DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2020-009

Sociolinguistic Profile of Maikoti A Sociolinguistic Study of the Spoken in the Area of Maikot Village in East of

Joseph D. Leman Sociolinguistic Profile of Maikoti Kham A Sociolinguistic Study of the Kham Language Spoken in the Area of Maikot Village in East Rukum District of Nepal

Joseph D. Leman

SIL International® 2020

SIL Electronic Survey Report 2020-009, August 2020 © 2020 SIL International® All rights reserved

Data and materials collected by researchers in an era before documentation of permission was standardized may be included in this publication. SIL makes diligent efforts to identify and acknowledge sources and to obtain appropriate permissions wherever possible, acting in good faith and on the best information available at the time of publication. Abstract

This report presents the results of sociolinguistic inquiry into the Kham language spoken in the territory surrounding Maikot village in East Rukum District of Nepal. Research shows that indigenous people in the area identify as Kham-speaking . Of particular interest in this work is the linguistic relatedness and intelligibility between Maikoti Kham and the neighboring dialect of Takale Kham. Included in this report is a description of dialect perceptions, a comparison of wordlists, and results of intelligibility testing. The data indicates that Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham are two distinct dialects along a dialect continuum extending from the study area in East Rukum south into of Nepal. While there is notable lexical dissimilarity between them and some speakers report limited comprehension, the two dialect communities can understand one another on a basic level and perceive their speech to be the same language. Language vitality is high in both dialects, and Maikoti Kham speakers have positive attitudes towards their dialect and the prospect of language development.

सारांश

यस प्र�तवेदनमानेपालको ूब� प 셁कु म �ज쥍ला को मैकोट गाउँको सेरोकेरोमा बो�लने खाम भाषाबारे सो�धएका सामा�जक- भा�षक प्र�ह셁बाट न प्राꥍ त बदाह셁ुँ प्रत ु गिरएका छन् । यस भेगका आ�दवासीलाई खामभाषी मगर भनेर � च � न ꅍछ भ ꅍन े कु रा अनसꅍु धानले देखाउँछ । यस काय셍को खास अ�भ셁�चको कु रा मैकोटी खाम र �छमेकमा बो�लने भा�षका (बोली), तकाले खाम बीचको भा�षक स륍ब ꅍघ तथा बोधग륍य ता (बझाइ)ु हो । यस प्र�तवेदनमा भा�षक अवधारणाको녍 奍या य ा , श 녍द सू�चह셁को तलना,ु तथा बोधग륍य ता (बझाइ)कोु जाचकोँ न�तजा समा�व�ट छन् । त镍 याङ्कले योू स�चत गद셍छ �क मैकोटी खाम र तकाले खाम दईु खास खाम भा�षका (बोली)ह셁 हनु ्, जसले यस अ鵍 ययन �ेत्रूव� प 셁कु मबाट �वता र भएर द��णमा नेपालकै रो쥍पा � ज 쥍ल ा स륍म �नरꅍत रता पाउँछ । �तनीह셁 बीचमा उ쥍ले ख गन� लायकको शा�녍द क असमानता भएको हदाुँ र कोही मा�नसले सी�मत मात्रामा�झꅍ बु छ भनेको हदा,ु यी दईु भा�षक समदायह셁लेु एकाका셍लाई आधारभूत तहमा ब畍ु द छन् र उनीह셁को भा�षका (बोली)ह셁 एउटै भाषा हो भꅍने बझाइु छ । भा�षक सजीवता दबैु भा�षकाको उ楍च छ, औ मैकोटी खामभाषीह셁मा उनीह셁को भा�षका प्र�त सकारा配 मक मनोब��ृ छ र उनीह셁 माषा �वकासको आशा गद셍छन् ।

Contents

Figures Tables Maps Acknowledgements कृत�ता 1 Introduction 1.1 Geography 1.2 Language and identity 1.3 Population 1.4 People 1.5 Previous research 2 Methodology 2.1 Goals and research questions 2.2 Instruments 2.3 Subject selection 2.4 Site selection 3 Ethnolinguistic identity 4 Language and dialect variation 4.1 Dialect mapping 4.1.1 Language and dialect perceptions 4.1.2 Perceived comprehension 4.2 Wordlist comparison 4.3 Intelligibility testing 5 Language vitality 5.1 Multilingualism 5.2 Functions 5.3 Acquisition 5.4 Motivation 5.5 Environment 5.6 Differentiation 6 Language attitudes 7 Summary and recommendations 7.1 Summary of findings 7.2 Recommendations 8 सारांश तथा �सकािरशह셁 8.1 प्र ा ꥍ त बदाह셁कोुँ सारांश 8.2 �सकािरशह셁 Appendix A: Wordlists Appendix B: Recorded Text Tests Appendix C: Individual Interview Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Interview Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Appendix F: Population Calculation Appendix G: EGIDS and FAMED References

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Figures

Figure 1. Ethnic identity of interview participants Figure 2. Language names given by interview participants Figure 3. Villages arranged according to similarity of speech Figure 4. Reported language use for private interactions Figure 5. Reported Nepali proficiency of pre-school children

Tables

Table 1. Major Kham dialects Table 2. Kham speaker population along the Hukam Khola Table 3. Kham wordlist comparison (S. Watters 1988:5) Table 4. Village sample size and demographic quotas Table 5. Instruments implemented along the Hukam Khola Table 6. Instruments implemented outside the study area Table 7. Ethnic identity of DM participants Table 8. Lexical similarity percentages Table 9. Conditions for intelligibility (Blair 1990:25) Table 10. Takale Kham story comprehension results Table 11. Maikoti Kham story comprehension results Table 12. Omitted noun prefixes Table 13. Omitted verb affixes Table 14. Wordlist helpers and metadata Table 15. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation Table 16. Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

Maps

Map 1. Kham homeland situated in of Nepal Map 2. Kham homeland with waterways and travel routes Map 3. Major Kham dialects Map 4. Kham and Magar homelands situated in Nepal Map 5. Villages consistently mentioned in dialect mapping Map 6. Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham Map 7. Wordlist collection sites Map 8. Persons registering their mother tongue as ‘Kham’ by VDC

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Acknowledgements

This study would not have been possible without the assistance of many individuals and communities, and to them I am indebted. My mentor and language survey consultant Janel Swenson provided much appreciated assistance before and during fieldwork, as well as with data analysis and report editing. I am grateful to Jessica Page, Katharina Tupper, and Ian Tupper for laying the foundation for this study by performing valuable background research and collecting stories in the Kham language. I am also grateful to Sara du Preez who aided in story collection. My wife Lisa Leman provided valuable consulting on the data analysis and presentation. I am indebted to Brianne Smith, who helped gather data in East Rukum. To these faithful friends I am exceedingly thankful. I am also indebted to KPM, who accompanied our team in East Rukum and assisted with data collection, language help, and connecting us with speakers in each community. He gave us much counsel and guidance over the course of our research. I am also incredibly grateful to the Kham people living near Maikot and Takasera who welcomed us heartily, hosted us in their homes, fed us delicious food, and willingly provided invaluable information. Those who helped us along the way with recording, translating, and answering our numerous questions are far too many to mention by name. I hope this report accurately represents the input you gave and will aid you in the promotion and further development of your beautiful language. It is for you this study was undertaken.

Joseph D. Leman , Nepal September 2019

कृ त�ता

यस अ鵍 ययन धेरै मा�नसह셁 तथा समदायह셁कोु सहयोग�वना स륍भ व हनेु �थएन । उहाह셁ँ प्र�त म ऋ�णु छ । मेरी स 쥍ल ा हकार तथा भा�षक सव��ण परामश셍दाता जनेल वे ꅍस नले  थलगत कामको बेलामा र 配य स भ ꅍद ा अ�घ र साथसाथै त 镍य ा ङ्क �ब�षणले औ प्र�तवेदन स륍 दनमापा धेरै कदरयो嵍य सहयोग �दनभयोु । जे�सका पेज, 啍 याथिरन टꥍु प र तथा इयन ट ꥍु प रप्र�तू म쥍य वान प�भृ ू�म अनसꅍु धान संचालन गरी खाम भाषामा कथाह셁 संकलन गरेर जग बसा�ल�दनभएकामाु म कृ त� छु । सारा द ु पीज जसले कथा संकलनमा सहयोग गन셍भयोु उहाप्र�तँ मृ कत� छु । त镍 याङ्क �ब�षणले तथा प्रततीकरणामाु मेरी श्रीमती �लसाले륍 नया ल े म ू 쥍य वान स쥍ला ह �दएक� छन् । पूव� 셁कु मम त 镍य ा ङ्कं सकलन गन셍 मद्दत गन� ब्रीयन � मथ प्र�त प�न म ऋ�ण छु । यी �व� वसनीय साथीह셁प्र�त म अ配ꅍ य त कृ त� छु । �करण पनु मगर प्र�त प�न म ऋ�णु, छ जो पूव� 셁कु ममा हाम्रो टोलीको साथमा ं蕍न�ह भयो,ु त镍या ङ्कं सकलन गन�, भाषा बो쥍 ने र प्र ये क配 समदायमाु खामभाषीह셁संग हामीलाई भेटाइ�दने काम गरेर मद्दत 셍भयोगनु । उहालेँ होमीलाई हाम्रो सꅍअनु धा नको अव�धभिर कैयौ ं स쥍ला ह �दएर पथप्रदश셍न प�न गिर�दन ु भयो । म मैकोट र तकसेरा न�जक बने खामभाषीह셁 जसले हामीलाई हा�द셍क वा गत गन셍भयो,ु आ굍नो घरमा आ�त镍य स 配क ा र �दनभयो,ु  वा�द�ट भोजन खवाउनु भयोु र खशीसाथु अमू쥍 य सूचना �दनभयोु उहाह셁ँ प्र�त अ配 य�धक कृ त� छु । ती मा�नसह셁 जस जसले टेपमा भन�, अनवादु गन� काम गरेर र हाम्रा अन�ग�ꅍ त प्र � न ह셁को जवाफ �दएर मद्दत 셍भयोगनु उहाह셁कोँ नाम लेखेर सा鵍य छै न । मलाई आशा छ �क यस प्र�तवेदनले तपाℂले �दनभएकोु सझावकोु उ�चत �क�समले प्र�त�न�ध配 व गछ셍 र तपाℂको यस सꅍु दर भाषालाई प्रवद्ध셍न गन셍 र अ셁 �वकास गन셍 तपाℂह셁लाई मद्दत गन� छ । यो अ鵍ययन तपाℂह셁कै ला�ग गिरएको हो ।

जोसेफ �ड ले륍 यान काठमाडौ,ं नेपाल सेꥍट 륍 े ब र २०१९

अनवादु कृ � ण राना

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1 Introduction

The purpose of this report1 is to describe the sociolinguistic situation of the Kham language in the territory surrounding Maikot village in the district of East Rukum in Nepal. This report seeks to inform the decisions of local and national leaders, stakeholders, and members of the community as they pursue further documentation and development of the Kham language and its various dialects. Additionally, this research provides insight into the ethnolinguistic relationship between the Kham language and Magar ethnicity, and its results offer a unique case study of significant linguistic diversity within a single language identity.

1.1 Geography

The Himalayan region is one of the world’s “mega centers” of biodiversity. Stretching from Afghanistan to , including the northern border of Nepal, it is home to nearly one-sixth of the world’s living languages (Turin 2007:1). This linguistic diversity has been facilitated by the extreme ruggedness of the Himalayan mountains and the remote nature of the habitable valleys scattered therein. In many cases, one need only travel from one valley to the next to experience a shift in the language or dialect. The Kham homeland is situated in the upper elevations (above 2000 meters) of the districts of East Rukum, Rolpa, and in Nepal (S. Watters 2018:264). Their villages, approximately 150 in number, are scattered throughout the many narrow valleys south and west of the massif. Map 1 presents the location of the Kham homeland along the Himalayan mountains of Nepal, and map 2 presents the village of Maikot situated in the Kham homeland with waterways and travel routes relevant to language use.

Map 1. Kham homeland situated in Himalayas of Nepal

1 This report may also be accessed online at: https://www.academia.edu/42341429/Sociolinguistic_Profile_of_Maikoti_Kham_A_sociolinguistic_study_of_the_Kh am_language_spoken_in_the_area_of_Maikot_village_in_East_Rukum_District_of_Nepal/.

1 2

Map 2. Kham homeland with waterways and travel routes

The village of Maikot is situated in the northernmost part of the Kham homeland, along an upper tributary of the Sani Bheri Nadi. Local people refer to this tributary as the Hukam Khola, or the Pelma Khola, and often it is generalized as the Sani Bheri.2 Other notable villages along this valley are Arjal, Hukam, Pelma, and Ranma. For the purposes of this report, the Pelma Khola is defined as flowing south out of the Hunting Reserve to the village of Pelma, and the Hukam Khola is defined as flowing west from Pelma, past the villages of Arjal, Hukam, and Maikot and forming a confluence with the Uttar Ganga Nadi and the Sani Bheri Nadi. The Hukam Khola valley roughly defines the territory of Maikot. The sides of the Hukam Khola valley are extremely steep. Therefore, travel to and from the area is generally conducted through its mouth along the southern side rather than over the southern rim. After leaving the valley, the path leads southeast through Takasera.3 It is along this route that Maikoti Kham speakers have contact with Takale Kham speakers as they travel to the bazaars in Khalanga, , and Baglung. Until recently, the entire Kham homeland was inaccessible by motor vehicle. While there are currently several dirt roads in the area, these routes are rendered impassable by erosion or snow for much of the year, and many Kham villages remain more than a day’s walk from the nearest road. If road conditions are ideal, a jeep can travel from the city of Ghorahi in the south to Takasera in two days. From there, an additional one to two days are required to walk from Takasera to Maikot.

1.2 Language and identity

Maikoti Kham is a variety of Kham, a language officially recognized in the census completed in Nepal by the Central Bureau of Statistics (2014). Kham speakers are indigenous to Nepal and are associated with the broader ethnic group of Magar. Their clan names (Budha, Gharti, Pun, and Roka) are distinct from those of other Magars, and they have often been referred to as “northern Magars” (Hitchcock 1966, Fischer 1986, Oppitz 1991). As the Kham language is linguistically distinct from the Magar language, it is the primary distinguishing characteristic of these people. Various

2 Nadi or नद� meaning ‘large river.’ Khola or खोला meaning ‘small river.’ 3 “Takasera” denotes the area surrounding the villages of Taka, Tallo Sera, and Uppalo Sera. 3 designations for the Kham language include Magar Kham, , Khamkura,4 and Pang5 (S. Watters 2018, D. Watters 2002, Northey and Morris 1928). As Kham is the name recognized by the and is the most common name used by speakers in East Rukum, it is the term utilized for both the language and its speakers in this report. Kham is a Tibeto-Burman language and it is classified by Bradley (1997:54) as Central Himalayan, and as being related to Magar and Chepang and more distantly related to the . Van Driem (2001:775) also classifies Kham as Para-Kiranti, emphasizing that Kham, Magar, and Chepang are united more by their differences from the Kiranti cluster than by their similarity to one another. Within this cluster, Kham possesses a number of unique grammatical features and shares only 44 percent lexical similarity with Magar and 38 percent with Chepang (D. Watters 2002:15). The Kham language is highly agglutinative with rich morphological variation from dialect to dialect (S. Watters 2018:265). It is a case-marking language with split ergative alignment. The basic constituent order for both main and dependent clauses is AOV, SV. Notably, Kham has pronominalizing markers on the verb for both subject and object, which is unique among Tibeto- Burman languages (D. Watters 2002:1‒2). Due to the broad application of the term Khamkura to the many rural speech varieties of the Dhaulagiri foothills, the term Kham is also associated with two languages, and Kaike, which Bradley (1997) has classified as Bodish, quite distinct from the Kham of this study, which he classifies as Himalayan. Kaike [kzq]6 is a small language (2,000 speakers) spoken in , north of the Kham homeland (Bradley 1997:11). Alternate names for Kaike are Magar Kaike, Tarali Kham, Khamkura, and Kham. Likewise, Chhantyal [chx] (4,000 speakers), is spoken along the Myagdi Khola in the district of Myagdi and is also referred to as Chhantyal Kham, Khamkura, or Kham (Chhantyal 2012:3). While these languages are sometimes referred to as Kham, they are perceived to be distinct from one another and from the Kham of this study by both the speakers of the languages and scholars. Kham dialects are generally referred to by using the name of an important village or river in conjunction with the instrumental suffix [-le] or the genitive suffix [-i]. Thus, the Kham dialect spoken in the area of Maikot is called Maikoti Kham, and the dialect spoken in the area of Taka is called Takale Kham. Other dialect names related to this study and following this pattern are Gamale Kham spoken along the Gam Khola, and Thabangi Kham spoken in the area of Thabang village. Table 1 presents the major dialects of the Kham language as they have been classified by D. Watters (2002:11). The three-letter ISO 639-3 codes associated with each major dialect are given in brackets.

Table 1. Major Kham dialects

Gamale Kham [kgj] Sheshi Kham [kip] Parbate Kham Western Parbate Eastern Parbate

Kham [kjl] Kham [kif] Ghusbangi Kham Jangkoti Kham Maikoti Kham Nisi Kham Tamali Kham Tapnangi Kham Takale Kham Kham Thabangi Kham Wale Kham

Map 3 presents Watters’ classification of Kham dialects as they are geographically situated in the Kham homeland.

4 “Khamkura” or ‘खामकु रा’ meaning ‘Kham speech’ or ‘Kham talk.’ 5 “Pang” is an autoglottonym for the Kham language in some dialects in the district of Rolpa. 6 The ISO 639-3, noted in brackets, is the international standard for three-letter codes of language names, defining a unique identifier for each language known to exist. The Ethnologue is a catalogue of all the world’s languages and is published by SIL International, which is the registration authority for ISO 639-3 codes. 4

Map 3. Major Kham dialects

At the highest level in table 1, Kham has been divided into Gamale Kham, Sheshi Kham, and Parbate Kham, which is subdivided into Eastern and Western Parbate Kham. These four major dialects are mutually unintelligible and bear unique grammatical innovations indicative of different languages (D. Watters 1998). For this reason, each of these dialects has been given its own ISO 639-3 designation. It should be noted that the stratified classification of Kham dialects presented in table 1 and map 3 is not entirely evident in the perceptions of most Kham speakers. In general, Kham speakers can differentiate speech varieties from village to village in the immediate vicinity of their home, while varieties more distant are differentiated from valley to valley. Viewed in this way, the Kham language can be said to have as many dialects as there are villages and valleys. In Watters’ classifications and throughout this report, the term Maikoti Kham is a generalization, both in reference to the Kham people living along the Hukam Khola and their dialect. Speakers from the villages of Hukam and Ranma, for example, would not readily say they are Maikoti Kham or speak Maikoti Kham. However, speakers from outside the Hukam Khola valley refer to the speech of the entire valley as Maikoti Kham or by saying “the Kham spoken near Maikot and Hukam.”

1.3 Population

Based on data from Nepal’s National Population and Housing Census of 2011 (Central Bureau of Statistics 2014), the total population of Kham speakers can be estimated to be between 61,000 and 87,000. This range is accounted for by a projected 18 percent to 31 percent of speakers living outside of the Kham homeland. These population figures are presented as a range because it is difficult to distinguish Kham-speaking Magars from other Magars in areas of diaspora. Refer to Appendix F for the procedures followed for estimating speaker population. Table 2 presents the population of the Hukam Khola valley by mother tongue as reported in the 2011 census. The 3,559 who registered Kham or Magar as their mother tongue represent the population of Maikoti Kham speakers living in the homeland. 5

Table 2. Kham speaker population along the Hukam Khola7

Mother tongue Population Percentage Kham/Magar 3559 60% Nepali 2243 38% Other 123 2%

Approximately 60 percent of the area’s total population speaks Kham as their mother tongue, and there is little presence of other indigenous languages. The 38 percent of the population who registered their mother tongue as Nepali are primarily who live on the outskirts of the villages and function as an occupational class in Kham society (Watters, et al. 2011:99). After being adjusted for speakers living in diaspora, the total population of Maikoti Kham speakers is estimated to be between 4,200 and 4,700, which is approximately 6 percent of the total Kham-speaker population.

1.4 People

The Maikoti Kham live a simple, albeit labor-intensive lifestyle. Like other Kham people, they are sustained by a combination of terrace farming, husbandry, and foraging. Most villages are built into the steep hillside. Outside of these villages, narrow fields are cut out of the hillside and sown with corn, millet, potatoes, and wheat. Kham people raise a variety of livestock, including cattle, chickens, goats, pigs, sheep, and water buffalo. During the warmer months, many Maikoti Kham leave the village for long intervals to graze sheep and forage for yarsagumba8 in the alpine meadows of the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. The Kham people observe a mixture of ancestor worship, animistic rituals, and Hindu festivals. Notable among their varied religious observances is the practice of Siberian , the belief in an unseen world of gods, demons, and ancestral spirits (D. Watters 1975:125). Village shamans act as mediums between the physical and spiritual worlds and are consulted for good fortune, for relief from curses and illness, and to contact deceased loved ones. Many Kham people are familiar with hardship. Those living in the homeland do not have access to modern medicine or higher education. Farming and herding are labor intensive, and the Kham make use of only primitive tools such as ox-drawn plows and handmade hoes. In order to improve the family situation, many Kham youth elect to work abroad in countries of the Middle East and in Singapore and Malaysia. These young people face many challenges as they are separated from their families and find themselves in a context where working conditions are not well regulated. Surpassing these hardships are memories of civil war. During Nepal’s Maoist Insurgency (1996‒ 2006), fighting was concentrated in East Rukum and Rolpa, and many Kham people lost their lives (de Sales 2000:326).

1.5 Previous research

Notable works of anthropology mentioning the Kham language include: The : Their Manners, Customs and Country by Northey and Morris (1928:189), The Magars of Banyan Hill by Hitchcock (1966:4), Trans-Himalayan Traders: Economy, Society, and Culture in Northwest Nepal by Fischer (1986), and Onkels Tochter, Keine Sonst “Uncle’s Daughter, Nobody Else” by Oppitz (1991). The Kham language is also catalogued by the notable linguists Bradley (1997) in Tibeto-Burman Languages of the Himalayas and van Driem (2001) in Languages of the Himalayas. Linguistic study of the Kham language began in 1969, when David Watters (2011:9) conducted a sociolinguistic survey in the Dhaulagiri region of western Nepal. Watters’ findings are recounted in the first chapter of his autobiography At the Foot of the Snows. At the time, Watters was investigating linguistic diversity within the Magar ethnic group and he noted significant lexical dissimilarity

7 Figures were calculated using 2011 census data from Hukam and Ranmamaikot Village Development Committees (VDC) of Rukum District. 8 Yarsagumba is a unique resource found only in the extreme elevations of the Himalayan region. It is a type of fungus that parasitizes the larvae of the ghost moth as it pupates in the soil. After foragers pick these mummified larvae, they are sold and exported to various Asian countries for use as alternative medicine (Yong 2018). 6 between the Khamkura spoken by northern Magars and the Magarkura9 spoken by other Magar clans. He concluded that Kham and Magar are separate languages and identified the Kham variety spoken in Takasera as a prestigious and geographically central dialect. From 1969 until his death in 2009, Watters undertook the documentation and development of Takale Kham (the Takasera dialect). In 1991, he wrote “The maintenance of Deictic Integrity across Kham Dialects.” He went on to publish A Grammar of Kham in 2002 and A Dictionary of Kham: Takale Dialect in 2004. In 1987, David Watters and his sons Steve and Daniel sought to catalog all of the Kham dialects of Rukum, Rolpa, and Baglung.10 It was thought that the materials of language development that had been created for the Takale dialect could be adapted to accelerate the development of other Kham dialects, and, to that end, sociolinguistic inquiry was made (S. Watters 1988:1). In the 1987 study, the Watters team compared eight wordlists collected throughout the Kham homeland and conducted intelligibility testing between Takale Kham and the more southern dialect of Gamale Kham. They also gathered data on bilingualism and language attitudes. The results indicate significant lexical variation among Kham dialects and that Takale Kham and Gamale Kham are not mutually intelligible, despite being 69 percent lexically similar (S. Watters 1988:3). Table 3 presents the results of the Watters team wordlist comparison.

Table 3. Kham wordlist comparison (S. Watters 1988:5) Takale 76% Ghusban 77% 76% Maikot 79% 70% 63% Mahat Gaon 64% 64% 72% 65% Nisi 61% 59% 67% 61% 85% Bhujel 69% 76% 62% 60% 53% 51% Gamale 55% 59% 51% 55% 52% 54% 58% Kot-Gaon

The percentages present in table 3 were obtained using a 210-wordlist, and cognates were determined using an adaptation of the method prescribed by Blair (1990:26). Based on the conclusions of this study, the Watters team recommended that further intelligibility testing between various other Kham varieties be conducted. In his report, Steve Watters writes, “There are three off- shoots of Takale dialect, consisting of Mahat Gaon Kham, Maikoti, and Ghusbangi, which need further intelligibility testing.” In the decade following this recommendation, linguistic research in the Kham homeland was limited due to a period of civil unrest. Since the end of a civil war in 2006, conditions conducive to fieldwork have improved and linguistic study has been resumed. Based on the results of the 1988 survey and an analysis of variation in their respective verb morphologies, David Watters (1998) proposed the four major dialects of Kham as described in section 1.2. In recent years, Wilde (2011) published the article, “Observations on the phonology of Gamale Kham.” He also published “Gamale Kham Phonology Revisited, with -based Orthography and Lexicon” in 2016. In preparation for this present study, several ethnographic works on Kham culture were consulted. These include “The Kham Magar country, Nepal: Between Ethnic Claims and Maoism” by de Sales (2000), “Sub-Tribes in the Magar Community in Nepal” by Hitchcock (2005), and “The Kham Magar Women of Thabang,” by Molnar (1981). None of these studies were conducted in the area of Maikot; however, they are valuable for understanding the history, culture, and customs of the Kham people.

9 Magarkura or मगरकु रा meaning ‘Magar speech’ or ‘Magar talk.’ 10 The districts of East Rukum and West Rukum were a single Rukum District in the previous administrative system. 7

2 Methodology

The purpose of this study is to present a sociolinguistic description of the Kham language in the area of Maikot village in East Rukum District. Of particular interest is the linguistic relatedness and intelligibility between Maikoti Kham and the neighboring dialect of Takale Kham. Language vitality and attitudes pertaining to the development of Maikoti Kham materials are also described in this report.

2.1 Goals and research questions

To accomplish the purpose of this study, the following goals and research questions have been formulated. Each of these goals is addressed in subsequent sections of this report.

Goal 1 – Provide a description of the ethnolinguistic identity of Kham speakers along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera. • Research question 1.1 – How do Kham speakers along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera identify themselves and their language? • Research question 1.2 – Do the speakers of these two communities have the same ethnolinguistic identity?

Goal 2 – Describe the Kham language and dialect situation in the vicinity of Maikot village. • Research question 2.1 – How do Kham speakers along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera perceive the boundaries of their language and its dialects? • Research question 2.2 – What is the level of linguistic relatedness between Maikoti Kham and other Kham varieties, specifically Takale Kham spoken in Takasera? • Research question 2.3 – How well do Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham speakers understand one another?

Goal 3 – Provide a description of multilingualism and Kham language vitality in the territory surrounding Maikot. • Research question 3.1 – What languages are spoken in the area surrounding Maikot? • Research question 3.2 – What languages are used for each function in daily life? • Research question 3.3 – To what extent is the Kham language being transmitted to the next generation? • Research question 3.4 – What factors motivate language use in the study area? • Research question 3.5 – What is the language environment of Kham? • Research question 3.6 – To what degree is the Kham language being differentiated from other languages?

Goal 4 – Describe language attitudes as they pertain to language development in the Maikoti dialect. • Research question 4.1 – What attitudes do Maikoti Kham speakers have towards the development of their language? • Research question 4.2 – What attitudes do Maikoti Kham speakers have towards the Takale dialect?

2.2 Instruments

This section presents brief descriptions of the research tools used for this study. Each instrument was administered in Nepali, the national language of Nepal, or in the Kham language when necessary. Prior to implementation, the instruments were translated into Nepali and reviewed by a member of the Kham language community.

8

Dialect mapping (DM) – a Participatory Methods tool which elicits the emic perspective of language community members.11 Discussions are facilitated among groups of speakers, and participants express their perspectives on language identity, dialect boundaries, and the comprehension of other dialects and languages. Results are expressed visually using pieces of paper, string, and various symbols. During these sessions, participants work together to develop a single, collaborative map of their language. In this study, three DM sessions were facilitated in separate villages along the Hukam Khola, and two were facilitated with members of the Takasera community who were visiting urban centers outside their homeland; one was facilitated in Kathmandu and another in Ghorahi. Graphic representations of the results of each session and the DM schedule are presented in Appendix E.

Individual interview – a schedule of questions designed to gather empirical sociolinguistic data pertaining to patterns of language use, attitudes towards language development, and dialect perceptions. These interviews are administered to individual villagers, obtaining certain participant quotas according to age and gender. A sample of 10‒12 interview participants represents the village population. For this research, a total of 61 Kham speakers participated in the individual interview. A sample of subjects were interviewed in Arjal, Hukam, and Maikot along the Hukam Khola. Additionally, a sample group of Takasera villagers was compiled through various encounters with speakers traveling outside the Kham homeland. Four speakers in the village of Pelma also volunteered to be interviewed. The individual interview schedule and data can be seen in Appendix C.

Knowledgeable insider interview (KII) – a schedule of questions formulated to gather sociolinguistic information about a community from one of its prominent members. The KII is developed for the purpose of initiating a conversation on the subjects of multilingualism, ethnolinguistic identity, and language use in the public setting. General information, such as population estimates and village demographics, is also elicited. A total of six knowledgeable insiders were interviewed for this study. They are from Arjal, Hukam, Maikot, Pelma, Ranma, and Taka. The KII schedule and data can be seen in Appendix D.

Recorded text test (RTT) – a testing method used for measuring intelligibility between related language varieties. A simple short narrative is recorded in one language variety and played for speakers of another variety. During the testing process, participants are asked comprehension questions about the story. Average test scores and standard deviation correlate with the intelligibility of the test variety to the community sampled. In this study, two RTTs were implemented, one story which had been recorded in Taka was tested in villages along the Hukam Khola. The second story, recorded in Maikot, was tested with members of the Takasera community as well as in two villages along the Hukam Khola. For RTT procedures and transcriptions of the test narratives, see Appendix B.

Wordlist comparison – A wordlist is a standard sample of words which are elicited in multiple speech varieties for the purpose of comparison. Words are elicited from native speakers of a language variety who have not spent significant time away from their home village. Individual words are transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet. Lexical similarity between lists is correlated with the linguistic relatedness of the varieties represented by each list. Seven wordlists were collected in and around the study area. Lexical similarity was determined using the method prescribed by Blair (1990:26). Cog software was utilized to organize wordlist data and facilitate the analysis. For a description of the Blair method, a list of the Cog settings, and the wordlist data, see Appendix A.

11 “Participatory methods include a range of activities with a common thread: enabling ordinary people to play an active and influential part in decisions which affect their lives. This means that people are not just listened to, but also heard; and that their voices shape outcomes.” (Macbeth 2019) 9

2.3 Subject selection

All individuals participating in this study consented verbally to participating in the study and to the inclusion of their responses in a published report. The informed consent scripts for each instrument are included in the appendices. Additionally, before a participant’s responses were included in the study, the following criteria were applied: 1. The subject grew up in the village under study, lives there now, and has not lived elsewhere for a significant period of time.12 2. The subject has at least one parent who speaks Kham as their first language. 3. The subject has at least one parent who is from the village under study. 4. The subject indicates that Kham is their first language or the language they speak best.

For the individual interview and recorded text test, a convenient sample of twelve participants with demographic quotas for age and gender was taken from each village. In villages where twelve qualified participants were not available, a sample of ten subjects having equal proportions of age and gender was considered to be an acceptable sample group. In one case, subjects were taken from a smaller nearby village to complete a sample group.13 Table 4 presents the sample size and demographic quotas used for each village.

Table 4. Village sample size and demographic quotas Age Young (15‒34) Old (35+) Total Male 3 3 6 Gender Female 3 3 6 Total 6 6 12

2.4 Site selection

To meet the goals of this study, research was conducted in multiple villages along the Hukam Khola and among groups of Kham speakers from Takasera, Thabang, and Jankot. In April of 2018, the research team traveled to East Rukum and visited the village of Taka as well as five villages along the Hukam Khola. Table 5 shows these villages with the number of each instrument implemented.

Table 5. Instruments implemented along the Hukam Khola14 DM Interview KII Maikot RTT Taka RTT Wordlist Arjal 1 11 1 10 10 1 Hukam 1 11 1 11 11 1 Maikot 1 13 1 13 1 Pelma 4 1 Ranma 1 1

Complete sample groups were studied in multiple villages along this valley for the purpose of fully describing the Maikoti dialect. The primary research sites were Arjal, Hukam, and Maikot. Additional data was collected in Ranma, which lies between Maikot and Arjal, and in Pelma, which lies in the far east of the valley.

12 It is difficult to define “a significant amount of recent time.” Thus, this criterion is intentionally subjective as it depends on how long the subject lived elsewhere, how long they have been back in the village, and their age. 13 A full sample of subjects was unable to be attained in the village of Arjal. For this reason, three subjects from the nearby village of Ghunma were included in the Arjal sample. 14 In addition, each RTT was tested in the home villages of the respective storytellers, a procedure called the HTT (home town test). 10

In January 2019, the research team traveled to Ghorahi in Dang District of Nepal to meet with several groups of Kham speakers attending a festival outside their homeland.15 That same month the team met with a group of Kham speakers visiting Kathmandu. Table 6 presents the instruments implemented outside the study area. Village names on the left denote the home village of the participants rather than the location where research was conducted.

Table 6. Instruments implemented outside the study area DM Interview KII Maikot RTT Wordlist Takasera 2 11 1 10 1 Thabang 1 1 Jangkot 1

To meet the goals of this study, a full sample of individual interview and RTT participants from Takasera were obtained and compared with the Hukam Khola sample groups. Because the Takasera sample was obtained by engaging speakers as they traveled to Ghorahi and Kathmandu, less-traveled members of the community are not represented in this sample. This limitation is discussed further in section 4.3. Additional wordlist data were obtained from individuals from Thabang and Jangkot. Both of these villages lie in Rolpa, south of Takasera. By including these lists in the study, a broader picture of lexical variation in the Kham language could be attained.

3 Ethnolinguistic identity

The first goal of this report is to provide a description of the ethnolinguistic identity of Kham speakers along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera. The majority of participants from both dialect areas identify as being of Magar ethnicity, and also from one of the “northern Magar” or “Khamkura” speaking Magar clans. Furthermore, both communities primarily identify their language as “Kham” and report that they speak the same language. These Kham-speaking Magars constitute a distinct group within the broader Magar ethnicity, their language being their most significant cultural marker. Kham-speaking Magars can also be distinguished from other Magars by their clan names, exclusive marriage practices, and home territory. Table 7 presents the various answers given by dialect mapping (DM) participants when asked the name of their people group. Answers are presented as they were written by the participants.

