rail (36%), coastal (6%) and pipelines (7.5%). Fig. 2 shows the freight movement through inland waterways across countries. Inland vessels are mainly classified as sub-critical, critical and super-critical based on depth Froude number. In general, all inland cargo vessels will fall under the subcritical category whereas inland fast ferries will be under the supercritical category. The present work is restricted to sub-critical regime those which are slow-moving barges with fuller lines. Vessel dimensions and cargo-carrying capacity will be

| 216 | Fig. 1 Cost of transportation in Rs /tonne /km Fig. 2 Freight movement on waterways across countries.

(Courtesy World Bank 2017) decided by river constraints. For a particular river, the maximum cargo carrying capacity will be roughly fixed. Thus, the inland vessels are designed to have a hull form with minimum resistance and high propulsive efficiency for the most operating conditions. In general, the river vessels are fully loaded in one direction and in its return voyage vessel is loaded with ballast for sufficient propeller immersion. However, sometimes it is possible that the vessel can be loaded both the ways. To maximize propeller efficiency, in a fully loaded condition, a maximum possible propeller diameter will be accommodated. This will have a negative impact on ballast loading condition, where propeller will emerge out of water. On the other hand, if the propeller is designed for the ballast condition, the propulsive efficiency will be lower in a fully loaded condition and where the propeller is loaded heavily and will result to increased fuel consumption. 2 IMPROVING HYDRODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY OF INLAND VESSELS There are two ways to increase the efficiency of inland vessels for optimal design: I. A scientific analysis (literature study, analysis of the inland fleet, re-analysis) of possible measures that increase efficiency and reduce noxious emissions in the inland vessels by examining how the design can be optimized so as to:

l reduce the resistance (hull design) l increase the efficiency of the propeller (propeller design) l increase the efficiency of the engine (increase thermal efficiency) l decrease fuel consumption and emissions in any other way II. For all measures found in Sl No. I, a cost-benefit analysis is performed by quantifying the financial and environmental gain obtained against increased investment for the ship owner A major factor in the design of inland and coastal vessels is the capability to operate in shallow water conditions. The shallow water criterion is defined both with respect to water depth and design speed. Typically for shallow water the ratio of the water depth to vessel draft (h/T) is < 5.0. Similarly, the depth Froude number 5ØIÜ/”5ØTÜ! < 1.0 for subcritical flow. The operation regimes depending on the speed of the vessel may be subcritical or in some cases supercritical. The design development of these vessels are based on certain important considerations like - components of resistance, operational regime, efficiency of transportation, propeller or hull vibration and manoeuvring ability in shallow water. Minimization of the damage to the shores due to wash waves generated from the vessel is also a major consideration for such vessels. All these factors influence the choice of hull form, propulsion and manoeuvring system to be used,

| 217 | and the system design has to be done accordingly to obtain the economics of cargo pattern, route and range of operation and the desired performance range. The vessels for inland waterways operating in subcritical speed regimes are usually characterized by full lines. The viscous resistance component typically prevails over the wave-making component. The viscous resistance component is the sum of frictional resistance (R ) and the viscous pressure resistance f (R ). The most promising directions of energy-efficient propulsion for such vessels are associated with the vp physics of viscous resistance[1]. 3 SHALLOW WATER RESISTANCE ESTIMATION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON HULL DIMENSIONS Unlike conventional deep water cases, the flow characteristics around the hull in shallow water changes significantly. These changes result in an increase in resistance, and it is crucial to know the maximum speed which can be attained by minimum fuel consumption, and it varies depending on few parameters like depth of the channel, beam of the vessel, etc In 1934, Schlichting [2] used experimental studies of three naval ship forms to develop a method for calculating the influence of shallow water. The reduction in the deep water speed is determined when the vessel passes into shallow water. In this approach, the speed reduction is in two parts: speed reduction due to the reduced speed of wave propagation in shallow water and the appearance of reversed flow. Lackenby [3] reanalysed Schlichting’s data but did not measure or use additional data. This method is one of the widely used methods to correct the speed loss at equal power in shallow water for subcritical speeds during sea trails and is recommended by International Towing Tank Conference (ITTC). Lackenby’s method makes no difference between wave and viscous resistance. A speed correction affects both, while they should respond to different parameters. Schlichting’s method makes that difference approximately, but Lackenby’s method does not. Karpov [4] represented the shallow water phenomena by substituting for a given speed , the effective speeds and for calculations of residual and frictional resistance V0 V1 V2 respectively. The method developed by Karpov was modified by Artjushkov [5] where he incorporated the effects due to width restriction in to the equation. It is based on the assumption that identical resistance values can be obtained for deep and restricted water at different speeds. It is assumed that the influence of shallow water on the frictional resistance can be included with the change in the residual resistance. Raven[6] conducted a computational study of shallow-water effects on ship viscous resistance. The shallow- water effect on viscous resistance, wave resistance, dynamic sinkage and propulsive efficiency was discussed. A shallow-water correction was proposed which was applicable for and < . hT/2≥ .0 FnH 0.65 The resistance values are calculated for different speeds by the various methods at full scale and CFD simulations are done at model scale. For CFD computation, the resistance calculated at model scale for is scaled up by using standard IITC extrapolation method. The form factor, k for the hull is calculated from CFD simulations and its value is 0.437. The results for an inland cargo vessel of 110m length and 12m beam are shown in Fig. 3

Fig. 3 Shallow water Resistance – Comparison of different methods.

| 218 | Beam of the vessel is the most important dimension effecting the resistance in shallow condition. It also had a negative impact on the squat of the vessel. This is studied and the effect of varying breadth on increased shallow-water resistance is presented in Fig. 4 and the effect of increased breadth on squat in Fig. 5. As there is a change in displacement due to increase in beam, a non-dimensional form given by ∇ RT 2 is used for comparison ()VB

Fig. 4 Effect of beam on Shallow Water Resistance Fig. 5 Effect of beam on squat of vessel

4 STERN DESIGN FOR SHALLOW DRAUGHT VESSELS The vessels for inland waterways operating in subcritical speed regimes are usually characterized by full lines. The viscous resistance component typically prevails over the wave-making component. The viscous resistance component is the sum of frictional resistance (R ) and the viscous pressure resistance f (R ). The most promising directions of energy-efficient propulsion for such vessels are associated with the vp physics of viscous resistance[1]. A 110m inland vessel which is operating in subcritical regime in NW-1 is investigated for study of optimum stern hull shape integrated with a stern tunnel. To prevent atmospheric air access to the propellers when moving at the ballast draught, the stern tunnel lines were made with side bilges and an aft overhang[1]. Various overhang shapes were studied for minimal viscous pressure resistance component and propeller immersion. Stern tunnel is designed in such a way that a propeller of larger diameter can be accommodated with a duct for improved performance at greater propeller loading. The best stern shape hull form is to be chosen after examining the hydrodynamic performance for both deep water and shallow water for full load and ballast draft at design speed. In the present work the emphasis is on the optimum stern shape for minimum viscous pressure resistance but also the effect on propeller wake, form factor and squat is highlighted for shallow water vessels. Numerical simulations are carried out at full scale using RANS-VOF solver in Star CCM+. Figure1 shows the typical stern tunnel configuration with the ducted propeller both 3D perspective view and line diagram on left-hand side and right side respectively. The aim of this investigation is to minimise viscous pressure in full load condition and avoid air entrapment during ballast arrival condition, thereby improve propeller efficiency and decrease fuel consumption. Different stern configurations, as shown in Fig. 4, are investigated with the help of numerical simulation carried out in Star CCM+. Hull form variants, without the ducted propeller, are investigated to understand the stern tunnel’s water entrainment capability as a function of its geometry. A total of five variants (V1 to V5) are studied by systematically varying the aft transom wedge angle along the propeller shaft centerline as shown in Fig 5.

| 219 | Fig. 6 Stern tunnel configuration with ducted propeller Fig. 7 Line diagram of variants V1 to V4

In this work, three different types of simulations are carried out: i. Double body analysis to predict viscous resistance which is given as,

=+ (1) RRRVFVP

ii. Resistance analysis using Volume of fluids (VOF) which is given as

=+ (2) RRRTFP

iii. Shallow water resistance analysis for varying h/T ratio where is the viscous resistance; is the frictional resistance; is the viscous pressure resistance RV RF RVP

is the total resistance; is the pressure resistance; h is the depth of water; T is the draught RT RP All the variants are investigated for viscous resistance in the fully loaded condition at 9 knots speed using simple double body analysis, neglecting wave-making resistance due to low Froude number. It is observed that the variation of frictional resistance component is nominal for all variants, whereas viscous pressure resistance decreases from base hull to a minimum for variant V4. The transom wedge angle has an influence on viscous pressure resistance component. Subsequently, all the variants are further investigated for water entrainment into the stern tunnel in ballast condition using Volume of Fluids method (VOF) to track the air-water interface. The influence of stern wedge shape on resistance in ballast condition is negligible. Therefore, in ballast condition water entrainment capability in the tunnel is the governing criteria for the stern variants. In deep water, base hull form and V2 shows good water entrainment capability in the tunnel, V3 has the partial water entrainment capability and V4 is completely incapable of drawing water into the tunnel. The water entrainment capability of stern tunnel variants in shallow waters is better compared to deep water due to the increase in local water velocity past hull. Except for V4, all the other variants perform better in shallow waters in terms of water entrainment in the tunnel a requirement for propeller operation. The results from CFD investigations are shown in Fig. 6 for fully loaded and ballast conditions for all the variants at 9 knots speed in deep water. From Fig. 6, V2 has minimum resistance in both fully loaded and ballast condition and at the same time shows good water entrainment capability.

| 220 | Fig. 8 Resistance comparison for all variants in fully loaded (2.8m) and ballast condition (1.2m)

5 WAVE PATTERN, NOMINAL WAKE , FORM FACTORAND SQUAT IN SHALLOW WATER Deep water and shallow water waves are having similar wave length whereas wave height is higher in case of shallow water (h/T=1.78). Change in Kelvin wave pattern is observed from deep water waves to shallow water waves as shown in Fig.7 and Fig. 8 respectively. This is in good agreement with subcritical range of vessels[7].

