Origins of Deaf Education: from Alphabets to America Heather G

AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATING CHILDREN WHO ARE DEAF/HARD OF HEARING Chapter 6 Origins of Deaf Education: From Alphabets to America Heather G. Zimmerman & Thomas Horejes NOTE: The decision to use lowercase d or uppercase Horejes & Heuer, D in d/Deaf is highly socially negotiable, and the 2013). Therefore, it is origins of d/D have taken on a political context (Woodward & Horejes, 2016). For this chapter, the imperative for educators designation of d or D is not the main focus, and the and professionals lowercase d in “deaf” will be used to denote an all- working with deaf encompassing population immersed in deaf education. children to consider the implications of Introduction language and culture (or what we refer to as languaculture) and A significant majority how this impacts the (92%) of deaf children construction of a deaf are born to hearing person’s experience and parents. Of the identity. remaining deaf children, 5% have at least one Historically, educational deaf parent, and 3% institutions for deaf have two deaf parents children have provided (Mitchell & Karchmer, an environment where 2004). For many deaf children can acquire hearing individuals, not only a valuable their ideological notion Photo courtesy of NCHAM education but also an of normalcy involves accessible, culturally being able to hear and speak; thus, hearing parents accommodative language (Hall, 2002; Horejes, 2012; Lane, have usually favored oral languages in the home and 1999; Little & Houston, 2003; Stacks, 1989). In this way, community, which presents a challenging linguistic deaf schools are responsible for not only being academic environment for deaf infants if communication is institutions but also cultural and linguistic incubators not accessible (Clark et al., 2015; Horejes, 2009; for languacultures (Horejes, 2012). Languaculture here eBook Chapter 6 • Origins of Deaf Education: From Alphabets to America • 6-1 AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATING CHILDREN WHO ARE DEAF/HARD OF HEARING emphasizes the “inextricable relationship between Sign-based paradigms. language and culture in which a specific language will shape and influence culture—language and culture Spoken language or oral-based paradigms. cannot be separated” (Horejes, 2012, p. 4). Mertens (2015) argues that it is vital for people to Deprivation of these accessible cultural and linguistic critically examine individual and collective paradigms environments can have adverse effects on academic in order to continue to improve our ways of life. The achievement between deaf students and their hearing peers. implication of individual and collective philosophical For example, while scholars have noted that there is a gap beliefs influences the construct of “appropriate” avenues between deaf and hearing students in areas such as language, for a deaf child’s education (Horejes, 2012). cognition, and learning (English & Church, 1999; Marschark, Convertino, & Larock, 2006; Marschark & Spencer, 2010; The two paradigms (sign-based and spoken language- Traxler, 2000), additional studies have demonstrated that based) are keenly relevant to our understanding of educational success is directly linked to appropriate academic today’s current educational climate for deaf children. The and linguistic accommodations in classroom environments paradigms have been fundamental ideologies that influence (Bowe, 2003; La Bue, 1995, p. 166; Swanson, 2007). how people have approached deaf education throughout history—in turn shaping deaf languaculture and the With this framework in mind, the following chapter construct of what it means to be deaf. Thus, it is essential provides an essential overview of the birth of deaf to keep these paradigms in mind when examining the education in Europe to contemporary deaf education in history of deaf education. At the same time, it is imperative the U.S. A foundational understanding of deaf education to examine avenues to transcend these polarizing either/ illuminates its historical significance and implications or paradigms when it comes to cultural and linguistic with the spirit to unlock critical knowledge that may choices within deaf education (Horejes & O'Brien, 2016). serve to strengthen deaf education at large. This chapter provides such a history that (Horejes, 2012): Piety & Privilege Examines what it means to be a deaf student In the early days of deaf education in Europe, religious clergy 1 in today’s society. had a powerful role in formalizing deaf education. Accounts of Examines how constructions of deaf isolated incidents of deaf boys being sent to monasteries to be education have impacted deaf students in educated, or noble families employing educators for a season 2 terms of language and culture. to conduct private tutoring happened