Spring 2012, Volume 12

Letter from the Editor Journal of Undergraduate International Studies

Dear Reader,

Welcome to the Spring 2012 issue of the Journal of Undergraduate International Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. We received a record-breaking number of submissions this semester, and we are pleased to share with you an array of fine undergraduate work on a variety of intriguing and unique topics.

As my time as JUIS Editor-in-Chief comes to an end, I would like to stress what a fulfilling, enjoyable, and educational experience this has been. However, most of all, I would like to say how proud I am of my staff who, through their enthusiasm, skill, and dedication, are the foundation of this journal. I have no doubt that through their continued efforts, JUIS will serve as an outlet for the best undergraduate work next year and into the future!

I truly hope that you enjoy reading this issue as much as I have enjoyed helping to share it with you.

Aubrey Lauersdorf Editor-in-Chief Journal of Undergraduate International Studies Journal of Undergraduate International Studies

The views expressed in JUIS are those of the authors alone, and do not express an editorial consensus. The authors are responsible for all information contained in articles. The editors do not assume responsibility for the validity of the facts expressed in the articles.

JUIS is published bi-annually and its contents are copyrighted and cannot be reproduced or re-written in any way without written permission.

The Journal of Undergraduate International Studies would like to acknowledge its founder and first editor-in-chief, David Coddon. The first two issues of this journal were published with the generous support of the University of Wisconsin-Madison Leadership Trust and continued publication is made possible through the Coddon Family Foundation. Additional support is provided by the University of Wisconsin-Madison College of Letters and Sciences Honors Program, the Office of the Vice Provost for Teaching and Learning, the Department of Political Science, the Global Studies Program, Publications Committee, and the University of Wisconsin-Madison Library System.

The cover photograph was taken by Alexandra Wall, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Devil's Peak, Table Mountain, South Africa. This photo was taken on a hike to Devil's Peak, one of the highest points on Table Mountain. While climbling, the photographer came across two blockhouses that were formerly used by the British as defensive and lookout positions against the Dutch. This photograph was taken from the roof of one of the blockhouses with the sprawling Cape Flats suburbs in the background..

For questions, comments, or feedback write to: [email protected] http://juis.global.wisc.edu/

Spring 2012 5 Journal Staff

Journal of Undergraduate International Studies

Aubrey Lauersdorf and banking. He is still considering what East foreign policy. He studies Arabic Editor-in-Chief he would like to do after graduation. and has spent time studying in both For now, he is excited to one-day study Beirut and Alexandria. After graduating, Aubrey is a senior majoring in abroad, hopefully somewhere in Europe. he hopes to continue his study of foreign anthropology and history. Her research affairs and the Arabic language. explores the influence of European contact on the social and political roles of Allison Kucek Editor Iroquois women. After graduation, Aubrey Liying Huang Allison is a junior majoring in English Editor plans to work as a technical writer before and economics. While she is unsure of Liying Huang is currently a senior attending graduate school. what she will do after she graduates, majoring in East Asia Studies. She mainly Laurel Mills she hopes to find something in the focuses in areas such as Chinese politics, Managing Editor publishing field and plans do to a lot of the US-China relationship, and Chinese traveling. She also serves as a copy history. Laurel is a junior majoring in political editor for Souvenirs, a publication on science and German. She eventually study abroad experiences. In her free plans on attending either graduate Leopoldo Rocha time, she enjoys reading, dancing, and Editor school or law school but would like to cooking. Leopoldo is a freshman majoring in spend more time in Germany and China international studies and economics. first. Her other interests include music, Originally from Tampico, Mexico, he books, and fountain pens. Benjamin Hiller Editor moved to Milwaukee in 2003. During Jonathan Padway Ben is a senior majoring in neurobiology. his free time, he enjoys playing tennis, Editor After graduating, Ben plans to work watching sports, and reading the news. for a year and then pursue a PhD in Leopoldo is also a state news reporter Jonathan is a junior majoring in political neuroscience. Some of his interests for the Badger Herald. While he is not yet science and history. He is focusing on include running, playing the viola, and certain what he wants his career to be, international relations in the twentieth traveling. Some of his life goals include he will be happy with anything that allows century. Jonathan plans to attend law volunteering in a foreign country and him to travel to other parts of the world. school sometime in the future. attending the World Cup. Alex Reed Clark Chism Editor Patrick Shipe Editor Editor Clark is a junior majoring in political Alex is a freshman double-majoring in Patrick is a senior majoring in history and science with a focus on international political science and finance, investment, international studies, focusing in Middle relations and global security issues. His

6 JUIS Journal of Undergraduate International Studies other interests include American politics, Brad Lentz league’s fabric of truth? history, and Southeast Asia. After college, Editor he plans to get a graduate degree in public Brad is a junior majoring in political science Nathalie Cheng affairs and work in government, think with an emphasis on security issues. Webmaster tanks, or NGOs. In his spare time, Clark Following graduation, Brad will serve as an From the Chicago area, Nathalie is enjoys biking and watching too much officer in the United States Navy. senior with an individual major in Netflix. human-computer interaction. Some Kimmy Tran things that keep her on the move are Sarah Kvithyll Layout Designer art and design, tennis, noodles, new Editor Kimmy is a senior majoring in graphic experiences, Halloween, Taiwan, video Sarah is a sophomore majoring in design. She enjoys dancing and has games, and enjoying the moment. political science with a focus on found a new love in African dance. international relations – specifically, She is heavily involved in the Greek life issues concerning human rights and on campus through her sorority alpha international organizations. She enjoys Kappa Delta Phi. In her spare time, you listening to good music, learning new will always see her painting or doing languages and, because she can’t photography. seem to settle on one specific region of interest, she will simply have to visit Amelia Krug them all. Graphic Designer Amelia is a senior majoring in botany. Katrina Kalcic This 5th grade yo-yo champion has Editor many interests, which include an array Katrina is a senior double majoring in political of plants, books, bikes, and photos. science and strategic communication She spends her time writing theoretical at the School of Journalism and Mass botany papers, cooking, taking photos, Communication. Within political science, repairing pianos, and working in a lab. she found a passion for the study of ethnic Obviously, she should probably slow conflict and conflict resolution. She plans to down and take a breather, but who can attend law school or graduate school after afford to stop when you are one of many graduating. finely tailored threads in the JUIStice

Spring 2012 7 Journal of Undergraduate International Studies

8 JUIS Spring 2012, Volume 12

Table of Contents pages 10-20 1. Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution by Nick Ziegler pages 21-28 2. Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan by Sara Plana pages 29-41 3. Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism by Yoonj Kim pages 42-51 4. The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy by Shiran Shen pages 52-60 5. Altruism, Prejudice, and Culture in Roma Education Advocacy: Education and Children in the Decade of Roma Inclusion by Rachel McVey pages 61-70 6. Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy by Patrick Shipe

Spring 2012 9 Taming The Population Monster The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution

by Nick Ziegler he 1960s-1970s concurrently saw increased concern for the world's population size and the propagation of new techniques of capital-intensive agriculture applied to newly bred, high-yielding T crop varieties. This paper argues that there was an isomorphic and complementary relationship between the thinking of neo-Malthusians on the one hand and Green Revolution modernizers on the other and that this thinking had implications serviceable to US policymakers during the Cold War. This displacement of social explanations of poverty in favor of technical ones resulted in a disavowal of the political agency of patient populations and failed to account for or ameliorate poverty.

pronounced in the US, where it was “That excessive populations in In the mid-1970s, an exhibition not only largely created by intellectuals, certain outstanding countries, called “Population: The Problem Is Us,” elites, and their popularizers, but also such as China and India, are the created by the Smithsonian Institute and amplified by the patronage of the US direct cause of misery, disease, publicly funded by The National Science government and large philanthropic and starvation has been so well Foundation, toured grade schools across organizations, notably the Rockefeller publicized by modern means the United States. Featuring illustrated Foundation.4 Books like Isaac Asimov's of communication—the press, panels with captions like, “...there are Earth, Our Crowded Spaceship and television, radio, magazines, etc.- too many people in the world. We are articles like Garrett Hardin's “Living on a -that few thinking people would running out of space. We are running out Lifeboat” (both 1974) provided metaphors question the fact.” of energy. We are running out of food. which suggested that humanity had -Alexander J. Stuart (1958).1 And, although too few people seem to either recently entered or must realize it realize it, we are running out of time,” the had long ago entered a new era, one in “Anyone engaged in attempting to exhibit emphatically made the case that a which previously vaunted and cherished increase world food production soon very important, if not the most important, institutions and ideals like democracy comes to realize that human misery variable influencing the safety, prosperity, or the inviolability of the individual may resulting from world food shortages and viability of a society (or of the world) have to be sacrificed. The perception and world population growth are part was the number of that society's (or that the planet was in a crisis situation in of the same problem. In effect, they the world's) human inhabitants.3 Such relation to a finite amount of resources, are two different sides of the same alarmist rhetoric became pervasive during particularly food, seemed to necessitate, coin.” “the population hysteria of the 1960s and and spawned a good amount of literature -Norman E. Borlaug (1978)2 1970s,” a hysteria that was particularly

Nick Ziegler. Nick Ziegler is a senior at the University of California, Berkeley, where he studies 20th century international history with an emphasis in South Asia. In fall 2012, he will be both studying at the University of Delhi and applying to PhD programs in history.

10 JUIS Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution / Nick Ziegler

on, an ethics of triage, which had help.9 One of the persistent features overlooked.”13 For by the 1970s, the US philosophers considering “whether we of much of the population-resources and other governments had adopted the ought to feed the starving in places like literature, from Malthus on, has been “green revolution” model of crop yield Bangladesh and the Sahel of sub-Sahara a healthy suspicion of the ability of the maximization, so emphatically endorsed Africa” and concluding in the negative.5 lower classes to regulate their behavior. by Borlaug, with at least as much Antinatalist triage found its way into In the minds of policymakers and enthusiasm as they had adopted policies United States Agency for International analysts, this anxiety mingled well with of population reduction, culminating Development policy, with the International the circumstances of their global war in his being awarded the Nobel Peace Development and Food Assistance Act against communism, an affinity made Prize in 1970. The two were by no of 1978 proclaiming that US foreign easy by the fact that, for all their global means unrelated, and “understanding aid “shall be administered so as to give pretensions, the favored unit of analysis how population and food shortages particular attention to... the impact of for triagists was the nation-state.10 were handled... is the fundamental clue all programs, projects, and activities Perhaps for the mundane reasons that to understanding the origins of high- on population growth” and that US aid “men of science... eat, dress, and have yielding varieties of wheat” and other would be “concentrated” in countries that families like common mortals,” and that grains.14 In academic disputes, the have demonstrated both “commitment their very claim to expertise rested upon pessimism of more orthodox Malthusian and progress” in efforts for the “control the ability to identify problems before thinkers was often at odds with the of population growth,” a policy which they became crises, population-control seemingly more optimistic belief that amounted to the institutionalization of advocates were inclined to repackage technological innovation could, at worst, Malthusian checks.6 The near-consensus their ethical concerns as political be “a means of buying time... during of the politically influential class in the concerns.11 Given the name “population- which to find some way to apply the United States was that “future population national security theory” by John H. brakes to population growth,” and, at growth will be reduced by rising death Perkins, this conception of how societies best, a durable solution to the perceived rates... if it is not reduced by declining worked linked overpopulation to hunger, problem of unreasonable world demand birth rates.”7 hunger to political instability, and political for food. However, in the policy arena, the Even those who felt that “the current instability to communist takeover; that is two camps emerged as complementary crisis literature makes one wonder to say, the basic natural law governing responses to the same geopolitical whether the authors are intentionally whether a nation-state would ally with the problem.15 The schematic understanding presenting the most gloomy picture United States or the Soviet Union was of the food-population issue that gained possible in hopes that action will come that law which governed the relationship prominence, which ignored the potentially before it is too late” did not disagree between resource availability and determinative influence of mediating that such action, sooner or later, must aggregate population.12 social factors, viewed the problem as come.8 But such urgency was not simply It is, therefore, surprising to find one of “a race between 'the stork and motivated, as the triagists sometimes Norman Borlaug writing in 1975 that, the plow,'” that is, between population claimed, by assuring that attempts “despite the truth of the old Mexican growth and the technological progress at “feeding the starving in teeming proverb, 'a full stomach assures a needed to grow more food.16 Simply underdeveloped countries” did not hurt contented heart,' the importance of food put, the two programs represented the very people they were meant to to political stability is today generally demand-side and supply-side solutions,

Spring 2012 11 Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution / Nick Ziegler

respectively. of accomplishing this was, as shown was carried out; logical empiricism, Inasmuch as he considers above, the lifeboat metaphor; as one when applied to agricultural matters, concrete links between the population critic put it, “the lifeboat image reduces lends itself to monoculture, isolated- establishment and the green revolution the elements of the ethical situation to variable breeding strategies abstracted modernizers, Perkins emphasizes the a logically manageable image.... Much from actual fields being tended by influence of “a network of personal of the triage literature slides easily into actual peasants, etc. That much of this associations and friendships” evident the implication that everything possible durability of problem solving strategy is in, for instance, his reconstructed has now been done” to prevent the due to the circumstance that the green academic genealogy that led from circumstances that create hunger in revolution was, using James C. Scott's Edward Murray East, an early neo- the first place.19 More generally, “the term, a quintessentially “high-modernist” Malthusian, to Norman Borlaug. Though isolation of a very few variables—ideally project will be pursued later.22 perhaps Perkins is right that such a just two, while controlling all others—is a One crucial concept that united “link of professional associations and key tenet of experimental science.”20 In both the green revolution and the friendships” might have “prepared the case of the food-population problem, antinatalist camps was that of “carrying [Borlaug and others] to sympathize with this predilection was manifest in what capacity.” Nathan F. Sayre traces the the apocalyptic vision of the population Amartya Sen has called “the Malthusian evolution of the term, from one used explosion,” the affinity is much deeper focus,” which “represents a far-reaching in international shipping and other than that.17 The styles of thinking used abstraction from various social influences arenas to denote a mechanical or by both the neo-Malthusians and the green revolution modernizers share common metaphysical, epistemological, and political convictions. It is this "Again, the issue is one of either reducing one isomorphism in ways of thinking about variable (population) or increasing the other the world, beyond mere professional (food), but aside from defining the problem for affiliation or political complementarity, that green revolution modernizers, the reasoning justifies conceiving of the green revolution was recapitulated in the methods through and the “population hysteria” as two which the solution was carried out; logical manifestations of the same historical empiricism, when applied to agricultural matters, phenomenon. lends itself to monoculture, isolated-variable In a November 2, 1974, address breeding strategies abstracted from actual to the Club of Rome Forum (a meeting fields being tended by actual peasants, etc." held in anticipation of the United Nation World Food Conference held 4 days later), Lester Brown, one of the more on hunger, starvation and mortality, engineered attribute of manufactured nuanced of the neo-Malthusian thinkers, making the food problem turn on the ratio objects or systems (beginning in the suggested that “the complexity of the of two physical magnitudes.”21 Again, 1840s); to its extension to organisms food problem is such that we must ask the issue is one of either reducing one and natural systems in the 1870s and ourselves whether it may not now exceed variable (population) or increasing the its application to range and game our analytical capabilities."18 This danger other (food), but aside from defining the management in the early 20th century; was averted by the adoption of discursive problem for green revolution modernizers, to K, a number that was meant to be strategies that reduced the problem to the reasoning was recapitulated in the an intrinsic attribute of an organism manageable components. One means methods through which the solution which denoted its maximal population

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size under optimal circumstances the equation, C = B : E (where C is any environment.”29 Carrying capacity when abstracted from real habitats; carrying capacity, B is biotic potential functioned for the green revolution and finally to its neo-Malthusian usage [K], and E is environmental resistance), camp in a somewhat different way; as a shorthand for limits on the number from William Vogt's influential tract while it was accepted by Borlaug that of humans the earth can support:23 Road to Survival (1948) is in fact “in all biological populations there are At its origins, it referred to a tautological.25 The unfalsifiability of innate devices to adjust population fixed quantity of X that some carrying capacity helps to account growth to the carrying capacity of encompassing Y should carry in for its durability and intuitive the environment,” it had so far “not abstraction from time or history. reasonableness. It can, therefore, asserted itself to bring into balance Since then, it has sometimes instantly explain almost any social population growth and the carrying described a maximum limit and problem without the need to consider capacity of the environment on a a more often an optimal or normative either social causes or social solutions. worldwide scale.”30 This presented one, but it has always aspired to If carrying capacity is accepted, then an opportunity, for in Borlaug's reading idealism, stasis, and numerical “every empirical instance of misery of history the carrying capacity of the expression. Only in the first of and vice appears... as evidence of world for humans had been increased the four types of uses were these [environmental] checks, and the dramatically in the past by technological attributes justified... each new use growing population emerges as the progress, and the green revolution was appropriated the basic idea and, root of the problem.”26 doing so again. However, his optimism in some measure, the authority of And it was widely accepted, was only warranted because he was its predecessors, overlooking— as a “firmly established biological “confident that within the next two and ultimately forgetting—their concept.”27 Given the nautical origins decades [man] will recognize the self- contexts and limits.24 of “carrying capacity,” it is perhaps destructive course he steers along the Simplifying the story greatly, an more than quaint that Garrett Hardin road of irresponsible population growth important distinction arose between believed that “every country's 'lifeboat' and will adjust the growth rate levels” the ideal and the actual carrying carries a sign that indicates its to one commensurate with the carrying capacity relationship between a 'capacity.'”28 The implication is both capacity of the environment.31 Carrying species and its environment (in normative and teleological; just as capacity allowed neo-Malthusians to rangeland management, these were a steamship was meant to carry a ignore even the complexity of ecological called “original” [before overgrazing] certain mass or volume of cargo, so variables, collapsing them into one, in and “actual” carrying capacities, while was any given environment. As if to theory, numerically-specifiable quantity. in population biology this distinction confirm that carrying capacity was The affinity between the two was captured by K and the actual an article of faith, Hardin also argued approaches to the population problem observed population size in situ). The that “the interests of posterity can be becomes clear if one acknowledges, theoretical existence of K allowed brought into the reckoning of ethics if like David Harvey, that “the adoption scientists to infer “environmental we abandon the idea of the sanctity of certain kinds of scientific methods resistance” to population growth by of (present) life as an absolute ethical inevitably leads to certain kinds of calculating the difference between ideal, replacing it with the idea of the substantive conclusions which, in K and the observed population size. sanctity of carrying capacity” and turn, can have profound political Because “environmental resistance” is suggested that one commandment implications."32 Harvey argues that dependent for its extrapolation on K, in “a new Decalogue” be, “Thou shalt logical empiricism, when applied to a number that can never be observed, not exceed the carrying capacity of the population-resources problem,

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has “inevitably produced Malthusian numbers.34 the economic principle of scarcity (as or neo-Malthusian results.”33 This is Because solutions 1 and 3 require far a relationship between wants and contrasted to the approaches of both reaching changes in the consumption resources). Carrying capacity seeks Ricardo and Marx; the latter, according habits and social standing of the to identify the natural, biologically- to Harvey, proffered a historically specific politically-efficacious classes, these are necessary degree of needs and contrast critique that denied the “naturalness” of unlikely to be pursued. It is telling that 2 this to a fixed or at least finite and the supposed natural law of population, and 4 were the major avenues by which nearly exhausted amount of resources, instead finding it to be the particular the population-resource problem was whereas scarcity insists upon the social law of population that operated under capitalism, endemic to capitalism itself. The virtue of this type of thinking, if one is "While it is obviously the case that there is not concerned with criticizing capitalism some special relationship between food and as such, is simply that it draws attention survival that does not hold between, for instance, to the social relations in which all books and survival, it is still clear that the activities, reproduction and consumption scope of social influence upon food production, among them, occur. Harvey's argument consumption, distribution, and availability is concludes with translating the sentence “overpopulation arises because of the far greater than “carrying capacity” allows." scarcity of the resources available for meeting the subsistence needs of the mass of the population” into language pursued in the 20th century and in the US construction of wants and the necessity that is attentive to those relations: in particular. of trade-offs. Carrying capacity imagines “There are too many people in the world In 1976 the economist D.W. Pearce a world on the brink of catastrophe, because the particular ends we have decried the “contrasts, incompatibilities under which circumstances every trade- in view (together with the form of social and inconsistencies” between the off is catastrophic and any adequate organization we have) and the materials approaches taken by economists and response calls for, potentially, measures available in nature, that we have the will non-economists to the population- that would not be admissible in less and a way to use, are not sufficient to resources relationship and “the arrogant catastrophic contexts (as “triage” implies). provide us with those things to which attitude of scientists in commenting on While it is obviously the case that there is we are accustomed.” Conceiving of the economics, a subject about which many some special relationship between food problem this way increases the potential of them seem to possess astronomic and survival that does not hold between, solutions; Harvey lists four: ignorance."35 While perhaps a case for instance, books and survival, it is still 1. we can change the ends we of disciplinary territoriality, the critique clear that the scope of social influence have in mind and alter the social nonetheless draws attention to the fact upon food production, consumption, organization of scarcity; that many of those who approached distribution, and availability is far greater 2. we can change our technical and the population-resources issue were, than “carrying capacity” allows. cultural appraisals of nature; by training, inattentive to social factors. Having accepted the naturalness 3. we can change our views This can be clearly glimpsed in the and absoluteness of the needs- concerning the things to which we distinction between “lifeboat” conceptions resources relationship, the green are accustomed; of carrying capacity (as a relationship revolution advocates' solution was to 4. we can seek to alter our between needs and resources) and simply increase the carrying capacity

14 JUIS Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution / Nick Ziegler

through technological innovation. While natural law governing population and of what J.M. Blaut has referred to as undoubtedly technology is one important resources: “The social, economic and “Eurocentric diffusionism:” way in which to ensure an adequate food political pressures, and strife are building The belief is both historical and supply, “it is unnecessarily restrictive at different rates in different countries geographical. Europeans are seen to think that human inventiveness and of the world, depending upon human as the "makers of history." Europe creativity apply only in the sphere of population density and growth rate, and eternally advances, progresses, technology—human beings can and upon the natural resource base that modernizes. The rest of the do create social structures as well sustains the different economies.”40 world advances more sluggishly, as machines.36 However, the green This either-or position is or stagnates: it is "traditional revolution was named in contravention symptomatic of the type of development society." Therefore, the world has to the “red” revolution of Soviet Russia theory held in common by both a permanent geographical center and was meant to preclude the need the green revolution and the neo- and a permanent periphery: an for or contemplation of social solutions Malthusian camps, a further locus Inside and an Outside. Inside leads, to the problem; it was “intended to be a of shared ideological commitment. Outside lags. Inside innovates, revolution that did not take up problems Roger Revelle, a prominent theorist Outside imitates.43 of social reform.”37 However one of the population-food relationship, The significance of Blaut's argument assesses the truthfulness of their claims wrote, “we tend to think of countries is not merely that Eurocentric to stand for social solutions to problems and peoples as forming a continuous diffusionism was an option, but that it such as hunger, it is undoubtedly the economic spectrum, with the different was hegemonic; any child schooled in case that the fact that the communist stages of economic development the West until late in the 20th century nations did make such claims helped being more or less equally present.”41 would enter the world with, to some to push the United States and other Whether the “we” is meant to include degree, a “colonizer's model of the Western nations further away from social lay readers or merely members of the world.” A biographical argument can solutions. When the People's Republic field of population-resource studies is be made that technicians, scientists, of China's delegate to the 1974 World unclear, but what is significant is that this and others who became regarded as Population Conference in Bucharest statement makes evident a conception experts on the population-resources claimed that “population is not a problem of development that is both unilinear problem were especially unlikely to under socialism,” he was highlighting and diffusionist. This corresponds to the have an opportunity to expose such this categorical difference.38 Despite theory of “dual economy,” “prominent notions to scrutiny, their training being the arguable promise of reform of such throughout the 1960s and 1970s,” but unconcerned with such matters; if so, it mediating institutions as land reform, first articulated in 1953 by Julius Boeke, is unsurprising that the green revolution price controls, labor, etc. in addressing which holds that economies in the late perfectly fits the mold of a Eurocentric the problem of supplying adequate food 20th century contained both “a dynamic, diffusion project. to a given number of individuals, both modern sector and a static, traditional It is crucial to distinguish the neo-Malthusians and the green sector. The static sector lacks savings, Eurocentric diffusionism from revolution modernizers were happy investment, capital, and infrastructure, Eurocentric chauvinism; the former to forego such untidy, multi-variable an imbalance which can be corrected is a belief about matters of fact, “of considerations.39 Inasmuch as the by the movement (diffusion) of capital, science, and scholarship, and informed “social” realm is considered at all, it know-how, and information from the and expert opinion. To be precise, toggles between the binary positions dynamic sector.”42 When the tendency Eurocentrism includes a set of beliefs of “functional” or “in strife,” and this to think dualistically was applied on a that are statements about empirical toggling is wholly dependent upon the global scale, the results were typical reality, statements educated and usually

Spring 2012 15 Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution / Nick Ziegler

unprejudiced Europeans accept as economic order might be compared of “high-modernism” is useful here, true, as propositions supported by to that which reigned over social- and it is appropriate to conclude that 'the facts.'44 Diffusionism is ideology class relations in individual countries high-modernism is a suitable umbrella proper, operating at the level of what in nineteenth-century Europe—with term for many projects undertaken Slavoj Zizek has called the “unknown the Third World now playing the role in the 20th century to improve the knowns,” that is, beliefs that those of the working class,” a case that lot of humanity or particular groups holding them are not aware they becomes convincing when observing of humans, among them population hold, thinking them benign, ethically the fact that it is usually third world control and the green revolution. and ideologically neutral, and simply population growth that provoked such “The clarity of the high-modernist correct.45 It is at this level that the excitement from antinatalists and the optic is due to its resolute singularity. social meaning of attempts to either green revolution camp alike.47 The Its simplifying fiction is that, for any reduce population or increase crop principle of population is, in fact, a pair activity or process that comes under yields without considering social factors of laws: one economic law governing its scrutiny, there is only one thing constraining production or influencing the reproduction of the rich, and one going on.”48 That is, high-modernism consumption must be located; contrary natural law governing the reproduction refers to a tendency to seek technical to the claimed neutrality of these of the poor. solutions to problems facing humanity, “scientific” approaches to the problem, This survey of the deep ideological and to the faith that “rational design one critic has claimed, “it is rather the similarities between the antinatalist and of social order commensurate with Malthusian arguments which are based the crop yield maximization movements the scientific understanding of natural on political arguments, in so far as in the 1960s and 1970s has been laws” provides the best chance at they presume the maintenance of the undertaken to show that the two were human happiness. It is by definition a present form of society.”46 in some way mutually constitutive faith, being “uncritical, unskeptical, and A persistent feature of Malthusian and in dialogue; and furthermore that thus unscientifically optimistic about thinking, further evidence of its dualistic they, being in Borlaug's words, “two the possibilities for the comprehensive and Eurocentric tendencies, has been different sides of the same coin,” can planning of human settlement and its propensity to find different laws be collapsed into a broader moment production.”49 But high-modernist of population for different classes of in the 20th century intellectual history intervention and planning is of a pair people. Malthus, in attempting to of the West. Earlier, it had been with what Scott calls “legibility,” which reconcile his principle of population suggested that James C. Scott's notion is the degree to which social processes with the problem of effective demand, ultimately decided that it was the duty of the nonproductive classes "This survey of the deep ideological similarities (presumably more prudent in their between the antinatalist and the crop yield breeding habit) to conspicuously maximization movements in the 1960s and 1970s consume so as to be the engines of has been undertaken to show that the two were in commerce, whereas the lower classes some way mutually constitutive and in dialogue; (who, given population growth, would and furthermore that they, being in Borlaug's consume more should wages or words, “two different sides of the same coin,” philanthropy allow it) were too profligate can be collapsed into a broader moment in the to be entrusted with such a social role. In the 1970s, Susan George argued 20th century intellectual history of the West. " that “the present world political and