Table 7. Ethnic identity of dialect mapping participants Village Name IPA transcription Arjal खाम मगर [kʰam mʌgʌr] Hukam पꅍथी मगर [pʌntʰi mʌgʌr] Maikot मगर �म셍र [mʌgʌr mir] Takasera NA Takasera मगर खाम [mʌgʌr kʰam]

Although none of the groups answered in the same way, each group included the term “मगर” (Magar) in their answer. Two of the groups qualified the term “Magar” with the word “Kham” which is the name of their language. Based on these answers, it can be conjectured that participants in this study see themselves as Magars but likely possess an identity subordinate to the broader Magar ethnicity. Figure 1 represents the ethnic identity of the interview participants from Hukam Khola villages (Arjal, Hukam, Maikot, and Pelma) and from Takasera. This figure represents responses to the interview question, “तपाℂको जा�त कु न हो?” (What is your ethnicity?).

15 A large diaspora community of Kham speakers lives in Ghorahi. Biannually, many Kham travel to Ghorahi from the homeland to visit family, attend festivals, and buy provisions at the bazaar. 11

Hukam Khola 70% 14% 14% 2% (n=43)

Takasera 25% 25% 38% 6% 6% (n=16)

Magar [Clan] Magar Kham Magar [Clan] Kham

Figure 1. Ethnic identity of interview participants.

When asked to state the name of their ethnicity, participants from along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera answered in similar ways. Participants from both dialect areas frequently mentioned the term “Magar,” and in a similar pattern, some participants included their clan name or language name in their answer. This pattern of response indicates that the two areas have the same ethnic identity. Participants from Takasera used the term “Magar” less frequently than the Hukam Khola participants. It is possible that Takale Kham speakers have a greater affinity to their language identity due to the language development that has occurred in their dialect. It is also possible that participants from the Takasera sample group, being well-traveled, have a greater awareness of their unique identity within the Magar ethnicity. The majority of all the participants (83%) mentioned the term “Magar,” and half of all participants simply answered “Magar.” From these data, it can be concluded that Kham speakers from both dialects strongly identify with the Magar ethnicity. However, as a considerable number of participants (29%) qualified the term “Magar” with either their clan name or language name, it can be presumed that speakers in the study area possess a more specific clan or language identity nested within their Magar ethnic identity. This is supported by the fact that 15 percent of participants did not even mention the term “Magar” when asked their ethnicity. When asked for their full name, the vast majority of participants (93%) included a northern Magar clan name (Budha, Gharti, or Pun). Two subjects gave “Kham” as their clan name, and three subjects gave a clan name not affiliated with Magar. No subjects gave a clan name associated with the Magar language (Ale, Rana, or ). These data demonstrate that Kham speakers along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera are from the “northern Magar” clans or “Khamkura”-speaking Magar clans described by Northey and Morris (1928:189) and by D. Watters (2004:1). Figure 2 represents the various names given by interview participants when asked, “तपाℂको मातभाषाकोृ नाम के हो?” (What is the name of your mother tongue?).

Hukam Khola 82% 2%7% 9% (n=43)

Takasera 75% 6% 6% 13% (n=16)

Kham Kham Magar Magar Kham Magar

Figure 2. Language names given by interview participants.

When asked to provide the name of their mother tongue, the majority of participants from along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera (90%) mentioned the term “Kham,” and 80 percent of participants simply answered “Kham.” Additionally all five DM groups agreed that Kham was the name of their language. These data strongly indicate that the primary name used for the language in both dialect areas is “Kham” and that the two areas have the same linguistic identity. A number of subjects in this study (20%) identified their language with the term “Magar” or some combination of the terms “Magar” and “Kham.” During the survey, steps were taken to ensure that no Magar speakers were interviewed. Therefore, it can be seen that sometimes the Kham 12 language is called Magar, Magar Kham, or Kham Magar due to the association of its speakers with the Magar ethnic group. Participants from along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera were each asked to report on the language and ethnicity of the other dialect area. To these inquiries, all subjects from both areas indicated that they have the same ethnic identity and speak the same language. When asked to list languages that they think are related to their language, most DM groups listed the Magar language. These responses indicated that Kham speakers view their language as a related but distinctly different language from the Magar language. In the field, those questioned were eager to claim that they are Magars but were just as eager to explain the differences between themselves and other Magars. While differences in physical appearance and cultural practices were mentioned, the Kham language is the primary defining characteristic in the perceptions of the speakers. One person interviewed from Arjal stated plainly, “We are Magars but we don’t speak the Magar language, we speak our own Kham language.” Kham speakers in the study area are generally endogamous, marrying primarily within their village or community and sometimes within their clan. Endogamy has been documented in other Kham communities by de Sales (2000:60) and Molnar (1981:107) and was made evident in the Maikot area by the fact that only two participants of this study had married a non-Kham speaker. Many participants (65%) reported that they and their spouse are from the same village. These exclusive marriage practices support the presence of an exclusive clan or language identity. Finally, differentiation between Kham speakers and their fellow Magar counterparts can be easily seen by the segregation of their respective homelands. Map 4 presents the geographic concentrations of Kham and Magar speakers as reported by the census taken in 2011 (Central Bureau of Statistics 2014).

Map 4. Kham and Magar homelands situated in Nepal16

From this map, it can be seen that the concentration of Magar speakers (Nawalpur, Palpa, Parasi, Rupandehi, Syangja, and Tanahu districts) lies apart from the concentration of Kham speakers

16 In map 4, the census data for the mother tongue Kham is presented on top of the census data for Magar. For this reason, areas where both languages were registered cannot be discerned. 13

(East Rukum and Rolpa districts). According to Bista (1982), these two areas correlate with the “Bara Magarant” (twelve Magar tribes) and the “Atha Magarant” (eighteen Magar tribes) of Magar folklore. The “Atha Magarant” is associated with the Kham-speaking Magars of present-day East Rukum and Rolpa. In answer to research question 1.1 (How do Kham speakers in the area of Maikot identify themselves and their language?), Kham speakers in the study area identify themselves ethnically as Magars. However, they do not perceive that they speak the Magar language. While there are some alternate names for their language, it is most commonly referred to as “Kham.” In answer to research question 1.2 (Do Maikoti Kham speakers and Takale Kham speakers have the same ethnolinguistic identity?), members of these respective areas indicated that they share a common ethnic identity and they perceive that they speak the same language.

4 Language and dialect variation

A primary goal of this report is to describe the Kham language and dialect situation in the vicinity of Maikot village. Of particular interest is the linguistic relatedness and intelligibility between the Kham spoken along the Hukam Khola and that spoken in Takasera. In order to measure and define speech variation, three sociolinguistic instruments have been implemented in the study area: dialect mapping (DM), recorded text test (RTT), and wordlist comparison. Data from these tools confirm David Watters’ description of the Kham language as a notably diverse network of dialects spread throughout the remote valleys of Baglung, East Rukum, and northern Rolpa. Varieties that are geographically distant from one another are linguistically dissimilar and intelligibility is limited. In the study area, two distinct dialects exist. Maikoti Kham is spoken along the Hukam Khola, and Takale Kham is spoken to the south along the Uttar Ganga Nadi and Lukum Khola. These two dialects are neighbors along a dialect continuum, with Maikoti Kham linking Takale to the Kham spoken in Baglung and Takale Kham linking Maikoti to the Kham spoken in Rolpa. In general, Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham speakers report that they can understand one another. Intelligibility testing indicates that the two dialects are indeed mutually comprehensible. However, speakers are acutely aware of the differences between their dialects, and a wordlist comparison shows Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham are lexically dissimilar. The two dialect communities frequently interact through travel, and thus the intelligibility between Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham can be attributed to dialect acquisition.

4.1 Dialect mapping

Dialect mapping is a Participatory Methods tool used primarily to discern community perceptions of the language and dialect boundaries and reported comprehension of other languages and dialects. For this study, five DM sessions were conducted, three in villages along the Hukam Khola and two with speakers from Takasera.17 Conclusions are based on consensus across multiple sessions.18 A description of DM procedures as well as the results of each session are presented in Appendix E.

4.1.1 Language and dialect perceptions

Kham speakers from the five DM sessions, perceive their language to encompass rural communities along multiple watersheds in Baglung, East Rukum, and northern Rolpa districts. They perceive their language to have many varieties, some of which are not comprehensible to them. They perceive the Kham spoken along the Hukam Khola and the Kham spoken in Takasera to be two separate dialects. Participants from both dialects said they can comprehend all or most one another’s speech.

17 Both Takasera DM sessions were conducted with groups of speakers as they were travelling outside of the homeland. One session, conducted in Kathmandu, consisted of speakers from Taka, Sera, and Ghumlibang. 18 Data confirmed by four or five DM sessions are considered conclusive, and data confirmed by three DM sessions are considered to be notable. 14

Map 5 shows villages that were consistently mentioned by DM participants when asked to name places where their language is spoken. On this map the villages in which DM sessions were conducted are denoted with a black square.

Map 5. Villages consistently mentioned in dialect mapping

When asked to name places where their language is spoken, each DM group provided a long list of villages spread across Baglung, East Rukum, Myagdi, and Rolpa districts. In general, participants demonstrated a fairly inclusive attitude, sometimes listing villages where the language has been reported to be unintelligible or even classified altogether differently from their own.19 As map 5 contains only villages mentioned by four or five groups, it represents the most conservative boundary for the language identity of the participants in this study. These villages geographically coincide with David Watters’ delineation of the major dialect of Parbate Kham. Villages in the vicinity of Gam Khola (Gamale Kham) and Madi Khola (Sheshi Kham) were also mentioned in multiple sessions.20,21 With the addition of these two watersheds, the resulting language area strongly resembles the Kham dialect situation as described by David Watters (see section 1.2). Many Kham speakers live in diaspora throughout various urban centers in Nepal. An analysis of census data indicates that 20‒30 percent of the Kham population live outside of their homeland. The diaspora communities in Ghorahi and Kathmandu were briefly discussed in two DM sessions; however, participants eventually decided not to include them on the language map.

19 Participants from the Hukam and Maikot sessions both listed a few villages in corresponding with Chhantyal-speaking communities, indicating some affinity with an entirely different local language that has also been labeled Khamkura. 20 Villages along the Gam Khola (Gam, Ghusbang, and Siuri) were listed in three DM sessions, and the village of Jangkot (on Madi Khola) was mentioned in two sessions. 21 The major dialects of Gamale Kham and Sheshi Kham were reported to be unintelligible to Kham speakers from Takasera by D. Watters (1998). 15

When asked to arrange places according to similarity of speech, each DM group separated the villages they had listed into at least four groups.22 Although the number and arrangement of villages was not consistent across all DM sessions, dialects and sub-dialects can be discerned by observing which villages were consistently arranged together and which were consistently segregated from one another. Figure 3 presents the villages from map 5 in relation to one another according to how they were grouped by DM participants. Dark grey represents villages which were consistently arranged together, while the white represents villages which were consistently segregated from one another.23 Light grey indicates a lack of consistent arrangement by the five DM groups. The order in which these villages are presented correlates with their physical location along waterways.

Mahat x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Sima Lukum Khola Kyangsi x x x Kakri Lukum Ghumlibang Lower Sera Upper Sera Uttar Ganga Nadi Taka Bachhigau Garkhani Padmi Kol Rangsi Sani Bheri Nadi Nakha Jang Kharabang Arjal Ghunma Hukam Khola Ranma Maikot Pelma Kajarjang Hukam

Together Inconsistently arranged Segregated

Figure 3. Villages arranged according to similarity of speech. The villages from along the Lukum Khola, Uttar Ganga Nadi, and Sani Bheri (Sima to Jang) were consistently grouped apart from the villages along the Hukam Khola (Arjal to Hukam). The consistent segregation of these villages across multiple DM sessions conducted in both areas demonstrates the presence of two distinct dialects in the perceptions of speakers. These are the respective Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham dialects.

22 Participants were asked to arrange the pieces of paper from the previous step (the names of places where their language is spoken) into groups and encircle the groups with string. Places inside each circle were to be similar to one another in speech. 23 In figure 3, villages are considered to be consistently arranged if at least four of the five DM groups arranged them the same. 16

Within both of these dialects, sub-dialects can be discerned by examining which villages were always arranged together. In the Takale dialect, villages along the Lukum Khola (Sima to Lukum), villages along the Uttar Ganga Nadi (Ghumlibang to Kol), and villages along the Sani Bheri (Rangsi to Jang) were consistently arranged together by DM participants and, being along separate waterways, these three groupings form plausible sub-dialects. Likewise, in the Maikoti dialect, DM participants arranged villages into two sub-dialects separated by the Hukam Khola. Map 6 shows the Maikoti and Takale dialects as determined by the relational data presented in figure 3. The two dialects are represented as geographic areas, and the subdialects are denoted with matching symbols at the village names.

Map 6. Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham

This map does not include geographic representations of Kham dialects outside the study area. The villages of Jelbang, Mahat, Nisi, and Thabang are not included in this map, as they are relatively distant from the reference sites and were not consistently grouped with other villages by DM participants.

4.1.2 Perceived comprehension

In general, Kham speakers can understand all or most of the Kham spoken in their immediate vicinity but they may have limited comprehension of more distant varieties. While they perceive their two dialects to be different, Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham participants in this study said that they can understand each other moderately well. When asked how well they comprehend the speech of other Kham villages, DM participants from along the Hukam Khola and from Takasera indicated that they can understand all of the Kham spoken in their respective valleys. Takasera participants said that they can also comprehend all of the Kham spoken along the Lukum Khola to the south. The villages of Lukum Khola were consistently arranged together with the villages in Takasera in previous DM steps (see map 6). These results suggest that the Kham varieties of these two valleys are very similar. 17

Concerning the perceived intelligibility between Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham, most DM participants from both dialects indicated that they can understand all or most of each other’s speech. However, the DM participants in Maikot village indicated that they only understand half of the Kham spoken in Takasera. These results demonstrate that, in general, the two dialect communities perceive they can understand one another. Nevertheless, they are acutely aware of the linguistic differences between their speech varieties, and that these differences sometimes limit comprehension. The fact that varying levels of comprehension were reported by these groups gives rise to the notion that dialect comprehension is acquired through frequent contact. The vast majority of participants in this study said that they have traveled outside of their home valley, and only three participants said that they had not met a person from the other dialect community. Dialect intelligibility acquired through contact is further discussed in section 4.3. It is also possible that the DM participants from Maikot village reported limited comprehension of the Takale dialect because they take issue with Takale Kham in terms of its acceptability. This notion is supported by the dialect attitude and comprehension information gathered via the individual interview. When asked how well they understand the Kham spoken in Takasera, most of the participants from Maikot village (71%) said that they can understand all or most it. However, when asked how the Kham spoken in Takasera made them feel, participants from Maikot said that it is “okay,” but that Takale Kham is not “pure” Kham. Results from the questions on language attitudes are presented in section 6. The reported comprehension results from dialect mapping indicate that Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham are neighbors along a dialect continuum. Takale participants consistently reported good comprehension of the Kham dialects spoken in northern Rolpa, to which the Maikoti participants reported limited comprehension. Likewise, Maikoti participants consistently reported good comprehension of the Kham spoken in Baglung, of which the Takale participants reported limited comprehension. Although they can comprehend each other’s dialects, notable linguistic differences exist between the two which allow them to comprehend different neighboring dialects. Thus, Maikoti Kham links Takale to the Kham spoken in Baglung, and Takale Kham links Maikoti to the Kham spoken in northern Rolpa. In answer to research question 2.1 (How do Kham speakers along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera perceive the boundaries of their language and its dialects?), participants in this study understand the Kham language to be spoken along multiple river valleys in Baglung, East Rukum, and northern Rolpa. They perceive their respective speech varieties to be two distinct dialects (Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham). DM participants from along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera reported that they can understand each other moderately well but indicated that they have a limited capacity to understand varieties of Kham spoken in valleys more distant from their own.

4.2 Wordlist comparison

Wordlist comparison is a useful tool for assessing the linguistic relatedness of speech varieties and gaining an initial understanding of dialect groupings within a language. Lists of words are elicited from speakers in selected areas. The lists are then compared to determine how many words are pronounced the same or similarly to corresponding words of other varieties. The number of similar items between each variety is then calculated, resulting in a lexical similarity percentage. For this study, 325 words were elicited at each site, and lexical similarity was determined using the method prescribed by Blair (1990:26). Cog software has been used to organize the wordlist data and to facilitate comparative analysis. See Appendix A for a summary of the Blair method and Cog software settings. The analysis of the seven wordlists collected in and around the study area indicates that significant linguistic diversity exists among the speech varieties of Kham. However, the varieties spoken in the villages along the Hukam Khola are lexically similar. These varieties constitute the Maikoti Kham dialect, which is situated on the northern aspect of a dialect continuum extending south through Takasera and into Rolpa. Lexical similarity percentages between Maikoti wordlists and a Takale wordlist are indicative that these are linguistically dissimilar dialects of the same language. Map 7 indicates the villages where the seven wordlists of this study were collected. 18

Map 7. Wordlist collection sites

Four wordlists were collected along the Hukam Kola to aid in describing the Maikoti Kham dialect (Arjal, Hukam, Maikot, and Ranma). A wordlist was collected in Taka for the purpose of determining linguistic relatedness between the Maikoti and Takale dialects. Finally, two additional wordlists were collected in valleys distant from the study area (Thabang and Jangkot) for the purpose of measuring linguistic relatedness across the Kham homeland. Table 8 presents the lexical similarity percentages of the seven Kham wordlists. Nepali loan words were excluded from the calculation of these percentages.

Table 8. Lexical similarity percentages Maikot 88% Ranma 86% 82% Hukam 86% 85% 83% Arjal 67% 62% 64% 67% Taka (Takale Kham) 48% 46% 50% 49% 66% Thabang 33% 32% 36% 29% 34% 39% Jangkot (Sheshi Kham)

The four wordlists collected within the Maikoti Kham dialect (Arjal, Hukam, Maikot, and Ranma) are 82‒88 percent similar to one another. The small disparities between these lists indicate variation from village to village within the Hukam Khola valley. This intra-dialect speech variation is also suggested by the dialect mapping results and interview data. In two DM sessions, the villages of the Hukam Khola valley were divided into smaller groups, and the majority of interview participants from the Hukam Khola said that their speech is slightly different from that of neighboring villages.24 However, high lexical similarity between each of these lists and the uniform dissimilarity of these

24 The Maikot DM participants divided the Hukam Khola villages into three groups, and the Arjal DM participants divided them into two groups. 19 lists to wordlists collected outside the valley support the categorization of all Kham speech along the Hukam Khola as a single “Maikoti” dialect. The Maikoti Kham wordlists are 62‒67 percent similar to the wordlist collected in Taka. Although these lists differ from one another, none stand out as more similar to the Taka wordlist than the others. Therefore the Maikoti dialect cannot be said to blend into the Takale dialect. Rather, the two dialects are distinct from each other as shown by the dialect mapping data presented in section 4.3. According to Blair (1990:23), wordlists bearing less than 60 percent lexical similarity are generally considered to represent varieties from two different languages. The lexicostatistics between the Maikoti Kham wordlists and the Takale wordlist are only just above this 60 percent threshold, indicating significant linguistic differences between the two dialects. These differences may affect intelligibility and attitudes of acceptability between Maikoti and Takale Kham speakers. It should be mentioned that the Maikoti to Takale lexicostatistics presented in this study are lower than the 77 percent figure presented by Steve Watters in 1988 (see section 1.5). This difference is likely due to the fact that a different list of elicitation words was used and different conditions were set for determining cognate groups. The lexical similarity percentages between the Maikoti Kham wordlists and those of Thabang and Jangkot are well below 60 percent, which is often indicative of similar but different languages. These percentages indicate that intelligibility between Maikoti Kham and the Kham spoken in each of these villages is likely very limited. Notably, the Taka wordlist is 66 percent similar to the Thabang wordlist. This indicates that Takale Kham is a link between Maikoti Kham and Thabangi Kham. This data further supports the presence of a north-south dialect continuum made evident by the perceived intelligibility data collected in the DM sessions (see subsection 4.1.2). Despite low lexical similarity, the data in this study suggest that Maikoti Kham speakers and Kham speakers in Rolpa share a common language identity. Two of the three DM groups from Maikot included these villages in the map of their language. However, in both cases, the participants said they only understand half of their speech. The Knowledgeable Insider Interview participant from Thabang explicitly said that people from Maikot speak the same language as those in Thabang, but limited intelligibility was indicated. Furthermore, all notable linguistic works cited for this project present the Kham varieties of Baglung, East Rukum, and Rolpa as having a single language identity. Thus, the Kham language is an example of significant linguistic diversity within a single language identity. In answer to research question 2.2 (What is the level of linguistic relatedness between Maikoti Kham and other Kham varieties, specifically Takale Kham spoken in Takasera?), a comparison of Kham wordlists indicates significant lexical variation among Kham dialects. The Maikoti and Takale dialects are lexically dissimilar and should be considered two linguistically distinct dialects of the same language. Some of the Kham varieties spoken in Rolpa are especially dissimilar to Maikoti Kham. Although these varieties share a common language identity, they have linguistic differences indicative of different languages.

4.3 Intelligibility testing

In this study, intelligibility has been evaluated using a recorded text test (RTT). This tool measures the ability of participants to comprehend a simple narrative recorded in another speech variety. The short narrative is played twice, with comprehension questions interjected throughout the story on the second round. A sample of participants’ average RTT scores and standard deviation are correlated with the intelligibility of the narrative variety to the community in which the test is conducted. The RTT results suggest that Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham speakers can understand each other on a basic level. Subjects from both dialects demonstrated adequate comprehension of a narrative recorded in the other dialect. Despite these results, speakers from both regions agree that there are significant differences between their dialects which make it difficult for some people to communicate. As the majority of the RTT participants said that they frequently travel outside their valley and that they have met people from the other dialect, high RTT scores may be attributed to intelligibility acquired through frequent contact between the two dialect areas. The conclusions on intelligibility between the two dialects have been made on the conditions described by Blair (1990:25). These conditions are based on two numbers. The first number is the average RTT score of a sample of participants from the same test site. Each participant’s score is the 20 percentage of correct answers for ten or eleven comprehension questions. The average score of the sample of subjects correlates with their degree of comprehension of the test variety. The second number is the standard deviation which is a measure of how much participants’ scores vary from the sample’s average score. If most subjects score similarly on the test, the standard deviation will be low. If some subjects do well on the test and others do poorly, the standard deviation will be high. For RTTs, a standard deviation of 10‒12 percent or lower is considered low, and of 12‒15 percent and above is considered a high standard deviation. A high standard deviation in RTT scores indicates that some members of the community may have a greater capacity to comprehend the test variety due to contact. Sample groups averaging higher than 80 percent on the test, with low standard deviation, are likely to represent speech communities which can understand the test variety due to its inherent intelligibility to their own variety. However, if the majority of the speech community has regular contact with the test variety, this can result in high comprehension scores with low standard deviation because most of the participants have acquired comprehension of the dialect. It is also important to note that, due to the nature of the test, the RTT is unable to measure levels of comprehension greater than basic understanding of a simple narrative. Finally, RTT scores lower than 60 percent indicate low intelligibility between the two varieties. These parameters are represented in table 9.

Table 9. Conditions for intelligibility (Blair 1990:25) Standard deviation High (>12‒15%) Low (<10‒12%)

Many people understand Most people understand the story well, but some the story. High High have difficulty. (>80%)

Many people cannot Few people are able to understand the story, understand the story. score Average Low but a few are able to (<60%) answer correctly.

For this study, a story recorded in Takasera was tested in three villages along the Hukam Khola (Arjal, Hukam, and Maikot), and a story recorded in Maikot was tested with a sample of people from Takasera. Additionally, the Maikot story was tested in two neighboring Hukam Khola villages (Arjal and Hukam). In this way, the Maikoti and Takale dialects were tested for mutual intelligibility, and the variety spoken in Maikot village was tested in other villages along the Hukam Khola to aid in describing the Maikoti dialect. Before conducting the RTTs, each story was tested in the home village of the storyteller. This Hometown Test (HTT) is valuable for the development of content questions and for verifying the RTT. The HTT average score and standard deviation are presented with the RTT scores in this section. Before taking the RTT, each participant takes a practice test. This test is structured like the RTT except that the story is a simple, contrived narrative recorded in the dialect of the participant. The practice test familiarizes the participants with the test process and qualifies their RTT score for analysis. The RTT results from participants who scored less than 80 percent on the practice test are not included in the study. Throughout the RTT process, the participants are not told where the story was recorded. After completing the test, the participants are asked several questions regarding their perceptions of the storyteller’s speech. Data from these post-RTT questions are presented along with the RTT results in this section. Table 10 presents the comprehension results for the Takale Kham story. 21

Table 10. Takale Kham story comprehension results

HTT Test sites Taka Arjal Hukam Maikot Average score 98% 88% 91% 96% Standard deviation 4% 11% 8% 6% Sample size 11 11 13 14

The RTT participants from the Hukam Khola demonstrated good comprehension of the Takale Kham story. Each sample group averaged well above 80 percent with low standard deviation. These results indicate that Maikoti Kham speakers have at least a basic comprehension of Takale Kham. After finishing the RTT, many participants said that the Takale storyteller’s dialect was very different from their own, and 20 percent of participants said that they understood only half or less than half of the story. These reports suggest that, although Takale Kham is intelligible to them, it is quite different from their own dialect. This notion is confirmed by the fact that, when asked directly in the individual interview, 45 percent of them said that the Takale dialect is very different from their own. Of the 38 participants who took the Takale RTT and did the individual interview, only three said that they had not met a person from Takasera. The average score of these participants was 10 percent lower than the average score of the rest of the Maikoti Kham participants. From these data, it can be seen that a significant percentage of the Maikoti Kham population have met Takale speakers, and it is plausible that regular interaction has resulted in greater comprehension of the Takale dialect. The fact that the primary route leading out of the Maikot territory travels through Takasera further increases the plausibility of intelligibility acquired through contact. Table 11 presents the comprehension results for the Maikoti Kham story.

Table 11. Maikoti Kham story comprehension results

HTT Test sites Maikot Arjal Arjal* Hukam Takasera Average score 96% 81% 86% 92% 94% Standard deviation 5% 20% 12% 7% 8% Sample size 14 11 10 12 11 *This column represent the RTT results with a single outlier excluded.

Likewise, participants from Takasera demonstrated good comprehension of the Maikoti Kham narrative by averaging well above 80 percent with low standard deviation. These results indicate that Takale Kham speakers can comprehend Maikoti Kham at least on a basic level. After taking the test, most Takasera participants (92%) said that they understood all of the story but expressed that the storyteller’s dialect was a little different from their own. These same subjects said that the Maikoti Kham dialect was a little different when asked directly during the individual interview. All eleven of the Takasera participants who took the Maikoti Kham RTT said that they had met someone from Maikot. As previously mentioned, less traveled individuals are not represented in the Takasera sample group; however, these data support the notion that speakers from these two dialects interact frequently. Concerning the intelligibility of the Kham spoken in Maikot village to speakers from other villages along the Hukam Khola, participants from Arjal and Hukam demonstrated good comprehension of the Maikoti story. The average score for the entire Arjal sample group indicates fair comprehension of the Maikot story, however, one subject scored much lower than the rest. This subject demonstrated confusion during the test taking process, despite passing the practice test. Excluding this outlying score, the results indicate that Arjal participants had good comprehension of the Maikoti Kham narrative, averaging 86 percent as seen in table 11. Hukam participants also demonstrated good comprehension of the Maikoti Kham story, averaging 92 percent. After listening to the story, the majority of the participants from Arjal and Hukam (85%) said that they understood all or most of the story. Approximately 20 percent of the subjects said that the storyteller’s dialect was the same as their own, while 80 percent said that it was only a little different 22 from their own. These same subjects, when explicitly asked in the interview, said that the people of Maikot speak only a little differently than themselves. While in the study area, the research team recorded inconsistent statements concerning the intelligibility between Maikoti and Takale Kham. Some of those questioned indicated they could not understand speakers from the other dialect community, while others said that communication between the two dialects is easy. A young man from Taka reported that he uses Nepali when speaking with people from Maikot because he cannot understand the Maikoti dialect. A woman from Arjal said, “They (Takale Kham) speak very differently, I cannot understand them.” Several people from Maikot said that Takale Kham is easy for them to understand, but that those from Takasera cannot understand Maikoti Kham because it is an older and more complex form of the language. A man from Maikot stated, “I understand all of it (Takale Kham), but our Kham is more pure.” These reports demonstrate that speakers experience varying levels of understanding, which increases the plausibility of contact producing varied levels of comprehension between the two dialects. In the few interactions between Maikoti and Takale speakers observed by the team, it was noted that neither party found it difficult to communicate with each other and that they did not use Nepali. The team’s guide (from Maikot) was able to communicate easily with Taka villagers without using Nepali. The two communities engage in regular football and volleyball competitions. While observing a volleyball match, the research team noted that the Maikoti and Takasera players communicated easily with one another using the Kham language. Maikoti and Takale Kham speakers, in answer to the research question 2.3, seem to understand each other on a basic level, despite significant lexical distance between the two dialects. This mutual dialect proficiency is borne out by consistently high RTT scores. Much of the anecdotal data gathered suggests that the people from both communities can comprehend each other due to passive dialect acquisition, as they are regularly in contact.

5 Language vitality

An important goal of this report is to describe the degree of multilingualism and the vitality of the Kham language in the territory surrounding Maikot. In this section, language vitality is measured by the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS), which is a scale used to measure the status of a language in terms of endangerment and development (Lewis and Simons 2010).25 The placement of the Kham language on this scale is determined by the FAMED conditions outlined by Lewis and Simons (2016).26 The FAMED conditions represent different aspects of multilingualism, which speak to the sustainability of mother tongue language use. According to the FAMED conditions, Kham should be classified as EGIDS level 6a or “Vigorous” in the communities along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera. Kham is used by all generations for the functions of daily life, and parents are effectively transmitting the language to their children. The Kham are motivated to use their language because it is effective in the homogeneous communities of their homeland and it is an expression of their unique identity. Currently, there are no national policies hostile to indigenous language use and development in Nepal. In the Kham homeland, Kham people only use Nepali in the presence of those who cannot understand their language. In all other situations, they use Kham.

5.1 Multilingualism

Kham is the primary language for daily face-to-face interaction along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera. Other languages frequently used are Nepali and a Nepali-Kham creole known as “” (D. Watters, et al. 2011:99).27 No other indigenous languages have a significant presence in the area. Because Kham is the first language (L1) of the majority of the population, some Nepali speaking living in the area speak it as their second language (L2). Likewise, many Kham speakers are fluent in Nepali, having attended public school.

25 The Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale is summarized in Appendix G. 26 The FAMED (Functions, Acquisition, Motivation, Environment, and Differentiation) conditions are summarized in Appendix G. 27 Kami is the occupational caste of blacksmiths. The glottonym Kami is likely derived from this caste name as the creole is almost exclusively used by the population of the study area. 23

According to the 2011 census, Kham speakers comprise approximately 60 percent of the population along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera (Central Bureau of Statistics 2014). Only 2 percent of the population were registered as L1 speakers of another indigenous language and roughly 38 percent of the population registered Nepali as their L1.28 While there are some small Chhetri villages in the area, the majority of those registered as L1 Nepali speakers are the Dalit who live among the Kham in their villages. These Dalit function as an occupational caste in Kham society, serving as stone carriers, musicians, tailors, and blacksmiths (D. Watters, et al. 2011:99). As the Kham have been their patrons for many generations, the Dalit speech (Nepali) in this area has adapted to accommodate many Kham roots into its morphology. According to the research team’s guide, this creole is locally known as “Kami.” Communication between Kham and Dalit was largely unobserved by the researchers. However, several Kham speakers communicated negative attitudes towards the creole because it is an “impure” form of Nepali. While conducting fieldwork, the research team noted that, in Kham villages, civil positions such as police officers and school teachers are often held by Chhetri who have been assigned there by the government. On several occasions, these individuals demonstrated the ability to speak the Kham language. One school teacher enthusiastically displayed his ability to speak Kham multiple times, adding that there was no need to conduct interviews in the village, as he would supply all the information needed for the research. The vast majority of Kham who were interviewed indicated that they speak Nepali as an L2; however, several individuals refused to be interviewed because they were not confident in Nepali. Other participants asked to have all of the questions translated into Kham for clarity. When asked which language they use while shopping in the village, many participants indicated that they use Kham with Kham shopkeepers and Nepali with those who cannot understand Kham. Additionally, when asked about what languages they use outside the village, the majority of participants indicated that they speak Kham with their own people and Nepali with all others. These responses indicate that many Kham are fluent in Nepali. Standard Nepali is taught in public schools throughout the area. When asked about school attendance, participants said that all Kham children attend primary school, and most attend secondary school. It was indicated that some Kham children are unable to attend secondary school because it is too far from their village. Participants agreed that village school teachers always speak Nepali to their students. From these facts, it is plausible to conclude that many Kham speakers become fluent in Nepali through schooling. In answer to research question 3.1 (What languages are spoken in the area surrounding Maikot?), the primary languages used along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera are Kham and Nepali. There is little presence of other indigenous languages. Many villagers speak both Kham and Nepali.

5.2 Functions

One of the primary measures of language vitality is the number of functions (uses, topics, domains, or bodies of knowledge) for which a language is used in a multilingual setting (Lewis and Simons 2016:156). Along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera, the Kham language is used for nearly all functions of daily life. Kham speakers use Nepali when talking with outsiders and those who cannot understand Kham, and Nepali is also utilized in some public settings. However, speakers prefer to use Kham whenever they can. Figure 4 represents the language choices of 61 interview participants across several functions of daily life. These functions are categorized as private interactions.

28 In these percentages, the local non-standard dialect of Nepali known is not differentiated from standard Nepali. 24

Family 99% 1%

Friends 100%

Personal worship 92% 8%

Local shopping 78% 7% 15%

Kham Both Nepali

Figure 4. Reported language use for private interactions.