throughout Europe well before 1789 (Kennedy, 2015). Though not all deaf people Examines how schools construct meanings and in the 16th century were afforded an education, there were a human values by means of languaculture to shape select few who did—typically deaf male decedents of nobility 3 what a successful deaf student ought to look like. or from wealthy backgrounds. An education of this type was Offers possible strategies for our scholars rare and atypical—given that deaf pupils not only had to come to develop positive constructions of what it from a privileged background, but that they also had to have 4 means to be a deaf student in our society. someone who took interest in accommodating their learning. By the 17th century, educated As with any population and their history, first a study on deaf people became a In the early paradigms and privilege is foremost. phenomenon—gaining the days of deaf attention and curiosity of education in Paradigms, Piety, & Privilege political and religious leaders across Western Europe. Don Europe, religious Luis de Velasco—an educated Paradigms deaf Spanish nobleman— clergy had a received speech training from a powerful role in Within deaf education there are two primary paradigms— Spanish priest. Kenelm Digby—a or views—that determine how professionals approach British man accompanying the formalizing deaf education: Prince of Wales on a trip to Spain education. eBook Chapter 6 • Origins of Deaf Education: From Alphabets to America • 6-2 PREPARING TO TEACH • COMMITTING TO LEARN: AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATING CHILDREN WHO ARE DEAF/HARD OF HEARING in 1623—met Velasco and was overwhelmed to encounter a The manual alphabet was similar to the one employed “flawlessly” articulate deaf individual (Van Cleve & Crouch, by other Benedictine monks who took up a vow of 1989). It was not only oral deaf people that amazed hearing silence (Van Cleve & Crouch, 1989). This does not people but also deaf people who primarily communicated imply that manual sign language or fingerspelling was using sign language. For instance, Jean Massieu—an invented by hearing monks. However, religious clergy educated deaf Frenchman who communicated in sign helped to document and preserve aspects of social life language—was a gifted student who brought his instructor that were already in practice. Yebra argued that this fame and prestige. Later he became the first deaf teacher at method of communication was beneficial for both the institution for the deaf in Paris, was a published author, people who could hear typically and those who were and later a director of two deaf schools (Kennedy, 2015). deaf in order to take confessions via fingerspelling. This manual alphabet was not only important for people Success stories like the ones above helped to construct accessing communication in religious social life, but it oral-based and signed-based paradigms and pedagogies. also became a seminal tool in the formal education of Thus, deaf individuals like Massieu and Velasco shaped deaf people. the Western world’s understanding of effective and ideal ways of educating deaf people. Other scholars, such as Pedro The Spanish Ponce de Leon—a Spanish Benedictine Deaf Education in Europe: civil servant—and Juan Pablo Bonet—a Benedictine monks were The Early Years monk—published one of the first books of signs (Fischer catalysts in Spain’s Influence: Manualizing the Alphabet & Lane, 1993; Kennedy, 2015, helping preserve p. xvi; Van Cleve & Crouch, Some of the earliest accounts of deaf education come 1989). Leon and Bonet also a visual- from Iberia in Spain during the late 16th century and tutored deaf children of various manual form of early 17th century (Lane & Phillip, 1984; Van Cleve noble Spanish families. Bonet & Crouch, 1989). Fray Melchor de Yebra—a hearing went on to publish one of communication Benedictine monk during the 16th century—was the first the earliest volumes on deaf used by deaf and Spaniard to publish an illustration of a manual method education titled Simplification of of communicating, essentially a fingerspelling chart the Letters of the Alphabet and hearing people (see Figure 1; Van Cleve & Crouch, 1989). This chart Method of Teaching Deaf-Mutes well before the was seminal in influencing many of the one-handed to Speak. Bonet used Yebra’s fingerspelling methods in Europe and North America. alphabetical chart as a means 16th century. to teach deaf children to speak, read, and write Spanish in Figure 1 order to successfully integrate into society. Bonet stated The Standardized, One-Handed that “deaf mutes are not really so, as far as speaking and reasoning are concerned, but are simply deaf and Manual Alphabet That Yebra capable of learning any language or science” (as cited in Illustrated Kennedy, 2015, p. 15). The Spanish

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