Fig.9: Deep Water Wave pattern at 2.8m draft Fig.10: Shallow Water Wave pattern at 2.8m draft for h/T=1.78

Nominal viscous wake is analysed for various water depth to vessel draft ratio (h/T) ratios at speed of 4knots and 9knots in fully loaded condition. Fig. 9 shows form factor variation for two speeds . As h/ T ratio is decreasing, wake is increasing exponentially. This effect has to be considered while designing propeller for vessel operating in shallow water conditions. Form factor values are calculated for various h/T ratios at 4knots and 9knots speed (Fig. 10). As h/ T ratio is decreasing, form factor is increasing exponentially. It is observed that, the difference between form factor at two different speeds are minimal (3% approx) . Therefore, the result is in good agreement with assumption of form factor is constant for different speeds but strongly influenced by the h/T ratio.

| 221 | Fig. 11: Variation of nominal wake with h/T and speed Fig. 12: Variation of form factor with h/T and speed

The flow beneath vessels operating at small underwater clearance are more horizontal due to bottom proximity. This larger horizontal component of velocity changes pressure distribution which leads to more dynamic sinkage and changes in trim[8,9]. Various squat formulas were developed for estimating maximum squat for vessels operating in restricted and open water conditions with satisfactory results. The most commonly used formulae are Barrass, Hooft, Eryuzlu ,Icorels, Yoshimura and Romisch[10] as given below.

Barrass [10] KC V 2 = BK , where 0.76 ; vessel speed in knots; for unrestricted channel Smax = V S =1.0 100 KS5.74 K Eryuzlu [10]

2.289 − hh⎛⎞V ⎛⎞2.972 = ⎜⎟S SKBb0.298 2 ⎜⎟⎜⎟ ; where V is vessel speed in m/s; K =1 for unrestricted channel TT⎝⎠gT ⎝⎠ S b Hooft [10]

∇ Fn V SC= h = S mZ2 ; where Fnh depth Froude number; = 1.4 to 1.53 L − 2 CZ pp 1 Fnh gh Icorels [10] ∇ Fn = h SCmS2 ; where depth Froude number; = 2.4 L − 2 pp 1 Fnh Yoshimura [10]

⎡⎤2 ⎛⎞11⎛⎞CC ⎛⎞V 2 =+⎢⎥⎜⎟BB + ⎜⎟e SB ⎜⎟0.7 1.5⎜⎟ 15 ⎜⎟ ; where = for unrestricted channels ⎢⎥⎝⎠hT L B hT L B g VVeS ⎣⎦⎝⎠pp ⎝⎠ pp

| 222 | Romisch [10]

⎛⎞⎛⎡⎤ ⎞4 =−+VV⎢⎥ h = ; where CV 8⎜⎟⎜ 0.5 ⎟ 0.0625 ; K = 0.155 ; SCCKTBVFTΔ ⎢⎥ΔT ⎝⎠⎝VVcr⎣⎦ cr ⎠ T

⎛⎞hL 0.125 Vgh= 0.58⎜⎟ cr ⎝⎠TB Squat values obtained by using various empirical methods and from CFD for speeds 4 knots (h/ T=1.18) and 9 knots (h/T=1.78) are tabulated in Table 1. They are in general agreement with the CFD estimation and these empirical method can be used at preliminary design stage to estimate underkeel clearance for shallow water operation.

Table 1: Squat values from various empirical formulae compared with CFD

6 OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Following are the observations to improve transport efficiency of cargo carrying inland vessels moving at sub-critical speed regime:

l The ship type should be designed as per the cargo requirements, i.e. bulk, RO-RO, container, etc

l The size of the vessel should be as large as the waterways allows both in terms of least available water depth and width of fairway from manoeuvring considerations. The load carrying capacity of the vessel can be increased to a draft up to an under keel clearance of 0.3m (after taking squat into account).

l There is a sharp increase in resistance and corresponding drop in speed from deep to shallow waters. The design speed of the vessel will increase proportional to the square root of the water depth. Hull form designs with higher L/B ratio and lower B/T ratio are preferable.

l There is not enough scope for reducing the light weight of the vessel.

l Hull form has a decisive role to play in improving the hydrodynamic performance of the vessel both in deep and shallow waters. Improved stern design with tunnel shape and bilge so as to avoid air entrainment in the tunnel at ballast draft and at the same time reduce viscous pressure drag. The stern tunnel in way of propeller will allow for a larger propeller diameter resulting in increased propulsive efficiency.

| 223 | l Loading on the propeller will increase in shallow water and wake pattern will also change. Propeller design should take into account the increased loading and changed wake pattern. Ducted propellers, nozzle propellers are possible solutions.

l The manoeuvring performance of the vessels deteriorates in shallow water. The vessel requires a larger fairway width while navigating river bends. Improved control surface design like twin rudders per screw and bow thrusters can mitigate this problem.

Reference: Anatoly Lyakhovitsky, “Shallow water and supercritical ships”. 2007. Schlichting,O., “Schiffswiderstand auf beschranktem wassertiefe”, STG 1934. Lackenby, H., “The Effect of Shallow Water on Ship Speed,” Shipbuilder and Marine Engine Builder, September 1963 Karpov, A.B., “Calculation of Ship Resistance in Restricted Waters,” TRUDY VNITOSS, T. III, 1938 Vol. 1. (in Russian) Artjushkov, L.S., “Wall Effect Correction for Shallow Water Model Tests,” N.E. Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, 1968. Raven, C. H., “A Computational Study of Shallow-Water effects on Ship Viscous Resistance”, 29th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Gothenburg, Sweden, August, 2012 Larsson L, Raven H.C., The Principles of Naval Architecture Series “Ship Resistance and Flow”, SNAME, 2010. Liu Y, Zou L, Zou ZJ, Lu TC, Liu JX. “Numerical Predictions of Hydrodynamic Forces and Squat of Ships in Confined Waters”, Proc. 8th ICCM 2017:1095–110. Gourlay T. “Flow beneath a ship at small underkeel clearance”, Journal of Ship Research 2006; 50: 250–8 Serban P.S. “Comparison Between Formulas of Maximum Ship Squat”, Science Bulletin Naval Academy 2016;19:105–11. doi:10.21279/1454-864X-16-I1-018

| 224 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/INV-2 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

WATER STRESS – CAN OCEANS PROVIDE A SOLUTION?

Purnima Jalihal Head-Energy & Fresh Water National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai-600 100, India e-mail :[email protected]

ABSTRACT Increasing population, high rate of industrial growth and climate change together have led to the severe water stress today. It has become imperative to find means to augment water. Seawater desalination is being seen as a viable option especially since India has a long coastline. Various methods of desalination are discussed along with the impacts on climate change. The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has pioneered an ecologically safe thermal desalination method suitable for implementation in islands, offshore and in power plants near the coast called Low Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) and the paper showcases the achievements. The environmental as well as ecological cost has to be considered for a meaningful comparison of desalination technologies and this is also presented. The way forward may be to power desalination systems using renewable energy sources.

1. INTRODUCTION

Water Stress is defined as ‘unavailability of freshwater’ or ‘water scarcity’ for different consumptive uses. With the tremendous increase in population over the past few decades in India, the per capita availability of water in the country has been reducing and the country is already in a water stressed state, and is facing a huge water crisis in many areas. Most rivers in the country are polluted beyond acceptable levels and overexploitation of groundwater has rendered it an unsustainable resource in large parts of the country. Contamination of both surface and groundwater are posing health problems , wastage of water and poor water management practices and policies at all levels have also contributed to the overall water crisis that the country faces today. Climate change is another factor that will most likely put a significant additional stress to our water systems. Thus, today there is a real need to find ways and means to augment available water. Around the globe, desalination of sea water / brackish water is becoming a technologically and economically viable solution to tackle the challenges associated with water scarcity. Desalination refers to the process by which potable water is recovered from sea water / brackish water by removing dissolved solids using different forms of energy. While desalination first became popular in the Gulf countries any coastal and water starved areas can today consider it for water augmentation. India with its long coastline of nearly 7500km can look at desalination as a possible solution for the 30% of population living in the coastal areas. Technologies used for desalination broadly can be classified as thermal or membrane processes. These are discussed in the next section.

| 225 | 2. DESALINATION METHODS 2.1 Thermal Technologies [1] 2.1.1 Multi Stage Flash (MSF) In MSF saline water is heated by steam and then fed into a series of vessels (effects) where reduced pressure leads to immediate boiling (flash) and the steam generated is condensed in a sequence of stages. This steam which condensed is high quality fresh water. 2.1.2 Multi-Effect desalination (MED) In the multi-effect distillation (MED) process, the saline water is desalinated by means of evaporation and subsequent condensation though here the vapour passes inside the tubes, which is the reverse of the MSF process. MED is getting more attention among thermal desalination technologies due to its major advantages such as low energy consumption compared to MSF and higher overall heat transfer coefficients. 2.2 Membrane Methods 2.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO) Among the different available membrane methods, the Reverse Osmosis (RO) has proved to be the most reliable, cost-effective, and energy efficient in producing fresh water. Pressure is used to drive water molecules across the membrane and the energy needed to drive water molecules across membrane is directly related to the salt concentration. The recovery is around 40% generally. The method has been adopted a lot today especially for brackish waters and waste water treatment. It is now being used also for seawater desalination though the pressures required are higher. RO systems also necessarily require pre treatment of the input water due to the membranes being highly susceptible to fouling. 2.2.2 Forward Osmosis (FO) Forward Osmosis (FO) is an emerging low energy desalination technology with several merits over the other conventional pressure based reverse osmosis (RO) desalination technologies. Unlike the pressure driven RO desalination process, the driving force in the FO process is the osmotic pressure produced naturally by the concentrated draw solution. 2.3 Electrodialysis (ED) Electrodialysis (ED) has been used for many years which is an electrochemical process for the separation of ions across charged membranes from one solution to another under the influence of an electrical potential difference used as a driving force. 2.4 Membrane Distillation (MD) The driving force for the Membrane Distillation processes is quite different from other membrane processes, being the vapor pressure difference across the membrane rather than an applied absolute pressure difference, a concentration gradient or an electrical potential gradient, which drives mass transfer through a membrane. High energy consumption and brine disposal problem is faced in the RO process due to the limited recovery of water. These problems may be overcome by a membrane thermal process such as a membrane distillation (MD). 3. DEMERITS & IMPACTS OF DESALINATION SYSTEMS As can be seen from the earlier section, there are several different technologies each of which have different processes and components involved. Each process has its own limitations which can have an adverse impact and the main issues are enumerated below :

| 226 | Membrane Systems 1. Popular processes like RO require chemicals for pre processing of the intake water itself as mentioned earlier. These chemicals are chlorine, carbon-di-oxide, hydrochloric acid, etc. and eventually are let out in the discharge system and can lead to pollution. This can lead to serious environmental impact on biological systems. 2. Effluents from the systems other than fresh water Membrane processes leave behind very heavily concentrated solutions called brine. If this is let out to sea the salinity levels and in turn overall sea water quality can deteriorate leading to various issues. The negative impacts can have cascading effects in terms of destruction not only of flora, fauna but also in areas where salt water intrusion takes place into inland waters and near deltas. 3. Disposal of components of the system Membranes used in RO systems today are mainly imported especially for sea water desalination. The pressures in these systems are high since osmosis is being used to force salt particles out of the sea water or brackish water. Hence the membranes need to be extremely strong structurally to be able to withstand the large pressures. Thus once the membranes have outlived their utility, their destruction or disposal is a challenge. In the near future, it is likely that huge piles of membranes from large scale desalination plants may become an environmental hazard. On the other hand desalination systems using MSF, MED and other thermal methods face none of the above challenges and hence are eminently suitable to be used in the context of climate change. However, all these processes need steam at high pressure and temperature. Steam is expensive and needs components to be designed to be robust. Thermal desalination is also more energy intensive than RO. The National Institute of Ocean Technology has pioneered a thermal desalination process for regions near the coast and islands wherein no steam is required and has been found to be ecologically safe and the next section discusses this. 4. OCEAN BASED LOW TEMPERATURE THERMAL DESALINATION (LTTD) The ocean based Low Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) [2] process utilizes the temperature gradient between two water bodies to evaporate the warmer water at low pressures and condense the resultant vapour using the colder water to obtain high quality fresh water. Thermal gradient between different layers of the ocean water column provides huge reservoirs of warm and cold water that can effectively be utilized for power generation and desalination. Fig.1 shows a schematic diagram of the LTTD unit.