When asked which language they use when speaking with different people in the family (spouse, children, and grandparents) in their home, nearly all participants from both the Hukam Khola valley and Takasera answered that they only use Kham with their family at home. Two participants, being married to non-Kham speakers said they use Nepali with their spouse but use Kham with the rest of their family members. In figure 4, the answers to these questions are consolidated into a single bar labeled “Family.” When asked which language they use when speaking with their friends, all participants answered that they use Kham. Two participants from Takasera said that they use Kham with their Kham-speaking friends and Nepali with their Nepali-speaking friends. These interview data are confirmed by observations made by the research team. While conducting this study, team members were hosted by many Kham families living in the homeland and in diaspora. In observing these families during meal times and as they conducted daily business, the was only utilized when conversing directly with non-Kham speakers. Researchers never observed young children in the village speaking Nepali to their parents or other community members. When asked which languages they use for personal worship, the majority of the interview participants (92%) answered that they use only Kham; however, some younger subjects said they use Nepali. When asked what languages they use when shopping in the village, the majority of interview participants (85%) answered that they use Kham. Some of these participants (7%) further indicated they use Kham with Kham-speaking shopkeepers but Nepali with Nepali-speaking shopkeepers. Concerning more public interactions, it was found that Kham speakers prefer to use their own language whenever they can but readily speak Nepali when the situation requires them to do so. Knowledgeable Insider Interview respondents indicated that Nepali is primarily used for the benefit of non-Kham speakers and in the setting of formal education. When asked what languages they use during public worship, most interview participants (85%) answered that they use only Kham. No correlation between the use of Nepali in public worship and a specific religion was found; however, none of the subjects who said that they observe the traditional Kham religion said that they use Nepali in public worship. When asked what languages are used during public ceremonies (weddings, funerals, and birth celebrations), all respondents answered that only Kham is utilized for these functions. However, when asked what languages are used during community meetings, some respondents said their community uses Nepali during meetings for the benefit of non-Kham-speaking neighbors.29 When asked what language school teachers use when talking with students, every Knowledgeable Insider Interview participant answered that Nepali is used. However, a school teacher from Arjal reported, “We speak some Kham to the very small ones who haven’t learned Nepali yet.”

29 The respondents from Maikot and Taka reported that only Kham is used, while the respondent from Ranma reported they only use Nepali during community meetings. Respondents from Arjal, Hukam, and Pelma said that both Nepali and Kham are used during community meetings. 25

The headmaster of the school in Maikot said that, in the past, he has authorized the use of some Kham in teaching first and second year students. When asked what language the children use with each other during school, respondents from Hukam Khola indicated that children use both languages, while the respondent from Taka said that only Nepali is allowed when school is in session. In answer to research question 3.2 (What languages are used for each function in daily life?), the Kham language is used for most functions of daily life in the study area. However, Kham speakers will readily use Nepali when talking with outsiders and non-Kham speakers. Nepali is also utilized in some public settings such as in community meetings and in school.

5.3 Acquisition

An important factor of language vitality is the maintenance of a stable population of speakers. In multilingual communities, speaker population of a language will decrease when a language is not adequately transmitted to the next generation (Lewis and Simons 2016:156). This can occur when parents do not use their first language in the home and/or when young people stop using their parent’s language after they leave home. In the study area, the Kham language is being vigorously transmitted to children via oral communication in the home, and young adults continue to use Kham for face-to-face communication as they get older. Figure 5 presents the Nepali language proficiency of preschool-age children as reported by their older family members. This figure represents answers to the question “तपाℂको छोराछोरीलाई क ु ल जान ु अ�घ नेपाली भाषा बो쥍न आउँछ?” (Are your children able to speak Nepali before attending school?)

(n=15)

(n=13)

(n=13)

(n=15)

Figure 5. Reported Nepali proficiency of pre-school children.

In order to measure the acquisition of Kham by young children, interview participants were asked to report on the Nepali fluency of young children in their household.30 Both along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera, the majority of parents said their children could not speak Nepali until after starting to attend school. Additionally, when asked what language the children use when speaking to neighbors, all participants answered that their children use only Kham. When asked what language the children use when playing with other children in the village, again all participants answered that their children use only Kham. These answers indicate that young children are learning primarily Kham in the homes and neighborhoods of these villages. When asked what language young people in the village use when talking with one another, all participants along the Pelma Khola and in Takasera said they use Kham. When asked if all their children speak Kham, nearly all parents (95%) answered “yes.” Two subjects said that one or more of their children do not speak Kham because they had been sent out of the area for schooling. In the village, the research team noted that Kham youth prefer to use their own language over Nepali. Many young adults reported that they even use Kham in digital mediums such as Facebook and SMS.

30 Homes in the villages of East Rukum are most often extended family dwellings. For this reason, interview participants not having children and participants whose children had grown up were asked to report on other small children in their home. 26

In answer to research question 3.3 (To what extent is the Kham language being transmitted to the next generation?), Kham language is being vigorously transmitted to children in the homes and neighborhoods of the villages along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera. Young adults continue to use the Kham language with friends and family as they get older.

5.4 Motivation

Language motivation pertains to the perceived benefits that a person or community gains by using a particular language in a multilingual setting (Lewis and Simons 2016:157). Kham speakers in the study area are motivated to use their own language for daily functions and to transmit the language to their children because it is socially and economically effective in the environment of their homeland and because they are very proud of their language identity. As demonstrated in previous sections, communities along the Hukam Khola and in Takasera are fairly homogeneous. Kham people make up the majority of society, and the Kham language is the primary language in daily life. This is made most evident by the fact that many Chhetri who move to the area are motivated to learn Kham as a second language and by the fact that the numerous Dalit who live in the area have made accommodation for Kham root words in their non-standard Nepali dialect. Furthermore, the Kham rarely marry outside of their clan. Within the network of their extended family relations, Kham people find little occasion to use a language other than their own and therefore have little motivation to use Nepali in their homes. In conducting this research, team members frequently noted how highly Kham speakers value their language as a sign of solidarity to their indigenous identity. In the following text box are quotes given by two participants of this study. These quotes capture much of what was expressed by many Kham people during casual conversation with the research team.

“खाम भाषा हाम्रो प�हचान र अ�तव हो। यो भाषा �बना हामी तहु रोु झै हꅍछौ।ु 配यसैले आ 굍न ो भाषा बा楍योँ भने हाम्रो अ�तव रहꅍछ र हामी प�न बा楍छौ।ँ आ굍नो भाषा नै नरहे हामी प�न मन �छौ।ँ ”

‘Kham is our identity and existence. Without this language, we are like orphans. So, if our language lives, our identity remains strong, and we exist. If our language disappears, our identity will die out.’

“जꅍमे दे�ख बोलेको भाषा खाम हो। खाम भाषाले नै मनमा लागेका कु रा अनभवह셁ु तथा �बचारह셁 अ�भ핍य� गन셍, बाचन गन셍, खाने, के गन� र कसरी च쥍ने �सकाएको हो। अꅍय भाषीह셁को अगा�ड र अꅍय ठाउँमा जादाँ आ 굍न ो भाषाबाट गोꥍय क्ु रा गन셍 स�कꅍछ।”

‘Kham is the first language I spoke since my birth. It taught me to express my experiences and thoughts and fulfill all necessities. I learned how to do things, eat, and communicate through this language. We can talk secretly through our own language when we are in different places and meet speakers of other languages.’

For a long time, the Kham people have been geographically and culturally isolated from the centers of power in Nepal (de Sales 2000). Prior to the change in government in 1990, various regimes have promoted the unification of Nepal by promoting Nepali as the national language and as the national religion. Since, for years, the Kham have lived a self-sustained lifestyle secluded in the remote hill country, these policies have served only to antagonize them in regard to their indigenous way of life. It is likely that the Kham identity has been strengthened by these efforts to integrate them into the national culture. This fortress-like nature of the Kham culture cannot be more clearly demonstrated than by the fact that, at the advent of identity politics and the People’s Movement of Nepal, the Kham homeland became a wilderness stronghold for the revolution. In answer to research question 3.4 (What factors motivate language use in the study area?), the Kham people, as well as some others, are motivated to use Kham for functions of daily life because it is effective in the homogeneous environment of the Kham homeland. Additionally, the Kham are motivated to use and preserve their language because they see it as a marker of their unique ethnic identity. 27

5.5 Environment

The language environment pertains to the cultural and political forces that act on the use and transmission of a minority language (Lewis and Simons 2016:159). The current socio-political environment of Nepal is such that indigenous ethnic groups and language communities are encouraged to express their identity and make claims to the central government. This is largely due to the rise of identity politics during the People’s Movement of Nepal at the turn of the century (de Sales 2000). Expressions of ethnicity such as art, ritual, and language are made freely in the current political landscape. However, it can be argued that the effects of previous regulations placed on the use of indigenous languages are still in play. Evidence of this could be the fact that many indigenous language communities consider their language to be innately inferior to Nepali. Very few schools are equipped to offer multilingual education, and some parents intentionally use Nepali with their young children in order to spare them from embarrassment and academic struggles in the future. As a result, many indigenous languages in Nepal are losing speakers at an alarming rate. It is commonly known among linguists and anthropologists that the phenomena of globalization and urbanization are having devastating effects on language diversity in the world (Karan 2018:69). As transportation and methods of communication have improved, and more people are migrating to urban centers, language contact continues to increase. The relationship between languages in a multilingual setting is competitive in nature, and many scholars predict large-scale language extinction to occur in the coming decades. Kham speakers are the majority people group in the isolated river valleys of their homeland. Until recent years, the Kham language has experienced little pressure from dominant languages such as Nepali and English. While it can be argued that the Kham people have not been overly benefitted by isolation, the Kham language has not undergone the loss of speakers that is common for many minority language communities in Nepal. Therefore, in answer to research question 3.5 (What is the language environment of Kham?), the current environment is such that the Kham language is not prohibited by the government. However, previous policies promoting Nepali as the national language have made it difficult for minority languages to compete with Nepali, especially in urban environments. As Kham speakers come into greater contact with the national and global culture, stable language vitality will only be possible if the language community makes a unified effort.

5.6 Differentiation

In order to maintain a stable state of multilingualism, a set of norms or rules pertaining to which language should be used in each domain of daily life must be established (Lewis and Simons 2016:160). These norms of language use are known as differentiation. Due to the homogeneous nature of Kham villages in the study area, overt differentiation has not been necessary. However, conscious rules for language use can be observed in several domains. Knowledgeable Insider Interview participants said that village school teachers use standard Nepali with the students and require them to learn and use Nepali in every subject of study. The semi-obligatory use of Nepali in school was reported by respondents from each of the major villages along the Hukam Khola and by respondents from Takasera. One man from Taka indicated that students were obligated to use Nepali even when talking with one another while class was in session. Additionally, it was reported that Nepali is used during community meetings and in the giving of public announcements in several villages along the Hukam Khola. Likely this is done for the benefit of non-Kham-speaking members of the community. Conversely, a woman from Taka reported that for birth, marriage, and funeral ceremonies, liturgies in the Kham language are universally observed by all Kham people. She also said that community shamans use Kham language and another ancient language when speaking with spirits. In answer to research question 3.6 (To what degree is the Kham language being differentiated from other languages?), the Kham language is preferred by its speakers for all face-to-face interactions, and standard Nepali is used if one or more parties in a conversation are unable to understand Kham. Some rules governing the use of language exist, such as the use of Nepali being required in the school setting and in the community meetings of some villages, and liturgical expressions in Kham being required for special occasions such as weddings and funerals. 28

6 Language attitudes

The final goal of this report is to describe language attitudes as they pertain to language development in the Maikoti dialect. Kham speakers along the Hukam Khola are enthusiastic about language development. They are aware of materials created for the Takale dialect (orthography, dictionary, and multilingual-education materials), but perceive that their own dialect is too different from Takale Kham to make use of these materials. Additionally, the Maikoti Kham perceive that Takale speakers use Nepali loan words and codeswitch more frequently than they do. For this reason, some Maikoti Kham speakers expressed negative attitudes towards the Takale dialect. In order to gauge attitudes towards language development, interview participants were asked to answer concrete questions concerning the possibility of audio media, multilingual education, and printed materials in their language. Responses to these questions were overwhelmingly positive. When asked if they would listen to a radio program in their language, the majority of participants (93%) said they would listen regularly. When asked if they would financially support multilingual education in their children’s school, almost all participants (93%) said they would do so. Finally, when asked if they would like to read a book in their language, every literate person interviewed said they would. Knowledgeable Insider Interview participants also expressed positive attitudes towards language development. When asked what benefits could be gained in developing the Maikoti dialect, each participant enthusiastically provided multiple advantages. The mayor of Arjal stated, “It would be very good, then people will continue to speak the language, and our culture and identity will be preserved.” A school teacher from Hukam said, “It will help the young people to do better in school,” and another respondent said that it would be advantageous for Kham children growing up in diaspora to learn to write Kham as a means of retaining their language and heritage. The headmaster of the school in Maikot village mentioned that, several years earlier, he tested the use of some Takale primers in their school. However, he said they elected to stop using the primers after a short time because, “the Taka Kham was too difficult for the young students.” This account demonstrates that extending Takale materials to the Maikot area would require that they be revised. Many Maikoti Kham who are literate in Nepali already write the Kham language for personal correspondence using digital mediums such as Facebook and SMS. Approximately 43 percent of the interview participants said they write Kham using either the Devanagari or the Roman script in makeshift fashion. Maikoti Kham speakers did not overtly express negative attitudes towards Takale Kham. However, many Maikoti Kham participants expressed that the Takale dialect is impure because of the frequent use of Nepali words and phrases when speaking Kham. After taking the Takale RTT, when asked how the storyteller’s dialect made them feel, two participants said that it pained them because they found it difficult to understand and because of the borrowing of Nepali words. Many Maikoti subjects expressed that they would like to read in their own dialect because it is “pure” Kham. It was often stated that the Maikoti dialect is the oldest and most pure form of the Kham language. One man from Maikot told researchers that the village of Maikot was the first Kham settlement established by their ancestors after they migrated south from . This study is unable to corroborate this claim with any recorded history or objective studies of Kham folklore; however, David Watters (Watters et al. 2011:20) wrote that the village of Maikot is an ancient site. This notion of the “purity” of the Maikoti dialect is casually held by Takale speakers as well. One insider from Taka stated, “They have the oldest Kham.” Another woman from Takasera reported, “In Maikot, they use all the old words for animals and plants.” When asked where they thought the purest form of Kham is spoken, nearly all participants answered by saying their own villages. When asked where they thought the second most pure Kham is spoken, many participants from Arjal and Hukam (34%) mentioned Maikot, and 25 percent of Takasera subjects mentioned Maikot. “Maikot” was the most prevalent answer to this question, indicating that outside of their bias for their own village, participants in this study perceive the Maikoti dialect to be a very “pure” form of their language. When asked where the least pure Kham variety is spoken, over half of participants from along the Hukam Khola (58%) mentioned Takasera. While many other villages were mentioned, including villages along the Hukam Khola, Takasera was the most common answer to this question. 29

In answer to research question 4.1 (What attitudes do Maikoti Kham speakers have towards the development of their language?), Maikoti Kham speakers have very positive attitudes towards the development of materials for their dialect. These attitudes are demonstrated by the overwhelmingly positive responses to interview questions on the subject, and by the fact that many Kham speakers already write personal messages in their language. In answer to research question 4.2 (What attitudes do Maikoti Kham speakers have towards the Takale dialect?), Maikoti Kham do not find the Takale materials to be acceptable because they are difficult for them to understand and because Takale speakers more frequently use Nepali borrowed words and phrases. Maikoti Kham people perceive their speech variety to be the oldest and purest form of the Kham language. For these reasons, the development of mother-tongue material specific to the Maikoti Kham dialect should be undertaken. Additionally, Takale materials should be revised before they are implemented along the Hukam Khola.

7 Summary and recommendations

This section presents conclusions from sociolinguistic research conducted in the territory surrounding Maikot village in the East Rukum District of Nepal. Recommendations for future sociolinguistic research and language development are also presented in this section.

7.1 Summary of findings

The purpose of this research is to describe the use of Kham language in the area of Maikot village and to describe the relationship between dialects of Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham. This report also discusses multilingualism, Kham language vitality, and the attitudes of the Maikoti Kham people towards the development of their language.

Goal 1 – Describe the ethnolinguistic identity of Kham speakers living in the area of Maikot and Takasera and determine if these communities have the same identity. • Both the Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham speakers ethnically identify as Magars. They are from the “northern Magar” or “Khamkura”-speaking clans of Budha, Gharti, and Pun. People from the area of Maikot and Takasera speak the same language, and the common name for their language is “Kham.” • These Kham-speaking Magars constitute a distinct linguistic identity within the broader Magar ethnicity, their language being their most significant cultural marker. Kham-speaking Magars can also be distinguished from other Magars by their clan names, exclusive marriage practices, and home territory.

Goal 2 – Describe the Kham dialects in the area of Maikot and Takasera. • The Kham language is a notably diverse network of dialects spread throughout the remote valleys of Baglung, East Rukum, and northern Rolpa. Varieties that are geographically distant from one another are linguistically dissimilar and intelligibility is limited. Maikoti Kham is spoken along the Hukam Khola (tributary of the Sani Bheri Nadi), and Takale Kham is spoken to the south along the Uttar Ganga Nadi and Lukum Khola. • Although their dialects are quite different, Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham speakers can understand each other on a basic level. The two dialect communities frequently interact through travel, and thus the intelligibility between Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham is attributed to dialect acquisition. These two dialects are neighbors along a dialect continuum, with Maikoti Kham linking Takale to the Kham spoken in Baglung and Takale Kham linking Maikoti to the Kham spoken in Rolpa.

Goal 3 – Describe multilingualism and Kham language vitality in the area of Maikot and Takasera. In the homeland, Kham is used by all generations for many activities of daily life. Kham adults are teaching their children to speak Kham and using Kham in their houses and neighborhoods. As they grow older, young adults continue to speak the language. Kham people are motivated to use their language because it is the main language in the villages of their homeland. Currently the Nepal government has no policies against using and developing indigenous languages such as Kham. 30

Although Kham is their best language, many Kham people can also speak Nepali well and can speak Nepali to those who do not understand Kham. For these reasons, the Kham language may be assigned the EGIDS level 6a in the Ethnologue (a database documenting all languages). Level 6a indicates that a language is being used orally by all generations and that the language is not losing speakers or functionality.

Goal 4 – Present language attitudes pertaining to the development of materials in the Maikoti dialect. The Kham people in the area of Maikot have a strong interest in language development. They know about the dictionary and educational materials created for the Takale dialect but they perceive that their dialect is too different from Takale Kham to use these materials. Additionally, some Maikoti Kham believe that Takale speakers use Nepali borrowed words and frequently switch between Kham and Nepali. Some Maikoti Kham speakers, therefore, have expressed negative views towards the Takale dialect.

7.2 Recommendations

Based on the conclusions of this research, the following recommendations for future sociolinguistic research and language development in the Kham language are presented. First, Kham should be recognized as a language spoken by Magar people that is completely distinct from the Magar language of many other Magars. Although the Kham language is often associated with the word “Magar,” the results of this research indicate that Kham speakers do not believe their language is Magar or a dialect of Magar. Second, Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham should be considered to be distinct dialects of the same language. Maikoti Kham and Takale Kham speakers believe that they speak the same language and they can understand each other on a basic level. The two dialects should remain under the ISO 639-3 code [kjl] (Western Parbate Kham) in the Ethnologue. Third, more sociolinguistic research should be conducted in the Kham villages along the Nisi Khola in Baglung and along other rivers in northern Rolpa. This research, if undertaken, will create a more complete picture of the dialects of Kham and provide knowledge for potential language development work. Fourth, an alphabet and dictionary should be developed for the Kham dialects of East Rukum. Mother-tongue education materials should be developed specifically for the Maikoti dialect. Any materials from the Takale Kham dialect should undergo revision before being used in the Maikoti Kham dialect. Finally, programs which build awareness and teach people about their language should be planned and implemented in Kham villages and with those living outside of the Kham homeland. Because Nepal is becoming more developed and many people are moving to the cities, the Kham community should develop a plan to keep their language from shifting to Nepali.

8 सारांश तथा �सकािरशह셁

यस भागमा नेपालको पूव� 셁कु म �ज쥍ला को मैकोट सेरोफेरोमा संचा�लत सामा�जक-भा�षक अनसꅍु धा नको �न�क ष셍 प्रत ु गिरएको छ । भ�व� यको ला�ग सामा�जक-भा�षक अनसꅍु धा न तथा भाषा �वकासको �सफािरश प�न यसै भागमा प्रत ु गिरएको छ ।

8.1 प्राꥍ त बुदाह셁कोँ सारांश

यस अनसꅍु धानको उद्दे� य मैकोट गाउँको सेरोकेरोमा खाम भाषाको प्रयोगको बण셍न 셍 गनु र मैकोट खाम बोली र तकाले खाम बोली बीचको स륍ब ꅍध बारे बण셍न गन셍 ु हो । यस प्र�तवेदनमा भा�षकता,बहु खाम भाषाको सजीव�त, र उनीह셁को भाषाको �वकास स륍ब ꅍध मा मैकोटी खामभाषीह셁को मनोब��बारेमाृ प�न छलफल गिरꅍछ । ल �य १ – मैकोट तथा तकसेरा भेगमा बनो खामभाषीह셁को जातीय-भा�षक प�हचान बारे बण셍न गन� र यी षमदायह셁कोु एउटै प�हचान छ �क छैन �न��च त गन� । मैकोटी खाम तथा तकले खाम भाषीह셁 दवैु जातीय 셁पमा मगर भनेर �च�नꅍछ न् । �तनीह셁 “उ�री मगर” वा “खामकु रा” बो쥍ने बढा,ु घत� र पनु थरका हनु ् । मैकोट र तकसेरा भेगका मा�नसह셁 एउटै भाषा बो쥍छ न् र उनीह셁को भाषाको षाझा नाम ‘खाम’ हो । 31

यी खामभाषी मगरह셁को भाषा उनीह셁को �ब�श� टतम सांकृ �तक सूचक भएको हदाुँ 핍 यापक मगर जा�त�भत्र उनीह셁ले खास प्रकारको भा�षक प�हचान �पतथा गद셍छन् । खामभाषी मगरह셁लाई उनीह셁को थरको नाम, खास �क�समको वैवा�हक चलन, घर विरपिरको वातावरणबाट प�न अ셁 मगरह셁बाट छु配याउन स�कꅍछ । ल �य २ – मैकोट तथा तकसेरा भेगको खाम भा�षका (बोली)को बण셍न गन� । खाम भाषा �न� चयनै बागलङ्ग,ु ूव� प 셁कु म र उ�री रो쥍 पाका दग셍मु उप配य काह셁मा फै�लएको भा�षकाह셁 (बोलीह셁)को काय셍जालो (नेटवक셍 ) हो । एक ठाउँबाट अक� ठाउँ भौगो�लक 셁पमा दूरीमा भएकाले भा�षक 셁पमा �भꅍन तथा असमान छन् औ एकाका셍लाई सी�मत मात्रामा मात्र畍 बु द छन् । मैकोटी खाम हकमु खोला (सानी भेरी नदीको शाखा) वरपर बो�लꅍछ , औ तकाले खाम द��णमा उ�रगंगा नदी र लकु ु म खोला वरपर बो�लꅍछ । उनीह셁को बोलीह셁 पूरै फरक छन्, यद्य�पमैकोटी खाम र तकाले खामभाषीह셁ले आधारभूत 셁पमा एकाका셍लाई ब 畍ु द छन् । ती दईु बोली बो쥍ने समदायह셁कोु अꅍत र�क्रयाबेला बेलामा आउने जाने क्रममाꅍ हु छ र यसरी नै मैकोटी खाम र तकाले खाम बो쥍ने ह셁ले एकाका셍को बोली �टपेर आपसको कु रा ब畍ु द छन् । यी दईु बोलीह셁, बोलीको �नरꅍत रताको क्रममा �छमेक�ह셁 हनु ् । मैकोटी खामले बागल敍माु बो�लने खामलाई तकालेसगँ जो蕍छ र तकाले खामले मैकोटीलाई रो쥍पा मा बो�लने खामसगँ जो蕍छ । ल �य ३ – मैकोट तथा तकसेरो मेगमा बहभा�षकताु तथा खाम भाषाको सजीवता बारे बण셍न गन� । मातभृ ू�ममा दै�नक जीवनको धेरै �क्रयाकलापह셁का ला�ग सबै पु ता का मा�नसह셁बाट खाम भाषा प्रयोग गिरꅍ छ । खाम बाब-ु आमाह셁 आ굍ना बालब楍चा लाई खाम बो쥍न र घरमा तथा �छमेकमा खाम बो쥍न �सकाउँछन् । जब उनीह셁 ठू ला हꅍु छन् जवान तथा बढाबु ढीह셁ु �नरꅍत र आ굍नो भाषा बो쥍छन् । खामभाषी मा�नसह셂 आ굍नो भाषा प्रयोग गन셍 इ楍ुक छ ह ꅍु छ न्, �कन�क उनीह셁को मातभृ ू�मको गाउँह셁को मू奍य भाषा यही नै हो । हाल खाम ज तै आ�दवासीको भाषाह셁 प्रयोगमा쥍 उनेया �बकास गन� नेपाल सरकारको नी�त छैन । खाम उनीह셁को सब�कृ � भाषा भए प�न, धेरै खाम मा�नसह셁ले नेपाली समेत राम्रो बो쥍 न स 啍छ न् र ती मा�नसह셁 जसले खाम ब畍ु दैनन् उनीह셁सगँ नेपाली बो쥍न स 啍छ न् । यी कारणह셁ले गदा셍 खाम भाषालाइ इ镍नो लग (Ethnologue)मा इ�जआइ�डएस (EGIDS 6a) ६ क तहमा रा奍न स�कꅍछ । सबै पताकाु मा�नसह셂द्वारा मौ�खक प्रयोग गिरने र काम काजमा प्रयोगक�ा셍कों奍 स या कम हदैँु नगएको भाषालाई ६ क मा रा�खꅍछ । ल �य ४ – मैकोटी भा�षका (बोली)को सामग्री �वकास स륍 बꅍध मा भा�षक मनोब��ृ पेश गन� । मैकोट भेगको खाम मा�नसह셂को भाषा �वकासको दढृ अ�भ셁�च छ । तकाले भा�षका (बोली) ला�ग बनाइएको श녍दकोष तथा शै��क सामग्रीह셂को बारेमा उनीह셂लाई थाहा, छ तर उनीह셂लाई लागेको छ �क उनीह셂को बोली तकाले खाम भꅍदा धेरै बे嵍लै भएकाले उनीह셂 ती सामग्री प्रयोग गन셍स啍दैनन ् । अक� कु रा कोही मैकोटी खामको �व�ास छ �क तकाले खाम बोली बो쥍नेह셂 नेपाली भाषा �मसाएर बो쥍छन् र बेला बेलामा नेपाली र खाम सा絍फेर गछ셍न् । कोही मैकोटी खाम बोली बो쥍नेह셂, 配यसैले तकाले खाम बोली बारे नरा配मक �वचार 녍य� गछ셍न्।

8.2 �सकािरशह셁

यस अनसꅍधानकोु �न�कष셍को आधारमा, खाम भाषाको भावी सामा�जक–भा�षक अनसꅍधानु तथा भाषा �वकासको �न륍न अनसारकाु �सफािरशह셂 प्रततु छन् । प�हलो, खामलाई मगरह셂द्वारा बो�लने भाषाको 셁पमा मा�पछ셍ु , जनु भाषा अꅍय धेरै थरीका मगर भाषाह셂भꅍदा धेरै फरक छ । यद्य�प खाम भाषालाई बारंबार “मगर” श녍दसगँ जो�डꅍछ, खाम बोली बो쥍नेह셂 उनीह셂को भाषा मगर भाषा हो वा मगरको भा�षका हो भ�े कु रामा �व�ास गद�नन् भनेर यस अनसꅍधानकोु पिरणामले सू �चत गद셍छ। दोस्रो, मैकोटी खाम र तकाले खामलाई एउटै भाषाका बे嵍ला बे嵍लै भा�षकाह셂 मा� ु बेश हꅍछु । मैकोटी खाम र तकाले खाम बो쥍नेह셂 यो �व�ास गछ셍न् �क उनीह셂को भाषा एउटै हो र आधारभूत तहमा उनीह셂 एकापसमा ब畍दछनु ् । इ镍नोलगमा यी दवैु भा�षकाह셂लाई आइएस्ओ ६३९–३ कोड (के जे एल) (प��मे पव셍ते खाम) (ISO 639-3 code [kjl] – Western Parbate Kham) समहु अꅍतरगत पािरएका छन् । तेस्रो, बागलङ्कोु �नसी खोला र उ�री रो쥍पाका अ셁 नदीह셂का आसपासका खाम गाउँह셂मा अ셁 सामा�जक–भा�षक अनसꅍधानह셂ु संचालन गिरनपछ셍ु । य�द अनसꅍधाु न स륍प� गिरएको ख赍डमा, खाम बोलीको अ셁 पूरा �चत्रदे�खनेछ औ भाषा �वकासको स륍भावनाको ला�ग �ान प्रा�नेछ हु । चौथो, पूव� 셁कु मको खाम बोलीह셂को ला�ग अ�र (वण셍माला) तथा श녍दकोषह셂को �वकास गिरनपछ셍ु । �वशेषगरी मैकोटी भा�षकाका ला�ग मातभाषामाृ �श�ा �दने सामग्रीह셂 �वकास 셍पछ셍गनु । तकाले खामबाट �लइने कु नै प�न सामग्री मैकोटी भा�षकामा प्रयोग 셍भꅍदागनु प�हले जा�चनँ पछ셍ु । अꅍ配यमा, यता काय셍क्रमह셂 जसले सचेतना �वकास गछ셍 औ मा�नसह셂लाई उनीह셂को भाषा बारेमा �सकाउँछ �तनको तज셍माु गन셍पछ셍ु र खाम गाउँह셂मा तथा उनीह셂को मातभृ ू�म बा�हर ब�ेह셂को ला�ग समेत संचालन गिरनपछ셍ु । नेपाल अझ �वकास हदैँु जादैँ छ र धेरै मा�नसह셂 शहरमा सद� गएका हदाुँ खाम समदायलेु उनीह셂को भाषा नेपालीमा सन셍बाट जोगाउन योजना �वकास गन셍 ु राम्रोꅍछ हु ।

अनवादु कृ �ण राना

Appendix A: Wordlists

A.1 International Phonetic Alphabet chart31

31 IPA Chart, http://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/ipa-chart, available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License. Copyright © 2018 International Phonetic Association.

32 33

A.2 Lexical similarity comparison procedures

For a lexical similarity count, wordlists are compared in order to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. Wordlists are compared in a pairwise fashion. This means that every variety will be compared with every other variety. During comparison, the following tasks are performed for each variety pair: 1. Align and compute a phonetic similarity for each word pair 2. Identify regular sound correspondences 3. Identify likely cognates. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Cog software was used to aid in the comparison procedures.32 Cog allows the user to quickly compare and analyze wordlists from different language varieties using an iterative approach. Cog can help produce results by automating many of the steps of the wordlist comparison process. Cog aligns word pairs by computing a phonetic distance for each segment pair. This information is used to determine how similar two segments sound and to compute a numerical value representing that similarity. Since Cog does not know initially which word pairs might be cognates, the program makes educated guesses based on the phonetic similarity calculated during alignment. This is used to come up with an initial list of regular sound correspondences. Once sound correspondences have been identified, Cog will use these correspondences to adjust the alignment and phonetic similarity. If correspondences are very regular, the phonetic distance between the corresponding segments is reduced and used to identify likely cognates. At this point, lexical similarity percentages are calculated. Cog has three built-in methods for identifying likely cognates, described below.

Blair Method

The Blair method is based on a comparison between lexical segments and was introduced as a middle ground between the Comparative Method and Simple Inspection for use in language survey situations (commonly in South Asia) (Blair 1990:26). This method groups segment pairs into three categories of similarity based on correspondence frequencies and phonetic distance. Two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category one) and of the remaining segments at least half are similar (category two). The criteria applied are:

Category 1

• Consonants (consonant-like) segments which match exactly • Vowels (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature • Phonetically similar consonant segments (of the sort which frequently are found as allophones, often differing in only one articulatory feature) which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words

Category 2

• All other phonetically similar pairs of segments which are not supported by at least three pairs of words • Vowels which differ by two or more articulatory features

Category 3

• Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar • A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item and position

32 More information about Cog software can be found here: https://github.com/sillsdev/cog/wiki/Cog-Tutorial 34

The following criteria are used specifically for the analysis in this study: • Intervocalic [h] is disregarded. • The following sets are considered as category one: [sj, ʃ]; [ɾ, ɹ, r, r̥]. • In the case of metathesis, words are considered similar. • Stops and that are in the same or similar place of articulation are considered as category 2 (i.e., [t] and [t͡ʃ]). • All affricates are considered as one segment. Affricates with varying place of articulation are considered as category 1 because of free variation (i.e., [t͡s] and [t͡ʃ], [d͡z] and [d͡ʒ]). • and affricates in a similar place of articulation are considered category 2 (e.g., [s] and [tʃ]). • Under some conditions, a is treated as similar to a vowel followed by a nasal stop (e.g., [ã] and [aŋ]). • Word-final glottal stops are ignored due to free variation.

Elicitation and Exclusion Notes

During the process of wordlist elicitation, the researcher transcribes the words phonetically by using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Wordlists for this survey were collected by a single researcher and were recorded; transcriptions were later rechecked using these high quality recordings. It should be noted that the wordlist data has not undergone phonological or grammatical analysis and represents field transcriptions only. In total, 325 words were elicited in each of the seven locations where wordlists were collected. Some elicited words, however, were excluded from the lexicostatistic count. A few items were disqualified because of doubts as to whether participants in different locations had given a word with the same meaning. Nepali loan words were excluded from the wordlist analysis. There were a few words in which respondents were consistently unclear on what was being elicited. These words were also excluded from the final word count. Some nouns in Maikot, Ranma, Arjal, and Hukam utilize prefixes that are not used in Takasera, Thabang, and Jangkot. These prefixes were omitted from analysis. Table 2 contains a table of these omitted prefixes.