16 JUIS Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution / Nick Ziegler

are observable, recorded, and known of food, abstracted from history: despite such triage with a human face, to the state. Scott argues that “the Two schools of thought about world the cause for urgency was no more greater the manipulation envisaged, the hunger are, in my opinion, really diminished by 1978, when Borlaug greater the legibility required to effect dangerous to the future of humanity wrote the following words: it,” and conversely that the intent to because they falsify the social 'Human rights' is a utopian issue manipulate implies a project to enhance reality of the problem. One theory and a noble goal to work toward. legibility.50 It is because projects such attempts to prove that famine is a But it can never be achieved as as population control and the green natural and incurable phenomenon; long as hundreds of millions of revolution were useful to the state that the other offers as our only poverty stricken people in the scientists had their opportunity to, as salvation a forced reduction in the world lack the necessities of life. one polemicist urged them to, “come world's birth rate.53 The 'right to dissent' doesn't out of their ivory towers and lend their Furthermore, when de Castro mean much to a person with an expert voices.”51 If experts had not considered the question of soil empty stomach, a shirtless back, convinced policymakers that population productivity, he found it to be “a a roofless dwelling, the frustrations in excess of some natural carrying function of the prevailing kind of and fear of unemployment and capacity was hazardous to their political economic organization” and concurred poverty, the lack of education and and economic standing, such policies with Earl Parker Hanson that “'such opportunity and the pain, misery as outlined here would not had been neo-Malthusians as Vogt seem totally and loneliness of sickness without adopted; but if such science as these unaware that it is never a land that is medical care. My work has brought experts had on offer was not beneficial overpopulated in terms of inhabitants me into close contact with such to policymakers, those policymakers per square mile; it is always an people and I have come to believe would not had been convinced. Finally, economy, in terms of inhabitants per that all who are born into the world high-modernism allows the employment square meal.'”54 have the moral right to the basic of scientific rhetoric as a justificatory While showing that deviation ingredients for a decent human life. tactic without being bound to the spirit from the predominant thinking on the How many should be born and how of open inquiry that “science” allegedly population-resources problem did exist, fast they should come on stage is entails. the urgency of de Castro's intellectual another matter. 57 In 1952, before the high-yielding intervention can be taken as evidence of By considering the problem of varieties of grains and their attendant his marginality. That it had to be done adequate provisioning of food in technological packages had been is obviously the case, if one considers abstraction from the social influences formulated, Josué de Castro posed the Vogt's contention that “there is little on that provisioning, the only axiom question: “Is it possible to consider hope that the world will escape the being “society will automatically benefit hunger as a phenomenon inherent horror of extensive famines in China from 'gains' from a slower population in life itself, a natural and inevitable during the next few years. But from growth in the form of an economic and contingency like death, or should it be the world point of view, these may be social development,” it follows easily regarded as a social evil, a plague of not only desirable but indispensable.”55 that the patients of such benefits have man's own making?52 Contemplating It might be unsurprising, given that no need for the political and social tools the question, de Castro took as foils he follows in the lineage of Vogt, that and opportunities to be themselves those who reduce the question to Borlaug insisted repeatedly that “while agents in the process.58 While a great a matter of the relative magnitudes the population monster is being tamed,” amount of effort is expended ostensibly between number of people and amount it must be done “humanely.” 56 However, in the service of the poor, in de Castro's

Spring 2012 17 Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution / Nick Ziegler

words, “The real problem, which is 9. Fletcher, 52. political, continues to be pushed out 10. Stuart's Overpopulation: Twentieth Century Nemesis (1958) is a tour de force in this 59 of sight—and therefore remains.” regard. “The only way to raise permanently The 1960s and 1970s saw a high the living level enough to prevent a return to communism [speaking of Guatemala, which water mark of concern for the size of Endnotes according to Stuart “actually was taken over the world's population, in particular 1. Alexander J. Stuart, Overpopulation: Twentieth by the communists for a time”] is to lower the Century Nemesis (New York: Exposition high birth rate. In all the other countries where the size of populations in the poorer Press, 1958), 8. communism threatens, a lowered birth rate parts of the world. These concerns will similarly solve the problem.” Stuart, 215. 2. Norman E. Borlaug, “The Human Population were supported institutionally, primarily Monster,” European Demographic 11. Josué de Castro, The Geopolitics of Hunger Information Bulletin, 9.3 (1978), 108. (New York and London: Monthly Review by the US government and by large Press, 1977 [1952]), 485. 3. Jaqueline Kasun, The War Against Population: philanthropic organizations. Being The Economics and Ideology of World 12. John H. Perkins, Geopolitics and the Green convinced that social harmony, alliance Population Control (San Francisco: Ignatius Revolution: Wheat, Genes, and the Cold Press, 1988), 21. War (New York and Oxford: Oxford University with the United States, and consent Press, 1997), 119-120. It is perhaps 4. Thomas Schindlmayr, “Explicating Donor Trends to market economies and business notable that Josué de Castro, one of the for Population Assistance,” Population major radical critics of the reduction of the relations with the United States followed Research and Policy Review, 23.1 (February population-resources dynamic to a natural 2004), 25. Rockefeller Foundation support mechanically from a population being law to the exclusion of social influences on for population reduction research and hunger, largely accepted the main thrust of in balance with the natural carrying policy was pervasive throughout the 20th the PNST argument (that hungry people are Century, beginning with the pre-war eugenics capacity of a place (while, conversely, prone to join quixotic programs for a better movements and considering into and future). The major exception was that his an out-of-balance population would beyond the 1960s-70s “hysteria.” John examples are Nazi Germany and militarist D. Rockefeller, III was personally driven to result in communist takeover), the US Japan. Elsewhere, however, he critiques reduce population, particularly in the poorer the frightened “prudent spirits” who “attribute government patronized both demand parts of the world, creating the Population social unrest to the sheer number of human Council in 1952 and using his control of and supply side solutions to the beings,” arguing they “are simply blaming the both Foundation funds and his personal hungry for the fact that there is hunger.” de problem in the forms of antinatalist share of the Rockefeller fortune to be one Castro, 65; 495. of the single most important figures in the policies and attempts to increase the 20th Century movement to control world 13. Norman E. Borlaug, “Food and Fertilizers Are yield of major grain crops through population. See Matthew Connelly, Fatal Needed Now,” in Sartaj Aziz, ed., Hunger, Misconception: The Struggle to Control Politics and Markets: The Real Issues in the technical manipulation. This penchant World Population (Cambridge: The Belknap Food Crisis (New York: New York University for technical analyses and solutions Press, 2008), passim; and Ibid., 32. The Press, 1975), 17. first Rockefeller foray into population research to the problem of food availability was 14.Perkins, 131. was a study in 1927 aimed at “some simple accompanied by the displacement of measure which will be available for the wife of 15. Brown and Eckholm, 145. the slum-dweller, the peasant, or the coolie, social explanations and solutions to the 16. William C. Thiesenhusen, “Implications of though dull of mind” to prevent reproduction. the Rural Land Tenure System for the same problem. The result for patient Connelly, 61. Environmental Debate: Three Scenarios,” populations was a disavowal of their 5. Joseph Fletcher, “Feeding the Hungry: An The Journal of Developing Areas, 26.1 Ethical Appraisal,” in George R. Lucas, Jr. (October 1991), 2. ability to be political actors and a loss and Thomas W. Ogletree, eds., Lifeboat 17. Perkins, 137-38. of political and social autonomy. These Ethics: The Moral Dilemmas of World Hunger (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 18. Lester Brown, “The Complexity of the Food policies and the scientific attitudes that 52. Problem,” in Sartaj Aziz, ed., Hunger, Politics led to them can be understood under and Markets: The Real Issues in the Food 6. Qtd. in Kasun, 79. Crisis (New York: New York University Press, the rubric of “high-modernism,” which 7. Lester R. Brown and Erik P. Eckholm, By 1975), 10. Brown's nuance is evident in can furthermore be understood as one Bread Alone (New York: Praeger Publishers, his concern for, beyond mere food supply, 1974), 12. the impact of affluence on consumption, of the dominant trends in the intellectual deforestation, desertification, water availability, 8. Homer E. Socolofsky, “The World Food Crisis history of the West in the late 20th employment, disease, climate, energy, and and Progress in Wheat Breeding,” Agricultural prices (as in By Bread Alone). Also notable century. History, 43.4 (October 1969), 423. has been his willingness in recent years

18 JUIS Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution / Nick Ziegler

to go “Beyond Malthus,” though without Ethics: The Moral Dilemmas of World 257. abandoning his unfalsifiable thesis that Hunger (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 43. J.M. Blaut, The Colonizer's Model of the population growth and level are the ultimately 133-34. Hardin also wrote a poem called World: Geographical Diffusionism and determinative variables in the viability of “Carrying Capacity,” featuring a dialogue Eurocentric History (New York and London: any society. See: Lester R. Brown, Gary between the universe and a human tribe The Guilford Press, 1993), 1. Gardner, and Brian Halweil, Beyond Malthus: that is exceeding its environment's carrying Nineteen Dimensions of the Population capacity. “Don't speak to me of shortage,” 44. Ibid., 9. Challenge (New York: W.W. Norton & says the universe, “My world is vast/And 45. Slavoj Zizek, “What Rumsfeld Doesn't Know Company, 1999). has more than enough—for no more than That He Knows About Abu Gharib,” In These enough./There is a shortage of nothing, 19. Donald W. Shriver, Jr., “Lifeboaters and Times (May 2004). save will and wisdom;/But there is a Mainlanders,” in George R. Lucas, Jr. and longage of people... Ravish capacity: reap 46. Erland Hofsten, “What Should Be Meant by Thomas W. Ogletree, eds., Lifeboat Ethics: consequences.” Hardin (1976), 135-36. Malthusianism?,” European Demographic The Moral Dilemmas of World Hunger (New Information Bulletin, 9.3 (1978), 108. It is York: Harper & Row, 1976), 143. 30. Norman E. Borlaug, "The Green Revolution, notable that Hofsten undermines his own Peace and Humanity" (speech delivered 20. James C. Scott, Seeing Like A State: How point by appearing to claim for himself the upon receipt of the 1970 Nobel Peace Certain Schemes to Improve the Human very neutrality he denies the antinatalists he Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 11, 1970). Condition Have Failed (New Haven and is criticizing. Published by the Centro Internacional de London: Yale University Press, 1998), Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, CIMMYT 47. Susan George, How The Other Half Dies: 289. Reprint and Translation Series, No. 3. The Real Reasons for World Hunger 21. Amartya Sen, "The Food Problem: Theory January, 1972. (Montclair: Allanheld, Osmun & Co., 1977), and Policy," Third World Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 3. One exception to this rule was, again, 31. Ibid. 3 (July 1982), 448. Lester Brown, whose writings bring attention 32. David Harvey, “Population, Resources, and the to the problem of first world affluence and the 22. James C. Scott defines high-modernist Ideology of Science,” in Spaces of Capital: resultant greater demand per capita of food, ideology as “a strong... version of the self- Towards A Critical Geography (New York: energy, and other resources. confidence about scientific and technical Routledge, 2001 [1974]), 38. progress, the expansion of production, the 48. Scott, 347. growing satisfaction of human needs, the 33. Ibid., 40. 49. Ibid., 5. mastery of nature (including human nature), 34. Ibid., 61-62. and, above all, the rational design of social 50. Ibid., 183. order commensurate with the scientific 35. Qtd. in Sir Kenneth Blaxter, People, Food 51. Knobloch, 641. understanding of natural laws,” and warns and Resources (Cambridge: Cambridge that it “must not be confused with scientific University Press, 1986), 92. 52. de Castro, 49. practice. It was fundamentally, as the term 36. Harvey, 59. 53. Ibid., 61. 'ideology' implies, a faith that borrowed, as it were, the legitimacy of science and 37. William S. Gaud, “The Green Revolution: 54. Ibid., 451. technology. It was, accordingly, uncritical, Accomplishments and Apprehensions,” 55. Qtd. in Ibid., 65. unskeptical, and thus unscientifically Address Before the Society for International optimistic about the possibilities for the Development (March 18, 1968); Olav 56. Borlaug (1978), 110. comprehensive planning of human Reinton, "The Green Revolution Experience," 57. Ibid., 111. settlement and production.” Scott, 5. Instant Research on Peace and Violence, 3.2 (1973), 58. 58. Hofsten, 107. 23. Nathan F. Sayre, “The Genesis, History, and Limits of Carrying Capacity,” Annals of the 38. Qtd. in Paul Demeny, “Bucharest, Mexico City, 59. de Castro, 59. Association of American Geographers, Vol. and Beyond,” Population and Development 98, No. 1 (2008), 120-134. Review, 11.9 (March 1985), 99-100. Of course, actual Chinese population policy was 24. Ibid., 121. as starkly different from the ideal expressed 25. This observation, and the reasoning behind it, here as any pursued by a Western nation. Bibliography is wholly due to Ibid., 130. 39. The possibilities of land reform are discussed Blaxter, Sir Kenneth. People, Food and Resources. 26. Ibid. at length in Thiesenhusen (1991). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. 27. Irving Knobloch, “Population and the Green 40. Borlaug (1978), 108-09. Revolution,” BioScience, 37.9 (October 41. Roger Revelle, “Population and Food Supplies: Blaut, J.M. The Colonizer's Model of the World: 1987), 641. The Edge of the Knife,” Proceedings of the Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric 28. Hardin qtd. in Kasun, 27. The quotation National Academic of Sciences of the United History. New York and London: The Guilford comes from an Atlantic Monthly interview States of America, 56.2 (August 1966), Press, 1993. published May 1981. 328. Borlaug, Norman E. "The Green Revolution, Peace 29. Garrett Hardin, “Carrying Capacity as an 42. Lakshman Yapa, "What Are Improved Seeds? and Humanity.” Speech delivered upon Ethical Concept,” in George R. Lucas, Jr. An Epistemology of the Green Revolution," receipt of the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, and Thomas W. Ogletree, eds., Lifeboat Economic Geography, 69.3 (July 1993),

Spring 2012 19 Taming The Population Monster: The Ideological Circumstances of the Green Revolution / Nick Ziegler

Hardin, Garrett. “Carrying Capacity as an Ethical Norway. December 11, 1970. Published by Concept.” In George R. Lucas, Jr. and Shriver, Donald W. Jr., “Lifeboaters and Mainlanders.” the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Thomas W. Ogletree, eds., Lifeboat Ethics: The In George R. Lucas, Jr. and Thomas W. Maiz y Trigo, CIMMYT Reprint and Translation Moral Dilemmas of World Hunger, 120-140. Ogletree, eds., Lifeboat Ethics: The Moral Series, No. 3. January 1972. New York: Harper & Row, 1976. Dilemmas of World Hunger, 143-161. New York: Harper & Row, 1976. Borlaug, Norman E. “Food and Fertilizers Are Needed Harvey, David. “Population, Resources, and the Now.” In Sartaj Aziz, ed., Hunger, Politics and Ideology of Science.” In Spaces of Capital: Socolofsky, Homer E. “The World Food Crisis and Markets: The Real Issues in the Food Crisis, Towards A Critical Geography, 38-67. New Progress in Wheat Breeding.” Agricultural 15-19. New York: New York University Press, York: Routledge, 2001 [1974]. History, 43.4 (October 1969): 423-438. 1975. Hofsten, Erland. “What Should Be Meant by Stuart, Alexander J. Overpopulation: Twentieth Borlaug, Norman E. “The Human Population Malthusianism?” European Demographic Century Nemesis. New York: Exposition Monster.” European Demographic Information Information Bulletin, 9.3 (1978): 105-108. Press, 1958. Bulletin, 9.3 (1978): 108-111. Kasun, Jaqueline. The War Against Population: The Thiesenhusen, William C. “Implications of the Rural Brown, Lester. “The Complexity of the Food Economics and Ideology of World Population Land Tenure System for the Environmental Problem.” In Sartaj Aziz, ed., Hunger, Politics Control. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988. Debate: Three Scenarios.” The Journal of and Markets: The Real Issues in the Food Developing Areas, 26.1 (October 1991): Crisis, 10-14. New York: New York University Knobloch, Irving. “Population and the Green 1-24. Press, 1975. Revolution.” BioScience, 37.9 (October 1987): 641. Yapa, Lakshman. "What Are Improved Seeds? An Brown, Lester R., Gary Gardner, and Brian Halweil. Epistemology of the Green Revolution." Beyond Malthus: Nineteen Dimensions of the Perkins, John H. Geopolitics and the Green Economic Geography, 69.3 (July 1993): Population Challenge. New York: W.W. Norton Revolution: Wheat, Genes, and the Cold War. 254-273. & Company, 1999. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Zizek, Slavoj. “What Rumsfeld Doesn't Know That Brown, Lester R. and Erik P. Eckholm. By Bread He Knows About Abu Gharib.” In These Times. Alone. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974. Reinton, Olav. "The Green Revolution Experience." May 2004. Instant Research on Peace and Violence, 3.2 Connelly, Matthew. Fatal Misconception: The (1973): 58-73. Struggle to Control World Population. Cambridge: The Belknap Press, 2008. Revelle, Roger. “Population and Food Supplies: The Edge of the Knife.” Proceedings of the De Castro, Josué. The Geopolitics of Hunger. National Academic of Sciences of the United New York and London: Monthly Review Press, States of America, 56.2 (August 1966): 1977 [1952]. 328-351.

Demeny, Paul. “Bucharest, Mexico City, and Sayre, Nathan F. “The Genesis, History, and Limits Beyond.” Population and Development Review, of Carrying Capacity.” Annals of the Association 11.9 (March 1985): 99-106. of American Geographers, 98.1 (2008): 120-134. Fletcher, Joseph. “Feeding the Hungry: An Ethical Appraisal.” In George R. Lucas, Jr. and Schindlmayr, Thomas. “Explicating Donor Trends Thomas W. Ogletree, eds., Lifeboat Ethics: for Population Assistance.” Population The Moral Dilemmas of World Hunger, 52-69. Research and Policy Review, 23.1 (February New York: Harper & Row, 1976. 2004): 25-54.

Gaud, William S. “The Green Revolution: Scott, James C. Seeing Like A State: How Certain Accomplishments and Apprehensions.” Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Address Before the Society for International Have Failed. New Haven and London: Yale Development. March 18, 1968. University Press, 1998.

George, Susan. How The Other Half Dies: The Real Sen, Amartya. "The Food Problem: Theory and Reasons for World Hunger. Montclair: Policy." Third World Quarterly, 4.3 (July 1982): Allanheld, Osmun & Co., 1977. 447-459.

20 JUIS Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan by Sara Plana

n two modern-day cases, the atrocities in Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1992 to 1995 and in Darfur, Sudan from 2003 to 2010, sexual violence was used not only as a tool of war but also I as a tool of ethnic cleansing and genocide by Serbian aggressors and Janjaweed, respectively. The shape that the sexual violence and torture against men and women in both conflicts took was influenced by the implicated societies’ discourses on masculinity, the roles of men and women in the community, and culturally portrayed (via media or other means) sexualities of the ethnic men and women involved. Adopted by United Nations member targets of sexual violence, most notably in both Bosnia and Darfur—discuss states in 1998, the Rome Statute of the through its language of human trafficking the power behind a male aggressor International Criminal Court identifies and forced impregnation. Despite this defiling a female victim, usually in the sexual violence as one of five possible feminine focus, however, its vague hopes of emasculating her husband or methods through which genocide can language is careful to leave room for other male authority in her family (i.e., be perpetrated, and it condemns more the international prosecution of sexual the head of household).2 In the case of specific acts of sexual violence as violence or torture against men in cases Bosnia-Herzegovina, however, sexual crimes against humanity. Through the of genocide or ethnic cleansing. violence was not confined to the female inclusion of these crucial provisions, the In two very modern cases, the body as a battleground for male-to- international community recognized that atrocities in Bosnia-Herzegovina and in male power-play; the male body was genocidal persecution of a group can Darfur, Sudan, sexual violence was used also humiliated, defiled, and mutilated include not only explicit acts of murder not only as a tool of war but also as a on an unprecedented scale. What or physical destruction, but also the tool of ethnic cleansing and genocide accounts for the difference between targeting of the group’s sexuality—be it by Serbian aggressors and Janjaweed, solely female targeting in Darfur and the through sterilization, sexual mutilation, respectively. The use of sexual violence encompassing of both male and female forced pregnancy, or otherwise—for the and torture against women in both targeting in Bosnia can be traced to purposes of “preventing births within the conflicts was informed by the implicated heightened masculine conceptions in group.”1 societies’ discourses on masculinity Serbian nationalism—specifically the In keeping with worldwide norms and the roles of men and women in the contradictory media-bred portrayal of the on discussion of sexual violence, the community. Traditionally, theories on victims, predominantly Bosnian Muslims, Rome Statute’s provisions focus almost sexual violence as a weapon of war— as barbarously heterosexual and, more exclusively on women as the primary especially in the cases of Muslim victims importantly, dangerously homosexual.

Sara Plana. Sara Plana is a senior at Harvard College majoring in government with a focus on international relations and a minor in English who hails from Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. She just finished a thesis on military accountability in Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia during and after the Croatian and Bosnian Wars of the early 1990s. She has spent the majority of her Harvard career working for and leaving her mark on the Let's Go travel guide series, and she hopes to pursue a future career in international security in the coming years.

Spring 2012 21 Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan / Sara Plana

The fact that this nationalist portrayal toward Bosnian Muslims as well as other resonance with the nationalist idea of of the male victims is missing from the ethnicities.5 The war fueled much of this women as the womb of the nation. Darfur case is consistent with its lack of rhetoric, supporting the patriarchal ideal The rumored forced impregnations of male-to-male sexual violence. of a man in defense of the motherland Serbian women by Muslim aggressors and his defenseless women, as well frequently emphasized by the nationalist Bosnia-Herzegovina as the rising obligation of women to newspapers conjured up visions of a Nationalist Masculine Discourse provide ample, healthy Serbian boys for pure Serbian lineage disrupted by Muslim in Serbia this purpose. War rhetoric thus fostered blood.8 This propaganda served to By definition, ethnic nationalism the fear of other, rival ethnicities’ ability further underscore the idea of Serbian indirectly emphasizes female sexuality: to overpower Serbian ability on both victimization; especially once accusations the ethnicity’s right and, often, need (hetero-)sexual and reproductive fronts.6 of Serbian sexual atrocities became undeniable, the Serbian nationalist media retaliated with justifications claiming "By definition, ethnic nationalism indirectly Muslim exploitation of the literal and emphasizes female sexuality: the ethnicity’s right and, metaphorical Serbian motherland.9 often, need to continue to exist in a nation(-state) Public vilification of the Muslim man is dependent on the feminine power of procreation. did not stop with Serbian victimization, However, when this nationalism is directed against however. In efforts to defend surfacing another ethnicity, or even defined in opposition to it, the Serb sexual violence accusations by mythologized role of the woman can backfire, leading reinvigorating the “otherness” of Muslims, to one side’s aggression against the other side’s female the Serbian media also referred to 'birth-machines' in a familiar power-play." Muslim men’s sexual voracity as affecting relations among their own. One particular news story in Politika exposed the to continue to exist in a nation(-state) As a result, the highly heterosexualized “plight” of a Muslim woman who, having is dependent on the feminine power nature of the Serbian rhetoric informed chosen a Serb husband against her of procreation.3 However, when this the explicit types of sexual violence used family’s wishes, found herself captured nationalism is directed against another by Serbian aggressors on the ground in and sexually assaulted by Muslim ethnicity, or even defined in opposition to Bosnia, specifically the targeting of over aggressors.10 Though the passionate, it, the mythologized role of the woman 50,000 women and an unknown number independent Muslim woman herself is can backfire, leading to one side’s of men.7 depicted as an “other” to the nationalist aggression against the other side’s female Capitalizing on this newly ideal of a submissive Serbian woman, this “birth-machines” in a familiar power-play.4 reinvigorated Serbian masculinity, story does identify at least one attempt The case of post-communist Yugoslavia the Serbian nationalist-controlled by the Serbian media to show the in the late 1980s and early 1990s is no media portrayed the victims, namely undifferentiating depravity of the enemy, different. During this time period and Bosnian Muslims, as sexually anti-Serb. in part to justify Serbian actions in Bosnia. after, Serbian nationalist discourse drew Specifically, Muslims were portrayed as According to the Serbian media lines of sexuality that overlapped with sexually voracious barbarians who often during the time, Muslim sexual voracity ethnic lines, directing propaganda inward directed their sexual appetites toward was not limited to a heterosexualized toward the value of clearly defined gender defenseless women, both Muslim and identity. In fact, along with their depictions roles (most stemming from before the Serb. Images of Muslim men as violent of Muslim men endlessly targeting communist takeover) and hatred outward rapists of Serbian women had a particular Serbian women, Serbian newspapers

22 JUIS Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan / Sara Plana

also constructed the ethnic “other” in case, even Serbian women were forced to Serbian self-determination.20 These sexualized opposition to a masculine to witness and take part in this violence political acts of male-to-male sexual and militarily powerful Serbian man by against the vilified and sexually dangerous torture and violence in Bosnia can be representing Muslim men as feminine Muslim man, reflecting the nationalist traced to both images of the Muslim or homosexual11 These representations theme that women within the nation man—the dangerous heterosexual and reflected a wider Serbian concern with should always serve a purpose for the the unacceptable homosexual—in the the hypersexual threat Muslims posed nation, regardless of its consequences for Serbian nationalist media and rhetoric. to Serbian nationalist and masculine them. authority. Through an inward lens, by Male sexual violence against men Darfur, Sudan claiming that the “other” was threatening continued and extended beyond the Masculine Discourse in Sudan the highly masculine Serbian identity, nature of sexual and psychological Put simply, the supposed ethnic the Serbian press continued its theme torture against women. Perhaps to dichotomy in the conflict in Darfur, Sudan of Serb victimization by casting the reflect the view of Muslims as socially is between “Arab-Muslims” and “Black enemy in a homosexual light.12 In this unacceptable (i.e., homosexual) even Africans”—the former nomadic and the way, Serbian nationalists related the perceived differences in sexual lifestyles to the power-play and “struggle for social "These political acts of male-to-male sexual dominance” between Serbs and Bosnian torture and violence in Bosnia can be traced to Muslims.13 both images of the Muslim man—the dangerous heterosexual and the unacceptable homosexual— Manifestations of This Discourse in the Serbian nationalist media and rhetoric. " in Sexual Violence This media-bred paranoia about Muslim men and women informed within their own households, Serbian 21 Serbian aggressors’ policies in aggressors would force incest among latter sedentary farmers. Despite the organizing specially designated “rape male relatives, namely fathers and labels implying otherwise, both parties camps” or “bordello camps,” occupied sons.17 Though victim accounts indicate have a history of joint Islamic faith, establishments like restaurants and Serbian male aggressors were not afraid unlike the opposing religions in Bosnia; hotels converted for the purposes of to show their mastering of the male in fact, though the explicitly Islamic sexual slavery, sexual torture, and the victim through sodomy in private, the Sudanese government has targeted the 14 imposition of forced pregnancies. Within aggressors rarely raped Muslim men in rebel groups as non-Islamic and thus these “camps,” women were the primary public because it would implicate the threats to the well-being of the state, targets of mass sexual violence, yet they Serbs in homosexuality.18 Instead, they the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) were also utilized as tools for male-to- would have prisoners rape or defile and the Justice and Equality Movement 22 male sexual violence. In Bosnia, Serbian (e.g., sever testicles) themselves or (JEM) both have ties to Islamic 23 aggressors would force men to rape they would use tools to sodomize the political life. In their respective their daughters, wives, or other female victims.19 In this way, Serbian aggressors discourses, the government and rebels 15 relatives under pain of death. In one were detached from the culpability and coin the cultural term “Arab” as the reported sexual “game,” Serbian women public shame attached to the term predominant difference between the were stripped naked in front of row of “homosexual,” which they had reserved two and target each other’s lifestyle Muslim men, and the first man to have specifically to vilify Muslim men as threats difference (Arab vs. African), regardless an erection was castrated.16 In the latter of their shared faith. The Sudanese