Fig. 1. Schematic of LTTD unit

| 227 | The main components that are required for a LTTD plant are evaporation chamber, condenser, pumps and pipelines to draw warm and cold water and a vacuum pump to maintain the sub atmospheric pressures. One of the advantages of the process is that it can be implemented even with a low temperature gradient of about 8-10 °C between the two water bodies. Thus it can be used in the ocean scenario with surface water and deep sea cold water or in a power plant using surface sea water as the cold water and the condenser reject hot water as the warm water. This section discusses the successes and projects developed using this technology. 4.1 Island Desalination

Lakshadweep islands are remote and are facing drinking water scarcity due to increased population and tourism activities. A 100 m3/day land based plant was commissioned at Kavaratti island in Lakshadweep in 2005. This plant has been continuously generating fresh water for the past eleven years to meet the drinking water needs of the island community. The water is of excellent quality. The plant is housed in a structure on shore. The bathymetry at the island is such that 10-12oC water is available at a depth of 350 m at a distance of around 400 - 450 m from the shore which is the source for cold water. The cold water is brought to the surface through a 600 m long High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). The surface sea water is available at 28-30oC, which is the source for warm water. This first ever plant has become the main source of drinking water for the islanders and health of the people has improved considerably. The water related diseases like diarrhea, hypertension, etc. have reduced and the societal impact has been tremendous.[3] This indigenized technology, has been deployed in two more islands of Lakshadweep namely Agatti and Minicoy in 2011. LTTD plants in 6 more islands (Amini, Androth, Chetlat, Kadamat, Kalpeni and Kiltan) are now under construction. The Kavaratti plant was the first ever in the world and has made India the leader in using ocean thermal gradient for desalination.

Fig. 2. Desalination Plant at Kavaratti

| 228 | Fig. 3. Desalination Plant at Minicoy & Agatti Islands

4.2 Mainland requirements Towards servicing mainland water needs, a barge mounted desalination plant with capacity of 1 MLD was successfully demonstrated at 40 km off Chennai coast around 800 m water depth for mainland applications in 2007[4]. The challenges included design, installation and maintenance of plant in deep water and transport of product water to the coast. The single point mooring used for 1 MLD plant was the deepest in Indian waters. For the first time in the world, a 1 m diameter and 750 m long HDPE pipe was towed, upended and connected to the bottom of a barge to pump deep sea cold water at around 100 C. The 1 MLD offshore LTTD plant successfully generated fresh water for several weeks offshore. With the confidence gained, NIOT now has a Detailed Project Report ready for a scaled up LTTD plant of 10 MLD capacity.

Fig. 4. Barge mounted desalination Plant

4.3 Coastal power plant requirements The same technology which was demonstrated using the ocean thermal gradient can be used when we have two bodies of water with a thermal gradient. One such scenario is power plants where surface seawater is used in the condenser and hot water leaves the same condenser. The LTTD technology was therefore utilized for generation of fresh water from waste heat from coastal thermal power plants and a pilot project with capacity of 1.5 lakh liters per day was successfully

| 229 | demonstrated at North Chennai Thermal Power Station using their condenser reject water. Water was generated for long periods when all units were up and was supplied in the NCTPS premises. NIOT is attempting to scale up the Low Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) technology at coastal thermal plants using an industrial partner. As part of it, it was proposed to install two LTTD modules each of 1 MLD capacity using power plant condenser reject at Tuticorin Thermal Power Station (TTPS), Tuticorin. Out of 2 modules, one module will be producing freshwater of quality less than 200 ppm and the other module will be producing boiler quality water. It was decided to work with industry and the design is now available and the plant can now be installed. This type of plant is a good solution to the thermal pollution problem due to the waste heat discharged from the power plant condensors. Environmental norms dictate a certain margin above the ambient for the waste hot water from power plant condensors. However due to various reasons this norm is seen to be violated in many coastal thermal power plants. The process of the LTTD is such that surface seawater acquires a higher temperature as it leaves the desalination condensor but which is within permissible limits of the ambient temperature. The water entering the flash chamber is the waste hot water from the power plant condenser. This water leaves the flash chamber at a lower temperature thus getting cooled. In fact the flash chamber is performing the job of the cooling tower of the power plant.

Fig. 5. NCTPS desalination Plant Thus through various demonstration plants of various capacities, enough experience in terms of design, selection of materials, installation, operation and maintenance has been gained in NIOT on the LTTD technology. Industry participation has been sought for more plants in islands, power plant and an offshore plant. The large coastline of India and several islands in the Arabian sea as also coastal power plants warrant a serious venture into the utilization of the LTTD technology to serve the drinking water requirements of coastal communities in India. To summarise, LTTD plants can be made operational whenever a temperature difference across two strata of water is available, either in the ocean or using hotter waste heat from power plant condensers. No steam is required and environmentally the method is extremely safe, since there are no membranes or components to replace or destroy. The efficiency of thermal system is low in term of conversion efficiency hence a very small fraction of the intake water gets converted to fresh water and hence the remaining water returns as is, to the sea thus no brine formation occurs.

| 230 | In general LTTD desalination plants promise the following :- 1. Utilization of vast renewable energy in the sea for generating fresh water 2. Installation and operational simplicity 3. Less maintenance issues and thus sustainability 4. Almost nil environmental hazard due to non-discharge of chemicals or waste or brine as occurs in membrane based desalination plants. 5. Reduction in power plant cooling water discharge temperature to prevent thermal pollution. 5. DESALINATION PLANTS AND ENERGY Desalination is considered to be an energy intensive process. The electrical energy used in the process emits carbon dioxide resulting in pollution of the environment. Thus a measure of the viability of a desalination process is the amount of energy being consumed. Electrical energy for desalination is utilized from coal, thermal or nuclear grids. In islands diesel generators are needed to supply power. To make it a green energy consumption for the desalination, it is prudent to consider the usage of renewable energies. To this end, Solar-PV systems combined with RO are being tried. While this can certainly reduce the pollution arising from the energy consumed, the inherent issues with RO remain. A few years ago, the Department of Science & Technology funded a project to an industry with technical support from NIOT for a Solar Multi-effect Distillation plant at Ramanathapuram in Tamilnadu. This plant is green due to the usage of solar energy and is also safe environmentally, since it is a thermal desalination system. However the fluctuating and short availability of solar insolation makes its viability at this point in time questionable. The footprint for solar systems on land is also high, which is not desirable in this age of high land costs. In the year 2003, NIOT also demonstrated a wave energy powered RO plant. This was the first plant, wherein energy from the sea was being used to desalinate sea water. This plant however was a demonstration one and hence was decommissioned after the local fishing community used the water for 3years. The NIOT is now therefore embarking on a first of its kind system at Kavaratti island, where the LTTD plant will be powered by Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. This means the plant will be self powered and not dependent on diesel generators. The design caters to generating power just sufficient to power the desalination process. No extra power will be pumped to grid. This hybrid system has the merits of clean and green energy, environmentally safe desalination and low cost, since energy is produced from existing ocean thermal gradient. The success of this plant can pave the way to making fossil fuel free desalination plants in islands thus creating fresh water for pristine locations with no contribution to climate change. 6. THE SOCIO ECONOMIC ANGLE The detrimental effects of certain types of desalination have been discussed earlier. Today due to energy recovery systems, RO plants consume less energy than thermal systems thus making RO the preferred technology across the globe. However it is important to take the environmental factors into account for understanding the true cost. Apart from the capital cost & operating cost models using schemes like IRR and amortization, it is necessary to consider the environmental and ecological cost per liter of desalinated water. I. Environmental cost per litre of desalinated water is arrived at on the basis of additional energy consumption per litre of desalinated water over the technology option with the least specific energy consumption. In the Indian context, one megawatt hour (MWh) energy consumption is assumed to imply a tonne of carbon dioxide emission. If a process involves reduction of

| 231 | specific energy consumption by one MWh, it is assumed to have earned one certified emission reduction (CER). II. Ecological cost per litre of desalinated water is arrived at as the change in GDP per litre of desalinated water in the ‘project catchment area’ due to the introduction of a particular technology.[5] Comparison of RO & LTTD showed that while the power used for RO is less, resulting in lower environmental cost, the ecological cost for RO is large as it disturbs the ecological system. Overall it was concluded the LTTD will be equal or lower in cost per liter than RO of a similar capacity. 7. CONCLUSIONS The chapter has dealt with various desalination technologies and their merits and demerits. The main comparison has been made between the popular method RO and the new technology LTTD. In the case of LTTD, sea desertification is negligible, while the same from an RO plant is very high. RO has very high chemical discharge and causes eco-system disturbance, while the same is negligible in the case of LTTD, MSF and MED. As a result, the adverse impact on fishermen involved in activities such as ornamental fishing is minimal from the LTTD, MSF or MED plant vis-à-vis the RO alternative. From the climate change perspective LTTD has a positive impact whether installed in islands or power plants.[6] In an environmental analysis, the higher specific energy consumption in a technology process vis- a-vis the best technology option in the project area (in terms of specific energy consumption) is measured in terms of certified emission reduction. In an ecosystem analysis, the emphasis is to find out whether the introduction of technology disrupts the eco-system and such disturbance costs associated per unit output (per unit output of desalinated water) is quantified as the ecological cost. Finally if ecological cost is carefully brought in, climate change issues will be taken care of in the method adopted. Use of renewable energy can further reduce the carbon dioxide emissions and may be the way for the future sustainable desalination.