Table 12. Omitted noun prefixes

Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam ʔar-/ʔʌr-/ʔʌ̤r- ʔʌr- ʔar-/ʔʌr-/ʔʌ̤r- ʔar-/ʔʌr- ʔo- ʔo- ʔo- ∅- ʔʌb-/ʔʌ̤b-/ʌ̤pʰ- ʔʌb-/ʔʌp- ʔʌb-/ʌ̤b-/ʔʌp- ʔʌb-/ʔʌp- ʔʌ̤z- ʔʌz- ʔʌ̤z- ʔʌz- s- ʔʌs- ʔʌs- ʔʌs-/sʌ-

When eliciting verbs, we elicited two forms: the simple past for 3rd person singular and the negative imperative for 2nd person singular. This was done to identify a common root morpheme. This common root morpheme, rather than the whole word, was used for the comparison. Table 13 shows the verbal prefixes and suffixes omitted from lexical similarity comparisons for each site. While, in most cases, I was able to identify the root morpheme, I was not able to do a detailed morphological analysis on this small data set, and therefore this table should be seen as a reference for this data set only. 35

Table 13. Omitted verb affixes

3S-PT Negative Command Site Prefix Suffix Prefix Suffix ∅ - -keʔ/-kḛʔ/-ke̤/-kɛʔ/-ke ta-/tã- -nĩ/-ni̤/-ni/-niʔ -kʲau/-kʲou/-kʲa̰ṵʔ -eʔ/-ḛʔ/-e/-ɛ/-e̤/-je/-weʔ -jo

Takasera -iʔ/-i -∅/-ʔ ∅ - -ke/-kʰe ta-/tã- -ni -kʲo -kʰo/-ko -∅ Maikot

∅ - -ke/-kɛ/-kʰe/-kʰɛ ta-/tã- -ni/-nĩ/-ĩ -kʲo/-ko/-kʰʲou/-kʲou -ko/-kʰo/-ku/-kɯ

Ranma

∅- -ke/-kʰe/-kʰi ta-/tã-/ta̤- -ni/-nĩ/-ĩ/-i

-ko/-kʲou -kʰo/-ko ∅ Arjal -

∅- -ke/-kʰe̤/-kʰe/-ke̤/-ki̤/-kʰi ta-/tã-/tai- -nĩ/-ni̤/-ni/-ĩ -ko/-ko̤/-kʲou -∅ Hukam

∅

- -ke ta- -no/-n/-o/-nõ/-õ -ku -jo -ne/-ẽ/-nẽ -∅

Thabang ma- -ne/-e

∅- -da/-dʌ ta-/tai- -ʌn/-an/-on/-n -ne/-ɲɛ -∅ -tʰe/-tɛ -i

Jankot ma- -ɲɛ -da

Cog Settings

The following are the settings used in the Cog program for the wordlist analysis: • Method: Blair • Alignment mode: Full (global) • Reward segment pairs proportional to their frequency of correspondence • Penalize segment pairs that occur in different syllable positions • Initial cognate threshold: 30 percent • Automatically determine the regular correspondence threshold if possible • Default regular correspondence threshold: 3 • Ignored Correspondences #ʔV and #-V Vʔ# and V-# 36

• Similar vowel distance threshold: 500 • Similar consonant distance threshold: 600

A.3 Wordlist information

Wordlist Informed Consent Script

An informed consent script was read in Nepali to each participant prior to wordlist elicitation in order to obtain informed consent. This Nepali script and the participant’s response were also recorded. The informed consent script is shown in English and Nepali.

My name is …. What is your name? We are from , Department of Linguistics. We are here to learn about your language and its situation. We will ask you a few questions about you and your language. After that, we will ask you to pronounce some words in your own language. We will write your words in our copybook using a special script. We will also record the words that you will speak. We will also give the information you give us and the recordings to other people. We will keep these recordings in a safe place for future use on things such as computers and recordings. We may provide these to other people who may want to learn about your language. Can you help us? We are thinking of listing your name in this information, but if you don’t want your name to be listed, we won’t. Shall we keep your name or not? मेरो नाम ..... हो। तपाℂको नाम के हो? हामी �त्रभवनु �व��वद्यालय भाषा�व�ान के ꅍ द्र ीय �वभागबाट आएका हौ।ं हामी यहा ँ तपाℂको भाषाको वारेमा र 配यसको �थ�तको वारेमा थाहा पाउन आएका हौ।ं हामीले तपाℂलाई तपाℂ आ फै क ो वारेमा र तपाℂको भाषाको वारेमा के ह ी प्र�नह셂 सो鵍छौ।ं 配यसप�छ हामीले तपाℂलाई के ह ी श녍दह셂 तपाℂको आ굍नै भाषामा उ�ारण गन셍 अनरोधु गछ�। हामीले तपाℂका श녍दह셂लाई हाम्रो कापीमा �वशेष अ�र (�लपीमा) प्रयोग गरी ले奍छौ।ं हामी तपाℂले बोलेका ती श녍दह셂लाई रेकड셍 प�न गछ�। हामी तपाℂले �दनभएकोु जानकारी र रेकड셍 गरेका कु रा अ셂 मा�नसह셂लाई प�न �दꅍछौ।ं हामीले यी रेकड셍 गरेका कु राह셂लाई प�छ प�न प्रयोग गन셍का �न�륍त एउटा सर��तु ठाउँमा रा奍छौ ं जतै क륍ꥍयटरमाु अ�न टेपमा। तपाℂको भाषाको वारेमा �स啍न चाहने अ셁 धेरै मा�नसह셂लाई हामीले ती स�काु �न�륍त उपल녍ध गराउन स啍छौ।ं तपाℂले हामीलाई सहायता गन셍हꅍछु क�? हामीले तपाℂसगँ �लने यो जानकारीमा तपाℂको नाम रा奍ने �वचार गरेका छौ,ं तर य�द तपाℂले आ굍नो नाम रा奍न चाहनहु �ु भने, हामीले रा奍दैनौ।ं तपाℂको नाम राखौ ं �क नराखौ?ं 37

Wordlist Information

Table 14 lists the sites where wordlists were collected and the people who helped provide wordlist data. Screening criteria was applied to the wordlist helpers, and all had lived most of their lives in the area, spoke L1 first and best, and had at least one parent from the area who spoke L1 to them as a child.

Table 14. Wordlist helpers and metadata

Village of Subject District Collected In Name Age Residence Number E. Rukum Arjal Arjal, E. Rukum NPM 56 AB01 E. Rukum Maikot Maikot, E. Rukum VPM 42 MJ06 E. Rukum Takasera Takasera, E. Rukum SBM 33 TJ01 E. Rukum Hukam Hukam, E. Rukum TBGM 52 HJ02 E. Rukum Ranma Ranma, E. Rukum PBM 23 RJ03 Rolpa Thabang Gorahi, Dang DRM 74 DJ06a Rolpa Thabang Gorahi, Dang SRM 32 DJ07 Rolpa Jangkot Gorahi, Dang PP 33 DJ10 38

A.4 Wordlist data

The following wordlist data shows the field transcriptions from each wordlist collection location. The first column lists the English gloss. The second column lists the Nepali gloss. Each subsequent column lists the Kham word elicited in each site. This wordlist data was collected to be used for lexical similarity comparison. Transcriptions are phonetic only, and speaker variance and transcription limitations should be kept in mind when looking at the following data. Blank entries are words that were excluded from the comparison. English Nepali Taka Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam Thabang Jangkot

1 body sʌrir kẽ kʌ̃la̤ sʌɾəl kʌ̃la̤ kʌlã kʲæŋ kʌ̤lʌŋ 2 head ʈauko ŋʌĩ ʔarŋʌĩ ʔʌrŋaĩ ʔarŋɔi ʔʌrŋʌĩ ŋʌĩ ŋʌĩ 3 hair kʌpal t͡ʃɛm t͡sɛm t͡sɛm t͡ʃɛm t͡sɛm t͡sɛm t͡sɛm 4 face mukʰ ŋã sŋã ʔʌsŋa ʔʌsŋa sʌŋã ŋãŋ ha 5 eye ãkʰa mĩ mi mĩ mi mĩ mĩ miu 6 ear kan na ʌrna ʔʌrna ʔarna ʔʌrnã nãŋ na 7 nose nak suniʔ ʃi̤ni ʃini ʃini ʃini nẽ neʔ 8 mouth mukʰ ja̤ ja ja jæ ja jɛ jɛ 9 lips oʈʰ tʰutuna ʌpʰsi ʔʌbsi ʌ̤bʃi ʔʌbsi tʰutunaŋ tʰud̚na 10 tooth dãt ha ʌpʰsʲæ ʔʌbsʲa ʌ̤bʃæ ʔʌpsʲæ ha wa̤ 11 tongue d͡zibro ʃeʔ sʲe sʲe ʃe sʲe̤ sʲe leʔ 12 chest t͡sʰati t͡ʃʰati̤ t͡ʃʰati t͡ʃʰati t͡ʃʰatʰi t͡sati t͡ʃʰʌti t͡sʰati 13 belly/stomach peʈ bũɖi̤ bṳɖi bũdi bõdi bũdi βṳ̃di bʌndiu 14 waist kʌmʌr wã wã wa wã wã waŋ wʌ̃ŋ 15 whole arm hat kʷi̤ kʷi kʷi kʷi kʷi kʷi kʷiʔ 16 elbow kuhino gũ gũ gũ gũ gũ gɔ̃ŋ gũ 17 palm hatkela lʌpta̤ kʷibã kʷiʃe lʌpta lʌpta lʌp̚ta paitʌlʌ 18 finger ʌũla ʌũla̤ kʷĩsʲe kʷi kãd͡zʌkʰoli kʷiʃe kʷisʌi kʷisʌi

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English Nepali Taka Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam Thabang Jangkot

19 fingernail nʌŋ ʃɪn ʌrsĩ ʔʌrʃĩ ʔarsĩ ʔʌrʃĩ sʲɛn rin 20 leg kʰuʈa kʰɯ̃ ʔ kʰɯ̃ kʰɯ̃ kʰõ kʰũ kʰʌŋ kʌŋ 21 knee gʰũɖa gʰũɖa̤ gṳɖa gũɖa gũɖa gãtʰã gṳ̃ɖa gũdʌ 22 skin t͡sʰala ʔolkoʈaʔ lokta lokta loktʰa loktʰa t͡sʌla t͡sʰala 23 bone haɖ rus rus rus rəs rus ru rin 24 heart muʈu jũ jũ jũ hʲũ jũ jũ muʈu 25 blood rʌgʌt d͡ʒi ʒi ʒi d͡ʒi̤ ʒĩ d͡zi d͡ʒi 26 urine pisab d͡ʒis ʌrd͡ʒis ʔʌrd͡ʒis ʔard͡ʒis ʔʌrd͡ʒis d͡zi d͡ʒi 27 feces disa ki̤ kəli kɔli kʰʌli kəli kĩ kʰʌli 28 village gaũ nãkʰar nãkã nãkʰã nãkʰã nãkã nãŋkʰar nʌ̃ŋgʌr 29 house gʰʌr ʒɪm d͡ʒi̤m d͡ʒim d͡ʒɪm d͡ʒɪm zɪm d͡zɪm 30 roof t͡sʰana tʰalaʔ gãgʌ̃lã gãkʌla pũŋgʌla gakʌ̃lã t͡sʌna t͡sʰana 31 door ɖʰoka jam jæm jam jɛm jæm d͡zʌlap d͡zalʌp̚ 32 firewood daura ʃĩ sĩ ʃĩ ʃĩ ʃĩ siŋ ʃĩŋ 33 broom kut͡so pʰʊʃi pʰusis pʰʌsis pʌʃis pʰəsis kut͡sɔ pəʃi 34 stick lʌʈʰi d͡ʒuĩ ʌrzʷi ʔʌrd͡ʒi deŋna ʔʌrzʷi̤ d͡zui d͡zuiʔ

35 pestle (a type of) 36 mortar (a type of) 37 hammer gʰʌn gʌnʌ martol gʌ̤nʌ gʌ̤nʌ gʰʌn gʌ̤n gʌ̤n 38 large Nepali knife kʰukuri kʰort͡ʃo kʰort͡ʃʰo kʰɔrt͡ʃʰo kʰərt͡ʃo kʰort͡ʃo kɔrt͡so kor̥t͡ʃɛŋ 39 sickle hʌ̃sija rãkãʃiʔ hõsa hõsa hõsa hãsa̤ hʌŋsʲe hʌsijɛ 40 axe bʌnt͡sʌro rowa̤ ʌrwa ʔʌrwa ʔʌruwa ʔʌrwa̤ rowa rɔwa 41 rope ɖori t͡ʃẽ t͡sĩ t͡ʃĩ t͡ʃ�̃ ̃ t͡ʃĩ t͡siŋ ɖoɾi

40

English Nepali Taka Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam Thabang Jangkot

42 thread dʰago dagaʔ daka daga dakʰa dakʰa dʌ̤ga daga 43 needle sijo gʌp̚ ʌrgʌp ʔʌrgʌpʰ ʔʌrgʌpʰ ʔʌrgʌpʰ gʌp̚ hɔpʰ 44 cloth kʌpʌɖa kʷa̤ kʷa kʷa kʷa kʷa̤ kʷa kʷa 45 hat ʈopi ʈũpĩʔ kʰubza kʰubzʌ kʰubza kʰubzʌ tupi ʈupi 46 ring ʌũʈʰi ʌutʰi̤ kʷĩzĩ kʷĩd͡ʒĩ ʔʌũtʰi kʷĩzĩ mundra ʌutʰi 47 gold sun sun sun sun ʃən sun sun sun 48 sun surija nĩmi bo̤gan bo̤gan ga̤m boga̤n nʌmi nʌmju 49 moon d͡zun ʃæweʔ ʃæwe sʲæwe ʃæwei ʃæwei sʲɛwʌi d͡zun 50 sky akas nʌm nʌm nʌm nʌm nʌm nʌm akas 51 star tara soɾo soɾo soɾo soɾo soɾo soɾo taɾa 52 rain pani pʌrt͡sʰʌ waʒe ʌɾwaʒɛ ʔʌrwaʒɛ ʔʌrwaki̤ ʔʌɾwʌʒæ wazʲe wʌʒou 53 water pani ri ri̤ ri ri̤ ri ri ri 54 small river kʰola bʌiʔ kʰola bʌi kʰɔla bʌ̤i kʰola kʰola 55 cloud badʌl baɖʌl badʌl baɖʌl badʌl kʰoho badʌl badʌl 56 bolt of lightning t͡sʌʈʲæŋ t͡sirkʰu t͡sirko gurgũʒæ t͡sʌtʲeŋ t͡sirkʰṳ gʌɹdziʒe t͡sʌtʲɛŋ 57 rainbow indreɳi rigaũ rigʷa rigʷai ʔɪndræni rĩgʷa̤ rigaṳ ɪndrɛni 58 wind hawa bʌʈas nʌmo̤r nʌburu nãbṳr nũbər̥ bʌtaso andi 59 small stone ɖʰuŋga lũ lũ lũ lũ lũ lũŋ luŋ 60 unirrigated field bari ʔĩ baɾi gur baɾi jã jæŋ jəŋ 61 irrigated field kʰet ʔĩ jã jã jã jã kʰɛt kʰɛtʰ 62 path/road baʈo ʔɛm gʷa̤ gʷa gʷa̤ gʷa̤ jæm hɛm 63 fire ago mi̤ mĩ mĩ mi mĩ mɛ̃ mi 64 smoke dʰuwã mikʷḭ mikʰu mikʰu miku mikʰṳ mikʷi dũwa̤

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English Nepali Taka Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam Thabang Jangkot

65 ash kʰʌrani dṳlḭ dṳli duli dṳli duli dṳli dṳli 66 soil/clay maʈo gʌm ʌrgʌm ʔʌrgʌm ʔʌrgʌm ʔʌrgʌm gʌm kʰʌm 67 dust dʰulo dṳlo dṳlo dṳsuɾʌ dṳlo dʷiɾo dʷiɾʌ dulo 68 tree rukʰ ʃĩ ʃĩgur sĩgur sĩgur ʃĩgur sĩŋ rukʰ 69 leaf pat kʰɛ sʌla sʌla sʌla sʌla̤ kʲɛ lapəta 70 root d͡zʌra ʔod͡zoraʔ ʔorẽ worẽ ʔorẽ ɾe d͡zʌɾa d͡zʌɾa 71 seed biu dṳr dṳr dur dər dur duɹ dur 72 bark bokro ʔɔlkoʈa lopra lopɾa ʔʌlktʰa,lopra loktʰa̤ t͡sala,bokʌra bokrɔ 73 thorn kãɖo zu ʔʌbzu ʔʌbzu ʔʌbzu ʔʌbzṳ zu d͡zu 74 flower pʰul was was was was was wʌi wei 75 bamboo plant bãs t͡sʌl bas bãs bãsʌ bãsʌ bæ̃ s hə̤li 76 bamboo shoot tama kʰʌrgʌʔ kʰargʌi tãma kʰʌrgʌi kʰʌrgʌi kʰʌrgʌi tama 77 fruit ɸalɸul pʰɔldar ɸʌlɸul wəʃe ɸʌlɸul ɸʌlɸul pʰʌlɸul ɸalɸul 78 mango ãp ãp ãp ãp ãp ãp ãp ãmbõ 79 banana kera gʌ̤ri̤ karlagʌ̤ri kʰʌrlagəɾi kʰʌrlagʌɾi kʰʌrlageɾi̤ gʊɾi kʌɾa 80 wheat gʌhũ tam tãm tãm tam tam pʰĩmã pʌlima 81 uncooked rice t͡samʌl t͡sal mʌla̤ mʌla mʌla mʌla̤ t͡sal mʌla 82 unhusked rice dʰan da̤n da̤n da̤n da̤n da̤n da̤n da̤n 83 cooked rice bʰat kʰã kʰã mʌla d͡ʒɛs d͡ʒɛs kãŋ jɛʔ 84 vegetable tʌrkari t͡ʃip t͡sip t͡ʃip t͡ʃip t͡ʃip t͡sip ŋʌ̃n 85 potato alu bʌtand͡ʒi kʷalzi kʷald͡ʒi kʷalʒi kʷald͡ʒi̤ alu alu 86 egg plant bʰʌnʈa bãnʈa bɜnʈa bʌnʈa bʌnɖa bæ̤ nʈʌ βʌ̤nta ba̤nta 87 ground nut bʌdam bʌdʌm bʌdʌm bʌdam bʌdʌm bʌdʌm bʌdʌm bʌdʌm

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English Nepali Taka Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam Thabang Jangkot

88 chili kʰorsani kʰorasʌn kʰorsan kʰorsan kʰorsan kʰorsan kʰəɾasʌn kʰorʃani 89 turmeric besar hʌlidʌʔ hʌlʌdi̤ hʌlʌdi hʌlʌdi hʌlʌdi̤ hʌlidʌ besar 90 garlic lʌsun nõ nõ nõ nõ nõ nɔ̃ lʌsun 91 onion pʲad͡z pʲɛd͡z dũdu pʲæd͡z pʰʲas pʲat͡s pʲɛd͡z pʲɛs 92 cauliflower kauli pʰṳlgupʰi̤ pʰulgupʰi gopʰi kauli kʰauli gupʰi gopʰi 93 ginger ʔʌduwa ʔʌɖuwa̤ ʔʌduwa ʔʌduwʌ ʔʌdəwa ʌduwa̤ ʌduwa ʌduwa̤ 94 tomato golbʰẽɖa rambĩda̤ rambɛ̃da rambẽdʌ ramɛdʌ rambɛ̃dʌ rambɛ̃da rambɛnda 95 cabbage bʌndʌkobi bʌndʌkupʰi̤ bʌndʌkopi bʌndʌgopi bʌndʌgopʰi bʌndʌkopi bʌndʌkopi bʌndʌkopʰi 96 cucumber kãkro kʰakɔla̰ kakʰʌla̤ kʰakʰala kʰakʌla kʰãkʰʌla̤ kakʌ̃la kãkʌla 97 oil tel mas mas mas mas mas tʰi tʰi 98 salt nun sapḭʔ sapʰi sapʰi sapʰi satʰi sapi sʌpʲi 99 meat masu ʃakri sʲæ sʰæ sʲæ sʲæ̤ sʲɛkri t͡sip 100 fat part of flesh boso ʔosoi ʔosoi ʔosoi ʔosoi soi ʔʌsɔi asʷe 101 fish mat͡sʰa ŋã ŋã ŋã ŋã ŋã ŋã ŋãsʲɛʔ 102 chicken kukʰura bazã baza baza baza baza bʌza ba̤ 103 egg pʰul zuɾi̤ zuɾi zuɾi zəri zuɾi bazazuri ba̤ɾi 104 cow gai har har ha̤r har̥ ha̤r̥ hai har 105 buffalo bʰʌĩsi bʰɔisa bʰɔisi bʌi̤sa bɔ̤ĩsi bɔĩsa̤ bʌ̤isa bʌ̤isʌ 106 milk dudʰ nũ nui nəi nui nəĩ hainũ haɾun 107 horn siŋ rũ ʔobʌrã ʔobʌɾã ʔobʌrã bʌra̤ ʌrʌŋ rʌŋ 108 tail put͡sʰʌr ʔormḛ ʔorme ʔorme wʌrme ʔarme̤ ʌmĩ mɛ̤ 109 goat bakʰra bakʰrʌ̤ ra ra ra ra bakra ba̤xra 110 pig sũgur ʔu ʔu ʔu ʔuza ʔu wɔ wo̰

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English Nepali Taka Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam Thabang Jangkot

111 dog kukur kʰa̰ʔ ka ka kʰa kʰa kʰa ka 112 cat biralo biralṳ wʌrza biɾalo biɾalo ʔorza manũ manũ 113 snake sʌrpʌ gul gṳl gul gṳl gṳl gul daŋ 114 monkey bãdʌr ju biu biu bʲu ju jṳ jṵ 115 bird t͡sʌra baza̤ baza baza baza ba̤za bʌza ba 116 wings pʌkʰeʈa ʔokʰɔr ʔokar ʔokʰər ʔokʌr kar̥ ʔʌkɔr akər 117 feather pʷãkʰ bakar bakʌr ʔumul ʔumʊl mul ʔʌkɔr pʷʌkʰ 118 rat/mouse musa biza̤ biza̤ biza biza bĩzʌ̤ biza bi

119 mosquito lamkʰuʈe mʌt͡ʃɛr mʌt͡sar mʌt͡ʃʌr læmkutʰe mʌt͡sʰɛr lamkuʈe 120 fly d͡zʰĩga pʰʌsʌm pʰʌsʌm pʰʌsʌm pʌsʌm pʰʌsʌm mãŋkʰa pʌsʌm 121 honey bee mahuri ʒĩ ʔʌbʒi ʔʌbzi ʔʌbd͡ʒi ʔʌbd͡ʒi zẽ ŋʌ̃nma 122 ant kʌmila purd͡ʒumtḭʔ parzumti parzumtʰi parzʌmtʰi kʰãnu kɪmlʌ mʌrd͡za 123 spider makura mɔkʌraʔ mokora mokʌra mokʌra mʌkʰʌɾa̤ mɔkʌɾa makuɾa 124 louse d͡zumra sʲar sʲær sʲa̤r ʃær ʃɛr sʲɛɹ sʲɛr 125 bed bug uɖus pɛn ʔʌrpẽ ʔʌrpẽ ʔʌrpĩ ʔʌrpɛ̃ pʲɛn pin 126 flea upijã pʰusum puzum pʰuzum pʰəzəm pʰuzum puzum pin

127 leech d͡zuka d͡ʒuga̤ wḛ wø ʔe d͡zuka d͡zukʰa 128 person mant͡ʃʰe mĩ ʌrmẽ ʔʌrmĩ ʔʌrmi ʔarmi̤ mĩ ro 129 man purus kʰɛpã selepaʔ selɛpa ʃɛlpa ʃɛlpa̤ kʲɛpʰa lɛpa 130 woman/female mʌhila mẽma̤ mĩma̤ mĩma mĩma mẽma̤ mĩma mɛ̃mʌ 131 baby bʌt͡sa za za̤ d͡za za za̤ luzʌ lul 132 boy keʈa kʰɛpa̤ selepaʔ selɛpa t͡sʰoɾa t͡sʰoɾa̤ kʲɛpa lɛpa

133 girl keʈi mĩma̤ mĩma̤ mĩma t͡sʰoɾi mĩma mɛ̰ma

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English Nepali Taka Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam Thabang Jangkot

134 father buwa babu babu babu babu bau babu bau 135 mother ama ama̤ ama ama æmʌ ama amʌi ama 136 older brother dai dad͡ʒu daʒu dad͡ʒu dad͡ʒu daʒu dad͡ʒu dai 137 younger brother bʰai bai̤ parza parzã pʰarza parza̤ bai̤ bai̤ 138 older sister didi nana nana nana nanʌ nana nana didi 139 younger sister bʌhini bʌĩni̤ namza nãmzʌ namza namza bɔinĩ bahini 140 son t͡sʰora kʰɛpʌ sɛlepa selɛpa ʃɛlpa za̤ kʲɛpaza lɛpad͡za 141 daughter t͡sʰori mĩmʌ mĩmʌ mĩma mĩma nema mĩmaza mɛ̰mʌd͡za 142 husband logne ri ʌre ʔʌrwe̤ ŋʌrwe re̤ re jo 143 wife swasni d͡ʒɛ̤ zʲæ d͡ʒɛ d͡ʒiʌ ʒiʌ̤ d͡zɛ mɛ̃ʔma 144 grandfather hʌd͡zur buwa bad͡ʒu bʌzʲæ bʌd͡ʒæ bʌd͡ʒeʌ bʌʒæ bad͡ʒu bad͡ze 145 grandmother hʌd͡zur ama bud͡ʒu buʒu buʒu bud͡ʒu buʒu bʊd͡ʒu bʌd͡zu 146 grandson nati nati̤ nati natʰi natʰi natʰi nati natʰi 147 granddaughter natini natĩni natini natini natini natʰini natini natʰini 148 father’s older brother ʈʰulo babu pago pagʲo pagʲo pagʲou pagʲo pãgo sɛr bʌu 149 father’s younger brother sana babu kaka̤ baba baba baba baba̤ kʰaku iŋjɛ bʌu 150 father’s older sister pʰupu pʰupu duɾũ pʰubu pʰubu dũɾũ pʰubu pʰuβu 151 mother’s older brother mama bagi bagi mama mãmʌ mama̤ mãmã mama 152 mother’s older sister ʈʰulo ama mago magʲo magʲo magʲou magʲo mãgɔ sɛr ama 153 mother’s younger sister sani ama kant͡ʃi̤ kʰant͡ʃʰi maʒɪm gant͡ʃʰi kant͡ʃʰi̤ kʌnt͡sʰi iŋjæ ama 154 friend satʰi nʌi̤ riza rizʌ ɾiza ruzʌ nʌi neiʔ 155 name nam mi̤n ʌrmi ʔʌɾmi ʔarmi ʔʌrme̤ mɪn mɪn 156 language bʰasa gẽpã spʰa basa kʰam ʔʌspã̤ pãŋ ba̤sʌ

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157 day din din la dɪn la̤ lako dɪn 158 night rat riʔ rilʌ ri rilʌ rilʌ̤ ri riu 159 morning bihanʌ t͡sʌkʰalnḛ t͡sʌkʰʌlɛʌ t͡sakʰleʌ t͡sakʰʌleʌ t͡sʌkʰʌleʌ̤ t͡sʰʌkʰalnẽ t͡sʰakʌlɛ 160 afternoon diũso lakʌʔ lakʌ lakɯ lakʌ lakʌ̤ lakɔ lakʌ 161 evening beluka rimkʌ̰ʔ rɪmdi rɪmdi rɪmdi rɪmdi̤ odɛkʌ wekʌ 162 today ad͡zʌ ʔat͡sʰim ʔat͡sʰɪm ʔʌt͡sim ʔæ̰ t͡ʃɪm at͡sɪm at͡sʰɪm at͡sʰɪm 163 yesterday hid͡zo ʔad͡ʒoʔ aʒo ad͡ʒu ʔad͡ʒu ʔaʒo̤ ad͡zəla d͡ʒola 164 tomorrow bʰoli pratiʔ prati pʰratʰi pratʰi pratʰi prati galaʔ 165 week hʌpta satʰʌbar satabar sata sata satʌ̤ sʌta hʌpta 166 month mʌhina mʌina̤ sʲæ sʲɛ ʃiʌ ʃæ mʌhi̤na mʌhina 167 year bʌrsʌ bɔrsʌ̤ rim bʌɹsʌ rim rɪm bʌrsʌ bʌrsʌ 168 big ʈʰulo gʲowʌ̤ gʲo gʲopa gʲupʰa gʲo gʲɛwɔ giɲɛ 169 small sano ʒimza̤ d͡zimd͡za,ʔʌluza̤ ʔalizʌ zɪmza ʒɪmʒa̤ ʒɪmsa iŋjɛ 170 heavy gʌrũgo giso̤ giso giso giso giso̤ gijo,giwɔ iɲɛ 171 light hʌlũgo bõmõ bomza bomza bomd͡za bo̤mzʌ̤ bo̤mʌ̃ bṳŋɲɛ 172 old (thing) purano puranõ pʌilʌkʰau puɾanu pəranũ puɾano̤ puranũ puɾanõ 173 new (thing) nʌjã saɾo saro saɾo saɾo saɾo nʌjɛ t͡sʰar 174 good ramro t͡sau ʌpt͡sau ʔʌpt͡sau ʔʌpt͡sau ʔʌpt͡saṳ t͡sʰau t͡sʰanjɛ 175 bad nʌramro mãt͡sau mapt͡sau mapt͡sau mapt͡sau mapt͡saṳ mat͡sʰau mat͡sanjɛ 176 wet bʰid͡zeko t͡ʃisotau t͡ʃiu t͡ʃu t͡ʃule t͡ʃʰiuwə̤ t͡suke t͡ʃuʔɲɛ 177 dry sukʰʌ tʰɯ̃ wo̤ tʰɯ̃ tʰɯ̃ tʰũle tʰə̃wə̥ tũnke tʌŋne 178 long (thing) lamo kʲɛwo̤ solo solo sʌlopa solo kʲɛwɔ loɲɛ 179 short (thing) t͡sʰoʈo tʷĩza̤ tʷiza tʷĩza tʷĩza tʷĩza̤ tunũ tulɲɛ

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English Nepali Taka Maikot Ranma Arjal Hukam Thabang Jangkot

180 thin (person) dublo patolo ʌrd͡zu ʔʌrd͡ʒu ʔʌrd͡ʒu masoijo masʌiwo patṵlo 181 hot (weather) gʌrmi ga̤mtau gʰam gam gam ga̤m ga̤m ga̤m 182 cold (weather) d͡zaɖo ʒũwo̤ d͡ʒũ ʒũ d͡ʒũke ʒũwə̤ zũŋzɛ d͡zɪmɲɛ 183 hot (water) tato rau bʌrau bʌɾaʒɛ moĩke bʌraṳ mũno tato 184 cold (water) t͡siso t͡ʃʰɛɾo toso toso toso tʰoso̤ zũwʌ t͡siso 185 cracked/burst pʰuʈeko pãwõ pau padʌle pakʰi pao pãwɔ paʔɲɛ 186 broken/damaged bigrieko bʌleso bʌleso bʌlɛso bʌleso bʌlɛso bʌlewo bʌleiɲɛ 187 broken bʰãt͡seko kʲau kʰʌlau kʌlau kʌlau kʌlau keke kɔlaɲɛ

188 empty kʰali ritʰoʔ ritʰo rito ritʰo ritʰo daŋgilʌ 189 full bʰʌribʰʌrau tuʃitau tʌʃi tiʃĩ tʌsi bʲɛlo tɔwɔsi bʌ̤ɾi 190 few/a little tʰore t͡sot͡sobzaʔ zama d͡zama zãma zama̤ tɔt͡sɔp təstʌkʰa 191 many dʰere kʰũdũ bʲa̤ bʲɛ bʲæ̤ bʲæ̤ mahule bʲei 192 all sʌbai paĩzʌ ʃozʌ ʃozʌ ʃozʌ ʃozʌ̤ parzʌ sʷʌtʰei 193 equal (same amount) bʌrabar sʌmʌ̃ sʌmʌ̃ sʌmʌ sʌmʌ brabʌr sʌmʌ sʌmʌ sʌmʌ sʌmʌ bʌɾabɔr bʌɾabər 194 similar/same uste hoʃɛso hʌmʌdʲu hʌdʲuzʌ hʌdʲuzʌ hudʲuzʌ̤ hosʲauzʌ umʌntaidʌ 195 different ɸʌrʌk t͡suto̰ʔ gɯ gɯ t͡sʰutʌ ɸʌrʌk t͡sʰutṳ pʰʌrʌk pʰʌɾʌk 196 various bibʰinʌ t͡suto̤ t͡suto̰ʔ t͡sʰuto t͡sʰuto t͡sʰutʌ t͡sʰutʌ t͡sʰʌtou t͡sʰʌtou t͡sʰutu t͡sʰutu nãtʌ βãtʌ bibinʌ̃ 197 one ek ʈo̰βo̰ʔ tubu tʌbu tʌbu tʰubu tobo tolo 198 two dui nebloʔ zor d͡ʒor zɔr zor̥ nebulo nəlo 199 three tin somloʔ som som sʷʌm som sʌmbulo tin 200 four t͡sar t͡sar ʌbzi ʔʌbzi ʔʌbd͡ʒi ʔʌbzi t͡sar t͡sar 201 five pãt͡s pãt͡s ʌrŋa ʔʌrŋa ʌrŋa ʔarŋã pãt͡s pãs 202 six t͡sʌ t͡sʌ t͡sʌ t͡sʌ t͡sʌ t͡sʌ t͡sʌ t͡sʰʌ

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203 seven sat sat sat sat sat sat sat sat 204 eight aʈʰ aʈʰ aʈʰ aʈʰ aʈʰ aʈʰ aʈʰ aʈʰ 205 nine nau naũ nau nau nau nau nau nʌu 206 ten dʌs dʌs dʌs dʌs dʌs dʌs dʌs dʌs 207 eleven egʰarʌ egarʌ̤ egʰarʌ egʰarʌ egʰarʌ egʰarʌ egʰarʌ egʰarʌ 208 twelve bahrʌ baɾʌ̤ bahrʌ bahrʌ bahrʌ bahrʌ bahrʌ baːrʌ 209 twenty bis bis bais bais bis bis bis bis 210 one hundred sʌj sʌi̤ sʌi sʌi sʌi sʌi tʌ sʌi tʌ sʌi 211 white seto palo palo palo pʰalo palo̤ poɾo palɲe 212 black kalo molo molo molo molo molo̤ mõlo molɲe 213 red rato gʲæmõ gʲaũ gʲaũ gʲaũ gʲaũ gʲæmõ gæmne 214 right dahine wor wɔr ʔɔr war̥ wʌr̥ hoɾɛ daijæ̃ 215 left debre dabre̤ dabrɛʌ̤ dapr̥ɛ dabriʌ dãβɾɛʌ̤ dabrɛ baijæ̃ 216 near nʌd͡zik nʌd͡zikə̰kʌ̰ nʌʒik nʌd͡zik nʌd͡zikʰ ʔakʰai nʌd͡zik nɛɾalʌ 217 far ʈaɖʰa ʈaɖʰa ʈaɖa̤ ʈaɖa ʈaɖʰa hokʰʌi ʈaɖa loiʔ 218 here jʌhã ʔa̰kʌ̰ʔ akə akɯ ʔakʰʌ akʰʌ akʰɔ iŋa 219 there tʲʌhã hokʌ̰ʔ hokə nʌkʰɯ nʌkʰʌ nʌkʰʌ̤ hõŋɔ nɔ̃ŋa 220 at ma lʌ lʌ lʌ lɔ lʌ lʌ ŋa 221 beside t͡sʰeuma ʔot͡ʃʰõda̤ ʔot͡ʃʰotʌ ʔot͡ʃʰo ʔot͡ʃokɔ t͡ʃokʌ̤ t͡sɔkʰɔ ŋaõŋkʌ 222 inside bʰitrʌ ʒĩmlʌʔ bitʌrlʌ bitarlʌ d͡ʒɪmlʌ d͡zɪmlʌ̤ bitʌɹlʌ bi̤tɹʌ 223 outside bahirʌ lãkʌʔ lãkʌ pakʰa lãkʌ̃ lãkʌ̤ læŋʌ̃ bahɪɾʌ 224 above/on top of matʰi rotʌʔ rotʌ rotʌ rʌtʌ rotʰʌ̤ rotʰɔ hʌrtʰʌ 225 below/under tʌlʌ melʌʔ melʌ melʌ melʌ melʌ̤ mɛlʌ milɔ