Spring 2012 23 Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan / Sara Plana

government in particular recognized society as a predominantly male to further their message through any most Darfuris as Muslims, though endeavor29 Since the National Islamic possible means. Sexual violence against on a lower tier, who needed to be Front’s coup in 1989, the government the female Darfuri population became reinvigorated as proper Arab-Muslims has become increasingly involved the primary vehicle for the latter mission. through re-Islamicization.24 in the micro social workings of the In particular, aggressors targeted In Sudan, discourses on gender, populace, especially in encouraging women’s ability to reproduce either femininity, and masculinity25 are “proper” sexual habits. An example of unfavorable (African) or favorable (Muslim) closely tied to the dominant religion, the extent of the government’s reach ethnicities—much like the Serbian Islam, and its political and social in personal, sexual life appears in its targeting of women for their reproductive significance. Arab-Sudanese culture investment in “mass marriages” for the abilities. Forced impregnation was used expects boys to become men by purpose of encouraging its population to Islamicize the Darfuri population, and, “gaining honor” through battle and to “populate the earth with good once raped, pregnant women were protection of the weak, among other (Muslim) citizens.”30 The government’s abducted and transferred to “peace acts.26 Unsurprisingly, familiar values of gendered outlook continued when it camps” to ensure the birth of a Muslim virility, bravery, and strength—all tied dismissed a number of women holding baby.33 Women who were already to a heterosexual view of the male— high positions in the government pregnant, presumably by “lesser” African appear in Arab-Sudanese definitions bureaucracy to have them serve a better Darfuri men, were killed.34 Aggressors of masculinity, as they did in Serbian purpose as “wives and mothers within used another widely accepted feminine nationalist discourse except without the confines of their houses."31 All of ideal, helplessness, against Darfuri the additional Serb emphasis on the these efforts were part of this Islamist women through breaking legs during rape Other as homosexual.27 Furthermore, Civilization Project, which constructed to prevent escape.35 though the female power of pregnancy female identity from its usefulness to male The Janjaweed also employed public and birth is acknowledged, Arab- existence and constructed male identity rape—rape of a woman in front of her Sudanese society stands by the idea from the (subjective) degree to which family—to accomplish two goals: shatter that a child’s ethnicity is derived from each man is Islamic.32 In this way, the the family through the stigma of rape, and the father’s.28 The Bosnian case also thread of (relative) male dominance and challenge and destroy men’s patriarchal showed this pattern, when Serbian female subordination was run through power. As members of Sudanese men forcibly impregnated Bosnian political interests into the everyday Arab society, Janjaweed were fully aware of Muslim women in an effort to assert and African culture of Sudan. the effects of their rapes on a woman the superiority of their genes over the and her family, namely that, if the deed is women’s, which supposedly were Manifestations of This Discourse known, she most likely will be disowned weaker both ethnically and sexually. in Sexual Violence by her male caregivers and banished to The nature of the state and These constructed female and male live on her own, usually with the added political elites in Sudan—and their societal obligations inform the type of burden of her children.36 As in the case “Islamist Civilization Project” geared sexual violence found in Darfur since of Serbian versus Bosnian Muslim men, toward further assimilating all corners 2003. Unsatisfied with the Islamicization rape also served to shift the balance of Sudan into a greater Islamic of the African West Sudan, the Sudanese of power between Arab Sudanese and society—has significantly influenced government contracted Janjaweed Darfuri African men. Arab Janjaweed harnessing and further developing militias to defend against those groups perpetrators aimed to emasculate African these outlooks, especially given the who opposed its message of a greater men through the rape of their wards, their nature of Sudanese politics and high Islamic Sudanese state. By extension, wives and daughters, before their eyes— this granted a blank check to the militias

24 JUIS Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan / Sara Plana

and then proceeded to kill the men, with continue while hindering the ability of similar discourses on the role of (local the justification that these men might the unfavorable ethnic group to do and foreign) women in Serbian and join rebel groups and hence were fair so. In addition, Augusta DelZotto and Sudanese society—specifically, that they combatant targets. Adam Jones claim that the raping of should have predominantly reproductive a woman undermines the ability of her roles and identities defined by their male The Two Cases in Close male guardians to protect her, exerts counterparts. Comparison: the authority of the perpetrators over General violence against men also Similarities the household, and thus emasculates reflected discourses on masculinity in Despite their differences, both cases the male victims. In Bosnia, Serbian the two societies. Men were killed for the above involved several similarly gendered aggressors established this political same justification in Bosnia as in Darfur: tactics in war and in sexual violence. superiority not only through innumerable for fear that able-bodied men would Racial epithets, for example, were male-to-female rapes, but also through join the enemy as extra manpower.40 frequently used during acts of sexual forced incest between family members In Darfur, this was the justification for violence: in Bosnia, Muslim women that further undermined the male’s the government-sponsored militia were called “Turks” by perpetrators, ability to keep order in the household. “occupation” of Darfuri territories from while Darfuri female victims (of the Fur, In Darfur, Janjaweed accomplish a the beginning—that African men would Zaghawa, and Masalit tribes) were called similar feat by defiling women in front join the active rebel groups, if they “black slaves.”37 The use of racial slurs of their male relatives. Rape does not had not already. In both cases, the during sexualized acts is evidence of just stop at reproductive and political perpetrators targeted enemy men for how perpetrators conflated ethnicity and purposes, however; both cases also explicit civilian murder in part because sexuality, justifying acts of sexual violence show the use of women’s bodies for killing men “can more easily be portrayed as legitimate combat.”41 This gendered targeting allowed perpetrators to hide "Along these lines, women in both cases (at least temporarily) ethnic cleansing were not seen as a dangerous military and allowed them to reserve “lesser” threat and were instead used as a means of punishments for women and children, affecting the male balance of power through who are seen as more fragile, innocent, reproduction or political superiority—or simply and defenseless by the local and as the objects of male satisfaction. " international communities.

Similarities: in the name of stopping a threat to ethnic sheer pleasure.38 Rape camps in Bosnia Targeting of Victims self-determination. Along these lines, afforded Serbian military men a sexual In terms of gendered violence, women in both cases were not seen as outlet, and Janjaweed militiamen have the primary difference between the a dangerous military threat and were been known to rape women when they two cases lies in the treatment of instead used as a means of affecting venture out of their villages or refugee males as sexual objects in Bosnia and the male balance of power through camps for firewood—a setting that is as equals in Darfur. Serb aggressors reproduction or political superiority—or devoid of a male presence to potentially sexually targeted both men and women simply as the objects of male satisfaction. emasculate and shows an opportunistic because both gendered victims were Forced impregnation was a popular tool side to rape.39 The similarities between sexualized in masculine discourse among the two perpetrator groups to Bosnia and Darfur in male-to-female and the nationalist media. Muslim ensure the favored ethnic group could sexual violence can be traced to equally men in particular were vilified as both

Spring 2012 25 Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan / Sara Plana

highly heterosexual (posing a threat communist society and technological marauding perpetrators in Darfur. The to pure Serbian womanhood) and advances allowed for pornography—in conflict in Bosnia began once Serbian plausibly homosexual (posing a threat print and screen—to flourish, perhaps aggressors invaded and occupied a to militarized, masculine, Serbian heightening the sexual undertone of specific set of territories in the former manhood). Janjaweed aggressors, male and female roles in society.42 Yugoslavia. In fact, the aforementioned on the other hand, targeted women The presence of widespread use of “rape camps” were the sites of most of and men separately when it came to pornography obviously does not provide the sexual violence. Serb military men inflicting sexual violence: women for a causal link to the Serbian wartime thus had the time, the resources, and sexual assault and men for the resulting sexual violence. Despite this, it is an the private space to develop elaborate psychological and political power-play, important point of comparison between sexual schemes (e.g., sexual torture humiliation, and—eventually—murder. the two cases because it highlights how games) with which to “punish” the In the case of Darfur, sexual violence Serbians still committed such acts of vilified Muslim men and women. In stark against men did not occur specifically sexual violence despite being exposed contrast to the territorially stable Serbs because men (even men of the less to such highly sexualized mass media in Bosnia, the perpetrators in Darfur desirable African ethnicity) were viewed through modern means. In Darfur, were nomadic and pillaging in nature. as equal threats and were not extremely however, it is quite possible that most Despite Bosnia’s often mountainous sexualized as in Bosnia. Sudanese perpetrators were not as well- terrain, which might impede population acquainted with such mass sexualization density in some areas, Sudan has a Role of Technological Advance of the populace, and yet they came greater geographical hurdle on this front: in Exposing Serbians to (Homo) to similar uses of sexual violence. In desert. Thus, Janjaweed aggressors sexuality this particular issue, the stark contrast were forced to carry out their acts of Nationalist Serbia’s highly sexualized shows the complexities interwoven into sexual terror from village to village, often culture was also a product of the sexual violence as a means of warfare miles apart. As a result of this need modern age and the globalization in situations of ethnic cleansing or for efficiency, Janjaweed were limited and technology that came along with genocide. in their ability to perform, let alone it. In the 1990s, Serbia, as part of formulate or develop, sexual and other the European continent, had a much Territorial Stability versus violent techniques beyond the “basics” greater access to the types of media Nomadic Existence (rape, occasional quick mutilation, and that Sudanese infrastructure could not The degree and type of sexual murder of husbands, fathers, and sons). manage in 2003 and in many ways still violence used by aggressors in each Therefore, in Bosnia, male-to-male cannot manage today—namely the wide case also depended on the type of sexual violence called for hiding the networks of television and print media. perpetrator regime set up: occupation events from public view in a way that Serbia’s globalized communist and post- and territorial stability in Bosnia versus was not necessarily the case in Darfur— and in order for that to happen, control over the given territories was necessary. "The cases of genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina Although this territorial stability factor and Darfur, Sudan share striking similarities was not the primary mechanism fueling when it comes to how the respective societies male-to-male sexual violence in Bosnia, shaped male and female identities, identities its absence in Darfur in part shows it that were constructed but widely accepted and was an important necessary condition that informed the use of gendered violence. " for the degree of male sexual torture that took place.

26 JUIS Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan / Sara Plana

Endnotes Boys in Conflict Situations."Security Dialogue Conclusion 37, no. 1 (2006): 95. 1. Article 6, d, “Rome Statute of the International 16. Ibid., 94-95. The cases of genocide in Bosnia- Criminal Court,” OHCHR Homepage, accessed November 7, 2010, http://www2. 17. Ibid., 95. Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan share ohchr.org/english/law/criminalcourt.htm. 18. Žarkov, 166. striking similarities when it comes to 2. Adrien Katherine Wing and Sylke Merchan. 19. Ibid. how the respective societies shaped "Rape, Ethnicity, and Culture: Spirit Injury from Bosnia to Black America." Columbia Human 20. Ibid. male and female identities, identities that Rights Law Review 25.1 (1993): 32. 21. Karin Willemse, One foot in heaven: narratives were constructed but widely accepted 3. Sabrina P. Ramet, Gender politics in the on gender and Islam in Darfur, West-Sudan. and that informed the use of gendered Western Balkans: women and society in (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 481. Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav successor violence. In both cases, the society 22. The leader of the JEM used to be involved states. (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania in the National Islamic Front, the dominant in question accepted the ideal male State University Press, 1999): 155. political party headed by Sudan’s head of identity as overwhelmingly masculine 4. Ibid., 155. state (since 1989), Omar Al-Bashir. and female identity as wholly dependent 5. Serbians were not the only aggressors during 23. Willemse, 483. this conflict that utilized the power of sexual on its usefulness to males, namely 24. Ibid., 490. violence for ethnic cleansing purposes (in through reproduction and motherly fact, Bosnian and Croat aggressors also took 25. Because the conflict in Sudan lacks the part in this technique). But because Serbian same nationalist framework as the conflict care. Yet, in the former Yugoslavia, this aggression against Bosnian Muslims during in Bosnia-Herzegovina (especially in terms masculine discourse veered significantly the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina is the of breadth of a technological network for only documented case of highly sexualized mass communication), masculine discourses from simply constructing an inward aggression against men, this paper will focus are catalogued in less official (read: printed) male model toward constructing an predominantly on the perpetrator-victim link media. Instead, the cultural discourse on between these two populations. gender relations has been concluded additional image of the male enemy from personal accounts as well as primary 6. Ramet, 160, 162. as a sexual opposite and a threat sources such as short written or oral stories. 7. Accurate numbers of sexually tortured men specifically because of his exotic 26. Afis Ayinde Oladosu, "Al-Rujulah: Male and have been more difficult to collect than Masculinities in Modern Sudanese Narrative sexuality. In this way, although sexual corresponding numbers of women because Discourse." Journal of Women of the Middle of the stigma of discussions of sexual violence toward women in the two East and the Islamic World 7 (2009): 254. violence among men in most cultures—and cases was comparable—and stemmed especially in the Bosnian Muslim population. 27. Oladosu, 256. See: Augusta DelZotto and Adam Jones. back to the well-known theories of 28. Allison Ruby Reid-Cunningham, "Rape as a "’Male-on-Male Sexual Violence in Wartime’ Weapon of Genocide." Genocide Studies the female body as the battlefield on (Del Zotto/Jones)." Adam Jones – and Prevention 3, no. 3 (2008): 287. Homepage, http://adamjones.freeservers. which men fight for sexual, social, and com/malerape.htm, accessed November 29. Tine Davids, The gender question in political supremacy—sexual violence 7, 2010. globalization: changing perspectives and practices (Aldershot, Hants, England: against men in the case of Bosnia 8. Dubravka Žarkov, The body of war: media, Ashgate, 2005), 170. ethnicity, and gender in the break-up of was linked to nationalist propaganda Yugoslavia (Durham: Duke University Press, 30. Willemse, 418. expounding the sexual extremity (both 2007), 120, 123. 31. Ibid., 419. heterosexual and homosexual) of the 9. Ibid., 99, 117. 32. Ibid., 493. Bosnian Muslim. These cases show the 10. Ibid., 124-126. 33. Stephanie N. Sackellares, "From Bosnia to power of discourse to shape the actions 11. Ibid., 156. Sudan: Sexual Violence in Modern Armed Conflict."Wisconsin Women’s Law Journal of individuals—but with much higher 12. Ibid., 168. 20 (2005): 156. stakes that deeply wound the basic, 13. Ibid., 164. 34. Ibid., 157. social underpinnings of each victimized 14.Todd A. Salzman, "Rape Camps as a Means 35. Ibid. of Ethnic Cleansing: Religious, Cultural, and community. Ethnic Responses to Rape Victims in the 36. Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf, "Competing Former Yugoslavia." Human Rights Quarterly Masculinities: Probing Political Disputes 20, no. 2 (1998): 359. as Acts of Violence against Women from Southern Sudan and Darfur." Human Rights 15. R. Charli Carpenter, "Recognizing Gender- Review 7 (2006): 65. Based Violence Against Civilian Men and

Spring 2012 27 Male and Female Sexual Violence in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Darfur, Sudan / Sara Plana

37. Reid-Cunningham, 287. Balkans: women and society in Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav successor states. University Park, 38. DelZotto and Jones. Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999. 39. Emily Wax, "’We want to make a light baby’: Arab militiamen in Sudan said to Use Rape Reid-Cunningham, Allison Ruby. "Rape as a Weapon as Weapon of Ethnic Cleansing," Washington of Genocide." Genocide Studies and Post, June 30, 2004, accessed November Prevention 3, no. 3 (2008): 279-296. 7, 2010, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ wp-dyn/articles/A16001-2004Jun29.html. Sackellares, Stephanie N. "From Bosnia to Sudan: Sexual Violence in Modern Armed Conflict." 40. Carpenter, 90. Wisconsin Women’s Law Journal 20 (2005): 41. Adam Jones, Gendercide and genocide. 136-165. (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2004), 65. Salzman, Todd A. "Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing: Religious, Cultural, and 42. Žarkov, 149. Ethnic Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia." Human Rights Quarterly Bibliography 20.2 (1998): 348-378. Wax, Emily. "’We want to make a light baby’: Arab "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court." militiamen in Sudan said to Use Rape as OHCHR Homepage. http://www2.ohchr. Weapon of Ethnic Cleansing." Washington Post, org/english/law/criminalcourt.htm (accessed June 30, 2004. http://www.washingtonpost. November 7, 2010). com/wp-dyn/articles/A16001-2004Jun29. html (accessed November 7, 2010). Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa. "Competing Masculinities: Probing Political Disputes as Acts Willemse, Karin. One foot in heaven: narratives on of Violence against Women from Southern gender and Islam in Darfur, West-Sudan. Sudan and Darfur." Human Rights Review 7 Leiden: Brill, 2007. (2006): 59-74. Wing, Adrien Katherine, and Sylke Merchan. "Rape, Carpenter, R. Charli. "Recognizing Gender-Based Ethnicity, and Culture: Spirit Injury from Bosnia Violence Against Civilian Men and Boys in to Black America." Columbia Human Rights Conflict Situations." Security Dialogue 37.1 Law Review 25.1 (1993): 1-48. (2006): 83-103. Žarkov, Dubravka. The body of war: media, ethnicity, Davids, Tine. The gender question in globalization: and gender in the break-up of Yugoslavia. changing perspectives and practices. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2005.

DelZotto, Augusta, and Adam Jones. “‘Male-on-Male Sexual Violence in Wartime’ (Del Zotto/Jones).” Adam Jones - Homepage. http://adamjones. freeservers.com/malerape.htm (accessed November 7, 2010).

Jones, Adam. Gendercide and genocide. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2004.

Oladosu, Afis Ayinde. "Al-Rujulah: Male and Masculinities in Modern Sudanese Narrative Discourse."Journal of Women of the Middle East and the Islamic World 7 (2009): 249-270.

Ramet, Sabrina P. Gender politics in the Western

28 JUIS Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism

by Yoonj Kim

his paper addresses the lack of social cohesion among Germany's various ethnic groups through a sociocultural lens. I propose introducing forms of affirmative action legislation in Germany’s T upper-level corporate positions (much like a recent bill raised for women in Germany) as well as in its media industry. These proposals are built upon the idea that increased physical interaction in decision-making boardrooms and cultural familiarity through television programs will help alleviate tensions between native and non-native German citizens.

Introduction me to support the formation of a state- country’s economy and enrich its cultural sanctioned, career-based integrative diversity, so their traditions and national In the midst of increasing solution. In modern Germany, successful identities should be respected in a way globalization and prevalence of integration should involve dual processes that does not impose foreign customs technologies that bring people closer of acculturation of German habits by onto German citizens. Thus, transcultural together faster, nations must be receptive foreigners, and transcultural acceptance acceptance implies a mutual respect and adaptable to the cultural and racial by both native and non-native Germans, between native and non-native Germans diversification of their populations. As along with legal minimum quotas for for each other’s way of life. the site of one of history’s biggest citizens of color hired in high-level Acculturation traditionally means genocides, Germany must act more company and high-exposure media that foreigners, or minorities, have a carefully than most, for the present positions.1 way of identifying with, and possibly survival of Holocaust victims and Note that I advocate adopting, the culture of the country in perpetrators serves as a reminder that “transcultural acceptance,” rather which they reside.3 Mandatory German a racist doctrine dominated its politics than “transculturation,” as coined by language classes are the most important not too long ago. How can Germany, a anthropologist Fernando Ortiz in 1940.2 acculturative process for long-term country with a recent history of genocide, Based on Ortiz’s framework, the latter residents, for language serves as the successfully integrate a newly racially term would suggest that Germany adopt basis of communication. These classes and culturally diverse population into its the cultural practices of its immigrants also constitute a form of transcultural political and social spheres? An in-depth, and vice versa, which would unfairly acceptance on the part of immigrants. interdisciplinary examination of its political deprive native citizens of their national For native Germans, a crucial basis for and cultural history from World War II to heritage and customs. At the same transcultural acceptance is respect for the present, coupled with theories on time, immigrants in Germany support the non-native Germans and immigrants, nationhood and acculturation, has led

Yoonj Kim. Yoonj Kim studies journalism and international studies at Northwestern University. She is a Global Fellow at the Center for Global Engagement, has had her work featured in outlets such as The Chicago Tribune, and is on the board of the student-led, socially-conscious media group Inspire Media.

Spring 2012 29 Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

which I will argue is built upon familiarity citizenship conditions by the state, Because official policies towards and proximity. Hence the advocacy for which allowed them to automatically integration and immigrants have only recently been implemented and because racism is difficult to quantify, "Hence the advocacy for a legal employment quota approaches to this topic are variegated in executive and media positions, for it will bring the and lack a popular method. However, two parties physically closer in the boardrooms, where scholars’ findings on modern European influential decisions for the rest of the populace are and German immigration policies made, and socially closer through media and popular can be generalized into three distinct culture, where the presence of an ethnic face will categories: a structural discrimination familiarize the population with the normalized idea of against minorities; the existence and an ethnic-minority German citizen." underutilization of potential social and integration promoters; and the tendency of minorities to adapt to, and possibly a legal employment quota in executive reclaim their German citizenship without adopt, a pre-existing culture. and media positions, for it will bring residence or language requirements. Certain studies have found that the two parties physically closer in the Meanwhile, migrants from countries like both European and German institutions boardrooms, where influential decisions Turkey, (until very recently considered maintain a distinct division between for the rest of the populace are made, “guest workers”) with whom Germany ethnic majority and minority groups. and socially closer through media and formed labors contracts in the 1960s Alana Lentin, a political sociologist at the popular culture, where the presence of an to help rebuild the country after World University of Sussex, presents a degreed ethnic face will familiarize the population War II, constitute approximately 60% notion of racism in her 2005 work Racism with the normalized idea of an ethnic- of the foreign population. Nonetheless, and Anti-Racism in Europe, in which minority German citizen. it was considerably more difficult for she argues that European anti-racism them to gain citizenship despite having exists “along a continuum of proximity- Existing Arguments on lived and worked in the country for to-distance from the political culture Race and Immigrant years more than the ethnic German of the nation-state.” She clarifies that Relations in Germany and migrants. Although these naturalization anti-racist activities are “not explicable Europe laws have now changed to impose outside of an analysis centred on the As recently as 2002, Germany had the same residence and language histories of European states and the the largest number of immigrants in the requirements on all migrants, ethnic political processes they engender."6 She world after the United States.4 However, minorities within Germany still remain considers the histories and politics of Germany only began implementing largely underrepresented across various European countries as key determinants effective policies addressing the occupations.5 It is in this national in the country’s attitude towards its ethnic diversification of its population in 2005, framework that the current state of minorities. After an analysis of United with the advent of integration policies that multiculturalism and integration in Nations cultural policies, along with the treated all immigrants equally regardless Germany will be analyzed. Considering development of anti-racism in Western of their ethnicity or country of origin. the country’s history of genocide and Europe, she reaches the conclusion that Prior to these changes, ethnic Germans state-endorsed racism, I will evaluate “the states of western Europe […] are (Aussiedler), usually returning from former how modern Germany includes non- developing a discourse of discrimination USSR republics, were given favorable native Germans as part of their society. that separates increasingly between

30 JUIS Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

in- and out-groups.”7 This construction substantial explanation. He applies these existing training programs do not actually aims to keep out groups of “second- indicators to the results of Germany’s attend them. and third-generation ‘minorities’” in an 2002 national elections to reach the There are studies that also highlight attempt to keep the “in-group,” which conclusion that “the German political the existence of social programs that includes both native and first-generation system is accommodating anti-immigrant fail to fully include and benefit their minority populations, more secure without prejudice and anti-Semitism to a better targeted minority populations, particularly outside influence. Although Lentin’s degree than other European polities.”11 at the decision-making levels. In claims pertain to Europe as a whole, her Like Lentin, he sees a structural, 2006, German Politics and Society notion of a constructed divide between state-based issue in the exclusion published independent studies on populations is similar to the findings of a of immigrants and ethnic minority Berlin’s Social City Program by Harmut study based solely on Germany. populations from the mainstream culture. Haeussermann, a professor of urban There are more than economic Other scholars perceive the issue sociology at Humboldt University Berlin, reasons behind the native German differently, claiming that potential in “The National ‘Social City Program’” population’s prejudice against ethnic institutions of integration are already and by Janice Bockmeyer, a professor minorities. Jerome S. Legge Jr., a in place in Germany, but that they of government at City University of professor at the School of Public Affairs are being ineffectively utilized or New York, in “Social Cities and Social and Policy at the University of Georgia, implemented by both minorities and Inclusion.” Both scholars emphasize that wrote his 2003 work Jews, Turks, and Germans. Economist Thomas Liebig’s while integration issues were addressed Other Strangers based on empirical 2005 study for the Organization for by the Social City Program, a series of findings from surveys conducted Economic Cooperation and Development government-sponsored measures to throughout Europe over a span of several (OECD), entitled “The Labour Market assist the economically disadvantaged, years.8 He divides racism into three Integration of Immigrants in Germany,” the opinions and status of immigrants separate spheres—economic resentment, cites discrimination as one factor among were categorically ignored at the symbolic racism, and traditional racism— many for the existing (namely economic) influential, executive levels. Haussermann and concludes that traditional racism is inequalities in Germany. Citing data cites two case studies of the Social City the most probable explanation for current from the 1990s to 2004, he compares Program’s federal urban renewal initiative conflicts within Germany. He claims the economic situation of the immigrant to conclude that the actual “social that while economic resentment, based and second-generation population to composition of the areas” was not an on the idea that minorities take jobs that of the native-born and concludes objective of the program, and that “work that native Germans would otherwise that deficiencies in language skills, lack with local residents did not emphasize fulfill, may be an underlying reason for of vocational training, and discrimination participation in decision-making."13 Along racism against minorities, it does not are the reasons behind the second- the same vein, Bockmeyer notes that explain social attitudes such as lower generation’s bleak employment situation, the program’s emphasis was “drawn approval responses for “marriage to a relative to both native-born Germans and away from targeted groups such as Turk.”9 He interprets such findings as immigrants in other OECD nations. He immigrants or the disabled” and that proof for traditional racism, a systematic argues for more vocational and language while residents were welcome to share method of reacting more negatively to training programs that assist young ideas and “‘cooperate’ in program certain ethnicities based on existing foreigners and suggests that Germany implementation,” they could not stereotypes.10 Symbolic racism, which adopt anti-discrimination policies that “[interfere] with program priorities.”14 The Legge defines as a masked expression of other EU countries have already put in scholars’ findings point to the need for racism through support for conservative place12 At the same time, he notes that more actual participation of the immigrant ideologies, is not highly regarded as a many immigrants who are offered pre- community in executive positions, instead

Spring 2012 31 Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

of only in its implementation stages. and ease of travel (i.e. discounted flights adopt features of the dominant culture for Neither specifically addresses racism or to Istanbul). At the same time, having themselves, completely reject it, or adapt discrimination as did Legge or Lentin, been born in Germany, they identify with certain features to create a “binational” but the issues are inherently addressed aspects of the German culture as well, identity. Rudmin argues, however, that through political topics. Bockmeyer particularly in the realms of language prior studies in measuring acculturation argues that due to a “low level of trust” and music. Kaya gives the example are questionable because they assume in authorities on the part of immigrants of German-Turkish hip-hop culture as three questionable presumptions—that and ethnic minorities, these groups the ideal embodiment of his theory of respondents would experience a “loss tend to gather in self-formed immigrant transnational cultural space—it serves of cultural attachment” after rejecting associations to forge both their own as a way for ethnic-minority youth to the two cultures, that their rejection ethnic and political identities. She notes represent themselves in the mainstream implies a “rejection of all cultures,” that these cultural groups are ultimately culture as part of a globally popular and that “loss of cultural attachment is translatable to the political sphere based phenomenon. Through music, a medium necessarily distressing.”18 He instead on research that found immigrants that people of all cultures can relate to, suggests an examination of acculturation who participate in “ethnic organizations they have a platform to express not just that considers the decisions made by were more likely to be engaged in other their new cultural identities but political the minority communities, rather than political activities.”15 opinions as well, thereby allowing them focusing on their distress. The third collective perspective to enter the political conversation through Fernando Ortiz offers an alternative on modern German multiculturalism non-political means. Hip-hop is therefore to the idea of acculturation by claiming points to the tendency of the minority used to both “construct and articulate” that transculturation is the process populations to be heavily influenced by their dual identities as ethnic minorities in through which minorities and majorities and eventually take on the culture of Germany. should assimilate with each other. He the native population. Like Bockmeyer, offers the term as “a substitute for the Ayhan Kaya, director of the European Distinguishing Between term acculturation,” which he claims Processes of Cultural Institute at Istanbul Bilgi University, is inherently the “loss or uprooting Transformation found a correlation between immigrants’ of a previous culture, which could Anthropologists call this process participation in non-political activities be defined as a deculturation.19 He of adopting the mainstream culture and political activism as an important considers transculturation to be the as part of one’s own “acculturation.” foundation for a multicultural society. more appropriate term because it not Floyd Webster Rudmin, a professor Focusing on the second- and third- only “better expresses the different of social and community psychology generation German-Turk demographic, he phases of the process of transition from at the University of Tromsø in Norway, considers their current cultural situation one culture to another,” but it creates describes acculturation as the conception a “transnational space,” in which culture a new culture, a phenomena he calls in which “minorities react to prolonged is viewed not as a single, homogenous “neoculturation.” He succinctly relates it intercultural contact by assimilating to the state of being but rather a constantly to the creation of an offspring who has dominant society, by separating from it, changing mixing of cultures and a traits from both parents.20 Therefore, or by becoming bicultural.”17 In a similar process of “becoming.”16 Due to the based on Ortiz’s description of cultural way that the young Turks in Kaya’s study spread of technology and globalization, integration, interaction between Germany constructed a new identity by creating a immigrant youths can easily keep in and its non-native population would result transnational cultural space through the touch with the culture of their home in a new culture that is a fusion of both arts, acculturation allows minorities to countries via Internet, satellite television, German and ethnic elements.