References: El-Ghonemy, A.M.K., “ Performance test of a sea water multi-stage flash distillation plant: Case study”, Alexandria Engineering Journal, 2017. Marco Rognoni, S. Kathiroli and Purnima Jalihal, “ Low Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) : new sustainable desalination process”, International Journal of Nuclear Desalination, Vol 3 , Issue 1, 2008. S. Kathiroli and Purnima Jalihal, “Up from the Deep”, Civil Engineering, Magazine of American Society for Civil Engineers, Vol. 78, Number 1, January 2008. Sistla, P.V., Venkatesan, G., Jalihal, P. and Kathiroli, S., “ Low temperature thermal desalination plants. In Eighth ISOPE Ocean Mining Symposium. International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers”,Jan 2009.. Venkatesan, R., 2014. Comparison between LTTD and RO process of sea-water desalination: an integrated economic, environmental and ecological framework. Current Science, pp.378-386. Purnima Jalihal, Ocean Thermal Energy – A climate change perspective”, Climate Change and The Vulnerable Coast, MoEF, Gvt of India, 2018.

| 232 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/INV-3 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

ECO-SHIPS & SYSTEM: FUTURE OF SHIPPING

Bodh Nath Prasad Executive Director, IS Container Pte Ltd., Singapore

ABSTRACT - New Eco-designs and electronically controlled Main Engine, etc. envisage more training. There has to be more focus on engineering side, due to complexity of new processes, demands for efficiency and emissions reductions. The operational margins are narrow and more precise than before. - ECDIS and Modular Bridge facilitate navigation but does not reduce constant attention required.There is considerable evidence that some crew are not sufficiently skilled and omits “Safe practices”.For example, the major cause of total losses in shipping is ‘vessels floundering’ with 46 ships sinking in 2016. - New systems & Regulations demand greater focus on training and competency of Crew in general. - The Ballast Water Treatment Systems (BWTS) and installations of Exhaust Gas Cleaning System (EGCS) - commonly known as Scrubber or alternatives to meet IMO 0.5% S fuel oil is adding to tasks on board. - Big Data and Performance management tasks mean augmented efficiency focus. With the advent of advanced sensors arrays and broadband connectivity, now it is possible to transmit all ship’s operating data to shore. A shore-based control centre can guide the vessels for operations of machinery, cargo care and navigation in bad weather as well approaches to harbour etc. - Integration of intelligent Propulsion systems, Various Condition Based Monitoring (CBM) for machineries; vessel efficiency measures have resulted in great saving in fuel and maintenance costs.

INTRODUCTION We can look at future of ships with a macro view with advances in engineering, material science, navigational aids, communication, automation and digitalisation etc. The combined effect of these produces ECO-Ships – that are saving the environment, bring efficiency, economy etc. as well as improves safety of life and cargoes at sea. Never before shipping has seen such a long-stressed period defying the seven-year cyclic or a bit longer economic churn. When Lehman Brothers’ effected, the average down turn in finance – real state and share-market was about 30% and soon bounced back a couple of years later. But shipping saw its freight market erode almost 90% (for example Baltic Dry Index fell from 11,000 to 800) and lingered. The BDIstill hovers around 1500 ten years later on. To put numbers in perspective, average dry vessel earned in 1990s $10,000, in 2004 $39,000, in 2008 $50,000 and in 2019 about $12,000 per day. This encouraged the maritime world to tighten its belt, remove excess waste while adjusting to dynamic world economic and political upheavals. The ship’s speed has been moderated, better ship’s hull design and efficient engine design has resulted in modern ship running at much less cost. This is, as subsequence, putting a pressure on older ships to be scrapped much sooner.

| 233 | 1. ECO SHIPS The shipyards have been working to offer ECO SHIPs, and recent deliveries are very encouraging. The computation fluid dynamics (CFD) and FE analysis for (larger than ever) vessels, modern model tests simulation can offer the many variations of ship’s hull designs and form to be tested in a shorter time. This can be further checked with model tank tests and in-service results are further fine-tuned after verification. We must realise the sea conditions are very difficult to assess, with waves, swell and wind conditions affecting a ship’s performance as well as its draft, propeller immersion ratios etc. In earlier times, one was content with sea trial results in (mostly light) ballast condition and then interpolated for loaded and other conditions. The shipyard had a responsibility to meet the specification for designed speed and draft, and engine makers data for Specific Fuel Oil Consumption (SFOC) at optimised condition at maximum continuous ratings (MCR) or Normal continuous rating (NCR) which is 85% or 90% of MCR as desired by the owners. There has a been trend before to achieve more and more speed for vessels. With some lines like Maersk promoting 25 knots for mega container ships in early 2000. But by empirical formula for fuel and speed relation for ships, for a reduction of 20% speed, the vessel has to burn 50% less fuel. When fuel pricing started to rise, this realisation dawned upon operators and since then there has been pressure for running the vessel at super slow speed (even 15% MCR). How does it make sense to have a high powered 25 knots vessel to run at 14 knots speed? Definitely there is a huge fuel savings even given for slow speed and extra time for total distance between ports. The vessel hull form that was designed for higher speed (say 25 knots) was not very much suited for 14 knots or 18 knots. For the vessel to ride the waves smoothly at higher speed, some vessels were provided with a bulbous bow in front. The design of bulbous bow and propeller geometry was obviously not optimised for slower speed. This has resulted in some retrofit projects to carry out bow modification of vessel and also trimming or completely changing the propeller for existing ships mostly for Containers and VLCCs etc. which burned quite a lot of fuel in excess of 100 tons/day in designed higher speeds. The maritime world realised that if we have to achieve a better fuel economy, the vessel should be designed for operational profile for vessel. The vessel may run at different speeds meeting the commercial commitments, but we can see the pattern that vessel is run at mostly at lower speed most of time of trade. There is talk that “future ship’s speed’ should be regulated and capped for environmental reasons. ECO-logical ship returns profitability to the owner over time (for their planned operational life). The concept of ECO ship has gained weight after the severe down-turn and famous Lehman Brother’s crisis – with increasing fuel prices and reduced freight rates, and laying of ships around the worlds. Everyone is talking about ECO Ships. Is it simply a marketing strategy of the shipyards to promote sales or is there a true design revelation? Achieving continuous profitable operation over time is a complex matter linked to many variables – getting more complex and challenging in recent times. The owners striving to find solution, the need to specify an ECO Ship in terms of PERFORMANCE, the owners need “customised” ECO Ship to their required performance and operational profile (financial and operational performance). It then becomes your “ECO-Logical and “ECOnomical” ship (as quoted by LR). Up to 2008 : Yard Standard Designs 2008 to 2010 : Environmental Agenda, Higher Fuel Prices, Lower rates. 2011 to 2013 : Yard’s Newest standard, Asset Player plus Owner, Building for trading over time. In a case study, for a MR tanker as illustrated below we find a gain in fuel economy by Hull Design and Hull form up to 37 % Engine + Propeller + Speed modification around 59% Energy saving devices up to 4%

| 234 | This comparison was done for same Design Draft of 11m Main Dimensions in meters for the ships : Vessel in Length Length Between Breadth, B Moulded Scantling Year Overall, LOA Perpendiculars, depth, Dd Depth, Ds LBP 2005 183 174 32.2 18.8 12.2 2011 Same as 2005 19.3 13.3 2013 Same as 2011 Design. Engine is G type for 2013 Ship.

If we increase the draft, we achieve slightly better fuel consumption. If propeller diameter is increased and engine revolutions are decreased the specific fuel consumption is improved. The new type of engine from MAN B&W have many improvements, including extra-long strokes in latest G type provided for improved specific fuel oil consumption for each kilowatt of power generated. The 2013 Ship is with G type engine in case study. For an ECO-SHIP, we need to define what it means in terms of Performance. To work for a ‘customised’ ship, we need to optimise for regular performance and operational Performance. SFOC (2005) @ MCR = 171 g/kw.h SFOC (2013) @ MCR = 164 g/kw.h SFOC consumption difference in $/day @$800/day = 22.7% at same speed. FOC differential is 13.19 tonnes/day (34.59 to 21.4) 2013 ship at 15.2 knots would burn 3.1 ton/day more than at 14.5 knots (that is 23% of the 13.19 ton differential)

| 235 | 2005 ship at 14.5 knots would burn 4.7 ton/day less than at 15.2 knots ( that is 36% is of the 13.19 ton differential) ESD would reduce FOC by 4% maximum. So, REDUCTION of FOC due to Hull design & Optimisation is about 37% of the total. Engine + Propeller + Speed modification account for about 59% of the total reduction.

| 236 | In this age when attention is for mega container vessel, we present some interesting data from our pool of ships. We can see that similar size of vessel, in 7000 TEU range have lower powered engine fitted as designed speed is reduced. If we compare the consumption at 18 knots, we see that consumption is reduced from 96 tons to 72 tons between 2001 and 2013.

For broad comparison of fuel consumption at operating speed of 17knots & 18 knots, we have attached a table for comparison of some recent mega containers.