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226 around wʌripʌri ʔadʌ hodʌ̤ ʔadi hudi ʔakʰʌi hokʰoi ʔakʰʌi hʊkʰʌi ʔapʰʌ hopʰɔ hukəsʌi ækəsʌi hudʲɛ adʲɛ 227 who ko su su su sɯ su su kãŋka 228 whose kʌsko sʷiumi̤ sʷi ʔumi səi ʔumi sʷi ʔumi sʷiumi̤ sʷimi kaŋkalʌ 229 what ke kata̤ nati nɛtʰi nɛtʰi niti kʌtʰa nʌitʰi 230 why kinʌ kaɾau nelai nɛlai kʌdaũ kʌdaṳ kʰoɾo danʌ̃ŋ 231 where kahã kanda̤ kʰãkʌ̃ kʰãkʌ kʰãkʌ̃ kãkʰʌ̤ kʰʌtaŋ kaŋka 232 when kʌhile kʰarkʌʔ kʰarkʰʌ kʰarkʌ kʰarkʌ karkʰʌ karkʌ kaŋkalɔ 233 which kun su kʰədʲu kʰədʲu kʌdʲu nitʰi kɔtaŋ kʰʌkʌ 234 how many kʌti kʰaʔ kʷakʌna,kʷawã kʷʌwa kʰʷakʌna kʷãkʰãnã,kʷawa̤ kʰadra kʷeʔ 235 how (what is it like) kʌsto kitʲaũ kʌmʌdʲu kʰʌmʌdu kʌdʲu kʰʌdʲṳ kʰitou kʷʌiteɲɛ 236 how (to do something) kʌsʌri kɔiʒedʌ kʌizədʌ kʰʌzʌdʌ kʌizeidʌ kʌizeidʌ kʰʌid͡zeidi kʰɔdei 237 this jo ʔau ʔau ʔau ʔau ʔau au ikalʌ 238 that tʲo nõ nõ noũ lieu nõ nõ nəkalʌ 239 go (3S-PT) d͡za(nu) ba hĩ hĩ hĩ hĩ ba hin 240 come (3S-PT) au(nu) hu ra ra ra ra hu ra 241 come down (3S-PT) d͡zʰʌr(nu) d͡zʊri las te las jae d͡zə̤ri lei 242 climb up (3S-PT) t͡sʌɖʰ(nu) gũm gũm gum gṳm gṳm pulin hɔ̃m 243 climb down (3S-PT) orli(nu) d͡zəri las las las las d͡zʌriŋ lahan 244 bring (3S-PT) lia(nu) rʌi rəi rʌi re rʌi rʌi rʌi 245 take (3S-PT) lʌg(nu) lã lõ lɔ̃ lʌ̃ lõ bʌi lʌŋ 246 take out (3S-PT) d͡zʰik(nu) hai hai hai hai hai hai hai 247 put in (3S-PT) rakʰ(nu) nʌĩ nai nʌĩ naĩ nai nʌi nai 248 die (3S-PT) mʌr(nu) ʃi si si si si si si

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249 be hungry bʰok lag(nu) kɔɾe kʌɾe kʰəɾʌ kʰʌɾe kʌɾe kʌɾi kʌɾe 250 be thirsty tirkʰa lag(nu) t͡sos t͡sʌs t͡ʃʌs t͡sʌs t͡søs t͡so wei 251 sleep (3S-PT) sut(nu) sʲæ̃ sʲa ʔɛm ʔɛmʃi jɛm sɛ ruʔ 252 lie down (3S-PT) pʌlʈi(nu) pəlti pʌltʰi pʌltʰi pʌltʰi pʌltʰi pʰʌlit hõŋʌ̃ŋ 253 sit down (3S-PT) bʌs(nu) t͡ʃuʃi t͡sũ t͡sũ t͡sə̃ t͡sũ t͡susin t͡sṳŋʌŋ 254 get up (3S-PT) uʈʰ(nu) so so so so so sõn t͡ʃaŋʌŋ

255 stand (3S-PT) ubʰi(nu) t͡ʃɛ̃ʃi t͡ʃæ̃ t͡ʃã t͡sɛl sõn t͡ʃɛŋ 256 walk (3S-PT) hĩɖ(nu) ba ʌzba ʔʌzba ʔʌ̤zba ʔʌzba ba ba 257 fly (verb) (3S-PT) uɖ(nu) bʊ̤r bṳr bṳr bur bṳr bṳr bṳr 258 run (3S-PT) dʌgur(nu) dõna zo d͡zo zo zo zonan t͡soi 259 laugh (3S-PT) hãs(nu) sas sas sʌs sas sas san sʌi 260 cry (3S-PT) ru(nu) gʌr gʌ̤r gʌr gʌ̤r gʌ̤r gʌ̤r har 261 vomit (3S-PT) banta gʌr(nu) wʌi bi̤si bĩsi bĩsi bĩsi wai wei 262 spit (3S-PT) tʰuk(nu) tɪl stil ʔʌstil ʔʌstil ʔʌstil tul tʰɪl 263 eat (3S-PT) kʰa(nu) ʒu ʒɛ d͡ʒɪ d͡ʒə ʒo zu d͡ʒo 264 bite (3S-PT) ʈok(nu) kɔi toi kʌi dupʰ toi kʌi kɔi 265 drink (3S-PT) piu(nu) ʔo̰ ʔo ʔo ʔo wo on wõ 266 give (3S-PT) di(nu) ʔi jo jə jə jã ju jo

267 burn (3S-PT) bal(nu) sʌlkai kʰa kʰã wʌr tʌ wor 268 bury (3S-PT) gaɖ(nu) gaɖe gaɖi gadi gadi gadi gʌdi pʰuɾi 269 kill (3S-PT) mar(nu) sʌi si sʌi sʌi sʌi sʌi sʌiʔ 270 cut (3S-PT) kaʈ(nu) kʰɛl kæl kʰal kʰɛl pal pʌl pʌl 271 throw (3S-PT) pʰal(nu) kʰɛ bi̤ bĩ b�̤̃ bĩ kʰɛ kʲe

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272 talk/chat (3S-PT) t͡sʰʌlpʰʌl gʌr(nu) d͡zʰʌlɸʰʌl duk sʌlːa do sʌlːa dɛ t͡sʰʌlpʰʌl gɛdʌ ʔʌspã t͡sʰʌlpʰʌl da t͡sʰʌlpʰʌl dan 273 say/tell (3S-PT) bʰʌn(nu) hʌi li hai do hʌi lə bʌni hai lɛ hʌili pʌn 274 hear/listen (3S-PT) sun(nu) tai tʰʌi tʰʌi tʰe tʰʌi tʌi tʰʌi 275 watch/see (3S-PT) dekʰ(nu) rɯ̃ ra rã rasi rã rʌŋ rʌŋ 276 look (3S-PT) her(nu) t͡ʃũ ra rã rasi rã rʌŋ bʲɛʔ 277 wash (3S-PT) dʰu(nu) t͡ʃɛ t͡sʰɛ t͡sʰɛ t͡ʃɛ t͡sɛ t͡sɛ t͡se 278 my mero ŋãmĩ ŋãmĩ ŋãmi ŋãmĩ ŋãmi̤ ŋãmĩ ŋãmĩ 279 our hamro gĩmĩ gĩmi gĩmi gĩmi gĩmi̤ gemĩ gimĩ 280 your (formal/sing) tʌpaĩko nə̃mĩ nʌmi,ʒimi d͡ʒed͡ʒɪmi d͡ʒimi nʌmi̤ d͡zɪmĩ d͡zemĩ 281 your (formal/plural) tʌpaĩhʌruko d͡ʒed͡ʒĩmĩ ʒeʒimi d͡ʒɪmi ʒɛʒimi ʒeʒɪmi nʌmiro d͡zɛmijʌŋ 282 his (formal/sing) uhãko nõjũmĩ ʔɔlumi jajɛmi nʌɹaijɛmi nʌɾaimi̤ nʌŋnʌmĩ hukaŋlʌ 283 their (formal/plural) uhãhʌruko horaijɛ̃mi jæjæmi nʌraijɛmi nʌɹaijɛmi nõɾaiʔimi̤ nõrjɛmĩ hukaŋlʌ 284 I ma ŋã ŋã ŋã ŋã ŋã ŋã ŋã 285 you (formal/sing) tʌpaĩ nũ nã nɯ̃ nʌ na̤ nʌŋ nʌka 286 he/she (formal) uhã ho nõ,ho nɔ̃ nʌ nõ nõ nʌka 287 we hami gẽ ge ge ge ge̤ ge gemĩ 288 you (formal/plural) tʌpaĩhʌru d͡ʒe ʒe d͡ʒe d͡ʒe ʒe̤ d͡ze nʌkʌŋ 289 they (formal) uhãhʌru horʌʔ nõrʌ nʌɾʌ nʌrʌ nõɾʌ̤ nõrʌ hukʌŋ

Appendix B: Recorded Text Tests

B.1 Standard procedure for recorded text testing

The extent to which speakers of related linguistic varieties understand one another can be studied by means of recorded text testing. Such studies investigate whether speakers of one variety understand a simple audio narrative in another variety and are able to answer questions about the content of that narrative. The accuracy with which subjects answer these questions is taken as an indicator of their comprehension of that speech form. From the percentage of correct answers, the amount of intelligibility between speech forms is inferred. The recorded text testing used in this survey is based on the procedures described in Casad (1974) and Blair (1990). Short, personal-experience narratives are deemed to be most suitable for recorded text testing in that the content must be relatively unpredictable and the speech form should be natural. Folklore or other material that is widely known is avoided. A three to five minute story is recorded from a speaker of the regional vernacular. The story is then transcribed, and a set of comprehension questions is constructed based on various semantic domains covered in the text. A set of twenty to twenty-five questions is initially prepared and then checked with speakers from the same region to ensure that the spoken forms are truly representative of that area (this is known as a home town test or HTT). Some of the questions will prove unsuitable because the answer is not clear in the text or because the question is confusing to native speakers of the test variety. Unsuitable questions are then deleted from the preliminary set, leaving a minimum of ten final questions for each RTT. The HTT also determines whether the story itself is representative of the test variety. The HTT helps to ensure that native speakers of the text dialect could accurately answer the comprehension questions. Once a text has been hometown tested with a minimum of ten subjects who have been able to correctly answer the selected comprehension questions, with average scores of 90 percent or above, the test is considered validated. Before administering the RTT in each location, the selected questions must be recorded in the regional variety of the test subjects. This ensures that the measures of comprehension are based on the subjects’ understanding of the text itself and not on a misunderstanding of the test questions. In the RTTs, test subjects hear the complete story once, after which the story is repeated with test questions interspersed and opportunities for responses by giving the necessary pauses in the recorded text. Appropriate and correct responses are directly extractable from the segment of speech immediately preceding the question. Thus the RTT aims to be a close reflection of a subject’s comprehension of the language itself, not of their memory, intelligence, or reasoning. The average or mean of the scores obtained from subjects at one test location is taken as a numerical indicator of the intelligibility of the dialect represented. It is possible that a subject may be unable to answer the test questions correctly because they do not understand the testing procedure. This is especially true with uneducated subjects or those unacquainted with test-taking. Therefore, a short pre-test story with ten questions is recorded in the local variety before beginning the actual testing. The purpose of the pre-test is to teach the subject what is expected according to the RTT procedures. If the subject is able to answer the pre-test questions, it is assumed that they would serve as a suitable subject for the RTT. Occasionally, a subject fails to perform adequately on the pre-test. Performances of such subjects are eliminated from the final evaluation, the assumption being that uncontrollable factors unrelated to the intelligibility of speech forms are skewing the test results. Generally, subjects performing at levels of less than 80 percent on the pre-test are eliminated from further testing. There are many factors that may affect the variation of scores within one test site. Contact with the variety being tested is one such factor, among many others. For this reason, it is important to include a measure of dispersion which reflects the extent to which the range of scores varies from the mean: the Standard Deviation. On an RTT with 100 possible points (100 percent), standard deviations of more than 12 to 15 are considered high. If the standard deviation is relatively low (10 or below) and the mean score for the subjects from the selected test point is high, the implication is that the community as a whole probably understands the test variety rather well. If the standard deviation is low and the mean RTT score is also low, the implication is that the community as a whole understands the test variety rather poorly and that regular contact has not facilitated learning of the test variety to any significant extent. If the standard deviation is high, regardless of the mean

51 52 score, one implication is that some subjects comprehend the test variety better than others. The relationship between RTT scores and their standard deviation can be seen in table 15.

Table 15. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation

Standard Deviation High Low

Many people understand the story Most people understand

High well, but some have difficulty. the story.

Many people cannot understand Few people are able to

score Average the story, but a few are able to Low understand the story. answer correctly.

High standard deviations can result from many causes, such as inconsistencies in the circumstances of test administration and scoring or differences in the attentiveness of the subjects. Inherent intelligibility between the related varieties may be mixed with acquired proficiency, or there could be other factors affecting the test scores. Researchers involved in recorded text testing need to be aware of the potential for skewed results due to such factors, and to control for them as much as possible through careful test development and administration. In contrast to experimentally controlled testing in a laboratory or classroom situation, the results of field-administered methods such as the RTT cannot be completely isolated from potential biases. Recorded texts and test questions will vary in terms of the clarity of the recording. Comparisons of RTT results from different texts need to be made cautiously. It is therefore recommended that results from RTTs not be interpreted in terms of fixed numerical thresholds, but rather evaluated in light of other indicators of intelligibility such as lexical similarity, dialect opinions, and reported patterns of contact and communication. In general, however, RTT mean scores of around 80 percent or higher with accompanying low standard deviations are usually taken to indicate that representatives of the test point dialect display adequate understanding of the variety represented by the recording. Conversely, RTT mean scores below 60 percent are interpreted to indicate inadequate intelligibility. Responses to questions asked after the administration of an RTT can reflect attitudes held toward the test dialect. These opinions, then, can also help the researcher interpret the scores obtained on the tests. All storytellers and participants involved in the recorded text testing gave oral and recorded informed consent before assisting with this research.

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B.2 Practice story and questions

म सानो हदाुँ मेरो बबालेु गाई �कꅍन भयो।ु Story part 1 When I was a child, my father bought a cow. उसको बबालेु के �कꅍन भयो?ु गाई Question 1 What did the father buy? A cow हामीलाई दधु चा�हएकोले गाई �कꅍन भयो।ु Story part 2 He bought a cow because we needed milk. �कन गाई �कꅍन भयो?ु दधु चा�हयो Question 2 Why did he buy a cow? They needed milk यसलाई दईु हजार प셍 यो। Story part 3 He paid Rs 2000 for it. गाईलाई क�त प셍यो ? दईु हजार प셍 यो Question 3 How much did the cow cost? Rs 2000 एक �दन मैले गाईको दधु द�हरहु दाँ एउटा मौरीले गाईलाई टो啍यो। Story part 4 One day as I was milking the cow a bee bit the cow. गाईलाई केले टो啍यो? मौरी Question 4 What bit the cow? Bee गाईले दधकोु बा쥍टीनलाई ला�ीले हाꅍयो। Story part 5 The cow kicked the milk pail. गाईले के ग셍यो ? ला�ीले हाꅍयो Question 5 What did the cow do? Kicked the milk pail सबै दधु पो�खयो। Story part 6 All the milk was spilled. दधु के भयो? पो�खयो Question 6 What happened to the milk? It spilled आमा िरसाउनहु ꅍछु भनेर मलाई डर ला嵍यो। Story part 7 Because my mother would be angry, I was afraid. केटालाई कतो ल ा 嵍य ो ? डर ला嵍यो Question 7 How did the speaker feel? Afraid मैले �छमेक�बाट पैचों �लने को�शष गरे ं तर उनीह셂सग ँ दधु �थएन। Story part 8 I tried to borrow milk from the neighbors, but they had none to spare. �छमेक�ले क�त दधु पैचों �दयो? क�� प�न �दएन Question 8 How much milk did the neighbors give? None जब आमाले दधु पो�खएको कु रा थाहा पाउनभयोु मलाई गाली गन셍भयो।ु Story part 9 When my mother found out about the spilled milk, she scolded me. आमाले के गन셍 ु भयो? गाली गन셍भयोु Question 9 What did the mother do? Scolded सजायकोँ 셂पमा मैले एक हꥍता स륍म दधु खान पाइन।ँ Story part 10 As a punishment, I had to go without milk for one week. उसले क�त समयास륍म दधु खान पाएन? एक हꥍता Question 10 How long did the speaker have to go without milk? One week

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B.3 Introduction and transition sentences

हामी भाषाको अ鵍ययन गन셍 �त्रभवनु �व��व鵍या लयबाट आएका हौ।ं I1 We are language researchers from Tribhuvan University. हामीसगँ केही रेकड셍 गिरएका कथाग셂 छन्। यी कथाह셂 तपाℂलाई सनाउनु चाहꅍछौ।ं I2 We have some recorded stories with us and would like you to listen to them. तपाℂले प्र配येक कथा दईु पटक सꅍु न हु नेछ।ु दोस्रो पटकमा केही प्र�नह셂नेछन हु ्। I3 You will hear each story two times. The second time, the story will also contain some questions. कथा र प्र�नह셂 鵍यान �दएरꅍ सु न होला।ु I4 Please listen to the stories and questions carefully. तपाℂले प्र�ननेप�छ सु हामी टेप बꅍद गछ�। I5 After you hear a question, we will stop the tape. टेप बꅍद गरे प�छ उ�र �दनहोला।ु I6 When we stop the tape, please answer the question.

तपाℂले ब畍नु हु ꅍछ?ु T1 Do you understand? आवाज प्र�सगँ स�नꅍछ?ु T2 Can you hear the sound clearly? प�हला कथा स ꅍु न होसु ्। T3 Please listen to the first story. अब अक� कथा र प्र�नह셂ꅍ सु न होसु ्। प्र�नने सु प�छ उ�र �दनहोला।ु T4 Now, please listen to the story with questions. When you hear a question, please answer it. अब लामो कथा स ꅍु न होसु ्। T5 Now, please listen to a longer story. अब अक� कथा सꅍु न होसु ्। T6 Please listen to another story. यस भागको ला�ग प्र�न छैन। T7a For this section, there is no question. अब राम्रोसगँ सꅍु न सु ्। प्र�न ँदैछ।आउ T7b Please listen carefully. A question is coming.

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B.4 Takale story with comprehension questions

Language name: Takale Kham Storyteller: RB (TSKTMJ02) Story elicitors: Jessica Page Date recorded: 10 October 2017 Source: Personal narrative Back translator: JGM Location of recording: Kathmandu, Nepal

The Kham story from Takasera, Rukum and comprehension questions used for recorded text testing (RTT) are given in this section. The comprehension questions have been inserted into the story in the place they were asked during test administration. The Kham text of the story, highlighted in grey, is written in Devanagari script. A transcription of the recording in the International Phonetic Alphabet is also provided. A free translation (not word-for-word) is provided in Nepali and then in English following each segment. The segments, delineated at intervals by a mother-tongue Kham speaker from Takasera, are natural breaks in the story. The home town test (HTT) had a total of 18 questions. Only eleven of the questions that passed the HTT were used during the RTT administration. Later question #7 was also excluded from the analysis because of marginal scores in both the HTT and RTT. It was found that the answer was not explicitly spoken in the audio preceding the question. However, some HTT and RTT subjects were still able to answer the question correctly from the context. All answers to the questions are enclosed in a textbox in the text.

Abbreviations:

• K – Kham (as spoken in the narrative) • IPA – International Phonetic Alphabet (transcription of the Kham as spoken in the recording) • N – Nepali free translation • E – English free translation

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1. K तपालाक बेडा गावला �ल�सऊ बेडा गोठोनी �जमदा ङाबाके। IPA tʌpalʌkʌ be̤da gaulʌ lɛʃiu be̤da gotʰoni ʒimda ŋabake N कु नै समय एकजना भेडा गोठालो �थयो, भेडा गोठबाट घरमा गयो। E Once upon a time, there was a shepherd and he went from the sheep pen to the house.

2. K �जमनी फिर तोबो दाजसु जम � ग न ल ा केँ , बेडा गोठोदा। IPA ʒimni pʰʌɾi tobou dad͡ʒisʌ ʒʌm gɪnlãke bɛda̤ gotʰoda N एकजना दाइसगँ रासन �लएर घरबाट केरी गोठमा गयो। E He took some provisions and again left for the sheep pen.

3. K जम �गनलाकँ नो �गनबै याव मनम पाथी चारध ँ �ल奍 योहो। �गनमनम। IPA zʌm gɪnlãkʌ̃ nõ gɪnbʌiʒau mʌnʌm patʰi t͡sardʌ̤̃ lɛkʰeho gɪnmʌnʌm N 配य ो लादै गरेको रासन लगभग चारपाथी ज�त �थयो। E Those provisions he was carrying were about four pati (16 kg.).

Q1 N गोठालोले के 쥍या उनभयो?ु E What did the shepherd take? Answer: Provisions

4. K नो तोबो बैसाँ गावलाए ओ쥍यो क थकनैद � ग न 奍य ा न केै । IPA no tobo ba�̤̃sa gaũlae olʌjokʌ tʰʌkʌnaidʌ gɪnkʲanaike N 配य ो एउटा भैसीँ गोठालोलाई �ज륍मा लगाएर छोडेर गयौ।ं हामी गोठमा भेडाह셁कोमा प嵍ु यौ ।ं E We left the provisions with one buffalo herdsman for safe keeping. We reached our sheep pen.

5. K नो बैसाँ गावलानी जा वाब�नु � न 쥍य ो । IPA ba�̤̃sa gaulani za babu niljo N भैसीँ गोठालोकोमा ज륍मा लगाएर छोडेर गयो। E The buffalo herdsmen were father and son at the place of safe keeping.

6. K होक थकनैद गोठोङ बेडाराई लेङ � ग न के स के । IPA hokʌ tʰʌkʌnaidʌ gotoŋʌ bedarai leŋʌ gɪnkeske N 配य ो �ज륍मा लगाएर भेडाह셁को गोठामा गयो। E He made those provisions safe and went to the sheep pen.

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7. K �गननैराए 쥍य ो ङ के ड होछयाम होङ ज बा�सद IPA gɪnʌnairae lijoŋ keʃdʌ hot͡ʃam hoŋ ɛz baʃidʌ N 配य ही �दन साथीह셁 कहा ँ पगेरु 配यो �दन 配य ही ँबास बयो । E That day he arrived at friends and stayed there.

8. K छ क ा 쥍ꅍ य ा फरी बेडार रैद गेहु याऊ। IPA t͡sɛkalɲã pʌri beda̤r raidʌ gehoʒau N �बहान फेरी भेडाह셁 �लएर फ � क셍 य ो E In the morning, he again took the sheep and returned.

9. K नो बेलाक तोबो ङाकाका ताए होए ओबेडा ते उमी मारैव।ं म ꅍु द 啍ु य ा द ओलयो IPA nɔ belakʌ tobo ŋakakʌ tai hoje obeda̤ te umi maɾau mʌndukʲasdʌ oljou N 配य ो समयमा मेरो एकजना काका पन�को भेडो आखाँ अꅍ धो भयो। E At the time, one of my uncle’s sheep was blind.

Q2 N वहाकोँ काकाको भेडा कतो �थयो? E What was his uncle’s sheep like? Answer: Blind.

10. K नो ते ओबाक मनी आत डोꥍन याज, �सतमँ ड ु ꥍन या पाईतज ड ु ꥍन ा ने। IPA nɔ te obakʌ mʌni ʌtʌ dṳpɲezʌ ʃĩtʌm dṳpɲe paitʌzʌ do̤pɲane N unable to be translated E

11. K यम म�न हो इ配 यौ यमत आनी आदा बाक ते आदा ते फरी छाङगाज �ल煍 या नोते। IPA jɛm mʌn ho itjau jemtʌ ani ada bakʌ te ada tɛ ɸɛɾi cangʌzʌ liʒa notɛ N unable to be translated E

12. K फरी आदा ज बाद नोते हादाँ पाद �सके। IPA ɸʌɾi ada za badʌ nʌte hãda pad sike N 配य ो भेडा भीरबाट खसेर म셍यो । E At the next road, near a waterfall, that sheep fell and died.

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13. K होलाई मनी गद셍ु ग ले ा केँ । IPA holai mʌni gṳrdʌ gelãke N 配य सलाई प�न बो�क ल嵍यौ ।ं E For that reason he also carried the dead sheep.

Q3 N के कारणले गदा셍 भेडा म셍यो ? E What caused the sheep to die? Answer: It fell from a cliff.

14. K ह�कनु जम � ग न 奍य ा नैव पो ङ ग केे क ते, हो गेजम भिर ते IPA hukɪn zʌm gɪnkʲanaiwʌ po ŋʌ gekeskʌ te ho gezʌm bʌ̤ɾi tɛ N 配य सप�छ रासन छोडेको ठाउमाँ जब कु यो। E After that, when he arrived at the place where had left the provisions,

15. K हो गेजम भिर ते बैसाँ गावलाए मो:द ओया�सउ ओ쥍यो । IPA ho gezʌm bʌ̤ɾi tɛ ba�̤̃sa gaulae mõdʌ ojɛsiu oljou N 配य ो रासन सबै ँभैसीँ गोठालोले लकाई�दएकोु रहेछ। E some provisions were missing, the buffalo herdsman had hidden it.

16. K ओजा �जमजाजा ओ쥍यो । IPA oza ʒimzaza oljou N गोठालोको छोरा सानो नै �थयो। E The buffalo herder’s son was very small.

Q4 N वहाकोँ छोरा कत्रो �थजो? E What was his son like? Answer: Small.

17. K आव ङाजाए बरेस जैद उ य ु त ा 奍य ो हैदा�स啍यो । IPA au ŋazai bʌ̤ɾeʃ zed uʒu takenõ haidaʃikjou N यो मेरो छोराले रोटी बनाएर खाएको होला भꅍन भयो।ु E He said, “Perhaps my son used some provisions to make bread.”

Q5 N भैसां गोठालोले के भꅍन भयो?ु E What did the buffalo herder say? Answer: Perhaps my son used some to make bread.

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18. K तरीतज हो आ쥍य जाु ओजाए नो काताज माताव IPA tʌritʌzʌ ho aliuʒa ozae no katazʌ matawʌ N एक रातमा नै उसको 配य �त सानो छोराले �स鵍याउछ त? E There is nothing! In one night can this size of boy eat all?

19. K चार पा�ठवा �गनलावँ ते आठ पा�ठ नेबरए ँ ला�सउँ हो भरी ते जमा तपा�ठवा ज �ल煍 या। IPA t͡sar patʰiwa gɪnlaũ tɛ at pati nebʌrẽ lãsiu ho bʌ̤ri tɛ d͡zʌma tʌpatʰiwa zʌ liʒe N हामीले चार-चार पा�ठ जती लगेको। दईजनालेु लगेको 配यो सबै ज륍मा एक पा�ठ �थयो। E They had brought about four to eight pati per person. Only one pati remained.

Q6 N �पठो क�त बाक�ँ �थयो? E How much flour was left? Answer: One pati.

20. K सात पाथी ते हो ओजाए बरेस जैद मा�सय ु तरीत? IPA sat patʰi te ho oʒae bʌ̤rɛʃ zɛd maʒu tʌreitʌ N उसको सानो छोराले एकरातमा सात पा�ठ �पठो त रो�त बनाई खान ँ स啍दै न।ँ E That small son could not eat seven pati of flour in one night.

21. K हो तपा�ठवा 쥍य ो होए मनमए तोबो ङाकाकाए बनै ज 啍े य ो । IPA ho tʌpatʰiwa lijo hoi mʌnʌmʌe tobo ŋakake bʌnai d͡ʒekʲou N 配य ो एक पा�ठ जती बाक�ँ रहेको �पठोले मेरो एकजना काकाले हाꅍन भयो।ु E From the remaining one pati, he began balling-up and throwing at his son.

22. K त फे बैसाँ गावलालाई बनै ज ो 륍啍 य ो । IPA tʌɸɛ ba�̤̃sa gaulalai bʌnai d͡zomkʲou N एकपठक भैसीं गोठालोलाई बेसरी �हका셍उन ु भयो। E Many times he pelted him.

Q7 N खसलाई भैसां गोठालोले �पठोको ड쥍लो ले हाꅍयो ? E Who did the buffalo herder throw flour balls at? Answer: His son.

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23. K ह ो 浍य ा म होकज गेबा�सके। बाव गेमादैके। IPA hosʲɛm hokʌzʌ gebasike bau gɛmadaike N 配य ो �दन 配य हा ँ नै बास बयौ ,ं ऊ हामी जान पाएनौ।ं E That day he stayed there. He couldn’t leave.

24. K ह�कनु ते फरी नम मनी बनै वाव। IPA hunki tɛ pʌri nʌm mʌni bʌnai waw N 配य सप�छ फेरी पानी प�न धेरै परेको �थयो। E After that, there was heavy rain.

25. K गोठोल बनै 奍य ो वज ओ쥍यो गोठो। IPA gotʰolʌ bʌnai kʲowʌz oljou gotʰo N गोठ �नकै लामो नै �थयो। E The sheep pen was too long.

Q8 N गोठ क तो �थयो? E What was the sheep pen like? Answer: Too long.

26. K गेबेडार तनीँ गे तनीँ गेबा�सके ते। IPA gɛbɛda̤r tʌ̃nĩ ge tʌ̃nĩ gɛwasikʌ tɛ N हाम्रोभेडाह셁 एकापटी, हामी अक�पटी बास ब ।यौं E They stayed in a different place than their sheep.

27. K रील बनै गेङलो ओ쥍यो । बेडार ते प लु ु द याबाव। IPA rilʌ bʌnai gɛŋlo oljou beda̤r tɛ puluzdʌ jabau N राती बेसरी �नदाएछौ। भेडाह셁 �न के र गएका रहेछन। E In the night, he fell into a deep sleep, and the sheep escaped.

Q9 N भेडाह셁 कै? E What did the sheep do? Answer: They escaped out of the pen.

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28. K बेडार ते ला:ए ते करदेउलज ओरा奍 योव ओ쥍यो । IPA bɛda̤r tɛ lajɛ tɛ kʌrdeulʌzʌ orakʲou oljou N भेडाह셁लाई त बाघले टकाु -टकाु नै पारेको रहेछ। E He found that a tiger had torn them to pieces.

Q10 N क ल े भेडालाई टक्राु टक्राु पा셍 यो? E What tore the sheep to pieces? Answer: Tiger.

29. K बेडार ला:ए ओ र ा कै व ा याकै啍 यो ओरानैवर  याकरी बनै ग कैे के । IPA beda̤r lai orakaiwʌ jakaikʲo oranaiwʌr sʲakri bʌnai gɛkaike N भेडाह셁लाई बाघले खाना सके ज�त खायो, बाक�ँ राखेको ज�त हामीले मास ु खायौ।ँ E He found that the tiger had eaten all that he wanted and of the remaining meat he had eaten much.

30. K कोङगोर बनै गद셍ु गेरालाके।ँ IPA koŋgoɾʌ bʌnai gurdʌ gɛɾʌlãke N हामी बाक�ँ रहेको सबै मास ु बोकेर ल嵍यौ । E He carried the remaining meat back to the sheep pen.

31. K हो�कन फरी तोबो ङा काकाए ओबेदा ओपाठाज तोबो फरी IPA hokinʌ ɸʌri tobo ŋa kakai obeda opatazʌ tobo ɸʌri N 配य सपाछ� फेिर मेरो एकजना काकाको पाठो अट्टोपट्टो भयोर भेटाएनौ। E After that, again the tiger killed one of my uncle’s lambs.

32. K स ꅍु द म ꅍु द होक गेमादैक फरी ओ쥍द बाद बनै साꥍना 啍य ो । IPA sʌnumundʌ hokʌ gɛmadaikʌ ɸʌri oldʌ badʌ bʌnai sapnaikʲo N काकाले फेरे खो煍न जान ु भयो। E It could not be found so they returned.

33. K मादैव। ला:ए चकचकज उ셁स भरी मनी ओखेमो ओ쥍यो । IPA mandaiwʌ lae t͡sʌkʊt͡sʌkʊzʌ uɾus bʌ̤ri mʌni okʰɛmo oljou N भेटेन। खोजेर प�न भेटाएन बाघले हडीस�हत परैु खाएर सकाएको रहेछ। E After searching, it was thought that perhaps the tiger ate the entire lamb.

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Q11 N �कन उनीह셁ले भेडा भेटाएनन्? E Why didn’t they find the sheep? Answer: The tiger ate all of it.

34. K आव ङापा ँ मनी आक पै वाज। IPA awʌ ŋãpã bʌ̤ni akʌ pai wazʌ N यो मेरो कु रा यहास륍ँ म मात्रै हो। E This is all I have to say.

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B.5 Maikoti story with comprehension questions

Language name: Maikoti Kham Storyteller: OPPM Story elicitors: Sara du Preez Date recorded: 25 October 2017 Source: Personal narrative Back translator: SPM Location of recording: Maikot

The Kham story from Maikot, Rukum and comprehension questions used for recorded text testing (RTT) are given in this section. The comprehension questions have been inserted into the story in the place they were asked during test administration. The Kham text of the story, highlighted in grey, is written in Devanagari script. A transcription of the recording in the International Phonetic Alphabet is also provided. A free translation (not word-for-word) is provided in Nepali and then in English following each segment. Segments are delineated at intervals that a mother-tongue Kham speaker from Maikot indicated are natural breaks in the story. The home town test (HTT) had a total of 20 questions. Only eleven of the questions that passed the HTT were used during RTT administration. Answers to the questions are enclosed in a black outline in the text.

Abbreviations:

• K – Kham (as spoken in the narrative) IPA – International Phonetic Alphabet (transcription of Kham as spoken in the recording) • N – Nepali free translation • E – English free translation

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1. K गे सेकार ब गेरै�सके IPA ge sekar βʌ gɛɾɛsike N हामी �शकार प�न खे쥍यौ ।ं E We also went hunting together.

Q1 N उनीह셁 के गरे? E What did they do? Answer: Went hunting.