32 JUIS Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

Altogether, with debates on people with fair skin – to be accepted title of Charles Hawley’s 2004 article various types of racism, its ties to as a natural German citizen. This idea in Der Spiegel-Online summarizes one socioeconomic disparities between of nationhood became most popular viewpoint—“How Germany Has Failed foreigners and natives, and processes in after World War I and became an integral Its Immigrants.”24 He makes the claim which integration can take place, these part of the Nazi Party’s ideology. Adolf that while Germany’s immigrants are scholars have formed an interdisciplinary Hitler references the volkisch movement at fault for not trying to learn the framework for understanding German in Mein Kampf, declaring “the National- language and participate in German multiculturalism. What these arguments Socialist German Workers’ Party adopts culture, Germans themselves are also collectively point to regarding the the essential elements from the basic to blame for not making integration furthering of integration in Germany is reasoning of a general populist [volkisch] a two-sided process. In the article, the importance of determining what type world-image […This] provides the basis Heinz Buschkowsky, mayor of of cultural exchange should take place for a victorious fight on behalf of this a Berlin district, states, “We in and which programs to implement in world-concept.”22 Germany have completely forgotten order to facilitate color-blind intercultural Although the notion of Volk was all that integration is a process requiring relationships. but eradicated with the fall of the Nazi action from both sides […] We have Party in World War II in 1945, Germany’s just assumed that the second and A Brief Background on Historical third generation immigrants would German National Identity citizenship laws still operate partially 23 just become more German. But The term Volk, German for “the on the principle of jus sanguinus. By to expect someone from a foreign folk” or “the people,” has been a part of inferring citizenship on the basis of the culture to abandon their culture Germany’s lexicon since the 19th century, parent’s nationality, one’s lineage is to was wrong.”25 This implies that during which the volkisch ideology was some degree still important in Germany acculturation, in which a population summarized by the term Blut und Boden, when determining one’s national identity. (usually the minority) adopts the culture and social patterns of another population (usually the majority), "What these arguments collectively point to has been the standard expectation regarding the furthering of integration in Germany for integration within Germany.26 is the importance of determining what type of A relevant example would be the cultural exchange should take place and which mandatory integration courses that programs to implement in order to facilitate teach German language and culture color-blind intercultural relationships." to immigrants.27 As Buschkowsky states, however, the majority must also play a role in at least accepting the idea that minorities need not or blood and soil.21 This phrase reveals The Framework for completely give up their native culture that the popular conception of a German Understanding Integration for Germany’s. The assumption that national was rooted in the person’s in Modern Germany minorities, including immigrants, ancestral blood line and origination, or The extent to which the German would take full responsibility for birth, in Germany. Such a construction government should take part in inserting themselves into German inevitably allowed only Caucasians of integration and multicultural affairs is society has proven to have negative Germanic descent – in phenotypic terms, the subject of ongoing debate. The consequences, as they are seen as

Spring 2012 33 Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

second-class citizens. The feeling feelings of animosity, resentment, identity for many of its citizens. of not being a fully accepted or and injustice on the part of native Germans moving overseas may take welcome in society has negative Germans who wish to maintain their part of that cultural identity with socioeconomic effects on the distinctive cultural identity even in them, though by virtue of moving country, especially on its younger a multicultural society. This was out of the country, it is reasonable to generations, as a report on young recently demonstrated in March expect that they will have to pick up ethnic minorities in Germany stated 2010, when Turkish Prime Minister some of the cultural characteristics that “a small segment of the young Recep Tayyip Erdogan suggested (especially the language) of their immigrant generation has accepted that Germany open Turkish-language new host country to live comfortably its troublemakers in Germany.”28 It high schools.29 Voices on both in its society. Moving abroad gives the example of a German-born sides of the political spectrum, includes the implicit understanding young man of Turkish descent who from the conservative Christian that cultural norms will be at least avoided going to school because he Democrats to the more liberal Social slightly altered. By the same logic, felt his teachers “were humiliating Democrats, expressed disapproval residing in one’s home country also him” for his ethnicity, eventually being of the proposal, according to a Der includes the assumption that one is arrested at 15 for street crimes. Spiegel-Online article that reported at the very least content or tolerant Another, a 22-year-old German-born Turkish woman in dental school, asks why the public talks about, rather "Germany as a nation has a responsibility than with, the minority population to ensure that the integrative actions taken in its debates on integration. by minorities are not only acknowledged These voices from a portion of the but also actively accepted, thereby further German population emphasize that encouraging minorities in their efforts. " integration realistically cannot be achieved simply through acculturative methods. Germany as a nation has a responsibility to ensure that the on the story.30 Although Germany of one’s native customs. It would integrative actions taken by minorities does have a responsibility to support not only be unjust, but detrimental are not only acknowledged but also all members of its democratic to global cultures as a whole, to actively accepted, thereby further society, members who as previously force foreign cultures onto native encouraging minorities in their efforts. explained contribute to its economy inhabitants choosing to reside in their Transculturation would not be and diversity, such a method of home countries, even in our rapidly the best response to this dilemma, forcing a foreign culture onto a globalizing world. A country, more for the process would result in a native population is not conducive to than serving as an economic partner “neoculture,” which, as explained integration due to the opposition it or official region of residence, is the by Ortiz, is a combination of the would create. cradle of a unique set of traditions, two original interacting cultures. Furthermore, Germany is home history, and language not found This imposed cultural influence to its unique set of customs and anywhere else in the world. In this onto Germany would create traditions that compose a cultural sense, it serves as a preserver of

34 JUIS Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

history and a haven for ideologies or underway, as seen in a new initial influx of laborers from other customs. Israel, for example, is the demographic term “Deukisch,” or countries, Germany’s second- and protector of the Jewish faith; China, German-Turkish.31 Organizations third-generation foreigners have South Korea, and other East Asian such as the Deukische Generation largely continued to work in the blue- countries preserve Confucian ideals. in Berlin strive to provide a collar sectors that their forefathers The preservation of a country’s community for the new generation worked in. The scale of this trend native culture is imperative for the of Germans of Turkish descent, was highlighted by a European maintenance of global diversity and who often struggle to find their Community Labour Force survey maintaining unique, long-held values own cultural identity in the divide on the representation of first- and for its citizens. This has proven between their parents’ homeland second-generation immigrants in especially difficult now as immigration and their birthplace, as noted in occupational sectors between 1992 increases between countries with the article. These mobilizations and 2003.33 In the plant and machine traditionally few cultural similarities. by communities of ethnic minority operators sector, which had seen The best way for countries to retain Germans point to the need for a a 12 percent decrease in growth, their historical identities while widely accepted representation of the second generation took up 1.32 accommodating globalization would the new, ethnic German of today’s times more share of the sector’s thus be to create avenues of mutual multicultural society. As local workforce than the native-born. In appreciation between the native and groups of young Germans of various contrast, in the professional sector, incoming cultures. ethnicities begin to create an identity which had grown by 27 percent in the Hence, while the Turkish prime for themselves, their efforts to be same period, the second generation minister’s suggestion for Turkish accepted into Germany’s culture had only about three-quarters of the public schools would be detrimental must be reciprocated by the nation. share of native-born professionals, to multiculturalism, Germany should The most influential method to and the foreign-born even less than offer ways for its non-native citizens both acknowledge and encourage that at about three-fifths. These data to insert themselves into the national their integrative efforts would be to highlight the importance of advancing way of life. Similarly, foreigners increase ethnic minority visibility in ethnic minorities to careers with coming into Germany should be Germany's public media industry and a positive future outlook in which expected to adopt some of the executive company positions. they can come in contact with other cultural aspects of Germany as well. demographics as equals. Therefore, transcultural acceptance, Importance of Visibility Therefore, the reasons for such as simply offering Turkish and Social Status in targeting the media and executive language classes in schools while Professions career fields as quota sectors requiring potential future citizens to Germany has diversified greatly are twofold: first, the number of speak German, would be the best despite its historically Caucasian minorities in those fields tend to be process by which both native and population. Nearly twenty percent of most disproportionate and second, non-native Germans would feel their its population is classified as having by virtue of being high-powered, original cultures are accepted and some type of migrant background.32 white-collar occupations, they respected, would understand and However, there is little chance for automatically command attention be familiar with others, and would integration of ethnic minorities and respect. In 2009, National ultimately facilitate integration. within Germany when the work Public Radio released a report on Such a movement is already force is largely stratified. After the Germany’s minorities as part of a

Spring 2012 35 Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

series on race in Europe. Entitled careers in the media, which I found to television show featuring a particular “German Minorities Still Fight be as disproportionate as possible in demographic in a leadership role were to be Seen, Heard,” by Italian terms of minority representation. more likely than before to vote for that journalist Sylvia Poggioli, it singles In personally conducted same demographic.40 The catalyst to out “mainstream media, police, examinations of Germany’s public sustainable long-term integration within judiciary, or politics” as the fields media culture, there was very little Germany can therefore begin in better that particularly lack minorities.34 ethnic minority representation. At minority representation in its media While the underrepresentation in ARD, one of Germany’s main public culture. At this point, the most effective these governmental jobs is important broadcasters, 38 out of its 38 way to instigate this change lies in a to note, I did not consider the law moderators were Caucasian.36 The quota system, a form of affirmative enforcement and political fields as most popular television programs at action in the workplace. necessary or ideal targets for quotas. RTL Television, a German commercial The legalization of a professional There are already processes television station with the biggest quota system is not unheard of in in place to increase the number of market share,all feature Caucasians Germany and current events suggest minorities in the police force, such in nearly every recurring role.37 The that such laws could stand to pass as a recently-passed law in Berlin single minority actor is the Turkish- through the Bundestag and Bundesrat, requiring at least a quarter of open German actress Sila Sahin, in Gute Germany’s two legislative bodies. officer positions to go to applicants Zeiten, Schlechte Zeiten, out of a Evidence for this possibility lies in of a minority background.35 There cast of 21 characters. In the highest- recent measures to install quotas for can be no similar programs for rated show at Das Erste, Germany’s women in executive positions, which political positions; since politics is number three commercial television have generated considerable support an elected career position, it would channel,38 every actor is Caucasian.39 within the government.41 Though not a be undemocratic to institute laws or Such a lack of representation is part of this study, women are another quotas requiring people to vote for alarming, particularly in a democratic underrepresented group in some ethnic politicians. Therefore, the best society with a diverse background, career sectors, particularly in upper way to increase diversity in politics and in light of the fact that media management. Though the approaches and target quotas differ, many are aiming for at least a 30 percent female representation on top German "The precedent thus exists for a movement companies’ executive and supervisory aiming for legal minority representation on boards, with a targeted passing date by company boards and in visible media careers. July 2012.42 The precedent thus exists This is not only possible, it is the only way for a movement aiming for legal minority forward in the current political climate." representation on company boards and in visible media careers. This is not only possible, it is the only way forward in is to diversify the pool of qualified representation can play a significant the current political climate. candidates. On the other hand, role in political influence. Surveys have Despite efforts to mobilize there are no legal quotas in place for found that viewers who watched a immigrants and minorities to attain the

36 JUIS Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

same educational and job qualifications which can also be influential in securing helped break down racial barriers by as native Germans, discrimination still a job. Students with German parents presenting the diverse citizens in an appears to be the key deterrent in those who have established professional empowered light. It quotes a Polish groups’ social, economic, and political and personal relationships in the immigrant student who took part in the advancement. In a study by the State community are inherently connected musical saying that before the show’s Office of Statistics in the German to more potential employers than are success, she had felt “like a ghost,” state of North Rhine-Westphalia, 2.6 students with immigrant parents with but “now I know I have to speak out, percent of high school graduates are fewer connections in the German and [the country] will take notice of unemployed, compared to 9.6 percent community. This calls for further me.” The opportunity to present herself of high school graduates with immigrant studies surveying the correlation on a public stage gave this student parents.43 These are students who between existing professional contacts the confidence to further her formerly have the same education and degree; and one’s chances for employment, withheld desire to be noticed, to be the only difference being that one group for such statistical evidence is a part of the national conversation. is of German descent while the other is currently lacking in studies on German Widespread exposure and confidence not. Therefore, a plausible explanation unemployment.44 through successful public performance for the 7 percent difference between Furthermore, the National Public can thus be considered significant parts the two demographics’ unemployment Radio report by Sylvia Poggioli points of minority empowerment. Additionally, levels is nationality-based to the fact that “surveys consistently according to John Eichler, an Afro- discrimination. Because constructions show most Germans don’t want German who saw the show, other of nationality can be based on color, foreigners in their country,” adding that types of media presence influence as mentioned earlier in the German there has been an annual average of 17 the population to perceive minorities concept of Volk, this can also race-related murders in recent years.45 differently. He specified the election translate to race-based discrimination. Because violence and discrimination of Barack Obama as the first African- Another reason for the difference in begins in the streets, in close proximity American president in the United unemployment levels could be differing to the people, change must also begin States, which resulted in international social skills. The employment process in the local social sphere. Nations can media coverage. “Perceptions will takes into account not just education impose the quotas from the federal change,” he said, “because we all and qualifications, but oftentimes levels, but it is the local forces that will have these stereotypes about people interviews and personal as well. ultimately carry out those laws and of African descent,” stereotypes which German students with native parents experience the results of integrative can change due to the shift in the may have an advantage in this regard experiences. An example of this is racial composition and ethnic roles due to familiarity with German cultural highlighted by the student musical that Germans are now witnessing norms. Students with immigrant phenomenon, The Streets of Wedding, on television. These examples show parents, on the other hand, have grown which originated in Berlin as an that media-based influences have up in a different cultural environment examination in racism for 100 German the potential to not only reach a wide at home and in other social circles students of various backgrounds. range of people, but also help alleviate introduced to them by their parents. Also covered in the NPR report, the barriers that may have prevented Other job-related social influences musical became a national success as different ethnic groups from interacting include networking and connections, the students toured the country and with one another in a positive light.

Spring 2012 37 Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

In much the same way, minority as the Newsweek articles states that, social status to having an established representation in the upper echelons “in Europe, we could not find one top business practice, yet this status is of top German companies will company with a minority CEO, and not as easily identifiable among shop facilitate integration. Throughout few with even one minority officer at owners as it is among white-collar Europe, many firms do not keep the senior level.” Considering these professions. The article quotes Holger official data on minority employment, deficiencies, implementing a quota Floeting, a Turkish business specialist at according to a 2002 enterprise report system not only for careers in the the German Institute of Foreign Affairs, by Newsweek International, titled media but also for executive and as stating, “When you look closely at 46 “Race in the European Boardroom. upper-level management positions the name plates in front of the offices Written by Rana Foroohar, an editor at would promote both diversity and of doctors, lawyers and advertising Newsweek’s international economics further studies on race and ethnicity in agents you can see the type of jobs section, the article notes that many professions. Through this system, more which are being offered to people in the company representatives reacted to the workers of German and non-German service industry, yet this isn’t evident 49 topic with anger or confusion (“What a descent would be brought into closer just walking on the street.” Because racist thing to ask!”), or gave responses professional and physical proximity, owning a storefront business like those offering Swiss or Belgian workers as thus facilitating integration through seen “just walking on the street” lacks examples of minority employees. In well-rounded, wide-reaching company the social recognition of an official title Germany in particular, the government policies and actions decided by a or degree, there is little professional discourages acknowledging ethnic variety of perspectives. respect conferred onto the Turkish minorities in the workplace, though after The potential for close professional owners, whom Floeting states are often 2003 a European Union law increasingly proximity in increasing integration “overlooked.” pushes for firms to keep track of the can already be seen in the case of Furthermore, the existence of 47 number of minorities they employ. Turkish-owned businesses, which an immigrant-owned store is enough This relatively new law is the first step are changing social perceptions of to form the basis for integration for Germany to begin implementing immigrants. The rise in the number of and benefits Germany as a whole, further measures to promote diversity business owners of Turkish descent, for business brings the community in its companies, particularly in the from 22,000 in the 1980s to currently together in a professional exchange boardrooms, for statistics and studies 80,000, is beginning to reshape how that also supports the economy. The on minority representation in German Germany views Turkish business stores not only “serve a great function firms is currently lacking. Such owners, according to an October 2011 by supporting integration,” but “by knowledge is necessary to start a article in Deutsche Welle.48 The report creating jobs and employing people dialogue on diversity in the workplace, states that this change in perception they are making integration possible,” for a debate on the issue of race and is one of increased respect, as the according to Rainhardt Freiherr von ethnicity among German companies’ Turkish businesses create more jobs Baron Leoprechting, president of the executive positions cannot be for Germany and offer products that Turkish-German Chamber of Industry 50 sufficiently informed without knowing target the German customer instead and Commerce. By their mere exactly what the current employment of Turkish immigrants who were presence in the local level, ethnic ratio is. Nonetheless, the extreme lack traditionally their main consumers. minority businesspeople are capable of of minority executives is still evident, This implies that there is a certain creating a stronger sense of community

38 JUIS Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

in their areas. Taken to the upper nonetheless have more visibility than 12. Thomas Liebig, “The Labour Market Integration of Immigrants in Germany,” Organisation for levels in larger companies, where the those of other EU countries due to its Economic Cooperation and Development policies and decisions for the local position of power. Its efforts to uproot (2007): 232, 236. stores are made, more ethnic minority racism and discrimination within its 13. Hartmut Haeussermann, “The National ‘Social City Program’: Findings from the Midterm perspectives in the boardroom can borders could have an influence on Evaluation,” German Politics and Society encourage a more widespread and other countries’ discrimination policies. 24.81 (2006): 161. influential integrative movement. Implementing a quota system for 14. Janice Bockmeyer, “Social Cities and Social Inclusion: Assessing the Role of Turkish These findings collectively led high-visibility careers within a national Residents in Building the New Berlin,” me to the conclusion to construct community of cultural respect and German Politics and Society 24.81 (2006): 55. this integrative business exposure diversity would be Germany’s first steps 15. Bockmeyer, 61. . most effectively by creating more in enhancing democracy and quality 16. Ayhan Kaya, “German-Turkish Transnational opportunities—via employment of life not just for its own citizens, but Space: A Separate Space of Their Own,” quotas—for minorities at the executive possibly for people in other parts of German Studies Review 30.3 (2007): 485. levels, where the benefits of an Europe as well. 17. F.W. Rudmin, “Debate in Science: The Case of Acculturation,” AnthroGlobe Journal ethnically-interactive professional (2006): 3. environment are enhanced by the Endnotes 18. Ibid., 11. greater social recognition given to the 1. The term “integration” is defined in this study 19. Ortiz, 97-103. as a state of mutually tolerant, respectful, minority citizens in these “name-plated” and peaceful coexistence between 20. Ibid., 103. positions. demographics within a nation. 21. Bernard Susser, “Ideological Multivalence: 2. Fernando Ortiz, Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco Martin Buber and the German Volkish and Sugar (New York: A.A. Knopf, 1947), Tradition,” Political Theory 5.1 (1977): 77. Future Outreach 102-3. 22.Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (New York City: With German chancellor Angela Merkel 3. F.W. Rudmin, “Debate in Science: The Case of Stackpole Sons Publishers, 1939), 373. and French president Nicholas Sarkozy Acculturation,” AnthroGlobe Journal (2006). 23. In May 1999, the German government currently leading efforts to move the 4. Brett Klopp, German Multiculturalism: Immigrant passed a law combining jus sanguinus and Integration and the Transformation of jus soli (right of birthplace), the first revision European Union out of its economic Citizenship (Westport: Praeger, 2002), 2. in citizenry laws since 1913. Children crisis, such events have confirmed the who are born in Germany to non-German 5. At ARD, one of Germany’s main public parents still do not automatically receive considerable influence that Germany broadcasters, 38 out of its 38 moderators German citizenship; it is only granted when are Caucasian. The law enforcement fields has on the continent. Its power one parent has resided in Germany for at also lack minority officers, as evidenced by a least 8 years and has had a legal resident within the EU implies a degree of 2011 law passed in Berlin requiring one out permit for at least 3 years. See: Mathias Bös, of every 4 open positions to go to an ethnic responsibility to set a positive example “The Legal Construction of Membership: minority.. Nationality Law in Germany and the United for other EU countries beyond matters 6. Alana Lentin, Racism and Anti-Racism in Europe States,” Minda de Gunzberg Center for of finance. Xenophobia and racism (London: Pluto, 2004), 1. European Studies, Working Paper No. 00.5 (2005); Legge, 163. is not a new occurrence in European 7. Ibid., 312. 24. Charles Hawley, “How Germany Has Failed Its countries, one of the most prominent 8. Jerome S. Legge Jr., Jews, Turks, and Other Immigrants,” Der Spiegel-Online, December Strangers: The Roots of Prejudice in Modern examples being France’s headscarf 21, 2004, http://www.spiegel.de/ Germany (Madison: University of Wisconsin, international/0,1518,333899,00.html. ban, considered racist by many critics.51 2003), 4. 25. Hawley. Though Germany's power may largely 9. Ibid., 87. 26. Rudmin, 3. be consolidated in the European 10. Ibid., 11. 27. As of January 1, 2005, all migrant groups Union’s economic decisions, its actions 11. Ibid., 172. within Germany have to undergo 600 hours

Spring 2012 39 Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

of language instruction and 30 hours of 40. A survey conducted by the Geena Davis “Einschaltquoten und Marktanteile deutscher culture training in order to qualify for full social Institute on Gender in Media found that Fernsehsender.” Das Erste, November 16, benefits. See: Liebig, 212. among viewers who watched “Commander 2011. http://www.daserste.de/programm/ 28. Özlem Gezer, Maximilian Popp, and Christoph in Chief,” a hit ABC television program quoten.asp. Scheuermann, “German Turks Struggle featuring a female U.S. president, 73% were to Find Identity,” Der Spiegel International, more likely to vote for a female presidential Moderatoren. ARD. http://intern.tagesschau.de/ November 2, 2011, http://www.spiegel.de/ candidate after watching the show. See: flash/index.php. international/germany/0,1518,795299,00. http://bclc.chamberpost.com/2011/03/ html. geena-davis-%E2%80%9Cif-girls-can-see-it- Allen, Kristen. “Without Quota, Gender Equality ‘Will they-can-be-it-%E2%80%9D.html.. Never Happen.”” Der Spiegel Online, 29. Michael Scott Moore, “It’s Time for Turkey October 18, 2011. to Snap Out of Its Self-Delusion,” Der 41. Kristen Allen, “Without Quota, Gender Equality ‘Will Never Happen,’” Der Spiegel Online, Spiegel-Online, March 25, 2010, Baume, Maia de la, and Steven Erlanger. “Social October 18, 2011, http://www.spiegel.de/ http://www.spiegel.de/international/ Ills Feed Rise of Far-Right Party in France.” international/germany/0,1518,792470,00. germany/0,1518,685647,00.html. The New York Times, March 27, 2011. html. 30. Ibid. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/27/ 42. Ibid. world/europe/27france.html?_ 31. Ibid. r=1&scp=1&sq=france%20headscarf%20 43. Gezer, Popp, and Scheuermann. 32. In a 2010 study by the State Center for racist&st=cse. Political Education (Bundeszentrale für 44. Liebig, 243. Bockmeyer, Janice. “Social Cities and Social politische Bildung) 19.3% of the German 45. Poggioli. population was found to fall under one of Inclusion: Assessing the Role of Turkish four migrant classifications – foreigner with 46. Rana Foroohar, “Race in the European Residents in Building the New Berlin.” migration experience, foreigner without Boardroom,” Newsweek International, German Politics and Society 24.81 (2006): migration experience (i.e. non-German 2002, http://academic.udayton.edu/ 49-76. child of immigrants), German with migration race/06hrights/georegions/Europe/EU01. experience, or German without migrant htm. Bös, Mathias. “The Legal Construction of Membership: Nationality Law in Germany experience (i.e. German descendent of 47. Ibid. . migrant parents). See: Bundeszentrale für and the United States.” Minda de Gunzberg politische Bildung, State Center for Political 48. Jülide Danisman, “Turks in Germany – from Center for European Studies Working Paper Education, 2010, http://www.bpb.de/ employee to employer,” Deutsche Welle, No. 00.5 (2005). wissen/NY3SWU,0,Bev%F6lkerung_mit_ October 31, 2011, http://www.dw-world. Migrationshintergrund_I.html. de/dw/article/0,,15490061,00.html. Danisman, Jülide. “Turks in Germany - From Employee to Employer.” Deutsche Welle, 49. Ibid. 33. Liebig, 223. October 31, 2011. http://www.dw-world. 34. Sylvia Poggioli, “German Minorities Still 50. Ibid. de/dw/article/0,,15490061,00.html Fight to be Seen, Heard,” National 51. Maia de la Baume and Steven Erlanger, Foroohar, Rana. “Race in the European Public Radio, January 12, 2009, http:// “Social Ills Feed Rise of Far-Right Party Boardroom.” Newsweek International, www.npr.org/templates/story/story. in France,” The New York Times, 2002. http://academic.udayton.edu/ php?storyId=99189265. March 27, 2011, http://www.nytimes. race/06hrights/georegions/Europe/EU01. com/2011/03/27/world/europe/27france. 35. Jan Söfjer, “Eins, Zwei, Multikulti Polizei,” htm.. Der Spiegel-Online, July 25, 2011, html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=france%20 headscarf%20racist&st=cse. http://www.spiegel.de/karriere/ Haeussermann, Hartmut. “‘The National ‘Social City berufsleben/0,1518,776404,00.html.. Program’: Findings From the Midterm 36. “Moderatoren,” ARD, http://intern.tagesschau. Evaluation.” German Politics and Society de/flash/index.php 24.81 (2006): 145-163.