Size TEU Consumption (tons) Consumption at Designed Engine Power. Year of service speed @ NCR MCR(kW) delivery @ 17 knots @ 18 knots Service speed Consumption (knots) (tons) 6350 70 81 2621 210148 62,900*42200 2006, Japan 14,000 100 123 23 170 48,900 2017, Japan 20,170 110 130 22 200 59,250 2018, Korea 20,388 95 125 22.8 196 59,300 2018, Japan *De-rated to 42,200 kW after cut off one T/Charger. Original design speed 26 knots.

| 237 | 1.1 ME ENGINES The introduction of ME engines, i.e. electronically controlled by means of high pressure operated combined “FUEL INJECTION and VALVE ACTIVATION” (FIVA) to modulate fuel injection timings and exhaust valve opening/closing at different loads for better fuel economy has resulted in engine being run efficiently at very low to high load without much sacrifice on SFOC. This has replaced the Variable Injection Timing (VIT) devices of MC engines. These engines also have much less weighty parts for engine operations, doing away with camshaft etc. The engine makers adopt many strategies to optimisation to gain better fuel consumption: - Optimisation - Matching T/Charger - Compression volume - Fuel valve nozzles, slide valve - PART LOAD, optimisation giving a reduction in SFOC of up to 4 g/kWh. - LOW LOAD mode, cutting an addition 1-2 g/kWH SFOC - Using a larger engine, with derating to L1 to L4 point as illustrated below.

| 238 | 2. FUEL SWITCH 2020 In 2010, the shipping was asked to adopt Emission Controller Area (ECA) regulations for SOx and NOx controlled areas. With passage of time, ECA areas have increased and allow only 0.1% Sulphur fuel to be burned. However, the game changer will be lowering of global cap of sulphur from 3.5% to 0.5% starting from 1st Jan. 2020. To comply, the owners have three alternatives: - a. To supply 0.5% S complaint fuel- which could be LS-MGO Low sulphur Marine Gas Oil or VLS-FO (Very low sulphur- fuel oil. Majority will choose this option. b. To install a scrubber that will wash exhaust gas to lower SOx to atmosphere to level of 0.5% S fuel, while being allowed to burn high sulphur fuel, up to 3.5% or even higher. c. To choose other fuels such as LNG, LPG, Bio-fuels or electric propulsion etc. The availability of VLSFO poses many issues, as refinery are slowly gearing up to this. We may have blended fuel oil (mix of Gas oil and fuel oil) of different composition and sources with a viscosity of ranging from 30 to 50 cST @50 degC and straight run refined fuel oil with a viscosity of about 200 cSt. There would be suitability and stability issues when using various fuel batches. We need to educate staff now for i) Proper ‘fuel tank segregation capability” basis tank capacity and voyage requirements. ii) Use of low viscosity fuel and density: Purifier adjustment etc. iii) Cold Flow Properties, understanding of pour point, cloud point and CFPP. iv) Possibility of 0.5% Sulphur limit fuel (being very paraffinic and blended with distillates) could dissolve and dislodge sediments and asphaltene sludge in storage tanks, settling tank and pipelines. v) If water is remaining in tanks or system, then additional dangers of slurry like composition blocking system and misfires can happen. Water must be drained as much as possible. vi) Low lubrication properties of fuel, as higher sulphur was providing some lubrication to engine parts. Many owners have opted to installed scrubber as this technology was available ashore for power plants etc. For this there are three options: Open loop, Closed loop and Hybrid system. However, on board ship, this poses another risk and problems of storage of chemicals, waste water management etc. if closed loop is chosen. As majority of operators have chosen to install Open Loop scrubber, we provide some description below.

| 239 | It is estimated that more new buildings and some retrofits with EGCS (exhaust Gas Cleaning System) will be installed, depending on price difference between VLSFO and HFO. But there is still a lot of issues to sort out, and running of EGCS poses many problems though there is little experience in service. The owners who have installed them, are not using them regularly due to increase costs etc. as it will be mandatory only after 1st Jan. 2020.

Boost lube oil performance: Fuel with low sulphur requires lube oil with a lower alkalinity to neutralise the acidity of the fuel and prevent acidic corrosion. We may use lower TBN oil such as BN40 instead of BN70 for older engines or BN 100 for longer stroke engines. But lube oil has other additives, that affects detergent action, surfactant, and dispersant content, and to offset for decreased soap levels for lower BNs we have to find some solutions for these and additional tweaking of additives for corrosion inhibitor, anti-lacquer, anti-oxidant etc. There will be need to adjust lube oil grade and feed rates, while sailing, to account for fuel quality and combustion. It is expected that there would be variations in the complaint fuel batches, and increase precipitating of Cat fines or that mixing two bunkers from different batches/sources make blends unstable. There is a danger of “at least 10% of new buildings will have their cylinder liners replaced before the first drydocking, a costly consequence of failing to keep the liners in top condition.” (Chris Marine) In future, we will use a liner condition camera (LCC) for in situ photography of the cylinder liner walls and the exhaust valve in 2-stroke engines. The images captured by the camera (from BDC to TDC) are used to inspect and evaluate cylinder condition parameters such as the presence of cylinder honing marks and wave-cut groove extension, black lacquering and bore polish, size of cylinder wear edge and the cleanliness of ring land. The pictures can also be used to inspect exhaust valves, fuel injector valves, lube oil injection area and the start air valve. LCC documents cylinder liner condition – in just 15 minutes – without removing the cylinder cover or exhaust valve housing. The camera detects and documents abnormal surface conditions and helps the engine crew determine if measures need to be taken. By monitoring the condition of the liner regularly, severe damage to the engine can be prevented and unnecessary investments avoided. (Marine News)

| 240 | 3. SHIPS SYSTEMS A ship’s “Projects” must demonstrate technologies that deliver significant fuel, system energy or operational efficiency improvements and/or emissions reductions, compared to the best technologies currently available. Voyage performance management, This could include, but is not limited to, the development of: Ø The human/machine interface, including decision support tools, on-vessel data management and marine ICT Ø Voyage optimisation for specific objectives, such as voyage speed or minimum fuel consumption Ø Satellite applications Ø Autonomous systems and sensors Ø Vessel condition management Ø Modelling and simulation tools to provide accurate predictive methods for vessel performance and operation. Vessel system technologies, It could include, but is not limited to, the development of: v Emissions reduction systems and management v Innovative energy production, management and storage v Reduction of onboard power demand v Fuel consumption monitoring and optimisation v Minimal-loss propulsion systems. 3.1 SMART INTEGRATION OF IT SYSTEMS Big Data is watching the Crew! Information and communication technology (ICT) are making inroads in the shipping world as it is pervasive in daily life today. However, there is cautious approach to this, and it has yet to reach the limits practically possible. “The range of software tools available for shipping is impressive. For example, the efficiency gains achievable in ship design, and optimisation by using advanced simulation software running on high- powered computers are nothing short of fantastic. Yet, backed by GPS and satellite-based communication, ever increasing computing power and speed, and more sophisticated software applications, new opportunities abound to make shipping even safer, more efficient and more cost-effective.” (DNV GL) “Advanced sensors and actuators and smart real-timecondition monitoring systems can make ship operation, navigation and maintenance more transparent and efficient than ever, helping those in charge make better decisions. Advanced networking technology linking ships with each other and onshore offices improves remote ship monitoring and route planning and can achieve tighter integration of ship traffic into global supply chain networks.” (DNV-GL) VSAT like services with higher speed broadband has allowed a revolution in ICT on board vessels. We can create a ‘duplicate ship’ ashore watching the engine, bridge and all parameters. (CCTV plus the data transfer every six minutes or so being practiced already). We will see a trend in future of “ship operation centre” or “fleet support centre” being set up ashore in ship management and operators offices for performance and safety monitoring. “The areas of optimisation include bunker consumption, delays in loading and discharging at ports, preventative maintenance techniques, crew rotation and training

| 241 | requirements, weather routeing, avoiding disaster areas and more. A traffic light system is used to assess vessel highlighting where attention is needed most urgently.” (Shipmanagement). We already witness integrated bridge systems with comprehensive information and control functions, such as positioning, navigation automation and course keeping. The interfaces are created of ships data for assistance from shore, and it helps in dire situations or harbour navigation by port control bodies, VTS (vessel traffic scheme) and pilot services. An increasing number of equipment comes with software of its own supplying streams of data to centralised control and decision support systems (DCS), data volume increases exponentially – resulting in ‘big data”. The future of shipping will see more of system automation and replacing mechanical elements with sophisticated electronics. Already we have now - ‘Virtual Camshafts’ in ship engines, improves operational performance and reliability, while reducing the costs and removing many heavy parts and risk associated with human error. - Frequency controlled circulating pumps for meeting demands as per load, and thus saving energy; - ECDIS – an electronic chart that can interface with radar and GPS for improved navigational safety etc. - Broadband internet for crew, allowing to communicate with their family. The maritime industry has increasingly focussed on innovative in designs, maintain high value, have low operating costs and are energy efficient. The show casing of several of these innovations, operational software and design changes, in both new building and existing vessels while maximising efficiency, engage into regulatory compliance and improve safety for ships and crew alike will be seen as watershed years in future. For example: The shallow-draft fuel-efficient Green Dolphin 84S design by SDARI and DNV-GL is able to lift cargo lots on a shallower draft and is more efficient in a highly competitive market. Customers interested in LNG as a ship fuel, have gone for LNG ready ships from yard delivery. There are many LNG Ready containerships order with shipyard like Hyundai Heavy Industries (HHI) in Korea etc. Damen Shipyards, one of the most prolific producers of tugboats and service vessels, has partnered with Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) to develop an integrated internet-of-things (IoT) platform.This technology will be deployed on Damen’s new buildings to enhance their operation throughout their lifecycle. Together, Damen and Tata will connect sensors on board these vessels to programs for monitoring fuel consumption and machinery condition. Up to 10,000 to 15,000 sensors per vessel will generate streams of data to provide insights into vessel operations and performance and be fed into Damen’s Connected Platform linked to its engineering and enterprise, resources and planning platforms. Damen expects to offer services from the IoT data streams and analysis, such as predictive maintenance, remote services access and savings in fuel consumption. (Marine Propulsion) ECO-RETROFIT - Tailored to customer needs, vessel and budget, with broad range of options the modular ECO Retrofit approaches are available. - Bow Form – optimise the bulbous bow with consideration of operational average speed. (For example, for 12,000 TEU vessel six representative clusters of speed/draft combinations with

| 242 | associated weights ranging between 10 percent to 24 percent, and combined with six operational states, accounting for their time share in a year of operation were considered. A harmonious fit with the rest of hull was imposed by applying suitable constraints on hull/bow intersection. Some 7500 bow variants were investigated. The optimisation achieved expected annual fuel savings of ~10% for the actual operational profile. (Source DNV-GL) - Propeller – best suited for highest efficiency. - Propulsion improving devices (PID) and appendages. - Engine and auxiliary systems – based on energy demand and fluctuations. ECO-LINES - Hull forms can deliver several per centage of improvement in fuel efficiency. Considering design constraints, operating parameters, such as draft and speed to define the best suited profile. - Typically, some 20,000 hull design variations are evaluated to find best match for operational profile, which is now possible with computational analysis. - Aft body variation for best possible hull/propeller interaction. - Hull stresses under various wave and sea conditions are judged, in CFD-based model.