2. K क त रीु सेकार ग दे ा के , नवर सेकार ग दे ा के , भबीुँ सेकार ग दे ा के , IPA kʌstʌri sekar gɛdʌke nõr sekar gɛdʌke bṳ̃bi sekar gɛdʌke N क त रीु �शकार ग셍यौ ,ं नाउर �शकार ग 셍य ौ ,ं झारल �शकार ग셍यौ ,ं E We hunted musk deer, Himalayan blue sheep, and jharal,

3. K अक� सेकार ग दे ा के , रया सेकार ग दे ा के , सर सेकार ग दे ा के । IPA ʌrki sekar gɛdʌke reya sekar gɛdʌke sʌr sekar gɛdʌke N रतवाु �शकार ग셍यौ ,ं थार �शकार ग셍यौ ,ं घोरल �शकार प�न ग셍यौ ।ं E We also hunted barking deer, thar and also ghoral.

4. K ह�कँ गे चाइ ँ ज�त ब ꅍद कु रास �भिर�सद खवा खवा ब ꅍल चाइ।ँ द�लउकाु द�लउु जा द। IPA hʌki ge t͡saĩ zʌtʰi bʌnduk ras bi̤risidʌ kʷa kʷa bʌnlʌ t͡saĩ duliuka duliu zazdʌ N 配य सप�छ हामी चा�ह ँ भएभरका बꅍ दकु भिरएको वनमा गयौ।ं डुलेको डु쥍यौ।ं E After that we, with guns loaded, searched all over the forest. We explored and explored.

5. K गे चाइ ँ कै कै करेउ ब गेलेके, के के डय ुँ ब गेलेके। IPA ge t͡saĩ keke kʌreu βʌ geleke keke ʒũ βʌ geleke N हामी चा�ह ँ क�हलेकाही ँभोकभोकै प�न भयौ,ं क�हलेकाही ँजाडोमा प�न बयौ ं । E From time to time we went without food, from time to time we lived in the cold.

6. K हैदाद गेलेके। दखु र चाइ ँ दखु र ग े द के ै लेमाले। IPA hedadʌ geleke dukʰʌ t͡saĩ dukʰʌ gezdeke lemʌle N 配य सरी बयौ ।ं धेरै द:खह셁ु पायौ।ं E Like that we lived, we suffer much.

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7. K  या ब कै कै गेवाउँवा गेतोइ क�स�सद,  याका। IPA ʃa βʌ keke gewaũwa getoi kʌsidʌ sʲaka N क�हलेकाही ँहामी मास ु खाꅍ镍 यौ ं । E From time to time we ate our fill of meat.

Q2 N उनीह셁ले के खाए? E What did they eat? Answer: Meat.

8. K कै कै करेउ लेद  या त ो इ ꅍय ा बेससग।ँ IPA keke kʌɾeu ledʌ ʃa toĩnjɛ besʌŋʌ N क�हलेकाही ँभोकै बने भएर मास ु बे सरी खाꅍथ यै ं । E From time to time we were so hungry that we ate too much meat.

Q3 N �कन उनीह셁 धेरै मास ु खाए? E Why did the eat too much meat? Answer: They were so hungry.

9. K हक� ँ  या र गद셍ु रैद गे प셍या ली रलाई याꅍ या। IPA hʌkĩ ʃa ɾʌ gurdʌ redʌ ge ɸɛɾjʌlʌ rʌlai janjʌ N 配य सप�छ मस ु बोकेर हामी पिरवारलाई �दꅍ镍 यौ ।ं E After that, we gave the meat to our family.

10. K हक� ँ होल गे ज 륍म �बच �बचल �हउँ पिर 煍 या ँ 煍 याल।ँ IPA hʌkĩ holʌ ge zʌmʌ bit͡sʌ bit͡sʌlʌ hiũ pʌɾi ʒã ʒãlʌ N सप�छ 配य हाँ हामी जंगलको �बच-�बच भगमा जाꅍ 镍यौ ।ं E After that, we went to the middle of the forest.

Q4 N उ�नह셁 कहा ँ गए? E Where did they go? Answer: The middle of the forest?

11. K द�लनाउु पिर। होल 煍 यालँ �ग�हकँ काराई यादेलँ चाइ ँ घाटँ झाद छ ꅍम नात। IPA dulinau pəɾi holʌ ʒãlʌ gihĩkʌ karai jadɛ̃lʌ t͡saĩ gã̤tʌ zãdʌ t͡sʌnmʌnãtʌ N ड ु 쥍न जानपछ셍।ु 配य हा ँ जंगलमा गएप�छ कु कु रको घ�टमाँ घ赍टी हालेर बजाइꅍछ । E We had to explore. There in the forest we put ringing bells on the dog’s neck.

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Q5 N उ�नह셁ले कु कु रको घा�टमाँ के लगाई�दए? E What did they put on the dog’s neck? Answer: Bell.

12. K अब  या उ प लु ु क ते। खोराइ चाइ ँ पै ँ उँद। IPA abʌ ʃa upuluskʌ te kʰoɾai t͡saĩ paĩ jũdʌ N अब जनावर �नके प�छ त। यसैले चाइ ँ नाकामा लकेरु ब镍 यौ ।ं E Now the animals come running out. For this reason, we hid at the edge of the forest.

13. K खोराइ 셁�ड�त ँ काराइ जािरनया, इिरराइँ ह�कँ ते पैतँ र ा के आ 굍के र ले क के के �स कै कै मा�स IPA kʰoɾai ruditĩ kaɾai d͡zarinja ĩrira hʌkĩ te paĩtʌ ɹake aɸkerʌ le kʌ keke si keke masi N बा�यबार कु कु रले खेदहै ग镍य� । 配य सपा�छ पासमा आयो भने, हाꅍ ने। क�हले-कही बा嵍镍 यो , क�हले-कही म镍 य�। E From the top the dogs would chase them. Then if they came near, we would shoot. Sometimes they escaped; sometimes they died.

14. K ह�दउ दाद ब सेकार गेरे�सके लेमाले सेकार गेरे�सके। IPA hʌdiu dadʌ βʌ sekar gɛɾɛsike lemale sekar gɛɾɛsike N 配य सरी प�न �शकार खे쥍यौ ,ं धेरै �शकार खे쥍 यो। E Like that we hunted. Much we hunted.

15. K नर चाइ ँ हो दखु रते के के हालँ प�쥍त ꅍय ो ब 奍व ा 奍व ा रेजार प�쥍त के र। IPA nʌr t͡saĩ ho dukʰʌ rʌte keke hãlʌ pʌltinʲabʌ kʷa kʷa red͡zarʌ pʌltike ɹʌ N 配य त ो द:खमा क�हले-कही �भरबार धेरै साथीह셁 पलयो। E From time to time our friends would fall from a cliff. It was painful.

16. K कै कै खो याकु ई रब कलाके। IPA keke kʰo yakui rʌbʌ kʌlake N क�हले-कही हात प�न भाचे।ँ E Sometimes also a hand would get broken.

Q6 N हातलाई के भयो? E What happened to the hand Answer: It got broken.

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17. K खोर चाइ ँ याख ुँ ब चाइ ँ 奍व ा काना 奍व ा काना चोत पिरके। IPA kʰorʌ t͡saĩ jakʰɯ̃ βʌ t͡saĩ kʷakanʌ kʷakanʌ t͡sot pʌrike N कोही भने खट्टामाु प�न चोर- प यो। E Or someone’s leg would get broken.

18. K ह�दउ र जा द चाइ ँ जीवनल चाइ ँ 煍 या ओस चाइ ँ जीवनल चाइ ँ झा�त ज दखलु माले�सके। IPA hʌdiu ɹʌ zazdʌ t͡saĩ ziwʌnlʌ t͡saĩ d͡zʲa osʌ t͡saĩ d͡ʒiwʌnlʌ t͡saĩ d͡ʒati zʌ dukʰʌlʌ malesike N 配य त ो भएर प�न जीवानमा भने जीवान�सनीसगँ हदाु दखु भो�गएको �थएन। E Whatever happened, we never suffered in our relationship with our spouse.

19. K ओले�सउ भिर �बफलल माले�सके। IPA olesiu bʌ̤ɾi biɸʌlʌ malesike N सगैँ रहजेलु �वफलमा पािरएन। E When together, we would never fail.

20. K �वफल ओजासो मदेल त फे अछाम उ�ह�सकँ नोल चाइ ँ एकदम घादाल पिर�सके। IPA biɸʌl oʒaso mʌdelʌ tʌɸe ʌt͡samʌ uhĩsikʌ nolʌ t͡saĩ ekdʌm ga̤dal pʌɾisike N �वफल भएको महयो एकपटक अछाम जादाँ 配 यहा ँ एकदम घारामा पिरयो। E Once we got in trouble while we were in Acham, we had great loss.

21. K ह�कँ �हदँ त फे अ 配त र काꅍ दल ब पिर�सके। IPA hʌkĩ hĩdʌ tʌɸe ʌtʌr kandlʌ βʌ pʌɾisike N 配य सपा�छ गएर चरेस का핍ड मा प�न पिरयो। E After arriving we got caught in a hashish drug bust.

22. K हो त आगो त पा쥍पा त तबु ु �गिरजा झ-यालल ब � ह केँ । IPA ho tʌ ago tʌ tubu tʌ tubu giɾɪza ʒalʌ βʌ hĩke N उता 配 यो पा쥍पा मा एकजना साथी जेलमा प�न प-यो। E It was in Palpa, one of my friends was thrown in jail.

Q7 N को जेलमा प셍यो ? E Who was thrown in jail? Answer: One guy. (friend)

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23. K हुङ�तँ ब चाइँ 畍 यालल �हँद ब इ�त तकाप핍 ला माल ब�चउ ले। IPA huŋtĩ βʌ t͡saĩ d͡ʒalʌ hidʌ βʌ ɪti tʌkavla malʌ bʌt͡siu le N उताबार चाइ ँ �जलमा परेर प�न आधा माल बेचेको �थयो E Even after being thrown in jail, he sold half of his stuff.

24. K तका핍ला माल ब�चउलाई �गउँसाउँ बिर �गउँदेको हो त। IPA tʌkarla malʌ bʌt͡siulai giũsaũ bʌri giũdeko ho tʌ N आधा माल बे�चकोमा हामीले हाम्रो वासाँ समेत उठायौ।ं E In selling half of the stuff, we still made profit.

25. K ह�दउ दखु सखु र जा�त ज आकतका आकतल चाइ ँ दखलु मापिर�सके। IPA hʌdiu dukʰʌ sukʰʌ ɾʌ d͡zati zʌ akʌtka akʌtlʌ t͡saĩ dukʰʌlʌ mapɹiʃike N 配य त ो दखु सखह셁मा,ु 配 यत ो धेरै आपतकालमा पिरएन। E In those good and bad times I didn’t feel that much grief.

26. K आ क셍 慍य ꥍ े पा �दरा चाइ ँ 煍 या �सद  यो चाइ ँ 慍य ꥍ े पा दख �परल चाइ ँ ल ा त आल पिरलेसी। IPA arkʌ gʲɛpat dira t͡saĩ ʒa ʃidʌ sʲo t͡saĩ gʲɛpat dukʰʌ piɾlʌ t͡saĩ lastʌ alʌ pəɾileʃi N अ�हले उमेर छदा ँ सबै कु रा �ीमतीसंग सफल ह�ꅍु थ यो। E Now I worry because of a great sadness, my wife’s death.

Q8 N ऊ �कन पी�डत र दखातु छ? E Why is he worried and sad? Answer: His wife died.

27. K 啍य ा ँ याराउँ ँ होले�सउ भिरल ओद�सउ भिर 煍 यावस भल ज भिरउले। �वफल माल। IPA kʲã jãɾaũ holesiu bʌ̤rilʌ odʌsiu bʌ̤ri d͡ʒaosʌ pʌl zʌ bʌ̤riule biɸʌl male N प�हला उमेर छँदा सबै कु रा श्रीमतीसंग सफल हꅍु थ । �वफल छै न। E When I was young with my wife, I had success in all things. Totally successful.

28. K अ क셍 ते कैदाꅍ या � च ꅍत ा इ ज ल ा त क आगो जा�स के , राद�ँ सके । IPA ʌrkʌ te kaidanjʌ t͡sʌntai zʌ lastʌ kʌ ago zʌsike ɹãdʌsike N अ�हले त के गन셍,ु �चꅍता �लनै अ�ꅍत ममा पा-यो एक �वधरु भइयो। E Now, what to do? I’m at rock bottom. I’m a widower.

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29. K कै ल ꅍे य ा द, आ क셍 ते आ 配र ा जँ लेउ पिर煍या । IPA kai lenja dʌ arkʌ te atrãʒʌ leu pʌɾiʒa N के गन셍 ु र, अ�हले त एकलै ब न ु परेको छ। E What to do, now I have to live alone.

Q9 N ऊ अ�हले को सगँ ब दैछ? E Who does he live with now? Answer: He lives alone.

30. K दखु र चाइ ँ मा�कँ ज�त दा�सउ भिर �वहल मालेउ ज ले दते। IPA dukʰa ɾʌ t͡saĩ makĩ zʌti daʃiu bʌ̤ɾi biɸʌl maleu zʌ le dʌte N द:खु खासे �थएन, गरेका काम सबै सफल भएको �थए। E Not all was suffering, we had success in work.

31. K सेकार पसार ब दा�सके। 핍य ा पार ब दा�सके। जमम हरेक �चजलाउ 핍य ा पार ब दा�सके। IPA sekar pʌsar βʌ dasike bʲapar βʌ dasike d͡zʌmʌ hʌrek t͡sizlau bʲapar βʌ dasike N सबै �मलेर �शकार ग-यौ। 핍 यापार प�न गिरयो। सबै हरेक कु राको 핍या पार प�न गिरयो। E We went hunting together. We did business. We did business in all things.

32. K पैले सरु त पसल ब ङाथाकेँ ङा। IPA paile surʌ tʌ pʌsʌl βʌ ŋãtʰãke ŋã N सबभꅍदा प�हले पसल खोले ँमैले। E At first, the shops were opened by me.

33. K सरु त सरु त ज दोकान जैद पैले सरु त। IPA surʌ tʌ surʌ tʌ zʌ dokan zaidʌ paile surʌ tʌ N स셁वातमाु दकानु खोलेर तयार पारे। E In the beginning, I made the shops ready.

34. K ह�कँ अ क셍 ते ख�तउ ब, अ क셍 ते दोकान पैकया र 奍व ा 奍व ा �लजा र। IPA hʌkĩ ʌrkʌ te kʰʌtiu βʌ ʌrkʌ te dokan paikʲa ɾʌ kʷa kʷa liʒa ɾʌ N अ�न अ�हले त दकानु क��-छन-क��। E And now there are oh so many shops.

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Q10 N अ�हले 配 यहा ँ क�तवटा पसलह셁 (दोकानह셁) छन? E Now how many shops are there? Answer: So many.

35. K आ क셍 ते दोकान र ब जैद यानै र। IPA arkʌ te dokan ɹʌ βʌ zaidʌ janai ɹʌ N अहेले त दकानह셁ु प�न बनाइसकेका धन। E Now the shops are already made.

36. K पैले सरु त ज 륍म मादा�सउ �चज �नउँ माले। IPA paile surʌ tʌ zʌmʌ madasiu t͡siz niũ male N प�हले स셁माु त सबै कु रा नगरेको �चज केही �भएन। E At the beginning, we did all the work.

37. K या ँ ब अ� क�सके, या ँ ब र�륍स के , या ँ ब गो�सके। IPA jã βʌ ʌskisike jã βʌ rʌmsike jã βʌ goʃike N खेट प�न जो�तयो, खेट प�न गोडमेल गिरयो, खेट प�न ख�नयो। E We plowed the field, we weeded the field, we dug up the field.

38. K 奍व ा काना 奍व ा काना भिरम ब 奍व ा काना द�सके। IPA kʷakana kʷakana bʌ̤rim βʌ kʷakana dʌsike N गारो प�न कगाइयो। E We also built up the mud bank.

39. K �जम र ब आउकु इ वई ज 奍व ा 奍व ा �जमर र ब जै�सके। IPA ʒim ɾʌ βʌ aukui wi zʌ kʷa kʷa zim ɾʌ βʌ zesike N घरह셁 म�न यहा हातले बनाइयो। E We made our houses with our own hands.

Q11 N उ�नह셁ले के बनायो? E What did they make? Answer: House.

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40. K हैजैद ते आ क셍 ते एज दखलु पिरले�स। IPA haizedʌ te arkʌ te ɛzʌ dukʰʌlʌ pʌɾilesi N अ�हले आएर द:खमाु पिरएको छ। E Now I have fallen into sorrow.

41. K हो र सो�चꅍँ या �लजा वाज啍 या काꅍछ� । IPA ho ɹʌ sõt͡sinja liʒa waʒʌkʲa kant͡si N �तनीह셁 त स�륍झ ने मात्र हो �न कानछ�। E These are all just memories, my dear.

Appendix C: Individual Interview

C.1 Informed consent

Informed consent

My name is ____. What is your name? We are from Tribhuvan University. We are मेरो नाम ___ हो। तपाℂको नाम के हो? हामी �त्रभवनु here to learn about your language and � व �व �वद्यालयबाट आएका ।हौं हामी तपाℂह셁को भाषाह셁को community. We are going to write a बारेमा थाहा पाउन आएका हौ।ं हामी तपाℂह셁को भाषाको बारेमा report (small book) about your language. एउटा िरपोट셍 ले奍ने प्र�क्रयामा छौ।ं तपाℂले �दन ु भएको यो Is it alright if we share the information जानकारीह셁 अ셁लाई भꅍदा हꅍछ? �ठक छ? you gave us with other people? Okay? ु

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C.2 Individual interview schedule

1. Researcher: 2. Date (DD-MM-YY): 3. Subject: 4. Village information: 5. Language of elicitation: 6. Language of response: 7. Translator: 8. Gender: 9. Informed consent: मेरो नाम ___ हो। तपाℂको नाम के हो? हामी �त्रभवनु �व�व �वद्यालयबाट आएका ।हौं हामी तपाℂह셁को भाषाह셁को बारेमा थाहा पाउन आएका हौ।ं हामी तपाℂह셁को भाषाको बारेमा एउटा िरपोट셍 ले奍ने प्र�क्रयामा छौ।ं तपाℂले �दन ु भएको यो जानकारीह셁 अ셁लाई भꅍदा हꅍछ?ु �ठक छ? 10. Full name: तपाℂको पूरा नाम के हो? 11. Age: तपाℂको उमेर क�त भयो? 12. Caste: तपाℂ कु न जा�तको हनु हु ꅍछ?ु 13. Occupation: तपाℂ के काम गन셍हु ꅍु छ? 14. Religion: तपाℂ कु न धम셍 माꅍ नहु ꅍछ?ु 15. Mother tongue: तपाℂको मातभाषाकोृ नाम के हो? 16. Place of birth: तपाℂ कहा ँ जꅍ मनभयो?ु 17: Current residence: तपाℂ आजभो�ल कहा ँ ब  नहु ꅍु छ? 18. Lived elsewhere for more than a year: कहा?ँ क�हले? क�त वष셍स륍म? तपाℂ अ셁 ठाउँमा एक बष셍भꅍदा बढी ब नभएकोु छ? कहा?ँ क�हले? क�त वष셍स륍म? कहा?ँ क�हले? क�त वष셍स륍म? 19: Duration at current residence: तपाℂ यो ठाउँमा क�त वष셍 ब  नभयो?ु 20. Father’s hometown: तपाℂको बवाकोु खास गाउँ कु न हो? 21. Father’s mother tongue: उहाकोँ मातभाषाृ कु न हो? तपाℂ सानो हदाुँ तपाℂको बवालेु तपाℂसगँ कु न भाषामा 22. Language used w/father when young: बो쥍नहु ꅍ镍यो?ु 23. Mother’s hometown: तपाℂको आमाको माइती कहा ँ छ? 24. Mother’s mother tongue: उहाकोँ मातभाषाृ कु न हो? तपाℂ सानो हदाुँ तपाℂको आमाले तपाℂसगँ कु न भाषामा 25. Language used w/mother when young: बो쥍नहु ꅍ镍यो?ु 26. Languages able to speak: तपाℂ कु न-कु न भाषा बो쥍 न स 啍 हनु ꅍु छ? 27. Best language: तपाℂ कु न भाषा सबभꅍदा 28. 2nd best language: तपाℂ कु न भाषा दोस्रो राम्रो राम्रो बो쥍ह नु ꅍु छ? बो쥍 नहु ꅍु छ? a. How easily: यो भाषा बो쥍न क��को स�जलो ला嵍छ? 29. 3rd best language: तपाℂ कु न भाषा तेस्रो 30. 4th best language: तपाℂ कु न भाषा चौथो राम्रो राम्रो बो쥍ह नु ꅍु छ? बो쥍 नहु ꅍु छ? a. How easily: यो भाषा बो쥍न क��को a. How easily: यो भाषा बो쥍न क��को स�जलो ला嵍छ?

स�जलो ला嵍छ? 31. School: तपाℂ कू ल प襍न ु भएको �थयो? 32. Until which year: क�त क�ास륍म? 33. Marital status: a. Spouse’s village: लो嵍नेको खास गाउँ कु न हो? / वा�ीको माइती कहा ँ छ? तपाℂ �ववा�हत हो? b. Spouse’s mother tongue: उहाकोँ मातभाषाृ कु न हो? c. Language used with spouse: त प ा ℂ आ 굍न ो घरमा हदाुँ (लो嵍ने/वा�ी)सगँ धेरैजसो कु न

भाषा बो쥍नहु ꅍछ?ु 34. Language(s) used with adult friends: तपाℂ तपाℂको खाम साथीसगँ कु न भाषा बो쥍नहु ꅍछ?ु 35. Language(s) used with grandparents at तपाℂ तपाℂको बबाु आमासगँ घरमा कु न भाषा बो쥍नहु ꅍछ?ु home: 36. Language(s) used with children at home: तपाℂ तपाℂको छोराछोरीसगँ घरमा कु न भाषा बो쥍नहु ꅍछ?ु 37. Language(s) used for house worship: तपाℂ घरमा (पजा/ु प्राथ셍ना) गदा셍खेरी कु न भाषा बो쥍नहु ꅍछ?ु तपाℂ (म�ꅍदर/चच셍)मा (पजा/ु प्राथ셍ना) गदा셍खेरी कु न भाषा 38. Language(s) used for public worship: बो쥍नहु ꅍछ?ु 39. Language(s) used when shopping: तपाℂ दोकान जादाखेरीँ कु न भाषा बो쥍नहु ꅍछ?ु 40. Language(s) used while traveling: तपाℂ घ륍नु जादाखेरीँ अ셁 खाम माꅍछेसगँ कु न भाषा बो쥍नहु ꅍछ?ु a. If not Kham, why?: �कन होला?

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के तपाℂले क�ह쥍यै खाम भाषा ले奍नहु ꅍछु ? (�चठ�मा, SMS, (If literate) 41. Ever writes in Kham: FaceBook) a. If not, why?: �कन होला? 42. Has children: तपाℂको छोराछोरी छन् �क छैनन्? 43. Do all their children speak Kham?: तपाℂको सबै छोराछोरीले खाम बो쥍न स啍छन्? 44. Language that children should learn तपाℂको �वचारमा तपाℂको छोराछोरीले कु न भाषा प�हला first: �स啍नपछ셍?ु 45. Do children learn Nepali before तपाℂको छोराछोरीलाई कु ल जानअ�घु नेपाली भाषा बो쥍न attending school?: आउँछ? 46. Would you support a Kham class in local य�द तपाℂह셁को छोराछोरीको ला�ग कु लमा खाम क�ा रा奍यो school?: भने तपाℂ साथ �दनहु ꅍछु ? 47. Language(s) used by children in the गाउँमा छोराछोरीले �छमेक�सगँ धेरैजसो कु न भाषा बो쥍छन्? village with adults: 48. Language(s) used by children in the गाउँमा छोराछोरीले एकअका셍सगँ खे쥍दा कु न भाषा बो쥍छन्? village when playing: 49. Language(s) used by young people (15‒ गाउँमा जवानह셁ले एकअका셍सगँ कु न भाषा बो쥍छन्? 25) in the village: 50. Frequency they would listen to a Kham य�द खाम भाषामा रे�डयो ब煍यो भने तपाℂ क��को स�ु हु ꅍछु ? radio program: (If literate) 51. Would like to read a Kham य�द खाम भाषामा �कताब �न啍यो भने तपाℂ प襍न मन book: पराउनहु ꅍछु ? (If literate) 52. Advantages to writing in तपाℂको �वचारमा खाम भाषा ले奍न प襍न स啍यो भने के फाइदा their language: छ? 53. Takasera 54. Maikot 55. ______56. ______a. Have met: ______माꅍछे भे絍नभयोु ? b. Amount able to understand: ______माꅍछेले बोलेको क�त ब畍नु हु ꅍछ?ु □ पराु □ प्राय □ आधी □ आधीभꅍदा कम c. How different?: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरकामा के फरक छ? □ उतै □ अ�ल फरक □ धेरै फरक d. Makes them feel: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरका तपाℂलाई कतो ला嵍छ? e. If “sad,” why: �कन होला? □ खशीु ला嵍छ □ � ठ कै ला嵍छ □ दःखला嵍दोु छ f. Identity: तपाℂ र उनीह셁को जात उतै हो? 57. Where is the purest Kham spoken?: कहा ँ सबभꅍदा श鵍दु खाम भाषा बो�लꅍछ? 58. Where is the 2nd purest Kham spoken?: कहा ँ दोस्रो鵍द शु खाम भाषा बो�लꅍछ? 59. Where is the least pure Kham spoken?: कहा ँ अश鵍दु खाम भाषा बो�लꅍछ?

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C.3 Individual interview data

Questions in the heading columns have been abbreviated in this section. Refer to section C.2 for the full questions. The following section contains individual interview responses as well as biodata information for the wordlist, HTT, and RTT respondents. Biodata information consists of questions 1– 32. All other questions are specific to the individual interview. Participant names and redundant or unnecessary columns are not included. The charts below show the abbreviations used in the interview data.

Standard abbreviations Languages DA didn’t ask K Kham DK didn’t know MK Magar Kham NA not applicable KM Kham Magar NR not recorded N Nepali M male E English F female H KTM Kathmandu

The tables below contain the metadata for the information on the following pages.

Metadata: Takasera Metadata: Maikot Dates of data Dates of data 13–15 April 2018 16–19 April 2018 collection collection Ward 10 Ward 1 VDC name Takasera VDC name Ranmamaikot District Rukum District Rukum GPS coordinates 28°34'55.0"N GPS 28°40'35.7"N 82°49'17.4"E coordinates 82°52'38.8"E Interviewers Joe Leman, Janel Interviewers Joe Leman, Janel Swenson, Bree Smith Swenson, Bree Smith

Metadata: Arjal Metadata: Ghunma Dates of data Dates of data 22–24 April 2018 24–25 April 2018 collection collection Ward 4 Ward 4 VDC name Ranmamaikot VDC name Ranmamaikot District Rukum District Rukum GPS coordinates 28°40'45.0"N GPS 28°41'23.7"N 82°48'57.9"E coordinates 82°49'27.6"E Interviewers Joe Leman, Janel Interviewers Joe Leman, Janel Swenson, Bree Smith Swenson, Bree Smith

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Metadata: Hukam Metadata: Ranma Dates of data Dates of data 25–27 April 2018 20–21 April 2018 collection collection VDC name Hukam VDC name Ranmamaikot District Rukum District Rukum GPS coordinates 28°40'27.2"N GPS 28°42'02.3"N 82°51'29.7"E coordinates 82°51'28.3"E Interviewers Joe Leman, Janel Interviewers Joe Leman, Janel Swenson, Bree Smith Swenson, Bree Smith

Metadata: Pelma Dates of data 28 April 2018 collection VDC name Ranmamaikot District Rukum GPS coordinates 28°39'27.9"N 82°56'42.1"E Interviewers Joe Leman, Janel Swenson, Bree Smith

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Questions 1–18

Subj 18. Lived Date Village Sex IC 11. Age 12. Caste 13. Occupation 14. Religion 15. MT 16. Born 17. Live No. elsewhere AB01 22-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 56 Pun Magar Farming NA Kham Arjal Arjal Yes AB02 23-Apr-18 Arjal F Given 36 Magar Housework Hindu Kham Kada Arjal Yes AB03 23-Apr-18 Arjal F Given 20 Budha Farming Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal No AB04 23-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 17 Magar Study Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal Yes AB05 24-Apr-18 Arjal F Given 16 Budha Study Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal No AB07 24-Apr-18 Ghunma F Given 36 Magar Health post Hindu Kham Ghunma Ghunma No AB08 25-Apr-18 Ghunma F Given 36 Magar Farming Hindu Kham Ghunma Ghunma No AJ02 22-Apr-18 Arjal F Given 26 Magar Store owner Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal No AJ03 22-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 16 Magar Study Hindu Kham Arjal NR No AJ04 22-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 24 Magar Farming Hindu Kham NR NR Yes AJ06 23-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 17 Magar Study Hindu Magar Arjal Arjal No AJ08 23-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 56 Pun Carry gwala Hindu Magar Arjal Arjal Yes AJ09 23-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 50 Pun Farming Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal No AJ10 24-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 36 Magar Farming Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal Yes AJ11 24-Apr-18 Ghunma M Given 16 Budha Magar Study Hindu Kham Ghunma Ghunma No AS01 22-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 26 Magar Farming Christian Kham Arjal Arjal Yes AS03 23-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 58 Pun Magar Farming Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal No AS04 23-Apr-18 Arjal F Given 21 Thakali Housework Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal No AS07 24-Apr-18 Arjal M Given 45 Magar Farming Hindu Kham Arjal Arjal No AS09 24-Apr-18 Ghunma F Given 40 Pun Farming Hindu Kham Gunma Gunma No DJ01 14-Jan-19 Dang F Given 16 Kham Magar Student Hindu Kham Takasera Takasera No DJ02 14-Jan-19 Dang M Given 47 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Takasera Takasera No DJ03 16-Jan-19 Dang M Given 73 Kham Farming Hindu Kham Takasera Takasera No Ramjhali Housework, DJ05 16-Jan-19 Dang F Given 34 Hindu Magar Kham Takasera Takasera No Budha farming DJ06a 17-Jan-19 Dang F Given 34 Kham Study Traditional Kham Taka Kathmandu Yes DJ08 18-Jan-19 Dang F Given 66 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Takasera Takasera Yes

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Subj 18. Lived Date Village Sex IC 11. Age 12. Caste 13. Occupation 14. Religion 15. MT 16. Born 17. Live No. elsewhere DJ10 18-Jan-19 Dang F Given 33 Magar Housework NR Kham Madichaura Madichaura No DK01 14-Jan-19 Dang M Given 47 Kham Magar Farming Traditional Kham Takasera Takasera No DK02 14-Jan-19 Dang F Given 51 Kham Magar Farming Traditional Kham Takasera Takasera No DK03 14-Jan-19 Dang M Given 28 Kham Magar Farming Christian Kham Takasera Takasera Yes DK04 16-Jan-19 Dang M Given 75 Budha Magar Farming Traditional Kham Taka Tu Taka Tu No DK05 16-Jan-19 Dang F Given 34 Kham Magar Farming Hindu Kham Takasera Takasera No DK06 17-Jan-19 Dang F Given 70 Budha Magar Farming Traditional Kham Takasera Takasera No DK07 18-Jan-19 Dang M Given 52 Kham Magar Farming Traditional Kham Takasera Gorahi Yes Nepali, HB01 26-Apr-18 Hukam M NA 19 Magar Housework Hindu Hukam Hukam No Kham HB02 27-Apr-18 Hukam F Given 26 Magar Farming Hindu Magar Hukam Hukam No HB03 27-Apr-18 Hukam M Given 19 Magar Study Hindu Magar Kham Hukam Hukam Yes HB04 27-Apr-18 Hukam F Given 36 Budha Magar Store owner Hindu Kham Hukam Hukam Yes HB05 27-Apr-18 Hukam F Given 36 Magar Housework Hindu Magar Hukam Hukam No HJ01 25-Apr-18 Hukam F Given 23 Gharti Magar Farming Hindu Magar Hukam Hukam No HJ03 27-Apr-18 Hukam M Given 43 Magar Farming Hindu/Buddhist Kham Hukam Hukam No HJ04 24-Apr-18 Hukam M Given 46 Magar Farming Hindu/Buddhist Kham Hukam Hukam Yes HJ05 27-Apr-18 Hukam M Given 26 Magar Farming Hindu Kham Hukam Hukam No HJ06 27-Apr-18 Hukam M Given 27 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Hukam Hukam No HJ07 27-Apr-18 Hukam M Given 41 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Hukam Hukam Yes Teaching, HS01 26-Apr-18 Hukam M Given 22 Magar No religion Kham Hukam Hukam NR farming HS02 26-Apr-18 Hukam NR Given 16 Pun Magar Student Hindu Kham Hukam Hukam No HS03 27-Apr-18 Hukam M Given 25 Magar Farming Hindu Kham Hukam Hukam No HS04 27-Apr-18 Hukam F Given 18 Magar Study Hindu Kham Hukam Hukam No Housework, HS05 27-Apr-18 Hukam F Given 36 Kham Hindu Kham Hukam Hukam No Farming HS06 27-Apr-18 Hukam F Given 23 Magar Farming, student Traditional Magar Kham Hukam Hukam Yes KJ02 7-Dec-18 Takasera M Given 45 Magar Translator Christian Magar Kham Takasera Bhaisepati Yes KJ03 7-Dec-18 Takasera F Given 33 Magar Translator Christian Magar Kham Bachhigau Kirtipur Yes