37. “Einschaltquoten und Marktanteile deutscher Hawley, Charles. “How Germany has Fernsehsender,” Das Erste, November 16, Bibliography Failed its Immigrants.” Der Spiegel Online, 2011, http://www.daserste.de/programm/ December 21, 2004, http://www.spiegel. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. State quoten.asp. de/international/0,1518,333899,00.html. Center For Education. 2010. http://www. 38. The highest-ranked show at Das Erste bpb.de/wissen/NY3SWU,0,Bev%F6lkerung_ Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf. New York City: is the drama Im falschen Leben. See: mit_Migrationshintergrund_I.html.. “Einschaltquoten und Marktanteile deutscher Stackpole Sons Publishers, 1939. Fernsehsender.” “Im falschen Leben.” Das Erste. 2011. http:// Gezer, Özlem, Maximilian Popp, and Christoph programm.ard.de/TV/daserste/im-falschen- 39. “Im falschen Leben,” Das Erste, 2011, http:// Scheuermann. “German Turks Struggle leben/eid_281067024097680#top. programm.ard.de/TV/daserste/im-falschen- to Find Identity.” Der Spiegel International, leben/eid_281067024097680#top. November 2, 2011. http://www.spiegel.de/

40 JUIS Empowerment through Visibility and Mutual Respect: Germany’s First Steps to Successful Multiculturalism / Yoonj Kim

international/germany/0,1518,795299,00. html.

Kaya, Ayhan. “German-Turkish Transnational Space: A Separate Space of Their Own.” German Studies Review 30.3 (2007): 483- 502.

Klopp, Brett. German Multiculturalism: Immigrant Integration and the Transformation of Citizenship. Westport: Praeger, 2002.

Legge Jr., Jerome S. Jews, Turks, and Other Strangers: The Roots of Prejudice in Modern Germany. Madison: University of Wisconsin, 2003.

Lentin, Alana. Racism and Anti-Racism in Europe. London: Pluto, 2004.

Liebig, Thomas. The Labour Market Integration of Immigrants in Germany. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2007..

Ortiz, Fernando. Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1947.

Poggioli, Sylvia. “German Minorities Still Fight to be Seen, Heard.” National Public Radio, January 12, 2009. http://www.npr.org/templates/ story/story.php?storyId=99189265. Rudmin, F. W. “Debate in Science, The Case of Acculturation.” AnthroGlobe Journal, 2006.

Söfjer, Jan. “Eins, zwei, multikulti Polizei.” Der Spiegel Online, July 25, 2011. http://www.spiegel.de/karriere/ berufsleben/0,1518,776404,00.html.

Susser, Bernard. “Ideological Multivalence: Martin Buber and the German Volkisch Tradition.” Political Theory 5.1 (1977): 75-96.

Spring 2012 41 The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy

by Shiran Shen

espite realist predictions of an expansionist China that aims to challenge U.S. hegemony, Chinese foreign policy is largely shaped by state interests and lessons learned from China’s “Century of D Humiliation” in the hands of Western and Japanese imperialism. In the decades to come, China will likely become more willing to assume international leadership, but a growing sense of political insecurity might put confines on China’s foreign policymaking. China’s rise is not necessarily the source of instability in Sino-American relations and the Asia-Pacific region. To avoid making the “China Threat” a self-fulfilling prophecy, the U.S. should not treat China as a threat but strive to precisely interpret Chinese political thoughts and monitor Chinese international behaviors. This is a critical step toward building a constructive Sino-American relationship and enhancing world peace in the twenty-first century.

With the reemergence of China China. The hawkish view, spearheaded possibly nuclear assets, which is a on the international stage, there has by realists like John Mearsheimer, worse option for China since China been a heated debate among both maintains that a rising state like China fears Japan more than the US.2 While elite and public circles in the US and will not accept the status quo but both arguments may hold some truth, elsewhere about an emerging Beijing instead will become an aggressive they do not sufficiently factor in the Consensus. While China has been state to achieve regional hegemony, internal dynamics that shape Chinese compiling an extraordinary record, the thereby challenging US influence in the foreign policy. After all, the top priorities West has stumbled catastrophically, region.1 To maintain global hegemony, of the Chinese Communist Party especially in the aftermath of the Mearsheimer argues that the US (CCP)—political stability and economic global financial crisis of 2007-2009. should take measures to contain the development—are more inwardly The US, in particular, suffered great rise of China. Based also on realist focused than the hegemonic theories losses and was left poorer, deeply theories, Charles Glaser’s argument suggest. China’s global engagement in debt, and uncertain of its future. indicates that a Chinese drive for stands in line with the priorities of the Along with recognition of China’s regional hegemony in East Asia would CCP and Chinese national interests extraordinary economic progress, there be both “unnecessary and infeasible.” and is largely informed by the country’s is an increasing anxiety about potential This is because as long as the US is haunting memory of the “Century of Chinese expansionist intentions in East disengaged from the region, both Japan Humiliation.” Asia and beyond as well as an incipient and South Korea will acquire stronger hegemonic war between the US and conventional military capabilities, and

Shiran Shen. Born and raised in Beijing, Shiran Shen is a senior at Swarthmore College, where she majors in political science and minors in environmental studies. This paper was written for Professor Tyrene White's honors seminar on comparative Chinese politics. Shiran is deeply interested in Sino- American relations, Asia-Pacific security, and environmental issues, and has interned with US-China Energy Cooperation in Beijing and Institute for Policy Studies in Washington, DC. Upon graduation, Shiran looks forward to combining her research and Mandarin and Spanish language skills to launch a career in think tanks/ legal services/ corporate consulting services.

42 JUIS The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy / Shiran Shen

The Evolution of Chinese widely regarded as a symbol of China’s from confrontation (增加信任，减少 Foreign Policy reintegration into the international 麻烦，发展合作，不搞对抗).6 China 4 There has been a dramatic shift in community. Around the same time, perceived itself as “a regional, or trans- China’s approach to foreign affairs since China formed détente relations with the regional, major power with glistening the founding of the People’s Republic US—a design of Henry Kissinger, who global color,” or “a quasi global power in 1949. In the Mao era (1949-1976), recognized the shared interest between with regional capabilities and room there was very limited contact between Beijing and Washington to curb the to maneuver.”7 A harmonious and China and the rest of the world besides power of the Soviet Union. peaceful international environment the Soviet bloc and some Third World China’s approach to foreign affairs without outright confrontation was countries. Chinese foreign policy was began to change drastically under deemed as conducive to China’s dominated by a highly ideological, top- the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, who rise from being a great power to a down orthodoxy that openly despised envisioned a “peaceful rise” (和平崛起) potential superpower. Similar diplomatic realpolitik, or qiangquan zhengzhi ( for China. In the spirit of a “peaceful philosophies were also proposed by 强权政治), the great bogeyman of rise,” Beijing began undertaking a the Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin all postcolonial ideologies. The CCP relatively conciliatory approach to Gang in 2007 and Foreign Minister Yang 8 actively suppressed any interpretation disputes, with the CCP preferring Jiechi in 2011. of China being the victim of imperialist compromises and shelving problems In the past two decades, China has hands so as to construct a new victor for future resolution. The aim of this demonstrated a strong determination 3 identity for New China. During three strategy was to create a secure regional to “join the world,” or ru shi (入世).9 decades under Mao, China worked and global environment that was According to the Yearbook of International vigorously to garner international conducive to economic development Organizations, China’s memberships in recognition that the People’s Republic at home. China also sought to deepen international organizations skyrocketed of China (PRC) was the sole legitimate its relations with the West not only for in the 1990s, and its actual number government of all China, including the West’s assistance with China’s of memberships far exceeded the Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. The modernization, but also for cooperation number of expected memberships inception of the Sino-Soviet split in with the West to counter Soviet power, predicted by gross domestic product 1960 prompted China to develop which China deemed to be the greatest per capita.10 One of China’s boldest relations with the West. With more threat to its national security and to and most prominent moves was joining contact with and recognition from the world peace. the WTO. It was the result of fifteen West, the Beijing government finally Deng’s legacy remained dominant years of difficult, complex, and often enjoyed wide support in the United even after his exit from the highest protracted negotiations in a period of Nations General Assembly. This led echelon of Chinese leadership.5 In economic transition characterized by to the replacement of the Republic 1993, Jiang Zemin proposed a the downsizing of China’s state-owned of China (ROC) government as the sixteen-character China-US policy: enterprises (SOEs) and widespread holder of the Chinese seat in the United 11 enhance trust, reduce friction, industrial unrest. China’s determination Nations in 1971, a shift that became promote cooperation, and refrain to “socialize internationally” was clear.

Spring 2012 43 The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy / Shiran Shen

development. as Russian and Chinese interests begin to diverge in this decade and Moscow Chinese Pragmatism With an understanding of the becomes more fearful of becoming a Overall, China pursues a pragmatic primacy of state interests in shaping “junior partner” politically to Beijing.17 and adaptive diplomacy to achieve its Chinese foreign policy, it is not difficult to In other words, China’s seemingly national goals of political stability and understand China’s outreach to natural amicable relationship with Russia is more economic prosperity. Combining a close resource-rich countries. In pursuing mercantile in nature and less likely to be textual analysis of the Seven Military foreign oil and natural gas, China spares part of Beijing’s strategic plan to boost its Classics of ancient China that is still a almost no efforts to court fuel-rich states, leverage in the region. part of modern Chinese military discourse be them rogue or not. The country’s and the study of Ming dynasty (1368- global hunt for energy starts with former Africa is another geographic area 1644) foreign relations, political scientist president Jiang Zemin’s call for a “go out” where China is investing heavily in natural Alastair Johnston argues that China has strategy, or zou chuqu zhanlüe (走出去战 resources. According to an official a long-standing pragmatic culture dating 略). As a result of Jiang’s initiative, China’s estimate, one third of China’s oil imports back to the Spring and Autumn period trade of natural resources with countries are now from Africa, and China ranks as (770-476 B.C.), which would explain in Southeast Asia, Latin America, Africa, the second-highest trading partner of contemporary Chinese international and other parts of the world expanded the continent, behind the US.18 Chinese behaviors.12 According to Johnston, the by 600 percent between 2001 and 2007. businesses operating in Africa are often Chinese strategic tradition is essentially Notably, Chinese-Russian trade reached criticized for undermining local efforts to realpolitik that is sometimes provided $48 billion in 2007, making China improve governance and international with Confucian-Mencian rationalizations. Russia’s second-largest trading partner efforts aimed at macroeconomic reform. Chinese leaders have been insisting upon after the European Union14 In 2010, This criticism is a result of their willingness operational flexibility and accommodating China and Russia reached a bilateral to pay bribes and not stipulate how states whose strength and determination loan-for-oil deal in which China would aid money is used; however, Chinese indicate little chance of victory. Colonel offer Russia a long-term loan of $25 investment in Africa is expanding very Kenneth Johnson further explores billion. In exchange, China would receive rapidly.19 In Africa, the Chinese are this topic. By studying the history and a total of 300 million tons of oil through known to be very pragmatic, and the foreign policy decisions of the PRC, the newly constructed Sino-Russian state-owned enterprises are willing to do Johnson concludes that the Chinese crude oil pipeline from 2011 to 2030.15 business anywhere, anytime, and at any yearning for social stability and economic However, Erica Downs at the Brookings price. As Sahr Johnny, Sierra Leone’s modernization ensures that pragmatism Institution’s China Center calls the Sino- ambassador to Beijing, commented, “If in Chinese foreign policy is alive and Russian energy relations “an uncertain a G8 country had wanted to rebuild the well today.13 Beijing’s commitment to a courtship,” as the bilateral energy stadium, for example, we’d still be holding “peaceful rise” that embraces economic cooperation is impeded by the rise and meetings. The Chinese just come and globalization and the improvement fall of world oil prices and Moscow’s do it. They don’t start to hold meetings of relations with the rest of the world energy diplomacy.16 Downs further about environmental impact assessment, reaffirms the essence of the nation’s explores the realities of the Sino-Russian human rights, bad governance and good foreign policy—that a stable international ties and predicts that the bilateral energy governance.”20 Generally speaking, environment and peaceful cooperation cooperation is likely to feature a “one Africans view China as a positive influence with its partners are crucial for its internal step forward, two steps back dynamic” in the region.21 This is partly due to China’s

44 JUIS The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy / Shiran Shen

“respect for sovereignty” rhetoric that context, China’s century-long humiliation that even the West’s overestimation of resonates with many Africans. In the view by Western and Japanese imperialism Chinese power is often interpreted as of the Senegalese president Abdoulaye is made a huge issue in contemporary an evil Western plot to manipulate world Wade, “China’s approach to our needs China and remains as a powerful tool to opinion and hurt Chinese interests.28 is simply better adapted than the slow shape foreign policy decision-making. Informed by the lessons of the past, and sometimes patronizing post-colonial This explains the observation of Thomas Japan is considered a more threatening approach of European investors, donor Christensen that realist works are very power than any other country because organizations and nongovernmental popular in Chinese teaching, which is it was the first Asian power to defeat organizations.”22 mainly because of Chinese historical China in modern history, and Japanese disappointment with the world’s great As to the nature of Chinese brutality in China during the Second powers. involvement in economic affairs in Africa, World War left a scar on bilateral relations. Council on Foreign Relations senior fellow Among the elites in the CCP, there Fear of Japanese military resurgence is a Elizabeth Economy maintains that China is is a demonstrated sense of frustrated major factor in China’s regional security following a very traditional path established realism. On the one hand, these elites strategy. Whether Japan is abandoned or by European, Japanese, and American tend to view nation-states as the main encouraged by the US, Chinese security companies: offering poor countries actors on the international stage and are analysts will be gravely concerned that comprehensive trade deals combined suspicious of international institutions and Japan will build up independent military 23 with aid. Economy also warns that it is global norms; on the other hand, they power that is very likely to pose a serious important to understand that, unlike the view participation in international affairs security threat to China.29 US, China does not mix business with as an indispensible means to restore China’s “Century of Humiliation” politics.24 Chinese investment in Africa’s China’s deserved place among great also plays a role when it comes to the and Latin America’s natural resource powers in the international system.25 Taiwan issue. The carving up of Chinese markets is economic rather than strategic, There is a general distrust of international territory by foreign powers during the despite constant charges that Chinese institutions because international norms “Century of Humiliation” is considered firms are maneuvered by the Chinese and institutions are often interpreted as an unforgivable insult to the Chinese government to achieve some strategic the tools the great powers use to keep national body. This rhetoric was extremely result in the high-stakes game of global China at its current undesirable levels of popular across the Chinese mainland energy security. power and wealth.26 Many Chinese elites when China retrieved its control of Hong and citizens believe that the US has used In addition to state interests, the Kong from Great Britain in 1997 and global norms as an excuse to interfere in historical lessons drawn from China’s Macau from Portugal in 1999. When the Chinese domestic affairs. By criticizing “Century of Humiliation” play an important Chinese government assumed formal China’s poor human rights record and role in shaping Chinese foreign policy. sovereignty over Macau in December other shortcomings, the US attempts The Chinese view the Middle Kingdom 1999, a nationalist song called The Song to frustrate China’s efforts to improve its as a nation of extraordinary eminence of Seven Children – Macau (《七子之 international standing and image. Worse that lasted for thousands of years until its 歌——澳门》）, which is a monologue of still, some believe the US is destabilizing defeat by the British in the Opium War in Macau, gained overwhelming popularity the Chinese polity as part of a long-term 1840. China’s rise is nothing but China across the mainland. The lyrics read, conspiracy to contain China.27 Suspicion returning to its deserved niche or normal “Do you know that Macau is not my real of the West and Japan can be so strong status in the international system. In this surname? I have been away from you for

Spring 2012 45 The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy / Shiran Shen

too long, mother (i.e. China). But what they state, of a great power not yet arrived, National Office for Teaching Chinese as a (i.e. the Portuguese) ripped away was my but of one whose power is growing, that Foreign Language aims to establish 1,000 corpse. You (i.e. China) still retain my soul.” needs a peaceful environment for its Confucius Institutes by 2020.37 In an effort Taiwan embodies all the worst lessons of power to grow, and that wishes to avoid to bring Chinese voices to foreign locations, humiliation for China. Taiwan is considered encirclement as it grows more powerful.”33 the Xinhua News Agency has launched a the last unrecovered part of the Chinese 24-hour global English-language television According to China expert Fei-ling national body. It was separated from the news service that is headquartered in Wang, Beijing prefers a multipolar world mainland in 1895 by the Japanese through New York City’s Times Square to compete where China enjoys a great power status the unequal Treaty of Shimonoseki. Taiwan with CNN and the BCC by delivering and holds the responsibility for maintaining was promised back to China by the great the Chinese perspective to international a “just and rational” security order in the powers at the Cairo Conference in 1943 audiences.38 This trend will continue and Asia-Pacific region.34 The contours of as a reward for China’s considerable will be enhanced by the fact that a much China’s more activist security strategy contribution to the defeat of Japanese larger proportion of China’s next generation became clear in July 2010 when Shen fascism. However, since 1950, Beijing has of leaders in a variety of fields ranging from Dingli, an international relations professor believed Taiwan is protected from China the central government to multinational at Fudan University and one of China’s by the US, which partially explains intense and state-owned corporations will be foremost security scholars, proposed that Chinese opposition to US arms sales to foreign-educated returnees. In a discussion China should establish a more permanent Taiwan.30 of how the Chinese foreign-educated Chinese military presence abroad through returnees will shape China’s future, Dr. the establishment of military bases, even Wang Huiyao, Vice Chairman of the China Looking to the Future though it may take a decade or more for Overseas Returned Scholars Association the capability of China’s navy to match As to the future trajectory of Chinese and Director General of Center for China those ambitions.35 foreign policy, national interests and and Globalization, revealed that the Central historical lessons are still likely to play China has also been working toward Party School has been recruiting a growing significant roles while China is likely to expanding its international presence and number of foreign-educated returnees who be more involved and take on leadership is likely to continue to do so in the years to will later serve critical roles in the central roles in international discourses and come. Around the world, China has been government. As Beijing takes the initiative, cooperation. While Bruce Gilley rightly establishing Confucius Institutes （孔子 other major cities, and later provinces will claims that a rising China has adopted a to promote the study of Chinese 学院） follow suit.39 Thanks to their overseas foreign policy of accepting the US security language and culture, as well as to assuage experiences, these returnee leaders are architecture in Asia and beyond, China the widespread “China Threat” rhetoric. likely to be more apt at forging ties with might gradually become an architect at Research-focused Confucius Institutes their counterparts abroad and expanding some level in the future.31 Rhetorically have also been opened to promote the China’s international influence. promoting a peaceful international study of China. Since the opening of the In recent years, Beijing has been environment in which to grow the Chinese first Confucius Institute in November 2004 moving away from its traditional foreign economy and leaving the tough diplomatic in Seoul, South Korea, 322 Confucius policy strategy and softening, though work to others is no longer enough.32 As Institutes and 337 Confucius Classrooms still retaining, its long-held and once rigid Robert Art eloquently stated, “the strategy had been opened in 94 countries and stance on sanctions and noninterference in of peaceful rise is the policy of a weak regions as of October 2010.36 The Chinese the internal affairs of other countries. From

46 JUIS The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy / Shiran Shen

the end of the Cold War until around 2000, Another criticism of negative, It is also important to note that even when China had been the member of the UN recent developments in Chinese foreign nationalist demonstrations are underway, Security Council that most frequently used policy lies in the maneuvering power of the CCP is able to manage them to avoid its veto.40 However, in the past decade, nationalist public opinion. Widely cited are social instability. When the CCP felt that Beijing not only continued to host the Six- the September 2010 public protests and the large, anti-Japan demonstrations in the Party Talks on North Korea’s nuclear issue, China’s hawkish responses to Japan’s spring of 2005 were getting out of control, but also participated in imposing sanctions arrest and detention of the captain of a it mobilized enough resources to end the against North Korea in the Security Council. Chinese fishing boat that collided with demonstrations by officially forbidding Beijing also changed course in dealing two Japanese vessels in a part of the East future demonstrations and blocking anti- with the Sudanese government, which China Sea claimed by both China and Japanese text messages and online posts sends 60 percent of the country’s oil output Japan. It is believed that Beijing’s increasing calling for more protests.45 There was to China.41 Instead of protecting the assertiveness in international affairs can no backlash from the public, and popular Sudanese government from international be partly attributed to the need of the discontent calmed down within a week. pressure over human rights violations in government to cater to rising nationalism in Although there is more willingness Darfur, Beijing backed then UN Secretary- China to maintain the legitimacy of the CCP. on the part of the CCP to engage in General Kofi Annan’s three-phase plan for In private conversations, Chinese officials international affairs, there are higher state peace and stability in the region in 2006. and pundits seem to play the public opinion priorities. National interests of maintaining card more and more frequently to justify Despite these strides toward a stable internal environment and a secure externally unpopular foreign policy moves.43 international leadership, Thomas Northeast Asia override full-fledged Christensen believes that China has Nevertheless, believing in the demonstrations of nationalist sentiments recently failed to maintain this positive maneuver power of nationalist public or international leadership obligations of momentum in its foreign policy, damaging opinion in Chinese foreign policymaking sanctioning rogue states. US-China relations in the process. The is missing the point because it fails to most widely criticized development is acknowledge the fact that in China it is Implications for China’s ever more intimate relationship the government that possesses critical US-China Policy: Not with North Korea. According to some means to shape public opinion while Making the “China knowledgeable observers, trade and there is relatively limited space for public Threat” a Self-Fulfilling investment relations between the two opinion to be expressed—particularly Prophecy countries deepened in the past three years. when it comes to foreign policy issues. The problem with some contemporary When a North Korean submarine sank the The Propaganda Department of the CCP Chinese political studies is that dangerously South Korean naval ship Cheonan in March maintains ideological control, censors inappropriate analogies are sometimes 2010, China not only refused to review news, and possesses almost absolute used as explanations or evidence for an the evidence, but also protected North authority over what information the public aggressive, expansionist China. Alastair Korea from facing direct criticism in the UN can read and see. The Ministry of Foreign Johnston notices that most scholars, Security Council. In so doing, Christensen Affairs and the Xinhua News Agency jointly government officials, and pundits who believes that Beijing alienated many other decide the content and tone of foreign routinely make claims regarding China’s players in the region like South Korea, policy news reports to ensure that they goal of establishing Chinese hegemony Japan, and the US.42 are in line with China’s official positions.44 in East Asia and beyond often cite

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problematic evidence. These intellectuals and limit the impact of the interests the Johnston argues that China has been infer their conclusions of the leadership’s two countries share.48 transformed from a revolutionary thinking from particular readings of parts revisionist state under Mao to a more Colonel Kenneth Johnson of the of Chinese history like the ancient Middle status-quo oriented one.51 Second, US Army War College warns that the Kingdom tribute system. Others draw their taking measures to hinder China’s rise US historically has a poor record of inspirations from Europe, especially the will only make matters worse. Beijing a comprehensive appreciation of the rise of Wilhelmine Germany, to infer the remains very suspicious of American pragmatic imperatives underlying Chinese political thinking and intentions of China.46 efforts in promoting dissent in China, decision-making.49 Barack Obama was These analogies are often wrong because pressing China to revalue its currency, sworn into the Oval Office as “the first they assume similar historical conditions creating fear of an aggressive China Pacific president,” who believes that between contemporary China and China for its neighbors and others.52 A George W. Bush’s administration had several hundred years ago, or China more nuanced strategy would be to paid too little attention to Asia and had now and Germany one hundred years strengthen US cooperation with China not done enough to maintain its traditional ago. The CCP is much more concerned while establishing a strong US presence level of engagement there.50 China is with maintaining foreign investment and across Asia to encourage constructive seen by some scholars and officials enhancing its political legitimacy than the Chinese behaviors and to promote as one of the biggest beneficiaries Chinese or German governments did in the confidence in other countries in the of the protracted and expensive US past. region. involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan, Inferring the existence of Chinese during which time China was able to Second, the US should actively revisionism from the use of the word assert more influence in Asia. As China seek common ground with China and “multipolarity” in Chinese political and continues to rise, it is critical for US avoid actions that may be interpreted military discourse is also problematic. policymakers to understand how China’s by China as threatening to its core One example is the 2002 congressionally policy imperatives define Chinese state interests. For example, the US mandated US-China Security Commission international behaviors. should be more cautious in handling report, which took the multipolarity concept its relations with Taiwan, though this Analysis of the forces shaping as prima facie evidence of a Chinese is much easier said than done. One Chinese foreign policy—state interests consensus that US unipolar power was the one hand, the US needs to fulfill and lessons from the “Century of in decline.47 Rosemary Foot argues that its commitment to Taiwan to defend Humiliation”—have many critical there is not even Chinese “soft balancing” this island of vibrant democracy from implications for US-China policies. against US supremacy through the communist infiltration or invasion. On First and foremost, an assumption of formation of anti-hegemonic coalitions. the other hand, Taiwan is of core interest an expansionist China and measures Even though the relationship between to China, and China is willing to do intended to hinder its rise will only Beijing and Moscow has matured greatly almost anything to prevent Taiwanese jeopardize a healthy Sino-American in the past two decades, there is still no independence. In January 2010, Sino- relationship, making the “China Threat” sign that the close cooperation between American military relations worsened a self-fulfilling prophecy. First, the the two is “soft balancing” against the US. when the Obama administration evidence for Chinese expansionism is Russia still remains uneasy and cautious approved an arms sale package to murky at best. With an assessment of about the rise of Chinese influence and Taiwan worth more than $6 billion. The China’s international behaviors based material power, and these reservations mainland largely saw this move as a on the definition of revisionism, Alastair inhibit the deepening of their relationship pro-Taiwanese independence gesture,

48 JUIS The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy / Shiran Shen

which resulted in the Chinese leadership of Chinese intentions.”54 The three political thoughts and monitor Chinese calling off military talks with the United most fundamental Chinese national international behaviors. This is a critical States.53 Obama’s effort to enlist interests are safeguarding the PRC step toward building a constructive Beijing’s cooperation to sanction Iran political system, maintaining a peaceful Sino-American relationship and was much complicated by this incident. international environment for China’s enhancing world peace in the twenty- economic development, and unifying first century. Third, the US should make the motherland.55 Nationalism is constant efforts to enhance mutual sometimes factored into the making understanding and improve mutual Endnotes the Chinese foreign policy but does perception while acknowledging the 1. Robert J. Art, "The United States and the Rise not override vital national interests. of China: Implications for the Long Haul," differences in political culture and Political Science Quarterly 125.3 (Fall 2010): The nationalism card is not easy to thinking between China and itself. 362. play since nationalist anger toward To achieve this end, the US should 2. Charles Glaser, "Will China's Rise Lead to War? the outside might easily turn inward. Why Realism Does Not Mean Pessimism," continuously monitor Chinese strategic Foreign Affairs 90.2 (March/April 2011). Chinese nationalist rhetoric is not to thinking and perceptions of the US. The 3. Peter Hays Gries, "Chinese Nationalism and be taken seriously when it comes to US must nurture a generation of cadre U.S.-China Relations in the Twenty-First making US-China policy. In the decades Century," in China's New Nationalism: Pride, in the national security and economic Politics, and Diplomacy (Berkeley: University to come, there is good reason to communities who are not only highly of California Press, 2004), 136. believe that China will be more willing to proficient in Mandarin Chinese but also 4. Ann Kent, "China's International Socialization: accept international leadership. In the The Role of International Organizations," have a solid background in Chinese Global Governance 8.3 (2002): 344. meantime, however, a growing sense political thought. The 100,000 Strong 5. Fei-Ling Wang, "China's Self-Image and of insecurity in terms of political stability Initiative, a deal struck between Obama Strategic Intentions: National Confidence that accompanies increasing national and Political Insecurity," in In the Eyes of the and his Chinese counterpart Hu Jintao Dragon: China Views the World, ed. Yong confidence might put confines on in November 2009 to drastically Deng and Fei-Ling Wang (Lanham: Rowman China’s foreign policymaking in favor of & Littlefield Publishers, 1999), 34 increase the number of American considerations for national interests and 6. Ibid., 34. students studying in China, is a good historical lessons. 7. Ibid., 26. start. 8. Washington Times, "Beijing Likens Cheney China’s rise is not necessarily the Criticism to Nosy Neighbor," Washington source of instability in Sino-American Times, March 01, 2007, accessed January Conclusion 05, 2012, http://www.washingtontimes. relations and, by extension, in the Asia- com/news/2007/mar/01/20070301- In understanding the making of Pacific region. To avoid making the 104826-2978r/; Stephanie Ho, "Chinese Foreign Relations to Focus on More Active Chinese foreign policy, it is crucial “China Threat” a self-fulfilling prophecy, Diplomacy," Voice of America, March 07, to consider the internal dynamics the US should not treat China as a 2011, accessed January 05, 2012, http:// www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/ of China in terms of both Chinese threat. China is a status-quo power Chinese-Foreign-Relations-to-Focus-on- national interests and lessons from the that focuses its efforts on its own More-Active-Diplomacy-117511453.html. past—particularly from the “Century state imperatives of maintaining social 9. Kent. of Humiliation.” Otherwise, Chinese stability and promoting economic 10. Alastair I. Johnston, "Is China a Status Quo Power?," International intentions and capabilities would be development. It is important for the US Security 27.4 (Spring 2003): 13-4, often wrongly equated, resulting in what to nurture a generation of cadres who doi:10.1162/016228803321951081. political scientist Robert Ross calls are able to precisely interpret Chinese 11. Kent, 357. “diametrically opposed understandings