4. EMISSION CONTROL > EEDI/ EEOI > SEEMP > EU-MRV > IMO DCS: Introduction of mandatory Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) - stage 1 and stage 2 that is followed by EU-MRV reporting, and IMO DCS etc. have necessitated all companies to embark on Energy Management. It has reaped benefits in energy saving over 10%. And, there is still a lot to learn from industry best practices. Spurred by EEDI (Energy Efficiency Design Index) for new builds at design stage and delivery from yard since 1 January 2013 for selected ship types (Container carriers, gas tankers, refrigerated ships, bulk carrier, tankers, dry cargo ships) and since 1 Jan. 2015 for LNG tankkers, RoRo ships, RoRo passenger as well as cruise ships with unconventional propulsion plants (electrical drive) and EEOI (Energy Efficiency Operating Index) for operating vessels for measuring inCO2 emission for each ton of cargo carried per sea mile, the operators have to meet additionally with incoming sulphur reduction targets (0.5% Sulphur fuel globally besides 0.1% S in Emission Control Areas (ECA).

| 243 | A study by IMO expects by 2050, the EEDI and SEEMP will achieve global CO2 emission by roughly 30 per cent, compared to Business As Usual (BAU). The EEDI sets out costs for sea transport, and expressed by the product of deadweight and the speed of the ship. The EEDI is calculated for each new build and must not exceed the required index, which is prescribed as a reference line. This requirement is tightened progressively in 10 per cent increments every five years beginning 2015. In future we will see that EEDI will require less power for a ship to meet index, which may not be safe as minimum power for safe navigation. The dilemma for EDDI power reduction vs power reduction has to be resolved, view adverse sea conditions, to ensure safe manoeuvring. The ship should have sufficient installed propulsion power if it achieves a required minimum advance speed in defined head waves and wind, and that this amount of power will suffice for course keeping. The new target for NOx Tier III will see some more changes in engine designs and configurations. Future shipping will engage more of weather routing services, with advancement in ocean meteorology science. The well-known companies such as “Storm-Geo”, WNI, Marine Cybernetics are partners with big shipping lines. Radical developments in paint technology are continuing with low friction paints on offer and longer docking intervals. For energy conservation, many existing ships still offer potential for optimisation, such as the coatings since 70 percent of all resistance is caused by friction. The future will see evolution of all electric or hybrid electric propulsion. For smaller power needs and shorter periods, the battery on board for some ferry services and PSV etc are viable already. TRIM Optimisation It was recognised that within practical limits of loading and stress, by optimising the trim during voyage to get possible consumption for a speed. Various means are available to achieve this. Hapag Lloyd generates operational saving of roughly 1.5% through trim optimisation. It has installed such system on 145 of its 237 strong fleet.

5. SAFETY CULTURE – MATURING IN FUTURE IHS-Fairplay statistics for the 2003-2012 period show about 900 crew and passenger fatalities per year in ship-related accidents or 1.6 fatalities per 100 ship-years. However, this data is estimated to cover only 30 to 50 per cent of accidents. The crew fatalities rate in shipping is 10 times higher than 0.6 fatalities per 100 million work hours for industry workers in OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries. - Reactive culture that applies to safety improvement on board will move to proactive culture. By managing safety risks more successfully, adoption of new procedures, including checklists, documentation, reporting systems. - Adoption of safety management system by comparing with the aviation industry reveals differences in (i) the role of human error and (ii) a willingness to share lessons learned with the rest of industry. - Stronger culture of accident investigation and applying lessons learned. - “Blaming humans rather than modifying systems is counter-productive. Human performance is variable and must be accounted for when designing systems and procedures.” (DNV GL Expert) “Costa Concordia” stands for the most spectacular shipping accident in recent years and revealed disturbing shortcomings in on-board safety culture. The start of year 2019 saw a series of accidents that was most disturbing reflection of casual attitude on board. “Sincerity Ace”: Car deck fire off Hawai on 1 Jan. 2019

| 244 | “ MSC Zoe” : 280 Container lost, North sea, on 2nd Jan 2019 “ Maersk Gateshead”: Bunker spill at Hong Kong on 6th Jan. 2019 “Auluc Fortune” : Explosion during bunker, 7 Jan. 2019. Mitsui OSK Lines (MOL) adopted a “Four Zero” campaign after major accidents in 2006 :- - Serious Marine Accident - Oil Pollution - Fatal Accident’ - Cargo Damage MOL also set up a Safety Operation Supporting Center (SOSC) on 1 Feb. 2007. The idea behind being to assist the ships at high seas and warn them of any impending dangers.

SMART PORTS MPA after few incidents in its straits set up advanced “Port Operation Control Centre”- equipped with Vessel Traffic Information System and Fujitsu Human Centre AI ZINRAI to detect ‘dynamic risk hot spots”. It continuously monitors the speed and direction of many vessels approaching its seas. With the help of AI, it can promptly capture any ship that are likely to collide, well in advance. It would forewarn the masters, and allowing sufficient time to alter course as per rules and guidance from Port Operation Control Centre. Artificial Intelligence/ Augmented Reality (AI-AR) are driving forces for smart ports and busy lanes to adopt some good measures to improve safety. One Sea Alliance is a commercially neutral industry cluster of companies like ABB, Cargotec, Ericsson, Inmarsat, Kongsberg Maritime, MTI, Tieto, Wartsila, Finnish start-up Awake.AI and a range of maritime stake holders. They are developing technology for autonomous shipping, smart ports, and remote supply chains management. Standardisation of various platforms, digital handshakes, application interfaces between different supply chain actors, freeing data to enable smarter ships and ensure acceptance by smart ports will be taken up. Benefits of maritime digitisation are to minimise incidents decrease marine traffic environmental footprint and improve commercial efficiency. Its virtual infrastructure could enable ports to handle autonomous ships successfully from pre-arrival, through cargo operations and to onward departure. (Marine Propulsion magazine) AUTONOMOUS SHIPPING Rolls Royce and many players are working on autonomous short overhaul ships. While this may be still far off, but its merits in avoiding accidents in close quarters and improving decision by master etc. is well understood. Artificial intelligence, cloud and edge computing and remote monitoring technology will be deployed on the first major cross-Ocean sailing of an unmanned research ship, IBM’s artificial intelligence (AI) and cloud computing will be used on the Mayflower Autonomous Ship (MAS) when it crosses the Atlantic Ocean in September 2020.This fully autonomous ship is being developed, built and tested by a consortium led by marine research organisation ProMare. It plans to sail an unmanned ship from Plymouth, England, to Plymouth, Massachusetts, on a research voyage on the fourth centenary of the original Mayflower voyage. “IBM helped put man on the moon and is excited by the challenge of using advanced technologies to cross and research our deepest oceans,” he said. “By providing the brains for the Mayflower autonomous

| 245 | ship, we are pushing the boundaries of science and autonomous technologies to address critical environmental issues.” This project will pair IBM PowerAI Vision technology with IBM’s accelerated servers, as used by the world’s most powerful supercomputers.IBM is assisting ProMare to build deep-learning models capable of recognising navigation hazards that MAS will visualise through onboard video cameras. MAS will initially be tested in Plymouth Sound, UK, where onboard computers will receive real-time data and images. Other data feeds will include radar, light detection and ranging (Lidar) and automated identification system data. These will enable MAS to recognise hazards such as buoys, debris and other ships, improving its situational awareness and allow the vessel to create routes to avoid them. MAS will have three research pods containing an array of sensors and scientific instrumentation that scientists will use to advance understanding in vital areas such as maritime cyber security, marine mammal monitoring, sea level mapping and ocean plastics. BLOCKCHAIN CREATING A REVOLUTION IN SHIPPING Block Chain technology to connect many stake players, and make shipping of goods paperless, online environment. Several of world’s largest carriers have joined the “Trade Lens” block chain platform that is co-owned by IBM and the Maersk container company. Digital ledger technology or blockchain could eliminate or drastically reduce the paperwork that goes with large amounts of documents, transactions, bills of lading, sales contract, letter of credit, charter party contracts, port documents etc. These documents pass through a host of parties – who can view it online and complete transaction when cargo is delivered. The Logistics Visibility Task Force, an initiative created by e-commerce giant Alibaba, the Chinesse Ministry of Transport’s National Logistics Information Platform (LOGINK) and the International Port Community System Association (IPCSA) are working on enabling Logistics Visibility by interconnecting Logistics Information Service systems in a standardised way. (SMART Maritime Network). LNG BUNKERING LNG used to cargo for vessels. In future it will be also fuel for propulsion and power on board. We have dual fuel engine and gas only engine which can operate on LNG, LPG, Ethylene etc. as well fossil fuels. Some developments in LNG bunkering ports are noteworthy. Singapore, Helsinki and Rotterdam etc. have invested on LNG bunkering port developments. Korea Gas Corporation (KOGAS), Incheon and Gas companies of Finland, etc. have installed system that can manage LNG operations in their terminal with less human intervention. Sequence functions enable operators to control such processes remotely, starting and stopping compressors, depending on temperature, composition and volume of gases. It has factored cyber defence and resilience into their automation strategy. CONCLUSION The “Future Ships” will embark on a lot interesting and challenging time. We can summarise few key aspects in following table.

| 246 | Engine Watch Ø Electronic Engines, Super Long strokes Ø Dual Fuel Engines, alternative Fuels Ø Propeller and Rudder design modifications. Ø Energy Saving Devices, Ø Condition Based Monitoring Ø ECO Retrofits and Hull Form: Suited to Operational Profile Bridge Watch v ECDIS, AIS, Modular Bridge v Weather Routeing, v Voyage optimisation Regulation Watch Ø BWTS on all ships by 2021/22 Ø NOx Tier III – SCR and EGR etc. Ø Global Sulphur Fuel limit to 0.5% from Jan 2020. Ø Exhaust Gas Scrubbers on over >10% ships, Ø EEDI/ EEOI tightening Safety Watch v Tighter scrutiny by Oil Major, Right-Ships, PSC etc. v Reducing Fatalities, Accidents & Pollution. IT Watch Ø Broadband high-speed connectivity Ø Big Data Ø Block Chain Ø “AI-AR” for Smart Port Ø Duplication of ships ashore for navigation and performance monitoring

A robust opportunity awaits the Indian owners and sea farers. Despite having a very long sea-shore line, Indian ship owning does not have a remarkable footprint or image. The Indian seafarers are great in demand but their training skills need to be tailored for advances in ship designs and new machinery and systems.