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Subj 18. Lived Date Village Sex IC 11. Age 12. Caste 13. Occupation 14. Religion 15. MT 16. Born 17. Live No. elsewhere KJ04 5-Feb-19 Takasera M Given 20 Magar Study Hindu Magar Takasera Kirtipur No Kham KJ05 5-Feb-19 Gumlibang M Given 35 Budha Magar Unemployed Christian Magar, Takasera Sita paila Yes Magar Kham KJ06 5-Feb-19 Bachhigau F Given 19 Magar Study Christian Magar Takasera Bhaisepati No KJ07 5-Feb-19 Gumlibang M Given 37 Budha Magar Farming Christian Kham Gumlibang Gumlibang No MB01 16-Apr-18 Maikot F Given 21 Magar Student Pitra Kham Maikot Maikot NR MB02 16-Apr-18 Maikot M Given 38 Magar Farming Pitra Kham Maikot Maikot NR MB03 17-Apr-18 Maikot M Given 38 Magar Teaching Traditional Kham Maikot Maikot Yes MB04 17-Apr-18 Maikot F Given 26 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Maikot Maikot No MB05 18-Apr-18 Maikot F Given 27 Magar Teller Christian Kham Maikot Maikot No MB06 18-Apr-18 Maikot F Given 59 Magar Housework Traditional Kham Maikot Maikot No Hindu, MJ01 17-Apr-18 Maikot M Given 32 Magar Housework Kham Magar Maikot Maikot Yes Traditional MJ02 17-Apr-18 Maikot M Given 32 Pun Magar Operator Traditional Kham Maikot Maikot Yes MJ03 17-Apr-18 Maikot M Given 52 Magar Housework Hindu, Buddhist Kham Maikot Maikot Yes No Religion, MJ04 18-Apr-18 Maikot M Given 27 Magar Farming Kham Maikot Maikot Yes Traditional Teaching, MJ06 18-Apr-18 Maikot M Given 42 Pun Magar NA Kham Magar Maikot Maikot No farming MS01 14-Apr-18 Maikot M NA 24 Magar Trekking guide Pitra Kham Maikot Maikot Yes MS03 17-Apr-18 Maikot F Given 21 Magar Study Hindu Kham Maikot Maikot Yes MS04 17-Apr-18 Maikot F Given 31 Magar Farming Hindu Kham Maikot Maikot No MS05 17-Apr-18 Maikot F Given 38 Magar Farming Traditional Magar Kham Maikot Maikot Yes MS06 17-Apr-18 Maikot M Given 47 Pun Farming No Religion Kham Maikot Maikot No MS07 17-Apr-18 Maikot F Given 43 Magar Farming Hindu, Buddhist Kham Emekar Maikot Yes PB02 28-Apr-18 Pelma F Given 30 Pun Magar Farming Christian Kham Pelma Pelma No PJ01 28-Apr-18 Pelma M Given 62 Budha Magar Farming Traditional Kham Pelma Pelma No PJ03 28-Apr-18 Pelma M Given 84 Khatri Retired Hindu Kham Pelma Pelma No Farming, hotel PS01 28-Apr-18 Pelma F Given 43 Magar Traditional Kham Pelma Pelma No owner

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Subj 18. Lived Date Village Sex IC 11. Age 12. Caste 13. Occupation 14. Religion 15. MT 16. Born 17. Live No. elsewhere RJ01 25-Apr-18 Ranma M Given 59 Budha Farming Hindu Kham Magar Ranma Ranma No RJ02 20-Apr-18 Ranma F Given 28 Budha Housework Hindu Kham Ranma Ranma No RJ03 20-Apr-18 Ranma M Given 23 Magar Farming Hindu Kham Ranma Ranma Yes TB01 14-Apr-18 Takasera F Given 45 Magar Farming Buddhist Kham Taka Taka No TB02 14-Apr-18 Takasera F DA 35 Gurung Farming Hindu Kham Taka Taka No TB03 14-Apr-18 Takasera M DA 51 Gharti Magar Farming Hindu Kham Taka Taka Yes TB04 14-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 17 Budha Magar Housework Hindu Kham Taka Taka No TB05 14-Apr-18 Takasera F Given 15 Magar Study Hindu Kham Taka Taka Yes TB06 14-Apr-18 Takasera F Given 17 Magar Study Hindu Kham Taka Taka No TJ01 12-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 33 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Taka Taka Yes TJ02 14-Apr-18 Takasera F Given 22 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Taka Taka No TJ03 15-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 31 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Taka Taka Yes TJ04 13-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 48 Gurung Farming Traditional Kham Taka Taka Yes TJ05 13-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 36 Magar Farming Hindu Kham Taka Taka Yes TJ06 13-Apr-18 Takasera F Given 60 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Taka Taka No TJ07 13-Apr-18 Takasera F Given 41 Budha Magar Farming Traditional Kham Taka Taka No TJ08a 14-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 66 Gharti Magar Farming Hindu Kham Taka Taka Yes TJ08b 14-Apr-18 Takasera F Given 16 Magar Study Buddhist Kham Taka Taka No TS01 14-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 17 Magar Study No Religion Kham Taka Taka No TS02 14-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 51 Magar Farming Traditional Kham Taka Taka NR TS03 14-Apr-18 Takasera F Given 44 Budha Magar Farming Hindu Kham Taka Taka NR TS04 14-Apr-18 Takasera M Given 19 Magar Study Hindu Kham Taka KTM NR

81

Questions 18a–19

Subj 18c. How 18a. 18c. How 18c. How 18a. Where 18b. When 18b. When 18a. Where 18b. When 19. How long here No. long Where long long Saudi When a AB01 2003 4 years 3 years Kathmandu 2050 1.5 years NR Arabia child Birth to 8 yrs Moved here for AB02 Kada 8 years NA NA NA NA NA NA ago marriage 8 years ago AB03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AB04 Kalanga Just returned 2 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 15 years AB05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AB07 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AB08 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AJ02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AJ03 Kalanga NR 2 years NA NA NA NA NA NA NR AJ04 Tanakun 2 years ago 2 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 2 AJ06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AJ08 Mastan 2004 4–5 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 10 years AJ09 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AJ10 Dang 2004 3–4 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 10 years AJ11 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AS01 Kalanga 5–6 years ago 3 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 23 years AS03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AS04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AS07 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life AS09 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DJ01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DJ02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DJ03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DJ05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DJ06a UK 2014 1 yr Norway 2013 1 yr France 2016 1 yr NR DJ08 India DA 1.5 years NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life

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Subj 18c. How 18a. 18c. How 18c. How 18a. Where 18b. When 18b. When 18a. Where 18b. When 19. How long here No. long Where long long DJ10 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DK01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DK02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DK03 Gorahi 2003–2007 3 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 25 yrs DK04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DK05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DK06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life DK07 Gorahi 3 years ago 3 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 49 yrs HB01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 21 yrs HB02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life HB03 Kalanga just returned 1 year NA NA NA NA NA NA 18 yrs until 6 years HB04 Kajarjang 9–10 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 30 yrs ago HB05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life HJ01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NR HJ03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life HJ04 Malaysia 2002 7 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 9 yrs HJ05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life HJ06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life HJ07 Malaysia 2007 3 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 8 yrs 1972 came HS01 2 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA NR back HS02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NR HS03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life HS04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life HS05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life HS06 Kalanga 2013–2015 2–3 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 3 years KJ02 Pokhara 2010 3.5 yrs KTM 2009 13 yrs NA NA NA 13 yrs KJ03 Dang 7 years ago 10–12 yrs KTM from 2005 13 yrs NA NA NA 13 yrs KJ04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 2–3 yrs

83

Subj 18c. How 18a. 18c. How 18c. How 18a. Where 18b. When 18b. When 18a. Where 18b. When 19. How long here No. long Where long long Saudi KJ05 2008 2 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 3 yrs in KTM Arabia KJ06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life KJ07 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life MB01 Kathmandu 1972 1 year NA NA NA NA NA NA NR MB02 Malaysia 1966 31 months NA NA NA NA NA NA NR MB03 Dang 1993–1998 5 years Kathmandu 1999–2000 2 years NA NA NA 31 yrs MB04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life MB05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life MB06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life MJ01 Malaysia 2003 2 years Kathmandu 2017 1 year NA NA NA 1 yr MJ02 Gulmi 15 years ago 1 year NA NA NA NA NA NA 15 yrs MJ03 S. Korea 1990 2 years NA NA NA NA NA NA 20 yrs MJ04 Nepalgung 4 years ago 2 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 4 yrs MJ06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Tamgas MS01 Butwal 1998 1 yr 1999 2 yrs Palpa 1999–2001 2 yrs 0–4, 9–24 (Gulmi) MS03 Butwal 1 year ago 3 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 1 yr MS04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life MS05 Baglung 20 years ago 2 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 36 yrs MS06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA whole life MS07 Emekhar 0–18yrs old 18 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 25 yrs PB02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life PJ01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life PJ03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life PS01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life RJ01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life RJ02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life RJ03 Kalanga 2 years ago 2 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 2 yrs TB01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NR

84

Subj 18c. How 18a. 18c. How 18c. How 18a. Where 18b. When 18b. When 18a. Where 18b. When 19. How long here No. long Where long long TB02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 35 yrs TB03 Saudi 20 dai sal? 6 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 55 yrs TB04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 17 yrs TB05 KTM Came 6 yrs ago 3–4 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA ~12 yrs TB06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 17 yrs TJ01 KTM 1995 5 yrs Dang 2002 2 yrs NA NA NA Taka TJ02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Taka TJ03 India 2005 2 yrs Maikot 2015 1 yrs KTM 2004 11 Taka TJ04 UAE 1996 2 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 40+ yrs Saudi TJ05 2013 2 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 5 yrs Arabia TJ06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Taka TJ07 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life South TJ08a India 1968–1985 17 yrs 1992–1997 7 yrs NA NA NA 16+21 years old Korea TJ08b NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NR TS01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Whole life TS02 Qatar 1994 8 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 43 yrs TS03 Tallo Sera 23 years ago 21 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 23 yrs TS04 KTM - study Last 7 years 7 yrs NA NA NA NA NA NA 12 yrs in Taka

85

Questions 20–27

Subj 20. Father’s 22. Father 23. Mother’s 24. Mother’s 25. Mother 27. Best 21. Father’s MT 26. Languages speak No. home spoke home MT spoke language AB01 Arjal Kham Kham Ranma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, Hindi Kham AB02 Kada Kham Kham Karbang Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AB03 Arjal Kham Kham Arjal Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AB04 Arjal Kham Kham Arjal Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AB05 Arjal Kham Kham Chargaun Nepali Nepali Kham, Nepali Kham AB07 Arjal Kham Kham Nama Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AB08 Ghunma Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AJ02 Arjal Kham Kham Arjal Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AJ03 Arjal Kham Kham Arjal Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, English Kham AJ04 Arjal Kham Kham Karabang Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AJ06 Arjal Magar Magar Dang Nepali Nepali Magar, Nepali Magar AJ08 Arjal Kham Kham Arjal Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AJ09 Arjal Kham Magar Kham Ranma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AJ10 Kada Kham Kham Karbang Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, Hindi Kham AJ11 Ghunma Kham Kham Dimargedu Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AS01 Arjal Kham Kham Kol Kham Kham Nepali, Kham Kham AS03 Arjal Kham Kham Arjal Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham Karbang AS04 Arjal Kham Kham Karbang Kham Kham, Nepali Kham Kham AS07 Arjal Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham AS09 Ghunma Kham Kham Ghunma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DJ01 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DJ02 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DJ03 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DJ05 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DJ06a Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, English, Hindi Kham DJ08 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DJ10 Madichaura Kham Kham Korchabang Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham

86

Subj 20. Father’s 22. Father 23. Mother’s 24. Mother’s 25. Mother 27. Best 21. Father’s MT 26. Languages speak No. home spoke home MT spoke language DK01 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, English Kham DK02 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DK03 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, Hindi, English Kham DK04 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DK05 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham DK06 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham Kham DK07 Takasera Kham Kham TakaTesera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HB01 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Nep, Kham Kham HB02 Hukam Magar Magar Pelma Magar Magar Magar, Nepali Magar HB03 Hukam Magar Kham Kham Ranma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HB04 Hukam Kham Magar Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HB05 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HJ01 Hukam Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham HJ03 Hukam Kham Kham Ranma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HJ04 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, Malaysia Kham HJ05 Hukam Kham Kham Ranma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HJ06 Hukam Kham Kham Ranma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HJ07 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HS01 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Nepali, Kham Kham HS02 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Nepali, Kham Kham HS03 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HS04 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HS05 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham HS06 Hukam Kham Kham Hukam Kham Magar Kham Kham, Nepali Kham KJ02 Takasera Magar Kham Magar Kham Takasera Magar Kham Magar Kham Magar Kham, Nepali Magar Kham Magar Kham, Nepali, English, KJ03 Bachhigau Magar Kham Magar Kham Bachhigau Magar Kham Magar Kham Magar Kham Hindi KJ04 Takasera Kham Kham Takasera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, English Kham KJ05 Gumlibang Magar Kham Magar Kham Takasera Magar Kham Magar Kham Magar Kham, Nepali, Hindi Magar Kham KJ06 Bachhigau Kham Kham Bachhigau Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham

87

Subj 20. Father’s 22. Father 23. Mother’s 24. Mother’s 25. Mother 27. Best 21. Father’s MT 26. Languages speak No. home spoke home MT spoke language KJ07 Gumlibang Kham Kham Gumlibang Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MB01 Maikot Kham Kham NR NR NR Kham, Nepali Kham MB02 NR NR NR Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MB03 Maikot Kham Kham Ranma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, English Kham MB04 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MB05 Maikot Kham Kham Ral Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MB06 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MJ01 Maikot Kham Magar Kham Maikot Kham Magar Kham Kham, Nepali, Hindi Kham MJ02 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MJ03 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MJ04 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MJ06 Maikot Kham Magar Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, English Kham Kham, Nepali, English, Hindi, MS01 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham Japanese, Korean MS03 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham MS04 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, English Kham MS05 Maikot Kham Magar Kham Maikot Magar Kham Magar Kham Magar Kham, Nepali Magar Kham MS06 Maikot Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, Hindi Kham MS07 Emakhar Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham PB02 Pelma Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham PJ01 Pelma Kham Kham Jemikar Kham Kham Kham Kham PJ03 Pelma Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham PS01 Pelma Kham Kham Pelma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham RJ01 Ranma Kham Kham Ranma Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham RJ02 Ranma Kham Kham Pelma Kham Kham Kham, Nepal Kham RJ03 Ranma Kham Kham Maikot Kham Kham Kham, Nepal, English Kham TB01 Taka Kham Kham Sera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham died when TB02 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham, Nepali Kham young TB03 Taka Kham Kham Sera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham

88

Subj 20. Father’s 22. Father 23. Mother’s 24. Mother’s 25. Mother 27. Best 21. Father’s MT 26. Languages speak No. home spoke home MT spoke language TB04 Taka Kham Kham Sera Kham Kham Nepali, Kham, Hindi Kham TB05 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Nepali, Kham, English Kham TB06 Taka Kham Magar Kham Taka Magar Kham Nepali, Kham Kham TJ01 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, Hindi Kham TJ02 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Kham, Nepal Kham TJ03 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham English, Hindi, Nepal, Kham Khana TJ04 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Nepal, Kham, English, Hindi Kham TJ05 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Nepali, Kham Kham TJ06 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham TJ07 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham Kham, Nepali, Hindi, Korean, TJ08a Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Kham English TJ08b Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham TS01 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Nepali, Kham Kham TS02 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham Hindi, Nepali, Kham Kham TS03 Tallo Sera Kham Kham Tallo Sera Kham Kham Kham, Nepali Kham TS04 Taka Kham Kham Taka Kham Kham English, Nepali, Kham, Hindi Nepali

89

Questions 28–32

Subj 28. 2nd 29a. How 28a. How easily 29. 3rd lang 30. 4th language 30a. How easily 31. School 32. Until when No. language easily AB01 Nepali Easy Hindi NA NA NA Yes Class 3 AB02 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA No NA AB03 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 5 AB04 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 9 AB05 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 8 AB07 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 8 AB08 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA No NA AJ02 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 5 AJ03 Nepal Easy English Difficult NA NA Yes 9 AJ04 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA NR NR AJ06 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 10 AJ08 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 3 AJ09 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA No NA AJ10 Nepali Easy Hindi Easy NA NA Yes 8 AJ11 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 8 AS01 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes +2 AS03 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 2 AS04 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 7 AS07 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 2 AS09 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 10 DJ01 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 10 DJ02 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 10 Easy to DJ03 Nepali understand, NA NA NA NA No NA hard to speak DJ05 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA No NA DJ06a Nepali Easily English Average Hindi Average Yes Master's degree DJ08 Nepali A little difficult NA NA NA NA No NA

90

Subj 28. 2nd 29a. How 28a. How easily 29. 3rd lang 30. 4th language 30a. How easily 31. School 32. Until when No. language easily DJ10 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 10th DK01 Nepali Okay English Difficult NA NA Yes 10 DK02 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA No NA DK03 Nepali Easy Hindi Okay English Difficult Yes BA DK04 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA No NA DK05 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA No NA DK06 NA NA NA NA NA NA No NA DK07 Nepali A little difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 5 HB01 Nepali Also easy NA NA NA NA Yes 11 HB02 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 8 HB03 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 11 HB04 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA No NA HB05 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA No NA HJ01 Nepal Difficult NA NA NA NA NR NR HJ03 Nepali A little difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 1 HJ04 Nepali Difficult Malaysia Difficult English Difficult Yes 9 HJ05 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 10 HJ06 Nepali A little difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 10 HJ07 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA Yes SLC HS01 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes ISC Inter HS02 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA Yes In class 8 HS03 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes SLC HS04 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 10 HS05 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA No NA HS06 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes BA KJ02 Nepali Not easy (weak) NA NA NA NA Yes 7th Understand, KJ03 Nepali Easy English Okay Hindi Yes Bachelor's speak okay KJ04 Nepali Easy English Difficult NA NA Yes 12 KJ05 Nepali Okay Hindi Okay NA NA Yes 9

91

Subj 28. 2nd 29a. How 28a. How easily 29. 3rd lang 30. 4th language 30a. How easily 31. School 32. Until when No. language easily KJ06 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 12 KJ07 Nepali A little difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 5 MB01 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA NR Until 12 MB02 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA NR Until 10 MB03 Nepali Easy English Okay NA NA Yes BA MB04 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 12 MB05 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 6 MB06 Nepali A little difficult NA NA NA NA No NA MJ01 Nepali Easy English Easy NA NA Yes 9 MJ02 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 9 MJ03 Nepali A little difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 8 MJ04 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 10 MJ06 Nepali NA English NA NA NA Yes SLC 12 MS01 Nepali Easy English Easy Hindi Easy Yes 12 MS03 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes SLC A little MS04 Nepali Easy English NA NA Yes 12 difficult MS05 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes Inter MS06 Nepali Easy Hindi Difficult NA NA Yes 5 MS07 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 2 PB02 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA No NA PJ01 NA NA NA NA NA NA No NA PJ03 NA NA NA NA NA NA No NA PS01 Nepali A little difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 5 RJ01 Nepali Difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 3 RJ02 Nepal A little difficult NA NA NA NA Yes 2 RJ03 Nepal Easy English diff NA NA Yes 10 TB01 NR A little difficult NA NA NA NA NR NR TB02 NR Okay NA NA NA NA No NA TB03 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 3

92

Subj 28. 2nd 29a. How 28a. How easily 29. 3rd lang 30. 4th language 30a. How easily 31. School 32. Until when No. language easily TB04 Nepali Easy NR NR Hindi A little only Yes 12 Harder than TB05 Nepali English Difficult NA NA Yes 10 (in) Kham TB06 Nepali Okay/fine NA NA NA NA Yes 9 passed, going to 10 TJ01 Nepali Easy Hindi Hard NA NA Yes 10+ TJ02 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA Yes 10 TJ03 Nepali Okay English Okay/hard Hindi Okay Yes BBS TJ04 Nepali Easy Hindi Easy English A little Yes 5 TJ05 Nepal Okay/normal English A little NA NA Yes 5 TJ06 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA No NA TJ07 Nepali Easy NA NA NA NA No NA Easy to TJ08a Nepali Easy Hindi Easy English Yes 9 understand TJ08b Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA Yes 10 TS01 Nepali A little NA NA NA NA Yes SLC TS02 Nepali Easy for him Hindi Easy NA NA Yes 5 class TS03 Nepali Okay NA NA NA NA No NA 12 (started TS04 Kham Easy English Easy Nepali A little difficult Yes Bachelor's)

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Questions 33–37

Subj 33a. Spouse’s 33b. Spouse’s 33c. Speak w/ 34. Speak w/ 35. Speak w/ 36. Speak w/ 37. Lang. for 33. Married No home MT spouse friends grandparents children house worship AB02 Married Arjal Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham NA AB03 Married Arjal Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham AB04 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham NA AB05 Married Arjal Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham NA AB07 Married Ghunma Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham AB08 Married Ghunma Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham AJ06 Unmarried NA NA NA Magar Magar Magar Magar AJ08 Married Mayang Nepali Kham Kham NA Kham Kham AJ09 Married Arjal Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham AJ10 Married Arjal Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham AJ11 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham Nepali AS03 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham NA Kham Kham AS04 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham AS07 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham NA Kham Kham AS09 Married Ghunma Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham DJ01 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham Kham DJ02 DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DJ03 Married Takasera Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham DJ05 Married Lukam Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham DJ08 Married Takasera Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham DK01 Married Takasera Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham DK02 Married Takasera Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham DK03 Married Takasera Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham with Kham, DK04 Married Tu Kham Kham Nepali with Kham Kham Kham Nepali DK05 Married Takasera Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham DK06 Married Takasera Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham

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Subj 33a. Spouse’s 33b. Spouse’s 33c. Speak w/ 34. Speak w/ 35. Speak w/ 36. Speak w/ 37. Lang. for 33. Married No home MT spouse friends grandparents children house worship Kham with Kham, DK07 Married Lukum Kham Kham Nepali with Kham Kham Kham Nepali HB02 Married Hukam Magar Magar Magar Magar Magar Magar HB03 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham NA HB04 Married Kajarjang Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham HB05 Married Hukam Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham HJ03 Married Ranma Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham HJ04 Married Hukam Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham HJ05 Married Hukam Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham NA HJ06 Married Hukam Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham NA HJ07 Married Kajarjang Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham HS03 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham HS04 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham Kham HS05 Married Hukam Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham HS06 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham Kham KJ04 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham Kham Magar Kham and KJ05 Married Gumlibang Magar Kham Magar Kham Magar Kham Magar Kham Nepali - more Nepali Nepali KJ06 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham Kham KJ07 Married Gumlibang Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham MB03 Married Kaldang Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham NA MB04 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham MB05 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham Nepali MB06 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham MJ01 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham Kham Kham MJ02 Married Pusar Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham MJ03 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham MJ04 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham MS03 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham

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Subj 33a. Spouse’s 33b. Spouse’s 33c. Speak w/ 34. Speak w/ 35. Speak w/ 36. Speak w/ 37. Lang. for 33. Married No home MT spouse friends grandparents children house worship MS04 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham MS05 Married Maikot Magar Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham NA MS06 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham MS07 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham PB02 Married Pelma Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Nepali PJ01 Unmarried NA NA NA Kham Kham NA Kham PJ03 Married Maikot Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham PS01 Married Pelma Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham

Questions 38–41

38. Lang for 40. Lang for 40a. If not 41. Write Subj No 39. Language for Shopping 41a. What Script? 41b. Why not Public Worship Travel Kham, Why? Kham Kham here, Nepali other AB02 NA Kham NA NA NA NA places Not sure why, write in AB03 Nepali Kham Kham NA No NA Nepali AB04 Nepali Kham Nepali NR No NA NR AB05 NA Kham Kham NA No NA NR AB07 NA Kham Kham NA Yes NR NA AB08 Kham Kham Kham NA NA NA NA AJ06 Nepali Magar Nepali NR No NA NA AJ08 NA Kham Kham NA No NA NA AJ09 Kham Kham, Nepali Kham NA NA NA NA AJ10 Kham Kham Kham NA Yes Roman NA AJ11 Nepali Nepali Kham NA No NA NR AS03 Kham Nepali Kham NA NA NA NA AS04 Kham Nepali Kham NA Yes Messages NA AS07 NA Kham Kham NA NA NA NA AS09 Kham Kham Kham NA No NA Uses Nepali

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38. Lang for 40. Lang for 40a. If not 41. Write Subj No 39. Language for Shopping 41a. What Script? 41b. Why not Public Worship Travel Kham, Why? Kham Kham with Kham, Nepali DJ01 Kham Kham NA Yes Roman NA with Nepali DJ02 DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DJ03 Kham Kham Kham NA NA NA NA Kham with Kham, Nepali DJ05 Kham Kham NA NA NA NA with Nepali Kham with Kham, Nepali DJ08 Kham Kham NA NA NA NA with Nepali DK01 Kham Kham Kham NA Yes Devanagari NA DK02 Kham Nepali Kham NA NA NA NA Kham and Kham with Kham, Nepali DK03 Kham NA Yes NR NA Nepali with Nepali Kham with Kham, Nepali DK04 Kham Kham NA NA NA NA with Nepali Kham with Kham, Nepali DK05 Kham Kham NA NA NA NA with Nepali DK06 Kham Kham Kham NA NA NA NA Kham and Kham with Kham, Nepali DK07 Kham NA Yes NR NA Nepali with Nepali HB02 Magar Magar Magar NA Yes Mobile, SMS NA HB03 NA Kham Kham NA Yes NR NA HB04 Kham Kham Kham NA NA NA NA HB05 Kham Kham Kham NA NA NA NA Kham here, Nepali other HJ03 Kham Kham NA NA NA NA places Kham with HJ04 Kham Kham Kham, Nepali NA Yes Roman NA with Nepali Kham with Kham, Nepali HJ05 Nepali Kham NA Yes Devanagari NA with Nepali HJ06 Kham Kham Kham NA No NA NR HJ07 Kham Kham Kham NA Yes NR NA

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38. Lang for 40. Lang for 40a. If not 41. Write Subj No 39. Language for Shopping 41a. What Script? 41b. Why not Public Worship Travel Kham, Why? Kham HS03 Kham Kham Kham NA No NA Uses Nepali HS04 Kham Kham Kham NA No NA NR HS05 Kham Kham Kham NA NA NA NA HS06 Kham Kham Kham NA Yes Songs NA Kham with Kham, Nepali KJ04 Kham Kham NA No NA NR with Nepali Nepali in KTM, Facebook - KJ05 Magar Kham in Nepali Magar Kham NA Yes NA Devanagari Gumlibang KJ06 Kham Kham Kham NA Yes Roman NA Kham with Kham, Nepali KJ07 Kham Kham NA Yes Devanagari NA with Nepali Not sure if Kham with Kham, Nepali MB03 Kham Nepali they're Kham No NA No alphabet with Nepali or not MB04 Kham Kham Kham NA Yes SMS & FB NA MB05 Kham Kham Kham NA No NA Not sure MB06 Kham Kham Kham NA No NA NA MJ01 Kham Kham Kham NA Yes NR NA MJ02 Kham Nepali Kham NA Yes NR NA Kham with Kham, Nepali MJ03 Kham Kham NA No NA NA with Nepali MJ04 NA Kham Kham NA Yes Roman NA MS03 Nepali Nepali Kham NA No NA NR Kham here, Nepali other MS04 Kham Kham NA No NA NR places MS05 NA Magar Kham Kham NA Yes NR NA Kham here, MS06 Kham Kham Nepali other NA No NA NR places

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38. Lang for 40. Lang for 40a. If not 41. Write Subj No 39. Language for Shopping 41a. What Script? 41b. Why not Public Worship Travel Kham, Why? Kham Kham with MS07 NA Kham Kham, Nepali NA NA NA NA with Nepali PB02 Nepali Kham Kham NA NA NA NA PJ01 Kham Kham Kham NA NA NA NA PJ03 Kham Kham Kham NA NA NA NA Kham with Kham, Nepali Doesn't message here PS01 Kham Kham NA No NA with Nepali - no service

Questions 42–48

Subj 43. Children speak 44. Children should 45. Nepali 46. Support Kham 47. Lang child 48. Lang child 42. Children No. Kham learn 1st before school class w/adult w/child AB02 Yes Yes Nepali Yes Yes Kham Kham AB03 Yes NA; too small Kham Yes DK Kham Kham AB04 No NA Kham No Yes Kham Kham AB05 No NA Kham Yes Yes Kham Kham AB07 Yes NR Kham Yes Yes Kham Kham AB08 Yes Yes Kham A little Yes Kham Kham AJ06 NA NA Nepali A little NA Magar Magar AJ08 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham AJ09 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham AJ10 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham AJ11 NA NA NA Yes NA Kham Kham AS03 Yes Yes Nepali; for travel Yes Yes Kham Kham AS04 Yes Yes Kham A little Yes Kham Kham AS07 DA DA Nepali No Yes Kham Kham AS09 Yes Yes Kham A little Yes Kham Kham DJ01 No NA Kham No Yes Kham Kham DJ02 DA DA DA DA DA DA DA

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Subj 43. Children speak 44. Children should 45. Nepali 46. Support Kham 47. Lang child 48. Lang child 42. Children No. Kham learn 1st before school class w/adult w/child DJ03 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham DJ05 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham DJ08 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham DK01 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham DK02 Yes Yes Kham Yes Yes Kham Kham DK03 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham DK04 yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham DK05 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham No; she can't teach DK06 Yes Yes Kham No Kham Kham them DK07 No NA Kham No Yes Kham Kham Nepali; understand HB02 Yes Yes No Yes Magar Magar at school HB03 NA NA Kham & Nepali No Yes Kham Kham No; speak mainly HB04 Yes Nepali - studying in NR Yes Yes Kham Nepali Kalang HB05 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham HJ03 Yes Yes Kham No Yes; very much Kham Kham HJ04 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham HJ05 Yes NA; too small Kham NR Yes Kham Kham HJ06 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham HJ07 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham HS03 No NA Kham No Yes Kham Kham HS04 DA No Kham No Yes Kham Kham HS05 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham HS06 NA NA Kham No Yes; very much Kham Kham KJ04 NA NA Kham No Yes Kham Kham KJ05 Yes Yes Magar Kham No Yes Kham Kham KJ06 No NA Kham No Yes Kham Kham KJ07 Yes Kham Kham No Yes Kham Kham

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Subj 43. Children speak 44. Children should 45. Nepali 46. Support Kham 47. Lang child 48. Lang child 42. Children No. Kham learn 1st before school class w/adult w/child MB03 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham MB04 Yes Yes Kham Yes Yes Kham Kham MB05 No NA Kham Yes Yes Kham Kham Kham, Nepali in MB06 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham school MJ01 NA NA Kham NR Yes Kham Kham MJ02 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham MJ03 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham MJ04 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham MS03 Yes NA; too small Kham A little Yes Kham Kham MS04 Yes Yes NR A little Yes; very much Kham Kham MS05 Yes Yes Kham A little Yes Kham Kham MS06 Yes Yes Kham, then Nepali No Yes; very much Kham Kham MS07 Yes Yes Kham Yes Yes Kham Kham Kham, then Nepali, PB02 Yes Yes No Yes Kham Kham English also PJ01 NA NA Kham No Yes Kham Kham PJ03 Yes Yes Kham No Yes Kham Kham PS01 No NA Kham Yes Yes Kham Kham

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Questions 49–52

Subj 49. Lang young 50. Kham How often? 51. Kham book 52. Writing Kham advantages No people speak radio

AB02 Kham, Nepali Yes NR NA NA AB03 Kham, Nepali Yes NR Yes DK AB04 Kham Yes NR Yes DK AB05 Kham No NA Yes DK AB07 Kham Yes NR Yes DK AB08 Kham Yes NR NA NA AJ06 Magar Yes A little Yes DK AJ08 Kham Yes Often Yes DK AJ09 Kham, Nepali Yes NR NA To talk with each other AJ10 Kham Yes Often Yes Much AJ11 Nepali Yes Pften Yes It would be easy for us. AS03 Kham Yes A little NA NA AS04 Kham Yes A little Yes When traveling, can speak w/eachother AS07 Kham Yes NR NA NA AS09 Kham Yes Often Yes It would be easy. DJ01 Kham Yes Often Yes Good DJ02 DA DA DA DA DA Nepali in school, Nepali DJ03 Yes NA NA Kham elsewhere radio is bad Communicate secret things. Could record old things. Good for children to DJ05 Kham Yes DA NA learn It would be advantageous for the children when in school. “We love our DJ08 Kham Yes DA so much that we don't speak Nepali.” DK01 Kham Yes DA Yes For community and sharing ideas DK02 Kham Yes DA NA NA DK03 Kham Yes DA Yes Good for learning quickly DK04 Kham Yes DA NA NA DK05 Kham Yes DA NA NR

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Subj 49. Lang young 50. Kham How often? 51. Kham book 52. Writing Kham advantages No people speak radio

DK06 Kham Yes DA NA NR DK07 Kham Yes DA Yes It will be very good for Kham's life HB02 Magar Yes Often Yes Our own speech HB03 Kham Yes Often Yes In own village conversation can understand HB04 Kham Yes NR Yes Very many advantages HB05 Kham Yes NR NA NA HJ03 Kham Yes NR Yes For doing puja and writing HJ04 Kham Yes Always Yes Much easier to learn for children HJ05 Kham, Nepali Yes Often Yes Will save the language HJ06 Kham Yes Often Yes Save culture, save language HJ07 Kham Yes Often Yes Easy for us in school HS03 Kham Yes NR Yes “Would be very good, many advantages” HS04 Kham Yes Often Yes Yes there are advantages HS05 Kham NR NR NA NA HS06 Kham Yes Often Yes To preserve the Kham language KJ04 Kham Yes Often Yes Our own culture/identity/tradition For the language would be good we could write secret things. It is very KJ05 Magar Kham Yes NA Yes important for the language KJ06 Kham Yes DA Yes To save the language KJ07 Kham Yes Often Yes Would be good for people who don't speak Kham to learn MB03 Kham Yes NR Yes All people could study their own language MB04 Kham Yes NR Yes Wouldn't be lost MB05 Kham Yes NR Yes DK MB06 Kham Yes NR NA NA MJ01 Kham, Nepali NR NR Yes Very advantagious 'for secrets' and com w/other Kham MJ02 Kham Yes Daily Yes Very many, won't die MJ03 Kham, Nepali Yes Daily Yes Would be good (won't die) MJ04 Kham Yes Often Yes Language won't die MS03 Kham Yes A little Yes DK

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Subj 49. Lang young 50. Kham How often? 51. Kham book 52. Writing Kham advantages No people speak radio

MS04 Kham Yes Often Yes Preserving history, culture MS05 Kham Yes NR Yes Lots of advantages, would be easy MS06 Kham Yes Often Yes Very much, he has read some of David W's book and enjoyed MS07 Kham Yes Often NA NA PB02 Kham Yes NR NA NA PJ01 Kham, Nepali Yes Often NA NA PJ03 Kham Yes NR NA NA PS01 Magar Kham Yes Often Yes Would be many advantages

Questions 53–54

53a. Met 53b. 54d. 54e. If Subj 53c. How 53d. 53e. If sad, 54a. Met 54b. Amount 54c. How 54f. from Amount 53f. Identity How sad, No. different How feel why from Maikot understands different Identity Takasera understands feel why A little AB02 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different AB03 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Different Okay NA Same A little A little AB04 Yes Most Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different A little AB05 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes Most Happy NA Different different A little A little AB07 Yes Half Happy NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little AB08 Yes Half Different Okay NA Different Yes All Happy NA Same different A little AJ06 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Same different