Spring 2012 49 The Primacy of State Interests and Lessons of the Past in Shaping Chinese Foreign Policy / Shiran Shen

12. Alastair I. Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic World, ed. Yong Deng and Fei-Ling Wang brookings.edu/opinions/2011/1213_china_ Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, public_opinion_sun.aspx. History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 1999), 240. 44. Ibid. Press, 1995). 26. Ibid., 241. 45. Ibid. 13. Kenneth D. Johnson, China's Strategic 27. Ibid., 242-3. Culture: A Perspective for the United States, 46. Alastair I. Johnston, "Is China a report no. ISBN 1-58487-393-0 (Carlisle, 28. Fei-Ling Wang, 26. Status Quo Power?," International PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army Security 27.4 (Spring 2003): 28, 29. Thomas Christensen, "Pride, Pressure, and War College, 2009). doi:10.1162/016228803321951081. Politics: The Roots of China's Worldview," in 14. Stephen Kotkin, "The Unbalanced Triangle: In the Eyes of the Dragon: China Views the 47. Ibid., 37. What Chinese-Russian Relations Mean World, ed. Yong Deng and Fei-Ling Wang 48. Rosemary Foot, "Chinese Strategies in a US- for the United States," Foreign Affairs, (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Hegemonic Global Order: Accommodating September/October 2009, accessed 1999), 243. and Hedging," International Affairs 82.1 October 02, 20, http://www.foreignaffairs. 30. Ibid., 243-4. (2006): 89, doi:10.1111/j.1468- com/articles/65230/stephen-kotkin/the- 2346.2006.00516.x. unbalanced-triangle. 31. Bruce Gilley, "Beyond the Four Percent Solution: Explaining the Consequences of 49. Kenneth D. Johnson, China's Strategic 15. People's Daily, "China-Russia Oil Pipeline China's Rise," Journal of Contemporary Culture: A Perspective for the United States, Scheduled for Running on Oct. 31," People's China 20.72 (2011): 804, doi:10.1080/106 report no. ISBN 1-58487-393-0 (Carlisle, Daily, June 15, 2010, accessed October 70564.2011.604501. PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army 02, 2010, http://english.peopledaily.com. War College, 2009). cn/90001/90776/90883/7026504.html.. 32. Economy. 50. Kenneth Lieberthal, "The American Pivot to 16. Erica S. Downs, "Sino-Russian Energy 33. Art, 361. Asia," Foreign Policy, December 21, 2011, Relations: An Uncertain Courtship," in The 34. Fei-Ling Wang, 37. accessed January 05, 2012, http://www. Future of China-Russia Relations, ed. James foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/12/21/ A. Bellacqua (Lexington: University Press of 35. Economy. the_american_pivot_to_asia?page=0,0. Kentucky, 2010). 36. Xinhua, "316 Confucious Institutes Established 51. Alastair I. Johnston, "Is China a 17. Igor Danchenko, Erica Downs, and Fiona Worldwide," Xinhua, July 13, 2010, Status Quo Power?," International Hillman, One Step Forward, Two Steps accessed January 05, 2012, http://news. Security 27.4 (Spring 2003): 49, Back? The Realities of a Rising China and xinhuanet.com/english2010/culture/2010- doi:10.1162/016228803321951081. Implications for Russia's Energy Ambitions, 07/13/c_13398209.htm. publication (Washington, D.C.: Brookings 52. Lieberthal. 37. Xinhua, "Confucius Institute: Promoting Institution Press, 2010). Language, Culture and Friendliness," Xinhua, 53. Helene Cooper, "U.S. Approval of Taiwan 18. Stephanie Hanson, "China, Africa, and Oil," October 02, 2006, accessed January Arms Sales Angers China," The New York Council on Foreign Relations, June 6, 2008, 05, 2012, http://news.xinhuanet.com/ Times, January 29, 2010, accessed accessed November 23, 2011, http://www. english/2006-10/02/content_5521722.htm. January 05, 2012, http://www.nytimes. cfr.org/china/china-africa-oil/p9557. com/2010/01/30/world/asia/30arms. 38. Economy, 142-54. html?_r=1. 19. Ibid. 39. Huiyao Wang (speech, Chinese Foreign 54. Gries, 137. 20. Elizabeth C. Economy, "The Game Changer: Educated Returnees: Shaping China's Coping with China's Foreign Policy Future?, The Brookings Institution, 55. Fei-Ling Wang, 34. Revolution," Foreign Affairs 89.6 (November/ Washington DC, April 06, 2010), accessed December 2010). January 05, 2012, http://www.brookings. edu/~/media/Files/events/2010/0406_ 21. Jennifer G. Cooke, "China's Soft Power in Bibliography china_returnees/20100406_china_ Africa," Center for Strategic and International Art, Robert J. "The United States and the Rise returnees.pdf. Studies, March 2009, Summary Points, of China: Implications for the Long Haul." accessed November 23, 2011, http:// 40. Kent, 352. Political Science Quarterly 125.3 (Fall 2010): csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/090305_ 359-93. 41. Hanson. mcgiffert_chinesesoftpower_web.pdf. Christensen, Thomas. "Pride, Pressure, and 42. Thomas Christensen, "The Advantages of 22. Ibid. China’s Evolving Interests and Expanding Politics: The Roots of China's Worldview." an Assertive China: Responding to Beijing's Engagement. In In the Eyes of the Dragon: China Abrasive Diplomacy," Foreign Affairs 90.2 Views the World, edited by Yong Deng 23. Hanson. (March/April 2011). and Fei-Ling Wang, 239-56. Lanham: 24. Ibid. 43. Yun Sun, "Chinese Public Opinion: Shaping Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1999. China’s Foreign Policy, or Shaped by It?," The Committee on the Elimination of Racial 25. Thomas Christensen, "Pride, Pressure, and Brookings Institution, December 13, 2011, Discrimination. Concluding Observations: Politics: The Roots of China's Worldview," in accessed January 05, 2012, http://www. China, 2001. http://www.unhchr. In the Eyes of the Dragon: China Views the

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ch/tbs/doc.nsf/%28Symbol%29/ Accessed November 23, 2011. http://www. Educated Returnees: Shaping China's A.56.18,paras.231-255.En (accessed April cfr.org/china/china-africa-oil/p9557. Future?, The Brookings Institution, 28, 2010). Washington DC, April 06, 2010. Accessed IHo, Stephanie. "Chinese Foreign Relations to January 05, 2012. http://www.brookings. Christensen, Thomas. "The Advantages of an Focus on More Active Diplomacy." Voice edu/~/media/Files/events/2010/0406_ Assertive China: Responding to Beijing's of America. March 07, 2011. Accessed china_returnees/20100406_china_ Abrasive Diplomacy." Foreign Affairs 90.2 January 05, 2012. http://www.voanews. returnees.pdf. (March/April 2011): 54-68. com/english/news/asia/Chinese-Foreign- Relations-to-Focus-on-More-Active- Washington Times. "Beijing Likens Cheney Cooke, Jennifer G. "China's Soft Power in Africa." Diplomacy-117511453.html. Criticism to Nosy Neighbor." Washington Center for Strategic and International Studies. Times. March 01, 2007. Accessed January March 2009. Accessed November 23, Johnson, Kenneth D. China's Strategic Culture: A 05, 2012. http://www.washingtontimes. 2011. http://csis.org/files/media/csis/ Perspective for the United States. Report no. com/news/2007/mar/01/20070301- pubs/090305_mcgiffert_chinesesoftpower_ ISBN 1-58487-393-0. Carlisle, PA: Strategic 104826-2978r/. web.pdf. Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, 2009. Xinhua. "316 Confucious Institutes Established Cooper, Helene. "U.S. Approval of Taiwan Worldwide." Xinhua. July 13, 2010. Arms Sales Angers China." The New York Johnston, Alastair I. Cultural Realism: Strategic Accessed January 05, 2012. http://news. Times. January 29, 2010. Accessed Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese xinhuanet.com/english2010/culture/2010- January 05, 2012. http://www.nytimes. History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 07/13/c_13398209.htm. com/2010/01/30/world/asia/30arms. Press, 1995. html?_r=1. Xinhua. "Confucius Institute: Promoting Language, Johnston, Alastair I. "Is China a Status Quo Culture and Friendliness." Xinhua. Danchenko, Igor, Erica Downs, and Fiona Hillman. Power?" International Security 27.4 (Spring October 02, 2006. Accessed January One Step Forward, Two Steps Back? The 2003): 5-56. doi:10.1162/01622880332 05, 2012. http://news.xinhuanet.com/ Realities of a Rising China and Implications 1951081. english/2006-10/02/content_5521722.htm. for Russia's Energy Ambitions. Publication. Kent, Ann. "China's International Socialization: The Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Role of International Organizations." Global Press, 2010. Governance 8.3 (2002): 343-64. Downs, Erica S. "Sino-Russian Energy Relations: Kotkin, Stephen. "The Unbalanced Triangle: An Uncertain Courtship." In The Future of What Chinese-Russian Relations Mean China-Russia Relations, edited by James for the United States." Foreign Affairs, A. Bellacqua, 146-56. Lexington: University September/October 2009. Accessed Press of Kentucky, 2010. October 02, 20. http://www.foreignaffairs. Economy, Elizabeth C. "The Game Changer: com/articles/65230/stephen-kotkin/the- Coping with China's Foreign Policy unbalanced-triangle. Revolution." Foreign Affairs 89.6 (November/ Lieberthal, Kenneth. "The American Pivot to December 2010): 142-54. Asia." Foreign Policy. December 21, 2011. Foot, Rosemary. "Chinese Strategies in a US- Accessed January 05, 2012. http://www. Hegemonic Global Order: Accommodating foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/12/21/ and Hedging." International Affairs 82.1 the_american_pivot_to_asia?page=0,0. (2006): 77-94. doi:10.1111/j.1468- People's Daily. "China-Russia Oil Pipeline 2346.2006.00516.x. Scheduled for Running on Oct. 31." People's Gilley, Bruce. "Beyond the Four Percent Solution: Daily. June 15, 2010. Accessed October Explaining the Consequences of China's 02, 2010. http://english.peopledaily.com. Rise." Journal of Contemporary China 20.72 cn/90001/90776/90883/7026504.html. (2011): 795-811. doi:10.1080/10670564. Sun, Yun. "Chinese Public Opinion: Shaping 2011.604501. China’s Foreign Policy, or Shaped by It?" The Glaser, Charles. "Will China's Rise Lead to War? Brookings Institution. December 13, 2011. Why Realism Does Not Mean Pessimism." Accessed January 05, 2012. http://www. Foreign Affairs 90.2 (March/April 2011): brookings.edu/opinions/2011/1213_china_ 80-92. public_opinion_sun.aspx. Gries, Peter Hays. "Chinese Nationalism and U.S.- Wang, Fei-Ling. "China's Self-Image and Strategic China Relations in the Twenty-First Century." Intentions: National Confidence and Political In China's New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, Insecurity." In In the Eyes of the Dragon: and Diplomacy, 135-50. Berkeley: University China Views the World, edited by Yong of California Press, 2004. Deng and Fei-Ling Wang, 21-46. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1999. Hanson, Stephanie. "China, Africa, and Oil." Council on Foreign Relations. June 6, 2008. Wang, Huiyao. Speech, Chinese Foreign

Spring 2012 51 Altruism, Prejudice, and Culture in Roma Education Advocacy: Education and Children in the Decade of Roma Inclusion by Rachel McVey

uring the Decade of Roma Inclusion, inadequate education for Roma children has disproportionately been the focus of equality efforts. This paper will argue that education D is promoted above other services because children are the main recipients of formal education, the West’s acceptance of public education as a human right ensures that its promotion will create little controversy, and education can be used to transmit social values that promote assimilation of Roma into Western culture. This paper will conclude that these reasons behind promoting education allow people to “embrace” Roma rights without having to truly accept Roma.

The Romani people, traditionally shiftless. These racist views continue has declared as the Decade of Roma known as Gypsies, have a long history to be widely held and unchallenged Inclusion. Nonetheless, there is as the victims of discrimination and throughout the world, and, as a result, indeed a significant movement among exclusion in Europe. Thought by most discrimination against Roma occurs on powerful political organizations such scholars to have migrated to Europe every level. as the European Union and the United

from India nearly a thousand years Currently, the number of destitute Nations, smaller non-governmental ago, they have been treated with a Roma is so high that the rate of chronic organizations (NGOs), and ordinary 1 mixture of fear and contempt since. hunger among this group is similar to Roma and gadjos (non-Roma) to fulfill The Romani populations of the Balkans, that of the peoples of Sub-Saharan the promise of the name. The Decade, Portugal, England, and Scotland were Africa—one in every six people.6 A designated to take place from 2005- enslaved for centuries; in Romania, 2003 study conducted by the United 2015, is an umbrella initiative sponsored 2 slavery was not abolished until 1855. Nations Development Program found by twelve European nations with the In Germany, aristocrats made sport out that 41 percent of Roma do not even largest Roma populations, aimed at 3 of hunting nomadic Roma as game, have running water in their homes.7 Nor promoting acceptance of Roma and and more than of half all Roma living in is poverty their only concern—every creating programs to help them gain 8 Nazi-occupied regions were murdered year, hundreds, if not thousands, of lost ground. As the financial backer for 4 during the Holocaust , including Roma become forcibly displaced by many of Decade programs, the World nearly all Czech and Moravian Roma governments or violent civilians. Ironic Bank is also championing the Roma 5 groups. Common views of the Roma as it may seem, the more recent of cause, allocating millions in grants and hold them to be instinctively criminal, these challenges continue to occur loans to fund research on the current less intelligent than white people, and during what the Council of Europe situation of Roma across Eastern Europe and to support programs aimed at

Rachel McVey. Rachel McVey is currently a sophomore at the University of Pittsburgh, where she is pursuing degrees in History and Sociology, and a minor in Children's Literature. This summer she will spend time abroad, researching Romani cultural rights in Prague, Krakow, and Bratislava. After graduation, she hopes to participate in Teach for America and then go on to earn a Master's degree in Education.

52 JUIS Altruism, Prejudice, and Culture in Roma Education Advocacy: Education and Children in the Decade of Roma Inclusion / Rachel McVey

elevating Roma inclusion. Still, progress for this analysis, as was Cameron In Bulgaria 51 percent of children enrolled is slow, and the unsavory view expressed McCarthy’s book, The Uses of Culture: in special education programs are Roma, by Bulgaria’s Prime Minister Borisov that, Education and the Limits of Ethnic and in the Czech Republic 75 percent “The Roma must break the vicious cycle Affiliation. of all Roma children enrolled in school of having someone else help them and receive special education.12 Once moved must exert their own effort,” is still shared Exclusion and Inclusion to a special needs school, it is extremely by many.9 in Roma Education difficult for them to be accepted into a Because of the nature of the topic, normal school and, therefore, even more Recognized in the Universal the majority of the research for this paper difficult to get a job except for menial Declaration of Human Rights as a was conducted using Internet sources. work. In most regions of Eastern Europe, fundamental human right, education Much of the analysis focuses on online officials can simply deny admission to is one of the most prominent issues at news outlets and websites of various Roma students; in other cases, Roma stake in the surge to promote Roma organizations that aim to help the Roma. children are allowed in, but they are inclusion. There are many obstacles to The body of academic work regarding forced to sit in the back of the classroom Roma who wish to obtain an education Roma participation in education is still or be physically divided from their non- for themselves or their children. Across fairly small, although it has grown notably Roma peers. In a study of the Roma Europe, Roma have limited access to over the last decade. Petra Gelbart’s minority in Hungarian public schools, education, primarily because of racism. dissertation, Learning Music, Race Annabel Tremlett found that Roma In Britain, there are school districts that and Nation in the Czech Republic and children in Hungary are frequently told refuse to provide buses to take Roma Annabel Tremlett’s article “Gypsy Children that they cannot return the following year children living up to two miles away to Can’t Learn: Roma Children in the or are placed in a special “independent school, despite the safety hazards posed Hungarian Educational System” tackle study” program in which few children, to young children walking that distance in 13 the means and effects of educational Roma or non-Roma, succeed. Such the dark.10 This is simply a mild example exclusion within specific communities. patterns in education almost guarantee of the kinds of obstacles standing in Other more expansive studies of Romani that the Roma population of a particular the way of Roma accessing formal experience with education also identify nation will remain poor and seen as education—even graver is the quality problems in education systems, but burdens to society. of education given to Roma. Motivated any sort of attempt to critically explain by the belief that “gypsy children can’t Beyond this, there are other the recent emphasis on educational learn,” school officials more often than obstacles to education that Roma programs is absent from the current body not place Roma children in schools for face, such as poverty. Oftentimes, of research on Romani rights. The social students with mental handicaps, despite Roma families cannot afford the school theories promulgated in Daniel Harris’ their being academically capable.11 This supplies their children need or are forced Cute, Quaint, Hungry, and Romantic: serves as a way to effectively segregate to take their children out of school so The Aesthetics of Consumerism and Ivan schools and is most common and that they can work to supplement the Illich’s “To Hell With Good Intentions” unchallenged in Eastern Europe, although family income. Bullying and intimidation were helpful in providing a framework it is a problem in Western Europe as well. from other students, as well as hostility

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from teachers, also discourages Roma Roma children who have applied for Roma are to overcome the challenges from attending school. Roma parents admission is so great that they cannot all of poverty and be seen as productive sometimes are forced to make the be accommodated.16 citizens. Housing, too, is of great concern difficult decision to not send their children to the millions of Roma families who live In the international eye, the need to school because of the risk of actual in below-grade housing units, which for equitable education is by far the physical danger. Inside schools, gadjo sometimes are demolished by city most represented issue, and the issue children often tease Roma, and teachers governments or burned by vigilantes, as for which the most is being done. New stereotype them, assuming that they will is often the case in Romania and other instances of violence towards Roma, be difficult or that they do not care about Eastern European countries. the general denial of resources to Roma, school. Facing such attitudes makes and, occasionally, Roma cultural initiatives Nevertheless, educational access schooling an unpleasant experience, and, all have their place in the news when and inequality receives more intervention consequently, Roma parents sometimes something of particular interest occurs, than other challenges facing Roma. choose to send their children to but education is one of the few social In news articles and press releases, unofficially designated “Roma schools,” problems facing Roma that is consistently education is frequently referenced by where the education is very low-quality, written about for its own sake. Similarly, politicians, political organizations, and but they know their children will be in a there are significantly more humanitarian NGOs as the main solution to Roma welcoming environment.14 projects focused on education than poverty and exclusion. For example, At times, Roma might also choose on any other one aspect of aid and President Basceau of Romania stated, to not send their children to school reform. Although equitable education is while speaking of a new, rather vague because of cultural values. Traditionally, definitely a necessary component in any initiative to help Roma adults find Roma culture places more emphasis on acquiring skills or trades from parent to child than on academic learning, "In the international eye, the need for equitable and Roma groups do not always share education is by far the most represented issue, the view of Western cultures that see and the issue for which the most is being done. childhood as a special, protected stage New instances of violence towards Roma, 15 that lasts through the teenage years. the general denial of resources to Roma, and, The practice of marrying off young occasionally, Roma cultural initiatives all have teenagers also stands in the way of their their place in the news when something of obtaining an education. When speaking particular interest occurs, but education is one of cultural objections to education, of the few social problems facing Roma that is however, one must tread carefully consistently written about for its own sake. " because of the propensity of these arguments to be exaggerated and used as an excuse for not accommodating or accepting Roma. Many, if not most, efforts for Roma inclusion, the appalling profitable employment, that “the key Roma see the value of education and prevalence of disease and malnutrition is for Roma to send their children to want their children to attend school but among Roma certainly poses a more school."17 The attention of European are prevented by economic obstacles or immediate threat to this ethnic group. and international news media to Roma discrimination. In fact, in many recently Likewise, employment opportunities and education issues also plays an important desegregated schools, the number of job training for Roma adults are vital if the role in drawing continued support to end

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segregation and inequity in education. Encouragingly, education is one of the society. Without a solid foundation of The most prominent, well-funded few areas that is showing improvement education, poverty can rarely be alleviated. programs tend to relate to education. for Roma, albeit gradually. Roma continue Education is also seen by many as Among these are the Open Society to be pushed as far away from gadjo the key to acceptance of Roma into Institute’s Roma Education Initiative, the Decade offshoot the Roma Education Fund, the Council of Europe’s many "In the face of all this attention and progress stands Roma education and early childhood the question: what makes education so special? programs, and the work of UNICEF and The obvious answer is that education is a necessary World Vision. stepping stone for almost all well-paying work in Using World Vision as a case study today’s modernized, industrialized society. " provides insight into how this dichotomy plays out in mainstream aid. As one of the most prominent NGOs to address Europeans as possible with little effort by European society by enabling Roma to Roma development and equality, many political leaders to stop this, but become part of a successful middle-class. World Vision makes education a clear there are a few victories for Roma in the UNESCO director-general Irena Bakova priority. World Vision’s website states schoolhouse. In administrating educational succinctly summed up the necessity of that “a strong education and advocacy justice for Roma, many European education when she said, “Children are component” is the key to their current governments have been taking a step our most precious resource…the denial three-year initiative for Roma, “Fighting backward for every few steps forward; of (education) leaves everybody much Discrimination and Stigma Against however, the perseverance of Roma poorer.”20 Therefore, it is no surprise Roma Population.” The site goes on to individuals, private philanthropy, court that education is a special focus of name poverty, segregation, and lack cases, and even affirmative-action and development efforts for Roma—as it of access to health care, education, similar successful governmental efforts should be. However, it is just as obvious and jobs as main problems for Roma have allowed for growing numbers of that education alone cannot bring Roma but elaborates solely on the issue of educated, professional Roma throughout equality and acceptance in European education. Education is also a main focus Europe. Furthermore, the Decade of Roma society. of its online pages, which inform viewers Inclusion has committed over $18 million of the stigma and struggle of Roma. For Because of the stereotypes for the creation of 180 different education example, a page with the heading “Voices associated with “Gypsies,” even educated initiatives, including free pre-school and of Roma Youth and Adults: Realities of Roma often struggle to find work. This in college scholarships through the Roma Exclusion and Discrimination” quotes itself is a deterrent to Roma in pursuing Education Fund.19 various news articles that quote Roma education; academic Petra Gelbart, herself who express the kinds of challenges they ethnically Romani, noted in her recent face. Each of these selections point to Why Education? dissertation, “Today, some Romani families inadequate education as a key problem. are so discouraged by their low chances In the face of all this attention and Four of the five quotations used on the on the job market that they fail to see progress stands the question: what page are concerned with limited access how schooling can really help."21 Many makes education so special? The obvious to education, and the one abstract that employers simply refuse to hire Roma, and answer is that education is a necessary focuses explicitly on racism is titled, a college degree does not change this. stepping stone for almost all well-paying “Roma: Daycare Center Gives Roma The Philadelphia Daily News underscored work in today’s modernized, industrialized Access to Education.”18 this problem in a recent article

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paradoxically titled, “Education Moving discrimination has personally affected projects for Roma inclusion funded by Gypsies Forward” that told of a young them as adults.22 The World Bank’s the World Bank, roughly half focus on Slovakian Roma who has been unable to representation of Roma is very much children or education or have a large find work as a teacher on account of her the same; of the twelve photos of Roma component that addresses one of the race since she graduated from college throughout the website, seven picture two. In addition to the many programs over four years ago. only Roma children, three picture a Roma established to promote education, Roma mother and child, one pictures an elderly inclusion projects established by individual Another answer to the question couple, and only one shows working age nations and independent non-profits of the special attention to education is adult Roma.23 hone in on children and youth, excluding not quite so obvious. The humanitarian adults. Programs and organizations that and political push for Roma education is Similarly, the media draws far more emphasize helping Roma children include, directed entirely toward formal schooling on the victimization of Roma children than but are not limited to, the Children and for traditional-aged students—elementary adults. An excellent example of this is a fire Youth Development Project in Macedonia; school through high school. There are, in that broke out in an Italian Roma camp, the Roma Children Inclusion Project in fact, programs directed toward vocational tragically killing four children. The incident Romania; the Childhood Welfare Reform and literacy training for adult Roma, was picked up on by many mainstream Project in Bulgaria; the Child Development but the emphasis of mainstream news online news outlets, including BBC News, and Disadvantaged Communities sources and NGOs is entirely on traditional Yahoo, and AOL, and stirred the Pope Project (also in Bulgaria); the Fund for schooling, which is almost exclusively to admonish Italians for their exclusion of Endangered Children; the Children’s Ark; restricted to teenagers and children. Roma.24 However, the many instances the Roma Support Group; Roma for Keeping this in mind, it becomes useful to of outright violence towards Roma All; the Children’s Ark; UNICEF; World look to the role of children in public calls adults and communities are usually only Vision; Save the Children; and the Roma for Roma rights. covered by local news or special interest Children’s Centre. publications. Even when children’s issues Roma children are often the literal are not specifically the focus, attention It seems, then, that the key to the poster child for Roma issues, in education is constantly drawn to Roma children education question is children. Children and beyond. Again using World Vision through words and photos in news articles represent vulnerability and innocence; it as an example, the section of its website and governmental reports. For example, is much easier to be moved by a smiling, devoted to Roma issues features constant in a New York Times article about a very chubby-cheeked child than by the lined, reminders that children are the victims controversial wall that had been erected weather-worn face of an adult. In his of anti-Roma racism. Although the head in a Czech town, separating ethnic famous speech, “To Hell With Good of the page reads “Roma: The Plight of Czechs from ethnic Roma, the author Intentions,” Ivan Illich controversially Europe’s Largest Minority,” this may as concluded, “But more energy is needed asserted that humanitarian work is well be a minority without adults; while the to solve a problem that dooms Gypsy ultimately about working in our own text that follows speaks of disadvantages children to a lifetime of disadvantage self-interest.26 Sociologist Daniel Harris to “Roma” in general, the large color and discrimination” (emphasis added by builds off of this premise in his essay, photograph emblazoned with the words author).25 “Cuteness,” arguing that the physical “‘Go Away Gypsy!’” is of the dusty and mental limitations of children are feet of children, not adults. In another Finally, as with education, there an invitation to the paternalistic side of section titled “Voices of Roma Youth and are many more programs concerned human nature to protect and care for.27 It Adults,” the adults mainly speak about exclusively with the well-being of Roma takes no great strength of character to their children or other children in their children than with the Roma community want to help children; in fact, according community, but they remain silent on how as a whole. For example, of the many to Harris, people instinctively seek to care