References: Marine Propulsion – various magazine issues LR: Articles and publications. Maritime Impact, Issue 01-14 DNV-GL DNV-GL articles and magazines Various Internet web-sites.

| 247 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/INV-4 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

EXCITING OPTIONS FOR SHIPS FOR OPERATION ON INDIAN COAST AND RIVERS

Dilip Sarangdhar and Kandha Mantry SeaTech Solutions International (S), Ltd, Singapore

ABSTRACT India has an extensive network of inland waterways in the form of rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks. The advantages of transport by water over that by rail or road in terms of cost per tonne-mile of cargo and the green houses gases are very well known and there is a broad agreement our coastal shipping and inland waterways shipping must increase substantially from the current meagre share of 7% of the domestic cargo. Promotion of coastal and inland waterways shipping is therefore essential due to the potential economic and social benefits it could confer. Sagarmala and Jal Marg Vikas Projects undertaken by the government are very encouraging and reflect the urgency and determination to change this picture and increase the share of domestic cargo movement on water. Construction of multi modal terminals, ports and jetties under these projects would encourage cargo movement from hinterlands as well as establishment of industrial and commercial centres around these facilities would increase the shipping demand and prospects further. The paper discussesthe current status and opportunities for ships operations on Indian coast and rivers. The paper also discusses types of vessels, salient desired features, costs drivers, emission issues, and propulsion options etc that are relevant considerations for ship design. Keywords: Indian Coastal Shipping, Inland Water Transportation in India, Sagarmala, Jal Marg Vikas, Multi- modal Terminals, Ship Design, Coastal Ships, Inland waterways Ships

1. INTRODUCTION The benefits of transport over water are many, only ships can provide the large parcel size and volumes and the cost of transportation is the lowest amongst all modes of transport. Even though transporting domestic cargoes require an inter-modal transport, the overall cost of transport can be brought down substantially by having a large leg of the cargo movement by water supplemented by the rail and/or road connectivity for the last legs. In addition to these direct economic benefits, we have the all-important benefit of low carbon footprint. The GHG and CO2 emissions by ships is nearly 1/5th of that by roads and about ½ of that by rail. For decades we have been discussing the need to utilize the potential of cargo transport by sea along Indian coast and by our inland waterways; however the real action has not materialized. Even today we carry only about 7% of the total domestic cargo by coastal shipping and very negligible on inland waterways. However after recent push for investment in infrastructure under the Sagarmala Project for Port-led development and the Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP) for capacity building for shipping on NW-1; there seems to be a new urgency and determination to change this picture and increase the share of domestic cargo movement on water.

| 248 | Apart from these government investments in infrastructure, there are new opportunities generated by new industrial plants setup by private sector on the coast, these generate both incoming cargoes of raw materials as well as outgoing despatch of goods manufactured. Hopefully, over time the new industrial zones around ports as envisaged under the Sagarmala project will increase the momentum for growth in coastal cargo movement. Simultaneously, diversion of even a part of the road & rail share coastal would benefit coastal shipping. Similarly, construction of terminals/ports/jetties for berthing of vessels, loading/unloading of cargo, warehouses/storage places, boarding and lodging facilities, etc. have been planned under the Jal Marg Vikas Project. To ensure minimum depth of water in a 45M wide fairway, 8 contracts for dredging have been / are being awarded for the Haldia to Varanasi sectors of NW1. Building of multi-modal terminals at Varanasi, Sahibganj and Haldia, a new navigation lock at Farakka have already been commenced, expected to be ready soon. Along with these multi-modal terminals, related infrastructure projects for providing connectivity to the terminals with rail and road networks have been commenced. With this connectivity, the first and the last leg of the transportation on rivers is assured and therefore the possibilities of generating cargoes both upstream and downstream have increased. Simultaneously, strategically planned marketing efforts amongst would be shippers has been put in place to ensure cargoes, both upstream and downstream. In view of these favourable developments, there is a need to develop ship designs that are particularly suited for the variety of cargoes envisaged on Indian coast and on NW1and considering the constraints, applicable rules & regulations and also efficient operations. This paper puts forward ideas for some exciting options for ships that will be both “lean & clean” - to be competitive commercially and environmentally. 2. CARGO OPPORTUNITIES ON INDIAN COAST Thecargoes that have the highest potential for transportation along the Indian coast are given in the table below:

| 249 | Coastal movement is currentlydominated by large playersthat have dedicated jetties or coastal berths atports. In addition to the usual bulk raw materials,man-made bulk materials like fertilizers and cement also have a great potential for coastal shipping. Due to abundant availability of fly ash and slag from coastal steel and power plants,coastal cement plants nearby limestone reserves are considered to be more economicalthan inland cement plants. Apart from transport of cement in powder form in medium and large size self-discharging cement carriers, transport of cement in clinker form can also bring cement from the production centres on the coasts tothe ports near demand centres where the clinker is ground and delivered to the bulk or retail users. In addition to the bulk cargoes,potential for Container cargoes appear very promising. With the road and/or rail connectivity in progress, containers originating to and fro from the inland container depots (ICD) will be brought to the coastal ports for domestic shipment to other Indian ports or to the hub feeder container nodes for export. Container Corporation of India Ltd. (CONCOR) is taking a lead starting with coastal services on the west & southern coast. 3. SHIPS FOR OPERATIONS ON INDIAN COAST One of the initiatives taken by the Government of India to help viability of coastal shipping is the enactment of River and Sea Vessels (RSV) rules. Under these rules,certain requirements of the full sea

| 250 | going ships have been moderated for coastal ships - depending upon the size and area of operation. The ship owners and operators can also upgrade the existing inland vessels to increase the area of their operationsand economic viability. Apart from lowering the Capex of coastal ships, the Opex of these vessels can also be brought down substantially as they now need not be operated by expensive foreign going crew; the minimum number of crew required for a RSV4 vessel is only 8. The four Types of the RSV vessels are : RSV Type Service Description / Limitations RSV Type 1 Ship-to-Shore Service beyond inland water limits in fair weather & against favourable weather forecast. RSV Type 2 Nearby Ports Service between Indian ports; the passage must be in daylight, and in fair weather & against favourable weather forecast. RSV Type 3 Restricted Coastal Service between Indian ports; the passage must not exceed 48 hours and in fair weather & against favourable weather forecast. RSV Type 4 Unrestricted Coastal Service between Indian ports, in all weather conditions within 12 nautical miles of the coast. Amongst these, RSV 4 type vessels are perhaps the most important type for carriage of domestically manufactured cargoes. Even though the maximum size of RSV 4 vessels has been limited to 6000 GT, it is still sufficiently large for many operations as it means a cargo capacity of over 8000 tonnes in weight for most types of cargoes. It is expected that this size and type of vessels, maximized by design for cargo capacity, would be considered most appropriate. Large steel and cement manufacturers, which have their own captive requirements for both incoming raw materials in bulk and outgoing finished products have already taken the lead and have ordered or are in the process of ordering dozens of such below 6000 GT bulk carrier type of vessels. Where the water depth permits higher vessel drafts, even larger coastal vessels under the IMS Act are being considered for cargoes that can bring higher freight rates. Coastal ports which are being connected to rail road under the Sagarmala project will need Container vessels and Tankers for supply of POL and LNG in addition to the bulk carriers. Some of the important ship types and their salient desired features are given below. Bulk carriers - These will be general purpose bulk carriers with double hull, which can also carry other cargoes like steel products including heavy steel coils, containers in holds and also general cargo. Typical deadweight for a 6000 GT vessel would be not less than 8000T and the cargo volumes suitable for carriage of wide variety of bulk cargoes from cement clinkers to light cargoes like Met/ Pet cokes and grains at stowage rate of around 1.4 m3/T. These vessels are expected to have large openings for easy cargo access, therefore hatchway deformations could be an issue for the hatch covers. Cement carriers - These vessels that carry cement in powdered form can be of two types: a) Self-discharging cement carriers which have their own i.e. ship-based cement handling systems onboard. The exact details of the cement handling system are dictated by the onshore facilities at the loading and discharge jetties. Distance, means of cement conveyance and the handling rates t/ hour are the main considerations. Normally mechanical systems using vertical and horizontal screw conveyors are preferred due to low power requirements. Pneumatic systems have the advantage of directly discharging into the jetty silos and may be preferred where the silos are situated close to the jetty.

| 251 | In either case the electrical power requirement for cement discharge is much higher than what is normally provided for other types of cargo ships. Since this is only required at the discharging port, effort should be made to arrange for the required shore power from the port. This will reduce the cost of the vessel substantially and also nearly always the cost of shore power per Kw-hr is lower than cost of power produced on the vessel. Such ships will have a completely watertight deck over the cargo holds as in tankers and a central cement loading mechanism using slides and gravity. Attention should be paid to the number and location of the distribution points so that the actual cargo volume achieved is adequate. The aerated bulk cement has an angle of repose of about 5 deg in aerated condition The bottom of the cement cargo holds is sloped 8-10 deg in both longitudinal and transverse directions and the lowest point is in the centre of the hold from where the cement is lifted for discharge. The downward movement of the cement towards the lowest point is ensured by provision of air-fluidizing panels on the entire sloping bottom of the cargo holds. b) Cement carriers which use the cement discharging system located onshore. In this case the discharge arm of the shore based mobile equipment enters into the hold through hatch openings. To be able to reach all parts of the hold for complete removal of the cement cargo either the openings have to be large or the cargo hold bottom will have to be sloped and air- fluidizing panels provided as in case of the self-discharging cement carriers. In either case, there will be some restrictions on operations during rains. Compared to the self-discharging cement carriers, these cement carriers are simpler and therefore cheaper. Such bulk carriers like cement carriers can be the preferred choice for large cement manufacturers/ operators having dedicated jetties and where the number of vessels required for the projected cargo movement is far greater than the number of discharge ports. Container Ships - These containerships also could be multi-purpose box-type vessels with double hull, which can also be used to carry general cargoes in the holds. Typical container capacity for a 6000 GT vessel would be not less than 600TEU and deadweight about 7500 T, which is considered adequate at least for a decade after completion of the first phaseSagarmala project.On some routes even smaller and simpler shipslike self-propelled deck cargo barges for carriage of containers / containers on trucks or trailers etc. may be suitable. Propulsion of Coastal Vessels The vessel speed should be such as to easily meet the EEDI requirements of the next stage due and need not exceed 10 knots for cargo ships and 12 knots for the container ships plying on relatively short routes. This will ensure that the fuel cost/ tonne-mile is minimum. Twin screw propulsion powered by diesel engines operating on low sulphur fuels and meeting the IMO II standards would be the common choice. There is no room for scrubber systems and also the addition to the ship cost due to the scrubbers would be substantial. Where LNG is available at least one of the ports en route of the vessel, dual fuel (LNG, Diesel) engines will be an excellent choice for both green shipping as well as for savings in fuel costs. For coastal ships the requirement for an endurance of 1400 nautical miles is not large, say about 70 T for a 6000GT vessel. This means a round trip from north Saurashtra to JNPT and back or directly to Kochi where refuelling of LNG is possible. Two ISO tanks can be conveniently located above the deck and away from the accommodation and other hazardous areas.The increase in cost of DF engines is comparable to the cost of the scrubber which is no more required and LNG is much cheaper in terms of energy due to higher calorific value as well as lower unit cost/tonne. Advantage being green is