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for the helpless so that, by doing so, they “Gypsies live on the edge of society, and about Roma—that they are dirty, that they may become more powerful. This social their children should be taught the basic steal, lie, or cheat—when it comes to paradigm holds that more often than from skills of civilization.”31 Similar attitudes children than adults. Phrased another way, true altruism, people are moved by their are reflected in a recent collaborative Roma adults are commonly viewed as aesthetic consciousness to help children, project between the University of Montana morally dirty, but Romani children have not whereas the distress of unbeautiful adults and Charles University in Prague on the yet been corrupted. pulls remarkably less on heart-strings. importance of Roma education, which This perspective is expressed Within the framework of these theories, reported, “It was clear how young people appallingly well by Petra Vrtbosvka’s the proliferate use of children to promote can easily be influenced by negative warning, as quoted by Petra Gelbart, that Roma rights and the great number of attitudes about work” and then proceeded “Adorable, big-eyed little children soon programs directed exclusively at children to relate an example of Roma preference turn into young Roma. They run away demonstrate that gadjo society is still for laziness and crime, emphasizing the from home, steal, hang out with their not totally motivated to help the Romani positive role of teachers and tutors to circle of friends on the street, don't want people purely from a sense of social counteract the negative influences of to study, quickly form intense romantic justice. Roma parents.32 and sexual relationships, they love noise, This hypothesis is further supported dance, singing, shouting, and life in a large In Their Own Image by the fact that the EU and the World [wild] band.”34 It then becomes the job of Bank strongly support developing Roma schools and youth programs to intervene Education has always been prized ‘youth leaders,’ calling on young people before this corruption can occur. Motivation for its potential to transmit specific social to lead the way for Roma inclusion Romania, a Romania NGO currently values to students,and this is no less a and recently sponsoring several Roma receiving funding from the World Bank, factor in current education initiatives for teenagers from Central and Eastern operates based on this sort of anticipatory Roma.28 The presence of this less-than- Europe to attend a democratic leadership action. The organization emphasizes the altruistic motivation is clearly demonstrated conference in New Zealand.33 There is idea that by intervening at a young age in one recent scholarly account of no such summons, no references at all, they are preventing Roma boys from Roma socialization and education in in fact, for leadership on the part of older committing crimes, identifying one group of Eastern Europe, which claims that “the Roma. This total focus on raising up youth “beneficiaries” as “twenty boys, identified socialization of gypsies at home” is leaders instead of capitalizing on existing by local authorities as potential juvenile extremely problematic and that schooling adult leaders in Roma communities delinquents” (emphasis added by author).35 is the solution.29 Defining “gypsy lifestyle” suggests two things: first, that these Furthermore, there are certain as having “an extremely low degree of powerful global entities have an interest assumptions about children and childhood education,” “a high rate of childbirth,” in shaping future Roma, and second, that that modern Western societies do not and “a propensity for behaving against there is a feeling that Roma adults are make about adults. Adults are perceived accepted norms," the authors emphasize already ‘lost’ to their disreputable ways. as being culpable for their socioeconomic the refusal of Roma to adopt a Western In addition to being understood position, whereas children are society’s lifestyle.30 They champion education as as helpless and in need of protection, dependents. It is very easy, when reading a means of assimilation, notably praising the conception of children as innocent about financial problems or social prejudice boarding-style schools that separate is significant in understanding this trend against adults of any ethnicity, to have Roma children from the bad influence in Roma development aid. Because the knee-jerk “hard work” reaction—if of their settlements. The importance of childhood is endowed with a special purity, they are badly off, it is most likely through school, according to these authors, can it is easier to reject common stereotypes some fault of their own. They just did not be summarized by their statement that,

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work hard enough. Children, on the other spending on Roma to provide things like disincentives or lack of motivation to hand, do not evoke such a reaction. It is health care and housing. By directing the look for work, or other reasons such as assumed that all decent human beings majority of resources to Roma inclusivity in discrimination,” casually including the have a responsibility to help needy infants education, concerns about Roma providing problem of discrimination as something and children— and sometimes women and for themselves, rather than relying on of an afterthought. At another point, the the elderly, who can be viewed as equally others, can be largely avoided. report excuses individuals who practice helpless—but this assumed responsibility discrimination by saying, “employers By emphasizing programs that help does not generally apply to impoverished may demonstrate a form of ‘statistical only Romani children, it is possible for or otherwise struggling adults. Rather, discrimination’ related to information Europe to work towards racial equity it is the responsibility of adults to help asymmetries and lacking information about without actually challenging the attitudes themselves, no matter how debilitating their individuals” (emphasis added. by author).36 about Roma that are responsible for the circumstances. In considering humanitarian This technical language is a poor disguise presence of inequity to begin with. The and inclusion movements for Roma, this for racism, meaning, in essence, that failure of many Roma inclusion efforts notion of the responsibility of adulthood is particularly important in light of the types of stereotypes commonly held about Roma. Racist views about Roma hold them to "By emphasizing programs that help only Romani be unanimously lazy and averse to work, children, it is possible for Europe to work towards preferring to steal or beg instead. Initiatives racial equity without actually challenging the to provide humanitarian aid or employment attitudes about Roma that are responsible for opportunities for Roma adults, therefore, the presence of inequity to begin with." meet the dual challenge of overcoming the view that adults should be able to help themselves and the racially imbued opposition that Gypsies do not want to Roma generally do not have the qualities to remedy racism is evidenced by the help themselves. The school is uniquely of desirable employees, although certain many instances of racism embedded the place of the child—the perfect victim; Roma individuals may. Racist overtones in programs and reports funded by the education, for these reasons, is the safest were also notable in interviews with the World Bank, a major source of funding for territory to address inequality. Furthermore, directors of Motivation Romania. Both the Roma inclusion initiatives. For example, public education is something that all EU World Bank coverage of Motivation Russia in a report entitled, “Czech Republic: states are required to provide to its citizens and the non-profit itself demonstrate a buy- Improving Employment Chances of the and is, therefore, less likely to be viewed in of stereotypes of Roma as criminals and Roma,” the role of discrimination in hiring negatively as a drain on public resources. present an overall negative, patronizing view practices is extremely downplayed and While education of Roma obviously of Roma by making comments such as, racist views are even propagated. Relying continues to be an area of contestation “[the non-profit workers] gave boys basic on negative stereotypes to account for in the gadjo community, there are fewer social skills.”37 Given the international clout low employment among Roma, the report qualms raised on financial grounds about of the World Bank, the presence of racially reads, “the remaining unemployed face upping Roma participation in schools. In tinged remarks in its programs for social binding barriers to employment possibly contrast, EU citizens, particularly those inclusivity is particularly worrying. As both due to lacking skills and work habits, in poorer countries, resent even minor a sponsor of many governmental Roma

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inclusion programs and a major world (Hertfordshire: University of Hertfordshire 17. Marian Cheriac, “Bucharest Aims to Help Press, 2010), 6. Roma Get Jobs,” Balkan Insight, March 17, actor, the significance of the attitude of 2011, accessed April 12, 2011, http:// 2. Ian Hancock, The Pariah Syndrome (Ann Arbor, www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bucharest- World Bank-funded programs for the Roma Karoma Publishers, 1987), 35. aims-to-help-roma-get-jobs?amp. outreach movement as a whole cannot be 3. Ibid., 58. 18. “Roma: Plight of Europe’s Largest Minority,” underestimated. 4. We Are the Romani People, 35. World Vision, accessed February 6, 2011, http://meero.worldvision.org/sf_roma.php. 5. Petra Gelbart, “Learning Music, Race, and Nation in the Czech Republic” (PhD diss., 19. “Roma Education Fund Donor Conference,” Conclusion Harvard University, 2010). Decade of Roma Inclusion, accessed February 6, 2011, http://www.romadecade. 6. “Press Release: UNDP To Honour Human org/events/roma_education_fund_donor_ This paper demonstrates that there Development Report on Roma of Europe," conference. is an imbalance in media and economic United Nations Development Programme, December 15, 2004, accessed April 6, 20. “Half of Roma Children Drop Out of Elementary support of Roma rights, favoring education 2011, http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/ School, UN-Backed Report Finds,” UN for Roma children over Roma adults. undp_release-roma.pdf; UNDP BRC, “Roma News Center, September 27, 2010, Report Fact Sheet II,” in Roma Regional accessed April 26, 2011, http://www. The victimization of Roma children, then, Human Development Report 2003: Avoiding un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=3620 supersedes the victimization of the Roma the Dependency Trap (United Nations 7&Cr=UNESCO&Cr1=. Human Development Programme, May 26, 21. Gelbart. population as a whole. So much of the 2003) 1, accessed April 6, 2011, http:// focus is on children because helping www.undp.bg/publications.php?id=1163. 22. “Roma: Plight of the World’s Largest Minority.” children is the most socially acceptable 7. UNDP BRC, “Roma Report Fact Sheet II,” 2. 23. “World Bank and the Roma,” World Bank, accessed March 24, 2011, http://web. 8. “About,” Roma Decade, accessed March 1, thing to do. In helping children, particularly worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ 2011, http://www.romadecade.org/about. through education, gadjos are not forced COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/EXTROMA/0,,conte 9. “Can Bulgaria Gov’t Sort Out the Roma ntMDK:20333806~menuPK:615999~pag to confront their racist beliefs about Problem?” Sofia News Agency, April ePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSite Roma and can even channel these beliefs 13, 2011, accessed April 20, 2011, PK:615987,00.html. http://www.novinite.com/view_news. 24. “Pope Calls for Solidarity For Gypsies as through education aid. The point of this php?id=127260. Parents of 4 Roma Children Killed in paper is not to encourage society to 10. Chris Tyler, Traveller Education: Accounts Blaze Listen,” Yahoo! News, February stop caring for Roma children, nor is it to of Good Practice (Staffordshire: Trentham 13, 2011, accessed February 17, Books Limited, 2005), 18. 2011, http://ca.news.yahoo.com/pope- suggest that all journalists and NGOs are calls-solidarity-gypsies-parents-4-roma- 11. Annabel Tremlett, “Gypsy Children Can’t Learn: children-20110213-104049-227.html. consciously or unconsciously playing into Roma in the Hungarian Education System,” selfish, racist thinking patterns. However, in The Politics of Childhood: International 25. “Europe’s Wall For Gypsies,” The New York Perspectives, Contemporary Developments, Times, October 24, 1999, accessed examining the current approach to Roma ed. Jim Goddard, et al., (New York: Palgrave January 15, 2012, http://www.nytimes. aid from a critical perspective shows this MacMillan, 2005) 148. com/1999/10/24/opinion/europe-s-walls- for-gypsies.html. to be undeniably a factor in the current 12. Gelbart. 26. Ivan Illich, “To Hell With Good 13. Tremlett. trend of youth-based Roma inclusion and Intentions”(speech given at the Conference awareness efforts. In moving forward with 14. Kalwant Bhopal, “Gypsy Travellers and on InterAmerican Student Projects, Education: Changing Needs and Changing Cuernavaca, Mexico, April 20, 1968). Roma inclusion, more must be done to Perceptions,” British Journal of Educational 27. Daniel Harris, “Cuteness,” in Cute, Quaint, Studies 52 (2004): 55. directly combat racism and to provide for Hungry, and Romantic: The Aesthetics of Roma in areas outside of education and 15. It is interesting to note that, despite Consumerism (United States: Da Capo Westerners’ horror that Roma do not always Press, 2000). childhood development if Roma integration coddle their children, Western culture itself 28. McCarthy, Cameron, The Uses of Culture: did not begin to dictate that children be is to be successful. Education and the Limits of Ethnic Affiliation treated as anything less than miniature adults (London: Routledge, 1998). until the last century and a half. 29. Kozma, Tamas; Puszta, Gabriella; and Torkos, 16. Jack Greenberg, “Report on Roma Education Endnotes Katalin, “Roma Childhood in Eastern Europe,” Today: From Slavery to Segregation,” in ‘Suffer the Little Children’: National and 1. Ian Hancock, We Are the Romani People Columbia Law Review 110 (2010): 976.

Spring 2012 59 Altruism, Prejudice, and Culture in Roma Education Advocacy: Education and Children in the Decade of Roma Inclusion / Rachel McVey

International Dimensions of Childhood February 7, 2011. Accessed February 9. http:// MarLink, 2002. www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12380027. Poverty and Public Policy, ed. Carol Camp Kozma, Tamas; Puszta, Gabriella; and Torkos, Katalin. Yeakey, Jeanita W. Richardson, and Judith “Half of Roma Children Drop Out of Elementary School, “Roma Childhood in Eastern Europe.” In ‘Suffer Brooks Buck (Boston: Elsevier, 2006), 82. UN-Backed Report Finds.” UN News Center, the Little Children’: National and International September 27, 2010. Accessed April 26, Dimensions of Childhood Poverty and Public 30. Ibid., 76-77. 2011. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story. Policy, edited by Carol Camp Yeakey, Jeanita W. asp?NewsID=36207&Cr=UNESCO&Cr1= Richardson, and Judith Brooks Buck, 73-96. 31. Ibid., 82. Boston: Elsevier, 2006. “Pope Calls for Solidarity For Gypsies as Parents 32. Alice Tejkalová and Israel Tockman, “An of 4 Roma Children Killed in Blaze Listen,” McCarthy, Cameron. The Uses of Culture: Education and Educational Morass: The Success of Roma Yahoo! News, February 13, 2011. Accessed the Limits of Ethnic Affiliation. London: Routledge, February 17, 2011. http://ca.news.yahoo.com/ 1998. Students Depends on Parent Support and pope-calls-solidarity-gypsies-parents-4-roma- Teacher Sensitivity,” Common Ground: children-20110213-104049-227.html. Roma Decade. “About.” Accessed February 6, 2011. http://romadecade.org/about. Prague-Missoula 2007, accessed April “Press Release: UNDP To Honour Human Development 12, 2011, http://umjschool.typepad. Report on Roma of Europe.” United Nations Roma Decade. “Roma Education Fund Donor com/prague07/2007/08/an-educational-. Development Programme, December 15, 2004. Conference.” Accessed February 6, 2011. http:// www.romadecade.org/events/roma_education_ html#more. Accessed April 6, 2011, http://hdr.undp.org/en/ media/undp_release-roma.pdf. fund_donor_conference. 33. “Young Leaders Gain New Perspective Far “Wheels of Change: A Romanian NGO Reaches Out Smith, Tracey. “Recognizing Difference: The Romani From Home,” World Bank, accessed April to Its Neighbors.” World Bank, August, 2005. ‘Gypsy’ Child Socialisation and Education Process.” 12, 2011, http://web.worldbank.org/ Accessed April 23, 2011. http://www.worldbank. British Journal of Sociology of Education 18 (1997): 243-256. WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/ org.ro/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/ ROMANIAEXTR/0,,contentMDK:22061547~page EXTROMA/0,,contentMDK:21017843~men Stewart, Michael. The Time of the Gypsies. Boulder: PK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:275154,00. Westview Press, 1997. uPK:615993~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64 html. 168309~theSitePK:615987,00.html. Tejkalová, Alice and Tockman, Israel. “An Educational “Young Leaders Gain New Perspective Far From Home.” Morass: The Success of Roma Students Depends 34. Gelbart. World Bank, 2011. Accessed April 12, 2011. on Parent Support and Teacher Sensitivity.” 2007. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ Common Ground: Prague-Missoula 2007, 2007. 35. “Wheels of Change: A Romanian NGO COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/EXTROMA/0,,contencont:2 Accessed April 12, 2011, http://umjschool. Reaches Out to Its Neighbors,” World Bank, 1017843~menuPK:615993~pagePK:64168445 typepad.com/prague07/2007/08/an-educational-. ~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:615987,00.hhtm. August, 2005, accessed April 23, 2011, html#more. http://www.worldbank.org.ro/WBSITE/ Bhopal, Kalwant. “Gypsy Travellers and Education: Travers, Penny, and Klein, Gillian. Equal Measures: Ethnic Changing Needs and Changing Perceptions.” EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/ROM Minority and Bilingual Pupils in Secondary Schools. British Journal of Educational Studies 52 (2004): Staffordshire: Trentham Books Limited, 2004. ANIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:22061547~ 47-64. pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSite Tremlett, Annabel. “Gypsy Children Can’t Learn: Roma Cartwright, Garth. Princes Among Men: Journeys With PK:275154,00.html. in the Hungarian Education System.” In The Gypsy Musicians. London: Serpent’s Tail 2007. Politics of Childhood: International Perspectives, 36. World Bank, Czech Republic: Improving Cheriac, Marian. “Bucharest Aims to Help Roma Get Contemporary Developments, edited by Jim Jobs,” Balkan Insight, March 17, 2011. Accessed Goddard, Sally McNamee, Adrian James, and Employment Chances of the Roma (October Allison James, 145-159. New York: Palgrave 21, 2008), 16, accessed April 12, 2011, April 12, 2011. http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/ article/bucharest-aims-to-help-roma-get-jobs?amp. MacMillan, 2005. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ECAEXT/ Tyler, Chris. Traveller Education: Accounts of Good Resources/258598-1224622402506/ Darrington, Chris and Kendall, Sally. Gypsy Traveller Students in Secondary Schools: Culture, Identity, Practice. Staffordshire: Trentham Books Limited, CZ_Roma_Employment_Full_Report.pdf. and Achievement. Staffordshire: Trentham Books 2005. 37. World Bank, “Wheels of Change: A Romanian Limited, 2004. UNDP BRC. “Roma Report Factsheet II.” In Roma NGO Reaches Out to Its Neighbors.” Fonseca, Isabel. Bury Me Standing. New York: Alfred A. Regional Human Development Report 2003: Knopf, Inc., 1995. Avoiding the Dependency Trap. United Nations Human Development Programme, May 26, 2003. Gelbart, Petra. “Learning Music, Race, and Nation in the http://www.undp.bg/publications.php?id=1163. Czech Republic.” PhD diss., Harvard University, 2010. World Bank. Czech Republic: Improving Employment Chances of the Roma. World Bank Human Bibliography Greenberg, Jack. “Report on Roma Education Today: Development Sector Unit Eastern Europe and “Can Bulgaria Gov’t Sort Out the Roma Problem?” Sofia From Slavery to Segregation.” Columbia Law Central Asia, October 21, 2008. Accessed March News Agency, April 13, 2011. Accessed April Review 110 (2010): 901-1000. 24, 2011. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ 20, 2011, http://www.novinite.com/view_news. ECAEXT/Resources/258598-1224622402506/ Hancock, Ian. We Are the Romani People. Hertfordshire: php?id=127260. CZ_Roma_Employment_Full_Report.pdf. University of Hertfordshire Press, 2010. “Education Moving Gypsies Forward.” Philly.com, February World Bank. “World Bank and the Roma.” Accessed Hancock, Ian. The Pariah Syndrome. Anne Arbor: Karoma 6, 2011. Accessed February 9, 2011. http://www. March 24, 2011. http://web.worldbank.org/ Publishers, Inc., 1987. philly.com/philly/news/nation_world/20110206_ WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/EXTR Education_moving_Gypsies_forwarf.html. Harris, Daniel. “Cuteness.” In Cute, Quaint, Hungry, and OMA/0,,contentMDK:20333806~menuPK:6159 Romantic: The Aesthetics of Consumerism, 1-22. 99~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSite “Europe’s Wall For Gypsies.” The New York Times, United States: Da Capo Press, 2000. PK:615987,00.html. October 24, 1999. Accessed January 15, 2012. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/24/opinion/ Illich, Ivan. “To Hell With Good Intentions.” Speech given at World Vision. “Roma: Plight of Europe’s Largest Minority.” europe-s-walls-for-gypsies.html the Conference on InterAmerican Student Projects, Accessed February 6, 2011. http://meero. Cuernavaca, Mexico, April 20, 1968. worldvision.org/sf_roma.php. “Four Children Killed in Camp Blaze.” AOL News, February 7, 2011. Accessed February 9. http://news.aol. Jigau, Michaela ; Surdu, Mihai ; Balica, Magda ; co.uk/world-news/story/four-children-killed-in- Fartusnic, Ciprian ; Horga, Irina ; Surdu, Laura. The camp-blaze/1568231/. Participation to Education of the Roma Childen: Problems, Solutions, Actors. Bucharest: Editura “Four Roma Children Die in Rome, Italy Fire.” BBC News,

60 JUIS Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy

by Patrick Shipe

fter the death of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser on September 28, 1970, neither Egyptian insiders nor the United States expected Anwar Sadat to survive his first month A in office. At best, he would become a puppet of the Arab Socialist Union, the party and revolutionary propaganda vehicle of his predecessor, Gamal Abdel Nasser. Elliot Richardson, the head of the US delegation at not only changed Egypt forever; it laid would strengthen his ability to bargain Nasser’s funeral, met with Sadat only the foundation of the Middle East known diplomatically. He strongly believed that to report back “that Sadat wouldn’t today. alignment with the United States was key last more than four to six weeks in to Egypt’s future, and Sadat’s strategy Sadat entrenched his strategy in a power.”1 Sadat would not only come to revolved around changing the US-Israeli series of strategic convictions formed defy his critics by holding onto power, but dynamic. Egypt found itself in a political over the years he spent in Nasser’s also transcend all expectations and chart trap between the United States, Soviet shadow. He developed a strategy built a dramatic new course for Egypt. Sadat Union, and Israel, and Sadat would try upon a “pathological” distaste for the sent Soviet advisers packing while the US Embassy staff swelled to 872 in 1981

2 from a mere six in 1973. He abandoned "How did Sadat arrive at these massive shifts in Arab Socialism and formed the National policy? How did he manage to rechart the course Democratic Party that would come to of a nation still reeling from its thorough defeat 3 rule Egypt until 2011. He launched the in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War? Sadat’s leadership ambitious Infitah, which “opened” Egypt not only changed Egypt forever, it laid the to private investment and ended public foundation of the Middle East we know today." sector market domination. He presided over the famous October 6 breaking of the Israeli Bar Lev line in 1973 and Soviet Union. He believed that Nasser concluded a peace treaty with Israel in to break free. He settled on a direction could not separate the political and 1979. How did Sadat arrive at these for Egypt: “Peace plus Infitah [economic military realities of war and thus could massive shifts in policy? How did he opening] equals prosperity."4 While his not achieve the victory for Egypt he so manage to rechart the course of a nation strategic aims were sound—perhaps wanted. Sadat reoriented Egypt to pursue still reeling from its thorough defeat in the revolutionary after Nasser’s defeat—he a war of limited aims with Israel that 1967 Arab-Israeli War? Sadat’s leadership failed tactically in the October War of

Patrick Shipe. Patrick Shipe is a senior at the University of Wisconsin-Madison studying international studies and history. He has studied abroad in Lebanon and Egypt, focusing his studies on both the Arabic language and foreign policy in the region.

Spring 2012 61 Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy / Patrick Shipe

1973 and chose to follow the road of public discontent over the loss helped to Egypt had decided to enter headfirst into negotiation without the extent of the push the Free Officers to victory. 6 The the politics of the Cold War—a conflict leverage he had predicted to gain in average age of a Free Officer was thirty- that introduced an irrefutable dimension 1973. four, and “all were native-born Egyptians to Egyptian politics. of rural origins who had risen through the The Czech-Egyptian deal broke military to positions of responsibility.”7 Origins “the Western monopoly on the supply The revolution marked the decline of arms to the countries of the Middle Anwar Sadat was as bound to the of British influence in the country—a East,” leading John Foster Dulles to call situation he faced when he assumed consequence that would dominate the deal “the most serious development the presidency as he was by the Egyptian foreign affairs well into Sadat’s since Korea."11 Washington was eager to prejudices he developed as an insider rule—and the beginning of a tumultuous employ the issue of the Aswan High Dam to the revolutionary regime. In order to new relationship with the United States. to keep the Egyptians from Soviet orbit.12 understand the development of President The rise of Arab nationalism and the The Nile was, and remains, Egypt’s Sadat’s strategy, it is necessary to first disengagement of colonial forces in the economic lifeblood—agriculture would understand both the origins of the region fueled American anxiety about a be nonexistent without it, and controlling situation he inherited upon entering office perceived power vacuum that could be its flood was key to growth. The dam and the development of his approach exploited by the Soviets. US Secretary became a symbol of modernization and toward it. of State John Foster Dulles linked independence for Egypt, and the country The best starting point for this Arab nationalism itself to communism.8 needed massive financial assistance particular story is the Egyptian Revolution However, Egyptian-US relations after the to complete the ambitious project.13 of 1952, Egypt’s de facto independence Revolution did not immediately begin However, when it became apparent that from Britain. The Free Officers Movement, under such tension. Americans were the prospect of High Dam aid “had not an organization of junior army officers, sympathetic to the Egyptian revolution, as succeeded in limiting the Czech arms forced Egypt’s King Farouk to abdicate, evidenced by the Truman administration’s agreement,” the United States eventually compelling him to flee from his Alexandria favorable response to Egyptian requests decided against funding the project.14 summer palace aboard his yacht. Anwar for military aid. Truman sent Deputy Not only did the Soviet Union respond Sadat, a Free Officer himself, delivered Secretary of Defense William C. Foster by extending Egypt a loan, but it was the first address of the revolution after to Cairo, where he assured Nasser that several times larger than the Western leading the takeover of Cairo’s radio “U.S. arms aid would be forthcoming.” offer. In order to fund the rest of the facilities on July 23, 1952.5 In spite of this initial desire on the part dam, Nasser made the monumental of the Americans to extend a hand to decision of nationalizing the Suez Canal.15 The Free Officers Movement was the new regime, the British expressed This quagmire of events brought about conceived in the midst of the same concern that the new regime could use the Suez Crisis of 1956 and a closer unresolved issues that Sadat would come advanced weaponry against them in the relationship between Egypt and the to face. The Movement was a rejection Suez Canal zone, where they sought to Soviet Union. of foreign influence in Egypt. It was a maintain their strategic presence. Thus, rejection of the corrupt Egyptians that The Suez Crisis marked the America “decided to postpone military benefited from that influence, and it was beginning of a rift in Sadat’s thinking and aid to Egypt.”9 Instead, Egypt made also a rejection of Israel. The Free Officers Nasser’s policies. Britain and France arrangements to procure arms from largely consisted of men who believed collaborated with Israel in an attack Czechoslovakia in what amounted to an that King Farouk’s poor leadership cost against Egypt, reoccupying the Suez indirect purchase from the Soviet Union.10 Egypt the war with Israel in 1948-49, and Canal on October 29, 1956. The Israelis

62 JUIS Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy / Patrick Shipe

gained control of the Sinai Peninsula, project. The United States abandoned drifted towards the Soviet Union. Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister David Ben- him to appease the British, and he felt argued that Nasser never truly tried to Gurion had strongly intimated before the that the United Kingdom’s Baghdad Pact understand Israel’s political strategy. Knesset that he intended to annex the was a ploy to foment Arab resistance to In his seminal work The Art of War, Sinai into Israel.16 A scathing international Arab Socialism and his leadership. In the Sun Tzu gave the following advice: reaction resounded in the halls of the shadow of these events, Nasser failed to 4. Thus, what is of supreme United Nations, especially from the acknowledge the role that United States importance in war is to attack the United States. The US, in the midst pressure had on stopping the so-called enemy’s strategy. of backing the Hungarian Revolution “Tripartite Aggression.” Sadat saw things 5. Next best is to disrupt his of 1956, felt it necessary to support very differently. When the Syrian president alliances.21 Egypt and to demand the withdrawal Shukri al-Kuwaitli delivered a plea for Like Sun Tzu, Sadat believed that of Coalition forces from Sinai. The help to Moscow on Egypt’s behalf, the Israel’s essential strategy for existence United States succeeded, and Vice Soviets “refused point blank.” “This was its alliances. Israel, argues Sadat, President Nixon heralded the move as made me believe, from that moment on,” "always had to seek the support of the a “second declaration of independence continued Sadat, “that it was always futile world’s biggest power." At the beginning from Anglo-French Colonial policies.” to depend on the Soviet Union.”19 of the twentieth century, Zionists looked Although it was President Eisenhower’s Furthermore, Sadat believed that to Britain—a relationship symbolized by intervention that rescued Egypt and Nasser’s decision to increasingly rely on the Balfour Declaration. However, the handed Nasser a massive political victory, the Soviet Union was a massive strategic aftermath of World War II sent the United Nasser decided that it would be politically blunder when it came to Israel. “As a States surging past ruined Europe. Israel, prudent to thank the Soviets, who issued professional politician,” wrote Sadat, according to Sadat, decided to realign the “blustering” Khrushchev-Bulganin “Nasser should have seized that chance itself with the United States. Ultimatum, demanding the attacks on to consolidate US-Egyptian relations, In the end, the exact identity of the Egypt cease.17 Nasser chose to publicly if only to frustrate the Israeli strategy power was not important but rather such attribute the failure of the British, French, which sought the reverse.”20 Nasser a power’s ability to exert global influence and Israelis “to the Russian ‘warning’, spent much time focusing on a complete both politically and militarily in Israel’s and praised the role of the Soviet Union military defeat of Israel. Sadat criticized favor. The United States was an ideal in complete disregard of Eisenhower’s Nasser for having this goal—how was ally in that it had incentive to intervene efforts.”18 Whether Nasser truly believed Egypt, with its noncommittal Soviet in Mideast affairs—its own Cold War this is unknown; however, the political support, going to annihilate an Israel that struggle.22 By aligning itself firmly with implications were real. Sadat saw this possesses complete US military support? the United States, Israel could leverage as another lost opportunity to develop strategic ties with the United States.

Rather than view the Soviets as the "In the end, the exact identity of the power heroes du jour, Sadat saw their reaction was not important but rather such a to the Suez Crisis—or the “Tripartite power’s ability to exert global influence both Aggression,” as is still fashionable in politically and militarily in Israel’s favor. " Egyptian circles—as representative of the lack of Soviet commitment to Egypt. As he would learn from the October War US power for itself in the context of the The Soviet Union had impressed Nasser, of 1973, the United States had more global Cold War. On the flipside of the particularly in light of the weapons deal incentive to support Israel the more Egypt same coin, Sadat believed that Israel and the funding for Aswan High Dam

Spring 2012 63 Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy / Patrick Shipe

worked to prevent its Arab neighbors who was permanently in Nasser’s inner “colorless, weak, and narrow-minded, from pursuing positive relationships with circle.24 He met Nasser at the age of and he was not a leader who could the United States. “Israel’s strategy is nineteen. Sadat wrote in his memoirs: remain in power.”26 These reports were based on creating a rift between the “There were moments when I could not not without basis. Sadat knew that he United States and Egypt,” he wrote. understand him or account for some of had enemies in the ruling elite, especially He offered the example of the Lavon his actions. Nonetheless, my feelings in the Arab Socialist Union. Dissidents Affair, a botched 1953 Israeli operation toward him remain unaltered. They were among the Free Officers proposed a that attempted to attack Western-linked feelings of love and love alone.”25 system of “collective rule” as the best targets in Egypt and present them as the Sadat sincerely believed that way to continue Nasser’s legacy.27 work of Communist or Islamist terrorists. outside forces were working to undo Sadat realized that the first war he The attacks were meant to derail nascent a good man and the Revolution as a would fight would not be for the Sinai, but US-Egyptian relations after the 1952 whole. Perhaps that is because the for legitimacy as the heir of Nasser. He revolution.23 Israel felt threatened by the Free Officers never codified the goals immediately moved to mobilize the state possibility of positive relations and thus of the Revolution after assuming power. propaganda organs under his control tried to thwart them. “Nasser should have Sadat discusses Nasser’s composition and had the al-Ahram newspaper print learned a lesson,” Sadat pointed out. of a National Charter for the direction a response to dissidents. Nasser “had The lesson was that Egypt had to put a of the Revolution but criticized it as a given Sadat his vote.” At the same time, wedge between Israel and the US, just as diversionary document meant to do little he selected Ali Sabri as his vice president. Israel tried to do to Egypt, in order to be more than distract the populace. Sadat Sabri embodied everything that Sadat politically victorious. Nasser meanwhile would eventually launch his “Corrective came to detest in Nasser’s regime: “left- became “preoccupied with the fable… Revolution” upon ascending to the wing, radical, and pro-Soviet.” However, that he was a hero who had defeated Presidency in this vein. The Suez Crisis, the choice of Sabri as vice president the armies of two great empires.” The in Sadat’s view, was the beginning of the communicated a sense of continuity Suez Crisis was a pure political victory end for Nasserite policies. to Egyptians and kept him politically for Egypt and was a complete military alive well past the six weeks that Elliot disaster. Nonetheless, Nasser failed The Corrective Richardson had predicted.28 Sadat to differentiate the two. The distinction Revolution supported his efforts with countless between a political victory and a military At Nasser’s death on September speeches, repeatedly invoking Nasser victory would guide Sadat in his first years 28, 1970, Sadat was vice president and and the Soviet Union. Accepting his of office. in the line of succession. Sadat did not nomination as a candidate for President, Sadat’s sharp criticism of Nasser’s intend to stay on as President at first. Sadat told the Egyptian parliament: leadership strongly hints at his future When he finally decided to submit his I came to you on the road paved by policy choices. In the course of the candidacy to officially take the post, the Gamal abd-al-Nasser, and I regard Suez Crisis, he began to formulate world did not expect him to last very your presenting my candidacy for crucial theories that would guide him as long. An Israeli intelligence brief offered President as a directive to follow in President. Although Sadat was a “yes- a bleak assessment of Sadat’s political Nasser’s footsteps. I solemnly give man” and a propagandist for Nasser—he future—he was not expected to have you my word of honour that I shall edited the Al Jumhuriya newspaper and one. The Israelis assumed that Nasser continue to follow Nasser’s ways 29 churned out editorials deifying him—he would never select a possible rival as vice under any circumstances…. was nonetheless an original Free Officer president. Sadat, they assessed, was He delivered his first public address as

64 JUIS Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy / Patrick Shipe

President of Egypt on the Suez Canal “The 1967 border should be the border Sadat discovered the extent to which front line to the Army—another important separating Egypt from Israel.”33 the regime had been taping phone power center Sadat strove to woo. He Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir’s conversations when an advisor brought began with a moment of silence for indifference to Sadat’s proposal was him a large stack of typed records. In Nasser, announcing after, “We shall all a public debacle. Her position ran an ominous speech that Sadat made on try to advance in the course charted by counter to American interests in averting May 1, 1971, he cautioned the people Nasser.”30 hostilities at the time—a scenario that who attempted “to impose his or their As Sadat cemented his public image Sadat envisioned was the key to victory will on the masses…in an attempt to and established credibility among the for Egypt. Rogers visited Egypt, the first form positions of power through which people, he strove to take control of the American Secretary of State to visit an to impose his or their guardianship on narrative regarding the Suez front. Upon Arab country since 1953. Sadat’s offer the people, since this people, together becoming President, he moved to renew and Rogers’ Middle East tour would end with Gamal Abdel Nasser, have toppled the ceasefire with Israel for three more in failure, but only after handing Sadat all positions of power.”36 Ali Sabri was months. After several more extensions international credibility and opening a dismissed from his post the following day. had elapsed, the situation transformed channel with the United States. He had successfully isolated his political into a “ceasefire that was not a ceasefire,” This put Sadat on an accelerated opponents within the regime, won the as Sadat managed a balance between a track to face the Ali Sabri bloc of the support of the Army, and achieved control real war he could not win and the anxiety Arab Socialist Union. The fact that Sadat over public information. of his people. He continued to give fiery had not consulted Sabri and his allies Sadat’s consolidation of power in speeches as his government churned out before he announced his Suez Canal the Corrective Revolution revealed in press releases about war preparations on initiative threatened their role as a “power him an adept politician who was willing a daily basis.31 center” in the Egyptian government.34 to take large risks in the hope of a larger His efforts also helped to establish him on the international scene. Upon the second expiry of the ceasefire (after its "Sadat’s consolidation of power in the first renewal), Sadat announced before Corrective Revolution revealed in him an the Egyptian National Assembly a plan adept politician that was willing to take large that would re-open the Suez Canal to risks in the hope of a larger dividend. He international shipping if Israel committed was not hesitant to provoke superpowers in to a partial withdrawal within thirty days.32 order to gain diplomatic maneuverability." President Nixon spurned him, sending Sadat a short message insisting that he would not be pressured by Sadat’s Sadat had effectively cut them out, and dividend. He was not hesitant to provoke deadlines. Nonetheless, Sadat’s war they were not pleased. Sabri attacked superpowers in order to gain diplomatic preparation campaign did just that. The Sadat for “selling out to America” and maneuverability. He agitated enemies at administration began to “show more publicly made the case that the Arab home just enough to unseat them and flexibility” as it considered war a very Socialist Union was the sole body that little enough to stay in power his first year. real possibility. Secretary of State William could “interpret the ‘immortal leader’s’ He balanced public desire for continuity Rogers put Israel on the defensive, [Gamal Abdel Nasser’s] teachings.”35 in the aftermath of Nasser’s death and his stating that American policy dictated, In a dramatic sequence of events, own conviction to set a new course. He

Spring 2012 65 Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy / Patrick Shipe

achieved “de-Nasserization in Nasser’s action according to the capabilities of hours, the whole world witnessed name.”37 the armed forces aimed at inflicting thousands of Egyptian troops crossing the heaviest losses on the enemy the Suez, breaking Israel’s purportedly The October War—A War and convincing him that continued impregnable Bar Lev line. Egyptian of Limited Aims occupation of our land exacts a price tactical creativity on the ground 40 The October War of 1973 was the that is too high for him to pay. excelled—the Army had ordered custom- major test of Sadat’s new strategy and In other words, Sadat clearly articulated built high-pressure water pumps to orientation. It would test Sadat’s theory in official capacity his position that it was pulverize the Bar-Lev line’s earthworks on that a war of limited aims was the best not necessary to aim for the complete October 6. Instead of charging aimlessly way to change the status quo—Israel’s destruction of the Israeli armed forces into the desert to become targets for occupation of Sinai—and put Egypt in to achieve his political goal. The Sadat the Israeli Air Force—the same force a position of diplomatic strength. Sadat strategy could be characterized as that of that had achieved utter domination of wrote that he “used to tell Nasser that if a defensive war. Although Egypt began Egyptian skies in 1967—the Egyptian we could recapture even four inches of the war, the 1973 October War was in ground forces stayed close to their highly Sinai territory…and establish ourselves practicality a counterattack part of the effective surface-to-air missile batteries. there so firmly that no power on earth same war that began in 1967—a war Approaching Israeli tanks that had grown could dislodge us, then the whole in which Egypt was on the defensive. It accustomed to seeing Egyptian infantry situation would change—east, west, was a continuation of a conflict that had flee in the face of their armor were faced all over.”38 Secretary of State Henry left the enemy on its soil. Repossession with fatal shoulder-carried anti-tank Kissinger’s meeting with Egyptian national of Sinai was thus a continuation of a missiles like the AT-3 Sagger. security adviser Hafez Ismail in March defensive strategy. “The ultimate aim 1973 corroborated this assumption. of a defensive war…. can never be an The Israeli Counter- Kissinger told Ismail frankly, “You talk as absolute negation,” German war scholar Crossing though you were the victors and Israel Carl von Clausewitz says. “Even the Sadat’s “dizzy triumph” distracted were the loser. The situation will not weakest party must possess some way him from his clear and cogent war change unless you change it militarily."39 of making the enemy conscious of its plan—a limited war to restore Egyptian On October 1, 1973, President presence, some means of threatening negotiating power. He decided to send 41 Sadat issued his official directive to the him.” Sadat’s strategy was exactly that. Egyptian troops further into Sinai to commander-in-chief to the Armed Forces. His conception of the “Israeli Security secure two strategic points, the Mitla and He clearly spelled out the Egyptian Theory” is based on the idea that as long Gidi passes. The attack took Egyptian strategy: as Israel believes there is no credible tanks out of their SAM-protected zone The strategic objective I hereby threat to the status quo, it faces no and into “well-prepared” Israeli positions. set the Egyptian armed forces to military, political, or psychological reason The morning of October 14 alone cost achieve, and for which I hold full to give in to Arab pressure. The Israeli the Egyptian Army 250 tanks. Egypt political responsibility, in the light Security Theory essentially allowed Israel seemed to commit the same blunders of all that I have heard and learned to ignore the Arab presence completely. that had cost the Israelis at the war’s about their preparations, may be It removed them completely from the beginning, driving 400 tanks into 900 summed out as follows: equation—an equation Sadat wanted to enemy tanks. Two days later, in the To challenge the Israeli Security get back into. early morning of October 16, 1973, two Theory by carrying out a military Sadat’s strategy performed hundred Israeli troops led by General Ariel miraculously well. In a matter of several

66 JUIS Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy / Patrick Shipe

Sharon crossed the Canal near Great Shazly and other historians tomorrow. Bitter Lake, a lake that lies toward the challenge Sadat’s heroic retelling of the The Prime Minister [Golda Meir]: If southern end of the Suez Canal. Sharon last days of the October War. He claims they don’t stop, we won’t. “paddled” across undetected and began to have protested Sadat’s decision to Dr. Kissinger: Even if they do…47 striking Egyptian Army targets, especially push deeper into Sinai, only to have Israel proceeded to encircle Egypt’s Third SAM batteries. Sharon’s crossing should been silenced. Shazly paints a Sadat Army, cutting it off from its supply route.48 have been simply an inconvenience—he drunken with the possibility of a larger originally crossed with only seven tanks.42 victory and obsessed with controlling Aftermath Anwar Sadat and his Army Chief the war narrative. Shazly writes that The October War was not a of Staff, General Saad Shazly, differ on he intended to only pull back enough complete failure politically. The war dealt how the events unfolded, a disagreement forces to counter the Israeli pocket a large blow to Israel’s invincibility, and that cost Shazly his job and had him on the west bank, not all as Sadat it psychologically shook the people of effectively exiled when Sadat nominated claimed. While Sadat mocked the Israeli Israel. Vis-à-vis Israel, Egypt was better him Ambassador to England. In his Deversoir counter-crossing as something off after the war than before: “It was memoirs, Sadat portrays Shazly as for cameras, Sadat did not want to proving to be what they had suspected someone who had lost his mind—he show any sign of weakness or panic all along: not the real battle, which came to an emergency meeting “a and therefore refused to withdraw any might have yielded a lasting, honourable nervous wreck”—suggesting that troops. Shazly believes ultimately that settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict, but Egyptian forces withdraw to the west Sadat failed in adhering to his strategy a mise en scène for the Pax Americana bank of the Canal. Sadat presents himself and was personally responsible. “He which certainly would not.”49 Essentially, as someone who cunningly avoided a could not claim that he had been kept in the October War strengthened Sadat’s trap—a withdrawal was “precisely what ignorance. The fate of the country was in position, but not to the extent that he the Israelis had wanted.”43 Sadat’s his hands.”45 had hoped. His Third Army, encircled account immediately shifts to his Eventually the Deversoir pocket by the Israelis in Sinai, only was able to discovery that the United States was grew, and Egyptians began to realize access their supply line due to a special providing Israel with untested “modern what was actually occurring on the west request from Kissinger to Israel.50 Sadat weapons,” and that he knew Egypt could bank of the Canal from “wounded men, hardly envisioned that having his forces never take on the United States. The ambulance drivers, [and] hospital staff.”46 stranded in the desert at the mercy of Deversoir pocket, the Israeli infiltration After a cease-fire passed the Security Kissinger’s whim was the new position of force led by Sharon on the west bank, Council on October 22, 1973, the Israelis strength that he had chosen to fight for. was simply “for the television cameras,” continued to improve their position. In a an effort “to save Israel’s reputation” after meeting with Israeli Prime Minister Golda Conclusion: Where is our Egypt’s initial victories in the war. He Meir, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger breakfast? adamantly held his ground: “I challenge tacitly gave his approval to an Israeli Upon Nasser’s death, Sadat planned Israel to declare the real losses she operation after the cease-fire: to “carry on as Vice-President until [he] sustained in the Deversoir Bulge.”44 Sadat Dr. Kissinger: You won’t get had removed the ‘consequences of saw his eventual decision to call for a violent protests from Washington aggression,’ and then allow elections 51 cease-fire as a mark of wisdom; he had if something happens during the to be held.” At this time, the done his best and now the situation was night, while I’m flying. Nothing can consequences of aggression he spoke beyond his control. happen in Washington until noon of were the Israeli occupations in Sinai,

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Gaza, the Golan Heights, and the West regard any opposition to him as treason. the age of his country, which he pegged Bank—all the territories occupied by It could be that Sadat truly believed in a at 7,000 years. Israel upon its victory in the 1967 war. multi-party democracy, but then got cold The peace treaty remains popular He characterized his decision to become feet and broke down. Before he could today in one certain sense. The Egyptian President as something he was doing for realize it, Sadat found himself arresting people are tired of war. They had been at war too many times, and the peace stopped the bloodshed of Egypt’s youth and the drainage of the economy. In "Why, then, does Emergency Law persist? It persists spite of this, the peace dividend never because Sadat’s efforts resulted in the creation of a new materialized in the fashion Sadat hoped aggressor, a new agitator of the Egyptian order, this time it would. It was not the peace that from the inside." Egyptians opposed, but rather the price they paid. The lower classes suffered the near ruin of their economic livelihood as Sadat his country—a service. Yet the on-and-off practically everyone. And then he found bent down before the World Bank and tradition of the autocratic Emergency Law himself dead. the IMF and repealed sanctions on basic has restrained real democracy to this day, The cry of the 1977 Bread Riots foodstuffs. He immediately reinstated and even in the light of the Arab Spring. The succinctly describes the plight we now expanded food subsidies, leaving future Supreme Council of the Armed Forces face in describing Sadat’s strategic President Mubarak with a $3.8 billion has declared it shall repeal the law, but legacy: per year program by 1986.53 Investment that remains to be seen. For while the Ya batal el-‘ubur, fayn el-futur? after the Infitah opening concentrated on original aggressor was Israel, that threat Oh, hero of the crossing, where lucrative luxury markets that created a was neutralized by the Egyptian-Israeli is our breakfast?52 small wealthy class of Egyptians without Peace Treaty of 1979. A discussion of Sadat’s economic policies substantially inducing any “trickle-down Why, then, does Emergency Law is beyond the scope of this paper. effect.” persist? It persists because Sadat’s Nevertheless, the chant that proved to be On the regional front, he abandoned efforts resulted in the creation of a new so effective in 1977 provokes a thought— the Arab world and gave up all of his aggressor, a new agitator of the Egyptian Sadat achieved what he wanted in terms cards—peace and recognition—in order, this time from the inside. At first of foreign policy. He had the United order to conclude a peace treaty that these were groups that had been once States on his side. He excised the left Jerusalem and the West Bank in considered on the fringe, such as the Soviet-style public sector domination. He Israeli hands. He acquiesced to the Muslim Brotherhood. He tried to play brought peace between Egypt and Israel. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1981, these groups against each other and But did Sadat get what he wanted for dropping a demand that Israel sign it as the Nasserites to solidify his power. At the reasons he wanted? Sadat believed well. Despite Egypt’s economic woes, he the beginning of his term, he was truly in the existence of a peace dividend. He wanted the treaty so he could purchase fighting an internal conspiratorial tumor, believed that with peace Egypt would be two nuclear reactors.54 He suddenly the pro-Soviet thugs and incompetent free to become a modern democracy. He looked a lot like his good friend, the Nasser loyalists. However, as he toiled was a believer in Egyptian exceptionalism Shah of Iran. Although the reality of the in his foreign policy efforts, he began to and frequently reminded his guests about comparison is far more complex, both

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attempted to pursue an aggressive famous for his bravery, but the price he Service, accessed February 16, 2007. pro-US agenda and an inhuman pace of paid would imprison Egypt for another 6. Robert McNamara, Britain, Nasser, and modernization. What is more interesting, thirty years. the balance of power in the Middle East (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 26. however, is that both Sadat and the Shah Anwar Sadat was many things to 7. Eugene Rogan, The Arabs: a History (New dubbed projects of theirs “revolutions”— many people. He was Pat Robertson’s York: Basic Books, 2009), 285. revolutions that, contrary to the term, Prince of Peace and Time magazine’s 8. Alan Dowty, Middle East crisis: U.S. decision- were meant to preserve the current Man of the Year. To biographer Joseph making in 1958, 1970, and 1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 27. leader. Finklestone, he was the “visionary who 9. William Joseph Burns, Economic aid and American policy toward Egypt, 1955-1981 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985), 13-14. 10. Ibid., 30-32 "His strategy of a limited war with Israel and 11. Ibid. realignment with the United States in order to divide 12. Ibid., 42. its ability to support Israel began as strokes of 13. Robert St. John, The Boss: The Story of genius—a complexity that Nasser never understood. Gamal Abdel-Nasser (McGraw Hill, 1960), However, his actions at the end of the October 298. War ceased to be smart and turned defeatist. " 14. Burns, Economic aid, 72. 15. William Adams Hance, The Geography of Modern Africa (New York: Columbia University Press), 140. 16. Isaac Alteras, Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.- General Shazly believes Sadat dared.” To Egyptians, he was the hero Israeli relations, 1953-1960 (Gainesville: found himself on this path because of his of the Crossing who could not bring University Press of Florida, 1993), 246 tactical mistakes in the October War.55 them breakfast. His strategy of a limited 17. Geoffrey Wawro, Quicksand: America’s pursuit of power in the Middle East (New Having compromised his hold on Sinai war with Israel and realignment with the York: Penguin, 2010). by attempting to charge forward and United States in order to divide its ability 18. Anwar Sadat, In Search of Identity (New York: out of the defensive umbrella, he gave to support Israel began as strokes of Harper & Row, 1978), 147. Israel a tactical advantage that created genius—a complexity that Nasser never 19. In Search of Identity, 146. conditions on the ground unfavorable understood. However, his actions at the 20. Ibid., 147. to the mammoth agenda he hoped to end of the October War ceased to be 21. Sun Tzu, The Art of War (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), Kindle edition. exploit from a political victory. Put short, smart and turned defeatist. Like Nasser, 22. While Britain never supported the creation the political yield from the maneuver was he was left parading for a victory that was of the State of Israel today and enforced simply not enough. Biographers David only in his head. a U.N. arms embargo during its War of Independence, Zionists worked well to Hirst and Irene Benson contend that ensure that British policy would at least not Sadat took the easy way out, choosing to prevent them from accomplishing their aims. Endnotes Similarly, while the United States and Israel abandon the larger struggle of recovering 1. Kirk Beattie, Egypt during the Sadat Years (New did not enjoy the same alliance in the 1950s all the occupied land in favor of an Egypt- York: Palgrave, 2000), 52. as they do now, worries of expanding Soviet influence in the Middle East ensured that only strategy. Supporters say this was 2. David Hirst and Irene Benson, Sadat (London: Israel would win in 1967 and 1973 Faber and Faber, 1981), 349. symbolic of Sadat taking the lead, and 23. In Search of Identity, 146. 3. Don Peretz, The Middle East today (Westport, detractors say that Sadat lost a game of CT: Praeger, 1994), 250. 24. Beattie, 43. chicken in order to fall into the American 4. Hirst and Benson, 233. 25. Anwar Sadat, Those I Have Known (New York: sphere of influence. Sadat became Continuum, 1984), 75-79. 5. “Anwar Sadat Profile,” Egypt State Information 26. Aryeh Shalev, Israel’s intelligence assessment

Spring 2012 69 Anwar Sadat: The Transformation of Egypt’s Foreign Policy / Patrick Shipe

before the Yom Kippur War (Brighton: Brookings Institution, 2004), 51. Continuum, 1984. Sussex Academic Press, 2010), 132. 55. Saad Shazly, The Crossing of Suez (San Shalev, Aryeh. Israel’s Intelligence Assessment 27. Hirst and Beeson, 106. Francisco: American Mideast Research, Before the Yom Kippur War. Brighton: 2003), 255. Sussex Academic Press, 2010. 28. Ibid. Shazly, Saad. The Crossing of Suez. San 29. Anwar Sadat, Acceptance speech for his Francisco: American Mideast Research, presidential candidacy, October 8, 1970. 2003. 30. Anwar Sadat, Address to military officers in the Shlaim, Avi. The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab Suez Canal front, October 19, 1970. Bibliography World. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001. Alteras, Isaac, Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli 31. Hirst and Beeson, 108-110. relations, 1953-1960. Gainesville: University St. John, Robert. The Boss: The Story of Gamal 32. Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab Press ofFlorida, 1993. Abdel-Nasser. McGraw Hill, 1960. World (New York: W.W. Norton, 2001), 302. Beattie, Kirk J. Egypt During the Sadat Years. New Stein, Kenneth. Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, 33. Hirst and Beeson, 110. York: Palgrave, 2000. Kissinger, Carter, Begin and the Quest for Arab-Israeli Peace. New York: Routledge, 34. Ibid., 109. Burns, William Joseph. Economic Aid and 1999. American Policy Toward Egypt, 1955-1981. 35. Ibid., 108, 112. Albany: SUNY Press, 1985. Tzu, Sun. The Art of War. London: Oxford 36. Ibid., 115. University Press, 1971. Kindle edition. Campbell, Kurt M., Robert Einhorn, and 37. Ibid., 118. Mitchell Reiss, The Nuclear Tipping Point. Wawro, Geoffrey. Quicksand: America’s Pursuit Washington: Brookings Institution, 2004. of Power in the Middle East. New York: 38. In Search of Identity, 244 Penguin, 2010. Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Princeton: Princeton 39. Kenneth Stein, Heroic diplomacy: Sadat, University Press, 1989. Kissinger, Carter, Begin and the Quest for Arab-Israeli Peace (New York: Routledge, Dowty, Alan. Middle East Crisis: U.S. Decision- 1999), 67. . Making in 1958, 1970, and 1973. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. 40. In Search of Identity, Appendix: Sadat directive to the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Hance, William Adams. The Geography of Modern Forces, October 1, 1973. Africa. New York: Columbia University Press. 41. Carl von Clausewitz, On War (Princeton: Hirst, David, and Irene Beeson. Sadat. London: Princeton University Press, 1989), 613. Faber and Faber, 1981. 42. Hirst and Beeson, 157-159. Hopwood, Derek. Egypt, Politics and Society, 1945-1990. London: Routledge, 1993. 43. In Search of Identity, 262. Israeli, Raphael. Man of Defiance: A Political 44. Ibid., 265-267. Biography of Anwar Sadat. London: 45. Hirst and Beeson, 159-163. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985. 46. Ibid., 162. McNamara, Robert. Britain, Nasser, and the Balance of Power in the Middle East. 47. Memcon between Meir and Kissinger, 22 London: Frank Cass, 2003. October 1973, 1:35 – 2:15 p.m. The National Security Archive at the Goerge “Memcon between Meir and Kissinger, 22 Washington University. October 1973, 1:35 – 2:15 pm.” The National Security Archive. The George 48. Hirst and Beeson, 164. Washington University. . 50. Ibid., 179 Peretz, Don. The Middle East Today. Westport, 51. In Search of Identity, 204 CT: Praeger, 1994. 52. Raphael Israeli, Man of Defiance: A Political Rogan, Eugene. The Arabs: A History. New York: Biography of Anwar Sadat (London: Basic Books, 2009. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985), 202. Sadat, Anwar, and Raphael Israeli. The Public Diary 53. Derek Hopwood, Egypt, Politics and Society, of President Sadat. Leiden: Brill, 1978. 1945-1990 (London: Routledge, 1993), 193. Sadat, Anwar. In Search of Identity. New York: Harper & Row, 1978. 54. Kurt Campbell, Robert Einhorn, Mitchell Reiss, The Nuclear Tipping Point (Washington: Sadat, Anwar. Those I Have Known. New York:

70 JUIS Spring 2012 71 The Journal of Undergraduate International Studies, published at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, presents a compilation of essays and photos from undergraduate and postgraduate students from around the world. Publications document a wide variety of socio-political issues ranging from international conflict and diplomacy to environmental issues to international economics. Most importantly, the Journal of Undergraduate International Studies is intended to serve as a platform for global discussion and the open exchange of ideas, in effect, expanding our understanding of global interactions.