| 252 | a bonus. Owners should seriously consider this Clean and Lean option and push for availability of LNG as a fuel at all major ports. The Dual fuel LNG / Diesel propulsion can generally be adopted for all types of vessels. 4. CARGO OPPORTUNITIES ON NATIONAL WATERWAYS India has an extensive but under-utilised network of inland waterways in the form of rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks. While inland waterways are seen as a cost-effective and environment-friendly means of transportationglobally, in India more than 90 per cent of freight moves via land. Roads and railways are already choked and as the total cargo volumes grow, the share of transportation by inland waterways – the cleaner and cheaper option, will have to increase rapidly. National waterways 1 & 2 are ideally suited for transportation of dry bulk goods such as Coal, Cement, Food grains, Fertilizers, Stone chips as well as liquid bulk cargoes such as Edible Oils, POL, LPG, hazardous goods such as chemicals, acids etc. Other cargoes include Steel products, Jute, Tea and the Over- dimensional cargo. Inland waterways should also be an important method of transporting steel intothe inland states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh from plants situated in the WestBengal region. These steel plants in West Bengal can alsobe ship their finished products downstream through NW1 to Kolkata and/or Haldia.Such availability of cargoes in both directions, downstream and upstream, will make transportation of general goods very competitive. Distribution of variety of higher values cargoes such as finished products, throughcontainers will be possible in large scales, particularly at the multi-modal terminals being set-up on the river banks at Varanasi, Sahibganj and Haldia. Even smaller inland waterways would act as feeder routes to the main bigger waterways and help in evacuation of deep hinterland cargo albeit the size of vessels that can operate on these waterways will be suitably smaller. Apart from cargo transportation, inland waterways can be used for tourism purposes, cruise and passenger/cargo ferry services, and water sports activities etc. Further, works associated with maintenance of minimum depth of water in the navigational channel- i.e. dredging and disposal of the dredged silt which by itself are by themselves a promising and river based industry. River silt is a valuable input for agriculture and forestry and its supply as a regular fertilizer supplement and soil texture enhancing material is a potential industry that will integrate the dredging activity with increased profitable agriculture and ecological balance in the nearby river basin areas. Removal of floating debris, monitoring and control of pollutants entering rivers at their inlet and downstream, policing, eco-tourism and eco- education etc;also bring forward other business opportunities on inland waterways. 5. SHIPS FOR OPERATIONS ON NW As can be seen from the above, there are a variety of cargoes and business opportunities on inland waterways. In year 2016, the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) commissioned M/s DST, Germany to develop vessels for operations on NW1 i.e. on River Ganga from Allahabad to Haldia. Accordingly, DST has developed several prototype concept designs for bulkcarrier, tanker, container carrier, ro-ro vessel, car carrier, LNG carrier and dumb barge and pusher tug. These concepts design provided by DST bring together a vast amount of knowledge and their experience of ship design and operations on the European river ways, especially from the hydrodynamic aspects. The DST cargo vessels are based on vessel draft 2.8 M and length of 110 M and the estimated payload of about 2500T.

| 253 | It is noted that the drafts currently available all around the year, are much lesser than 2.5 M at many sectors of NW1. Also, many ship operators familiar with transport on NW1 feel more comfortable with a vessel of length 90 M max from the river navigation point of view. This means vessels of smaller sizes would be more practical and acceptable at this stage of development on NW1. The decrease in size will generally affect the profitability, however if night navigation becomes more achievable with smaller – more navigable ships in current navigational channels of NW1 the effect of decrease in size would be minimal or even neutral. The need of the hour is to boost the cargo movement and visibility of increased traffic/ number of vessels and therefore development of designs of smaller ships suitable to each operator’s current requirements, restraints and the availability of cargoes, will be necessary and should be equally encouraged. Apart from ensuring night navigation, availability of cargoes both upstream and downstream would increase the competitiveness of transport of cargoes using inland waterways. This business has to be generated by focused marketing efforts both in the public and private domain. As a consequence, such vessels will have to be suitable for a variety of cargoes and will need to be multi-purpose, suitable for carriage of bulk and/ or containers. Containerised cargo really opens up shipment of a variety cargoes ranging from finished textiles and carpets to edible oil in ISO tanks and different sizes of parcels from retail to B2B cargoes. These vessels will have to be double hull on both bottom and side with hatches optimized for max number of containers. Depending on the agreed practical design draught, such vessels would have a payload capacity of up to about 300 T, 400 T, 1000 T and 1800 T for design drafts as low as 1.0M, 1.2 M, 1.5M and 2.0 M respectively. The payload capacity, though lower, it is the minimum achievable throughout the year at the low assured draft, building confidence on the logistics. Besides, the smaller vessels would be the only appropriate size for other river ways. Apart from the normal cargo ships, there is a need for ship designs that are suitable for carriage of bagged cargoes such as bagged cement or bagged food grains/ pulses etc. These cargoes may be destined for small port/ jetties having minimum road connectivity that expects the loading /unloading by traditional manual labour to and from trucks. On such vessels a suitable mechanical system- operable in all weathers and inexpensive, is a desirable sought by operators interested in providing such service. Where the cargo is of such nature that the cargo loading /unloading operations take considerable time and relatively the voyage is short a tug- barge operation would be attractive. The size of the barges would have to be decided in each case depending on the amount of cargo assured, the voyage distance, the rate of loading and finally the draft available at both ends. This option certainly has the advantage of lower Capex and Opex. Yet another class of vessels that would be very interesting would be thatdedicated to the business of cleaning of the rivers,monitoring and control of pollutants, eco-tourism and eco- educationas described above. Such vessels could be promoted for ownership and operation by governmental bodies/ philanthropist organization/ environmentally active private large industrial groups etc. These vessels would be about 40 M in length, having large deck areas for measuring devices and sensors, scientific laboratories, class rooms for students/ public at large on day tripswho would be made aware of the current status of the health of the rivers, the causes and remedies etc. to raise the general awareness. These ships would be mobile moving along the rivers, not only advertising the environmental concerns of the sponsor, but also actually measuring all kinds of the data and transmitting the same online with GPS location and videography to the central database. Propulsion of Inland Waterways vessels Vessels operating on inland waterways necessarily need to slow down when negotiating bends and/ or shallow patches, so the design speed corresponds to that can be achieved over long stretches with

| 254 | ample clearance below the keel. A design speed of 7 to 8 knots in “deep” waters is considered the suitable economical speed for all inland cargo ships. Twin screw propulsion powered by diesel engines operating on low sulphur fuels and meeting same standards as permissible for road transport vehicles would be the common choice. When LNG is available at least one of the ports en route of the vessel, dual fuel (LNG, Diesel) engines will be an excellent choice for both green shipping as well as for savings in fuel costs. However, dual fuel engines are not currently available below 500 Kw each and therefore a diesel electric option is a possibility where electric power is available from a single DF engine that drives the twin propellers by electrical motorswith variable speed control. For smaller vessels, the power requirements will be below 150kW each engine, which throws up a good green option of CNG as fuel. Good reliable CNG engines that drive big trucks could be easily adopted for the smaller ships. For such ships one CNG tank of 16T capacity would be sufficient for an endurance of 10 days/1000 nautical miles. CNG filling can be mobile CNG trucks, similar to those which supply CNG to land petrol pumps.The cost of CNG truck engines is comparable to the cost of normal diesel engines and CNG is much cheaper for unit energy. 6. CONCLUSION The works under Sagarmala Project and the Jal Marg Vikas Project are in progress and would lead to a Port-led development all along the coast and also along NW-1 and other river ways. Government must continue to dynamicallymonitor the problems of all stake holdersplan, adjust policies and lend the necessary support to ensure that works under Sagarmala and JMVP are successful and bring the desired benefits and prosperity. For Coastal Shipping, private participation by large players with captive cargoes has commenced strongly and efforts are needed to bring in other users of the shipping industry. For inland shipping night navigation, assured cargoes both ways and appropriate size of vesselsare key to the competitiveness against current modes of transport. Shipping on Indian coast and inland waterways is at cross-roads and exciting options exist.

| 255 | International Conference on Coastal and Inland water Systems - 2019 Paper No. CIS 2019/INV-5 December 16-17, 2019, Bhubaneswar and Barkul-on-Chilika CIS 2019

CLIMATE CHANGE: IMPACTS, MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION

Dr. Rao Y. Surampalli Dr. Tian C. Zhang Dr. Puspendu Bhunia Global Institute for Energy, Department of Civil & School of Infrastructure, Indian Environment and Sustainability, Environmental Engineering, Institute of Technology, Lenexa, Kansas 66285, USA University of Nebraska, USA Bhuvaneswar, Orissa, India

ABSTRACT There are well documented facts that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have significantly contributed to global climate change. Although there are several GHGs, carbon dioxide (CO ) contributes the highest 2 proportion of green house effect mainly because of its higher concentration in the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect of constantly rising emissions of GHGs is responsible for the global climate change, particularly in terms of overall global warming though the condition varies with the regions, as either cooling, or wetter weather can be experienced at various regions; while on average the temperature of the planet is rising. Global climate change is also being experienced in various other types of global and regional scale changes; for example, melting of the glaciers and ice caps, droughts, hurricanes, floods, forest fires, etc. that threaten fragile eco-systems and affect migration of species.It is utmost important to step forward to reduce GHGs, mitigate climate change and evolve adaptation strategies at the earliest so as to prevent negative impacts on human society andthe ecosystem. This presentation provides understanding and information about GHGs emissions, the current status and impacts of climate change, and the associated mitigation/adaptation strategies. The potential climate change impacts include global warming, changes in weather patterns/precipitation, and sea level rise. Specifically, health impacts associated with climate change could be an increase in weather-related mortality, infectious diseases, and air quality-respiratory illnesses. Impacts on agriculture, forest and ecosystems include crop/forest health/yields/composition, shift in the ecological zones and geographic range of forests, and losses of habitat/species. Impacts on water resources may include change in water supply and quality, increased competition for water, more frequency of extreme weather, and shift of irrigation demands. The melting of glaciers, snow and ice causes sea level rise, which erodes the coastand damages many economic means of subsistence. Broadly speaking, to address the impact of climate change,governments are putting in place strategies to develop green industries like renewable energy, and they are enacting regulations to reduce carbon emissions. On the other hand, companies and communities have been paying more attention todevelopment of sustainable society; they are minimizing their own carbon footprint and waste production by adoptingcorporate sustainability agendas, and developing environmentally-friendly, economically viable and energy effective production/treatment processes. Achieving sustainable solutions to climate change requires long-term planning and actions.

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