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53a. Met 53b. 54d. 54e. If Subj 53c. How 53d. 53e. If sad, 54a. Met 54b. Amount 54c. How 54f. from Amount 53f. Identity How sad, No. different How feel why from Maikot understands different Identity Takasera understands feel why A little A little AJ08 Yes All Happy NA Different Yes All Happy NA Same different different A little AJ09 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different A little A little AJ10 Yes Half Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same Different different A little A little AJ11 Yes Half Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same Different different Very A little AS03 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different Very A little AS04 Yes Most Okay NA Different Yes All Okay NA Different different different A little A ;ittle AS07 Yes All Okay NA Both Yes All Happy NA Same Different different A little AS09 Yes All Different Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different DJ01 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Same NR NR NR DJ02 DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA A little DJ03 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Same different A little DJ05 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes Most Okay NA NR different A little DJ08 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA NR different DK01 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All NR NR NR NR A little DK02 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Same different A little DK03 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Same different DK04 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Same Okay NA Same

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53a. Met 53b. 54d. 54e. If Subj 53c. How 53d. 53e. If sad, 54a. Met 54b. Amount 54c. How 54f. from Amount 53f. Identity How sad, No. different How feel why from Maikot understands different Identity Takasera understands feel why A little DK05 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different A little DK06 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes Most Okay NA Same different A little DK07 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Same different A ;ittle HB02 Yes All Different Okay NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different A little A little HB03 Yes Most Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different A little HB04 Yes All Okay NA Different Yes All Same Okay NA Same different A little A little HB05 Yes Most Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different A little A ;ittle HJ03 Yes Half Okay NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different Difficult to A little A little HJ04 Yes All Sad understand Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different and speak A little A little HJ05 Yes Half Sad Mix Nepali Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different HJ06 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Same Okay NA Same A little A little HJ07 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different Very A little HS03 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different Very A little HS04 Yes Half Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little HS05 Yes Most Okay NA Same Yes All Same Happy NA Same different A little HS06 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Same Okay NA Same different

106

53a. Met 53b. 54d. 54e. If Subj 53c. How 53d. 53e. If sad, 54a. Met 54b. Amount 54c. How 54f. from Amount 53f. Identity How sad, No. different How feel why from Maikot understands different Identity Takasera understands feel why A little KJ04 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes Half Happy NA Same different A little KJ05 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes Half Okay NA Same different Very KJ06 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA DA different Very KJ07 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes Half Okay NA Same different Most ->90% MB03 Yes mixed Different Okay NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA w/Nepali MB04 Yes All Different Okay NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA MB05 Yes Half Different Happy NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA All -> I understand A little MB06 Yes Happy NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA all but ours different is pure MJ01 Yes All Different Happy NA Different NA NA NA NA NA NA A little MJ02 Yes Half Okay NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA different MJ03 Yes Half Different Okay Difficult Same NA NA NA NA NA NA MJ04 Yes All Different Okay NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA Very MS03 Yes Half Okay NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA different MS04 Yes All Different Okay NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA MS05 Yes Most Different Okay NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA Very MS06 Yes All Okay NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA different A little MS07 Yes All Sad NA Same NA NA NA NA NA NA different

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53a. Met 53b. 54d. 54e. If Subj 53c. How 53d. 53e. If sad, 54a. Met 54b. Amount 54c. How 54f. from Amount 53f. Identity How sad, No. different How feel why from Maikot understands different Identity Takasera understands feel why A little PB02 Yes All Okay NA Both Yes All Same Okay NA Same different A little A little PJ01 Yes Most Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little PJ03 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different A little PS01 Yes Most Okay NA Same Yes All Same Happy NA Same different

Questions 55–56

55a. Met 55b. 55e. If 56a. Met 56b. Subj 55c. How 55d. 55f. 56c. How 56d. How 56e. If from Amount sad, from Amount 56f. Identity No different How feel Identity different feel sad, why Hukam understands why Ranma understands A little AB02 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Same different AB03 Yes All Different Happy NA Same Yes All Different Okay NA Different A little A little AB04 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little AB05 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes Most Happy NA Same different A little A little AB07 Yes Most Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little AB08 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Same Happy NA Same different A little AJ06 No NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Different different A little A little AJ08 Yes All Happy NA Different Yes All Happy NA Different different different A little A little AJ09 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different

108

55a. Met 55b. 55e. If 56a. Met 56b. Subj 55c. How 55d. 55f. 56c. How 56d. How 56e. If from Amount sad, from Amount 56f. Identity No different How feel Identity different feel sad, why Hukam understands why Ranma understands A little A little AJ10 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different A little AJ11 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Same Happy NA Same different A little A little AS03 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different A little A little AS04 Yes All Okay NA Different Yes All Okay NA Different different different A little A little AS07 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different A little A little AS09 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different DJ01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DJ02 DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DA DJ03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DJ05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DJ08 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DK01 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DK02 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DK03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DK04 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DK05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DK06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DK07 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA A little HB02 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different A little HB03 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different A little HB04 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes Most Okay NA Same different

109

55a. Met 55b. 55e. If 56a. Met 56b. Subj 55c. How 55d. 55f. 56c. How 56d. How 56e. If from Amount sad, from Amount 56f. Identity No different How feel Identity different feel sad, why Hukam understands why Ranma understands A little HB05 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different A little HJ03 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different A little HJ04 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different A little HJ05 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Happy NA Same different HJ06 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Same Happy NA Same A little HJ07 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes Most Okay NA Same different A little HS03 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Same different A little HS04 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Okay NA Same different HS05 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Same Happy NA Same HS06 NA NA NA NA NA NA Yes All Same Okay NA Same A little KJ04 Yes A little Happy NA Same No NA NA NA NA NA different A little KJ05 Yes Half Okay NA Same No NA NA NA NA NA different KJ06 No NA NA NA NA NA No NA NA NA NA NA A little A little KJ07 Yes Half Okay NA Same Yes Half Okay NA Same different different A little A little MB03 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same Different different MB04 Yes All Different Okay NA Same Yes All Different Okay NA Same A little MB05 Yes All Same Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different A little A little MB06 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same Different different

110

55a. Met 55b. 55e. If 56a. Met 56b. Subj 55c. How 55d. 55f. 56c. How 56d. How 56e. If from Amount sad, from Amount 56f. Identity No different How feel Identity different feel sad, why Hukam understands why Ranma understands A little A little MJ01 Yes All Okay NA NR Yes Most Happy NA NR different different A little A little MJ02 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different Different A little A little MJ03 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little A little MJ04 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little A little MS03 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little MS04 Yes All Different Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different A little A little MS05 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little MS06 Yes All Same Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different A little A little MS07 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different A little A little PB02 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Okay NA Same different different A little PJ01 Yes All Okay NA Same Yes All Same Happy NA Same different A little A little PJ03 Yes Most Happy NA Different Yes Most Happy NA Different different different A little A little PS01 Yes All Happy NA Same Yes All Happy NA Same different different

111

Questions 57–59

Subj 57. Purest spoken 58. 2nd purest 59. Least pure No AB02 Arjal Maikot, Karbang Mayang AB03 DA DA DA AB04 Arjal Ghunma Ranma AB05 Arjal Ranma Takasera AB07 Ghunma Maikot Hukam AB08 Ghunma Ranma DK AJ06 Arjal Ranma Maikot AJ08 Maikot Takasera Ranma AJ09 Maikot Takasera Mayang AJ10 NR NR NR AJ11 Ghunma Ranma Takasera AS03 Arjal Maikot Rolpa AS04 Arjal Maikot Ranma, Takasera AS07 Maikot Hukam tala Jangara, Kharbang AS09 Ghunma Ranma Maikot, Takasera DJ01 Takasera Maikot, Kol, Rangsi Tsamati DJ02 DA DA DA DJ03 NR NR NR DJ05 NR NR NR DJ08 Takasera Sima Lukam DK01 Takasera Hukam, Maikot NA DK02 Takasera Kol, Kakri, Rukum Marabang DK03 Takasera NA NA DK04 Takasera, Tabang Lukum Wakhola DK05 Takasera, Tabang Maikot Shesh Khola DK06 Takasera, Tabang Pachi gaun Lukam Mahat, Wakhola, Lukum, Shima, Kadhi, Kolgarkhai DK07 Takasera, Tabang Gham Gosbang, Madi Chaura, Junkot Padmi, Lasi, Jang, Nishi, Buji

112

Subj 57. Purest spoken 58. 2nd purest 59. Least pure No HB02 Hukam Maikot Takasera HB03 Hukam, Ranma, Maikot Takasera Kada HB04 Maikot, Ranma Ranma Takasera HB05 Hukam Maikot Karbang HJ03 Hukam, Maikot Hukam, Maikot Takasera, Kil Kakri Jung Mahat HJ04 Hukam Maikot Rolpa Tabang HJ05 Hukam, Ranma, Maikot Takasera DK HJ06 Hukam, Maikot Ranma, Arjal Takasera HJ07 Hukam, Maikot Ranma Takasera HS03 Hukam Maikot Takasera HS04 Hukam Maikot Takasera HS05 Hukam Maikot Takasera HS06 Hukam, Maikot Ranma, Arjal Takasera KJ04 Takasera Bachhigau Pelma KJ05 Takasera Kol maybe Nisi Baglung KJ06 Takasera Kol Maikot KJ07 Gumlibang/Takasera Maikot Nisi (Baglung) MB03 Maikot Hukam Takasera MB04 Maikot Ranma, Hukam Takasera MB05 Maikot not sure, they're all our own lang Mayang MB06 Maikot Ranma Hukam MJ01 Maikot Rolpako Tabang Everywhere outside Maikot MJ02 Maikot Hukam Takasera MJ03 Maikot Ranma, Hukam Ranma, Hukam MJ04 Maikot Baglum Nisi Takasera, Rolpa MS03 Maikot Baglum Nisi Karbang MS04 Maikot Ranma, Hukam Pelma, Hukam MS05 Maikot Ranma, Hukam Near the hotel, not many places MS06 Maikot Ranma, Hukam Takasera, Rangsi, Naka MS07 Maikot Ranma Takasera

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Subj 57. Purest spoken 58. 2nd purest 59. Least pure No PB02 Pelma Hukam, Ranma, Takasera DK PJ01 Pelma Ranma, Hukam Takasera PJ03 Maikot Pelma Takasera PS01 Pelma, Maikot Hukam Takasera

Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Interview

D.1 Informed consent

Informed consent

My name is ____. What is your name? We are from Tribhuvan University. We are here to learn about how your मेरो नाम ___ हो। तपाℂको नाम के हो? हामी �त्रभवनु language and community. We are � व �व �वद्यालयबाट आएका हौ।ं हामी तपाℂह셁को भाषाह셁को going to write a report (small book) बारेमा थाहा पाउन आएका हौ।ं हामी तपाℂह셁को भाषाको बारेमा about your language. Is it alright if we एउटा िरपोट셍 ले奍ने प्र�क्रयामा छौ।ं तपाℂले �दन ु भएको यो share the information you gave us जानकारीह셁 अ셁लाई भꅍदा हꅍछ?ु �ठक छ? with other people? Okay?

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D.2 Knowledgeable Insider Interview schedule

1. Researcher: 2. Date (DD-MM-YY): 3. Subject: 4. Village & VDC: 5. Phone/email: 6. Alt village names: 7. Language of elicitation: 8. Gender: 9. Informed consent and name consent: □ Given □ Not given

10. Full name: तपाℂको पूरा नाम के हो? 11. Age: तपाℂको उमेर क�त भयो? 12. Caste: तपाℂ कु न जातीको हनु हु ꅍछ?ु 13. Religion: तपाℂ कु न धम셍 मा�हु ꅍछु 14. Occupation: तपाℂ के काम ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? 15. Mother tongue: तपाℂको मात ृ भाषाको नाम के हो? a. Alternate language names: अ셁 नाम प�न छ?

16. Place of birth: तपाℂ कहा ँ जꅍम नभयो?ु 17: Current residence: तपाℂ आजभो�ल कहा ँ बन हु ꅍु छ ? 18. Lived elsewhere for more than a year: तपाℂ अ셁 ठाउँमा एक बष셍भꅍदा बढी ब नभएकोु छ? कहा?ँ क�हले? क�त वष셍स륍म? कहा?ँ क�हले? क�त वष셍स륍म? कहा?ँ क�हले? क�त वष셍स륍म? 19: Duration at current residence: तपाℂ यो ठाउँमा क�त बष셍 बन भयो?ु 20. Father’s hometown: तपाℂको बवाकोु खास गाउँ कु न हो? 21. Father’s mother tongue: उहाकोँ मात ृ भाषा कु न हो? 22. Language used w/father when young: तपाℂ सानो हदाुँ तपाℂको बवालेु तपाℂसंग कु न भाषामा बो쥍नहु ꅍ镍यो?ु 23. Mother’s hometown: तपाℂको आमाको माइ�त कहा ँ छ? 24. Mother’s mother tongue: उहाकोँ मात ृ भाषा कु न हो? 25. Language used w/mother when young: तपाℂ सानो हदाुँ तपाℂको आमाले तपाℂसंग कु न भाषामा बो쥍नहु ꅍ镍यो?ु

26. Languages able to speak: तपाℂ कु न-कु न भाषा बो쥍न स 啍न हु ꅍु छ ? 27. Best language: तपाℂ कु न भाषा सब भꅍदा राम्रो बो쥍ह नु ꅍु छ ? 28. 2nd best language: तपाℂ कु न भाषा दोस्रो राम्रो बो쥍 नहु ꅍु छ ? a. How easily: यो भाषा बो쥍न क��को सा�जलो ला嵍छ? 29. 3rd best language: तपाℂ कु न भाषा तेस्रो राम्रोबो쥍 ह नु ꅍु छ ? a. How easily: यो भाषा बो쥍न क��को सा�जलो ला嵍छ? 30. 4th best language: तपाℂ कु न भाषा चौथो राम्रो बो쥍ह नु ꅍु छ ? a. How easily: यो भाषा बो쥍न क��को सा�जलो ला嵍छ? 31. School: □ Yes □ No तपाℂले कू लमा जान ु भएको 32. Until which year: क�त क�ास륍म �थयो?

33. Number of homes in this village: यो गाउँमा क�तवटा घरह셁 छन्? 34. Number of (Kham) homes in this village: खाम भाषा बो쥍नेका क�तवटा घरह셁 छन्? 35. Other languages spoken in this village: तपाℂको गाउँमा अ셁 भाषाह셁 बो�लꅍछ? 36. Other places where their language is spoken: तपाℂको भाषा जतै अ셁 ठाउँमा बो�लꅍछ? a. Villages that speak exactly like them: कु न गाउँमा ठ्या�ै यतो भाषा बो�लꅍछ?

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37. Takasera: a. Have met: □ Yes □ No तकसेर माꅍछे भे絍नभयोु ? b. Amount able to understand: तकसेर माꅍछे ले बोलेको क�त ब畍नु हु ꅍछ?ु □ पराु □ प्राय □ आधी □ आधीभꅍदा कम c. How different: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरकामा के फरक छ? □ उतै □ अ�ल फरक □ धेरै फरक d. Makes them feel: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरका तपाℂलाई कतो ला嵍छ? e. If “sad,” why: □ खशीु ला嵍छ □ � ठ कै ला嵍छ □ दःखला嵍दोु छ f. Identity: तपाℂ र उनीह셁को जात उतै हो? 38. Maikot: a. Have met: □ Yes □ No मैकोट माꅍछे भे絍नभयोु ? b. Amount able to understand: तकसेर माꅍछे ले बोलेको क�त ब畍नु हु ꅍछ?ु □ पराु □ प्राय □ आधी □ आधीभꅍदा कम c. How different: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरकामा के फरक छ? □ उतै □ अ�ल फरक □ धेरै फरक d. Makes them feel: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरका तपाℂलाई कतो ला嵍छ? e. If “sad,” why: □ खशीु ला嵍छ □ � ठ कै ला嵍छ □ दःखला嵍दोु छ f. Identity: तपाℂ र उनीह셁को जात उतै हो? 39. ______: a. Have met: □ Yes □ No ______माꅍछे भे絍नभयोु ? b. Amount able to understand: तकसेर माꅍछे ले बोलेको क�त ब畍नु हु ꅍछ?ु □ पराु □ प्राय □ आधी □ आधीभꅍदा कम c. How different: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरकामा के फरक छ? □ उतै □ अ�ल फरक □ धेरै फरक d. Makes them feel: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरका तपाℂलाई कतो ला嵍छ? e. If “sad,” why: □ खशीु ला嵍छ □ � ठ कै ला嵍छ □ दःखला嵍दोु छ f. Identity: तपाℂ र उनीह셁को जात उतै हो? 40. ______: a. Have met: □ Yes □ No ______माꅍछे भे絍नभयोु ? b. Amount able to understand: तकसेर माꅍछे ले बोलेको क�त ब畍नु हु ꅍछ?ु □ पराु □ प्राय □ आधी □ आधीभꅍदा कम c. How different: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरकामा के फरक छ? □ उतै □ अ�ल फरक □ धेरै फरक d. Makes them feel: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरका तपाℂलाई कतो ला嵍छ? e. If “sad,” why: □ खशीु ला嵍छ □ � ठ कै ला嵍छ □ दःखला嵍दोु छ f. Identity: तपाℂ र उनीह셁को जात उतै हो? 41. ______: a. Have met: □ Yes □ No ______माꅍछे भे絍नभयोु ? b. Amount able to understand: तकसेर माꅍछे ले बोलेको क�त ब畍नु हु ꅍछ?ु □ पराु □ प्राय □ आधी □ आधीभꅍदा कम c. How different: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरकामा के फरक छ? □ उतै □ अ�ल फरक □ धेरै फरक d. Makes them feel: उनीह셁ले बो쥍ने तिरका तपाℂलाई कतो ला嵍छ? e. If “sad,” why: □ खशीु ला嵍छ □ � ठ कै ला嵍छ □ दःखला嵍दोु छ f. Identity: तपाℂ र उनीह셁को जात उतै हो?

42. Where is the purest Kham spoken?: कहा ँ सबभꅍदा श鵍दु खाम भाषा बो�लꅍछ? 43. Where is the 2nd purest Kham spoken?: कहा ँ दोस्रो鵍द शु खाम भाषा बो�लꅍछ? 44. Where is the least pure Kham spoken?: कहा ँ अश鵍दु खाम भाषा बो�लꅍछ? 45. Where children go to primary school: गाउँको केटाकेटीह셁 कु न गाउँको प्राथ�मक ू लक प襍न जाꅍछन्?

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46. Mother tongue of teacher: उनीह셁को �श�कको मातभाषाृ कु न हो? 47. Language teacher uses with students: �श�कले �वद्याथ�ह셁सगँ कु न भाषा बो쥍छन्? 48. Language students use with each other: कू लमा �वद्याथ�ह셁ले एकअका셍सगँ कु न भाषा बो쥍छन्? 49. Children who go to secondary school: जवान केटाकेटीह셁 क�तजना हाईकू लमा प襍न जाꅍछन्? □ Most □ Some □ Few 50. Where children go to secondary school: कु न हाईकू ल प襍न जाꅍछन्? तपाℂको �वचारमा खाम भाषा ले奍न प襍न स啍यो भने के फाइदा 51. Advantages to writing in their language: छ? 52. Frequency adults use Kham in the home: माꅍछेह셁ले आ굍नो घरमा खाम भाषा क��को प्रयोग गछ셍न्? □ Always □ Sometimes □ Rarely 63. Language used in weddings and funerals: �बहेबारी र मदा셍पदा셍 कु न भाषा बो쥍छन्? 64. Language used in meetings: बैठकमा कु न भाषा बो쥍छन्?

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D.3 Knowledgeable Insider Interview data

Questions have been abbreviated in this section. Refer to D.2 for the full questions. See Appendix C for relevant abbreviations.

Arjal Hukam Maikot Pelma Ranma Dang/Ghorahi Dang/Ghorahi Subj No AJ01 HJ02 MS06 PJ02 RJ04 DJ03 DJ06a and DJ07 1. Researcher Joe Joe Janel Joe Joe Joe Joe 2. Date 22-Apr 26-Apr 17-Apr 28-Apr 21-Apr 16-Jan 17-Jan 3. Subj No. AJ01 HJ02 MS06 PJ01b RJ04 DJ03 DJ06a and DJ07 Ward 1, Putha 4. Village & VDC Arjal, Ward 4 Hukam Pelma Ranma, Ward 3 Taka Tabang Utlarganga GP 6. Alternate NR NA Mainam, Dharpat NR Reima (Kham) NA NA village names 7. Lang of elic Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali 8. Gender M M M M M M F 9. IC Given Given Given Given Given Given Given

10. Full name BBP TBGM DBP JBB DB SB DRM and SRM

11. Age 49 52 47 37 45 73 74 and 32 Pun 12. Caste Magar/Rango Gharti Magar Pun Magar Budha Magar Kham Roka Magar Pun 13. Religion Hindu Buddhist No Religion No Religion Hindu Hindu Buddhist 14. Occupation Mayor Business farming Kiran farming Farming Retired and farming 15. MT Kham Magar Kham Kham Magar Kham Kham Magar Kham 15a. Alternate NA NA NR NR Magar Kham NA Kham language name 16. Born Arjal Hukam Maikot Pelma Ranma Takasera Thabang Dang 5 17. Live Arjal Hukam Maikot Pelma Ranma Takasera mo/Thabang and Thabang only

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Arjal Hukam Maikot Pelma Ranma Dang/Ghorahi Dang/Ghorahi 18. Lived Yes No No No Yes No Yes elsewhere 18a. Where Saudi Arabia NA NA NA Bartibang NA Hong Kong 18b. When 4–5 years aso NA NA NA 25 years ago NA 2050/1998 18c. How long 6 years NA NA NA 2 years NA 3 months 18a. Where NA NA NA NA NA NA Pokhara 18b. When NA NA NA NA NA NA 2054 18c. How long NA NA NA NA NA NA 18 mo 19. How long 6 years whole life whole life whole life 23 years whole life 15 yrs / life here 20. Father’s home Arjal Hukam Maikot Rolpa Ranma Takasera Thabang 21. Father’s MT Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Magar / Kham 22. Father spoke Kham Kham Kham Magar Kham Kham Kham 23. Mother’s Hukam Hukam Maikot Rolpa Maikot Takasera Thabang home 24. Mother’s MT Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham 25. Mother Spoke Kham Kham Kham Magar Kham Kham Kham Kham, Nepali, Kham, Nepali, 26. Lang speak Kham, Nepali Magar, Nepali Kham, Nepali Kham, Nepali Kham, Nepali Hindi, Tibetan Hindi 27. Best lang Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham 28. 2nd lang Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Easy to 28a. How easily Easy Easy Easy Okay Easy understand, hard Can speak a little to speak 29. 3rd lang NA Hindi Hindi NA NA NA NA 29a. How easily NA difficult difficult NA NA NA NA 30. 4th lang NA Tibetan NA NA NA NA NA 30a. How easily NA difficult NA NA NA NA NA 31. School NR Yes Yes No Yes No NR 32. Until when NR 9 5 NA year 6–8 NA NR

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Arjal Hukam Maikot Pelma Ranma Dang/Ghorahi Dang/Ghorahi 1200–1300, 33. Num of homes 154, 66 Dalit 350, 120 Dalit 450 in Ward 1 100 160 Taka, Sera, and 1300 Bachhigau 34. Num of Kham 48 Dalit homes in 56 230 350 50 DK 1000 Homes Taka Kham is spoken by everyone, but 35. Other langs in Nepali (10 Dalit many speak the No Gurung, Nepali Nepali Kham, Nepali Gurung (3 families) village houses) low form of Nepali (Kami/) Takasera (a little Maikot (Rukum different), and Rolpa) 36. Where is lang Says Maikot is Nisibalkot, Hukam, Maikot Hukam, Taka The whole area Tabang, Lukum, DA spoken very different (Hukam, Ranma Kol, Kyasi, Sima, - Janel Kakri suggested) Kol, Gharkung, Padmi, Nakha, 36a. Village speak Dzjirkot Ranma, Hukam, Rangsi, Jang Ghumang, Kara Maikot DK On other page exactly Junchadi Nisibalkot (Maikot, Ranma, Arjal) slightly different tone. 37a. Met from Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NA Yes Takasera 37b. Amount All Half All All All NA Most understands 37c. How Very different Very different Very different A little different A little different NA A little different different (100% different) 37d. How feel Okay Okay Okay Okay Happy NA Okay 37e. If sad, why NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Different, 'Pun, 37f. Identity Same Same Same Same NA Same Budha, etc.' 38a. Met from Yes Yes NA Yes Yes Yes Yes Maikot

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Arjal Hukam Maikot Pelma Ranma Dang/Ghorahi Dang/Ghorahi Less than half - says 38b. Amount All All NA All All All it is the most understands difficult Kham 38c. How A little different A little different A little different NA Same A little different Very different different (25%) (words only) 38d. How feel Okay Happy NA Okay Happy Okay Okay 38e. If sad, why NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 38f. Identity same as above Same NA Same Same Same Same 39a. Met from Yes NA Yes Yes Yes NA Shesh - yes Hukam 39b. Amount All NA All All All NA Less than half understands Very different - says 39c. How they also are very A little Different NA Same A little Different Same NA different difficult to understand 39d. How feel Okay NA Happy Okay Happy NA Awkward 39e. If sad, why NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 39f. Identity Same NA Same Same Same NA Same 40a. Met from Yes Yes Yes Yes NA NA Mahat yes Ranma 40b. Amount All All All All NA NA All understands 40c. How Little Different Little Different Little Different Little Different NA NA Little Different different (25%) 40d. How feel Okay Okay Happy Okay NA NA Okay 40e. If sad, why NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 40f. Identity Same Same Same Same NA NA Same Maikot, Ranma, Maikot, Takasera 42. Purest Spoken Hukam, Maikot Maikot Maikot Ranma Thabang Hukam Tabang 43. 2nd Purest Takasera Kol Taka Ranma, Hukam Taka Maikot Maikot Taka

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Arjal Hukam Maikot Pelma Ranma Dang/Ghorahi Dang/Ghorahi Takasera - mix Lukum, Wakhola Owa Gam - 44. Least Pure Takasera Taka, Kakri w/Nep. Rangsi, Hukam, Taka Kalanga (other) (Rough ) on the offensive/aggressive Naka ears Maikot - 45. Where Chakibang in Arjal Hukam Madimik Pelma Ranma Taka Primary School Thabang Bidyalaya Kham - 2, Most Kham some 4 and 3 7, 2 Chaudhary - 1, 46. Teacher’s MT 6 Kham, 4 Nepali Nepali - 3 10 teachers Nepali. Primary Kham (one N) Kham, 5 Nepali Nepali - 4, 3K, Secondary 1K Maithili - 1 47. Lang teacher Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali First K then N w/ student 48. Lang student Kham Kham Kham Both Both Nepali Nepali w/ student 49. Child second Most Most Most Most Some (1/2) Many (most) Most school 50. Where second Ranma, Hukam, Hukam Maikot Maikot Maikot Taka Chakibang School Maikot, Karbang Communicate far Good for being away, can be Good, it's good able to read what learned by Very much, he Children could to speak our Much. Learn our Much advantage has already been children. Would has read some of write songs and the 51. Adv to write own language, language in - talking with written in Kham be good for David W's book language will not save culture, school. friends language. student because and enjoyed be lost identity Especially legal Nepali is difficult papers. for them. 52. Adults Kham Always Always Always NR Always Always Always at home 53. Lang for Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham Kham wedding & funeral Kham - if 54. Lang for Kham - only Bramin/Chhetri Both Kham/Nepali Both Nepali Kham meetings Kham come then use N for them

Appendix E: Dialect Mapping

E.1 Dialect mapping procedures

Dialect mapping is a Participatory Methods tool,33 in which a trained facilitator interacts with both men and women of various ages and educational backgrounds from a particular language community. The facilitator poses questions to the participants, requesting that answers be written on slips of paper (one answer per paper). Guided by the facilitator, the participants arrange the papers in various ways to communicate language or dialect boundaries, comprehension, and language use. The purpose of the dialect mapping tool is to gain an emic perspective about the language and to stimulate awareness for language development among the participants. The steps for facilitating dialect mapping are provided here in English, however, the sessions are facilitated in Nepali. 1. What is the name of your language? (If there is more than one name for the language, ask which name they prefer.) 2. Where are the major locations where your language is spoken? Place a star on the paper with your own village. 3. Place these papers on the ground to show which places are next to each other. (Use north, south, east, and west to create a map on the ground). 4. What other languages are so similar to your language that when they speak, you can understand at least some words? Write the names of these languages on pieces of paper and add them to the “map” on the ground. 5. Do the people in any of these places speak your language in the same way? If so, place a small loop of string around each such group. 6. Which variety do you understand best? Second best? Place the appropriate number next to each group. 7. Which of these varieties do you understand completely? Which do you understand most? Which do you understand about half? And which do you only understand a little? In which of these villages can you understand the way they speak completely? Using the key showing faces that represent different levels of understanding, please indicate your level of comprehension of each variety. 8. When you speak to people from these other places, do you each speak your own variety? Or do you use your own variety, and they also use your variety? Or do you use their variety? Or do you each use another variety for easier understanding? Using the key showing colors that represent different ways of speaking, please indicate how you speak with others. 9. If books, films, pamphlets, or other materials were developed in your language, which place would be the best for development so that all the other places could use the materials? Which place would be second best? Place the appropriate Nepali letter next to each choice to rank the place you think is best.

The following sections present the results of each dialect mapping session in this study. The data, taken from photos, is displayed as closely as possible to the way it was presented by the dialect mapping participants. Place names consistently mentioned in sessions have been Romanized.

Symbology

Rank of understanding (step 6): १ = best २ = second ३ = third ४ = fourth ५ = fifth ६ = sixth ७ = seventh ८ = eighth Level of understanding (step 7): � = all � = most � = half � = less than half

33 “Participatory methods include a range of activities with a common thread: enabling ordinary people to play an active and influential part in decisions which affect their lives. This means that people are not just listened to, but also heard; and that their voices shape outcomes.” (Macbeth 2019)

123 124

Variety used (step 8): blue = each his own language yellow = language of wider communication Location for development (step 9): क = best ख = second ग = third

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E.2 Dialect mapping results

Location: Arjal, East Rukum

April 22nd, 2018

पव셍ु (east)

१: � क (blue) २: � ख (blue) ५: � (blue) हाढवाङु जसमटु �हम घइवाङु (Him) भागलङको �नसी (Nisi) �पलमा (Pelma) गर (Gar) वलकोह मा रल �वजया (Ral) काज셍जाङ (Kajarjang) पशरु (Pusar) खो – पा दमचन ६: � (yellow) मैकोट (Maikot) हकामु (Hukam) मगर �सट (Magar) रꅍमा (Ranma) घꅍमाङु (Ghunma) ३: � ग (blue) ७: � (yellow) अज셍ल (Arjal) बा�छगाउ ग셁ङु (Gurung) कांडा (Kada) (Bachhigau) उ�र खारबाङँ (Karabang) सेरा ८: � (yellow) द��ण (north) तपाु सेरपा �सट (south) ४: � (blue) पदमी (Padmi) रो쥍पा (Rolpa) तक (Taka) �ग� �दमर गेरा (Sera) जाजखोङ लकु ु म (Lukum) खाम भासा (Kham) क쥍नै (Kol) खाम मगर (Kham Magar) घ�मलवाङु (Language name and ethnic identity) (Ghumilbang) भराङ जामा छमारी नाखा (Nakha) जाङ (Jang) गरखानी (Garkhani) खारखोला राङसी (Rangsi) कोल (Kol) 啍याङसी (Kjangsi) मेयगदीको (Myagdi) गोलखा

प��म (west)

Place names have been represented here just as they were transcribed by the participants.

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Location: Hukam, East Rukum

April 26th, 2018

उ�र खाम खामे (Kham) (north) पꅍथी मगर (Punti Magar) (Language name and ethnic identity) १: � क (blue) भजीु (Bhuji) मेकोट ४: � (blue) (Maikot) २: � ख (blue) बलकोट रꅍमा (Ranma) 륍या嵍दी (Myagdi) कांक्र� (Kakri) काजरजङ्ग वा�楍छगांउ नरेनंटी �समा (Sima) (Kajarjang) (Bachhigau) �सरी (Siri) नाखा (Nakha) पे쥍मा (Pelma) तक सेरा �स륍टी राङसी (Rangsi) �नसी (Nisi) (Takasera) दोलतगेरा लकु ु म (Lukum) प楍छरु (Pusar) गर (Gar) हरीचोर जाङ (Jang) यमाखार (Emakar) खरावाङ शा�ꅍतपरु प��म चनबाङु हकामु * (Hukam) (Kharabang) अनोकोट पव셍ु (west) पदमी (Padmi) अज셍ल (Arjal) कोल (Kol) (east) खाबाङ गꅍमाु (Ghunma) घ�मलबाङु ५: � (yellow) महत (Mahat) कांडा (Kada) (Ghumilbang) ढट (MagarDhut)

३: � ग (blue) ६: � (yellow) �सरी (Seiri) का�के (Kaski) थवाङ (Thabang) कशला ७: � (yellow) जेमा ग셁ङु (Gurung) राङकोट (Rangkot) जेलबाङ (Jelbang) जङ्कोट (Jangkot)

द��ण (south)

Place names have been represented here just as they were transcribed by the participants.

127

Location: Maikot, East Rukum

April 18th, 2018

भाषा – खाम प ँ उ�र मगर �म셍 (Magar Mir) (north) खाम (Kham) १: � क (blue) (Language name and ethnic identity) मैकोट* (Maikot) ७: � (yellow) २: � ग (blue) �त煍याङ्ग मनाु – 륍या嵍डी (Myagdi) काडाँ (Kada) रल (Ral) ताकम – 륍या嵍डी ६: � (blue) अज셍ल (Arjal) जनाङ्गु खारावाङ धमाङ्गु गईबाङ्गु ८: � (yellow) (Kharabang) (Ghunma) �हम (Him) काइके – डो쥍पा (Kaike) जांङ्ग (Jang) डापान셍 हा�द셍वाङ भाषा – मगर (Magar) नाखा (Nakha) जमरु ५: � ख (blue) पष्रु (Pusar) ४: � (blue) प��म तक (Taka) यमाखार (Emakar) गर (Gar) पव셍ु (west) पंदमी (Padmi) �नसी (Nisi) ३: हकामु (Hukam) (east) गरखान(Garkani) वगी楍घगाङ (Bachhigau) 啍यवाङ्ग(Kjangsi) घ땍लीवाङु (Ghumilbang) डोमचन त�ो सेरा (Sera) उप�ो सेरा (Sera) सीमा (Sima) 啍याङ (Kjangsi) काऋँ (Kakri) कोल (Kol) गो쥍खांदंवाङ्ग लकु ु म (Lukum) द��ण (south)

Place names have been represented here just as they were transcribed by the participants.

128

Location: Ghorahi, Dang (Takasera)

January 14th, 2019

उ�र (north) ३: � ख (blue) मेकोत (Maikot) ईम (Him) हकामु (Hukam) खाम बाषा (Kham) मायां रꅍमा (Ranma) (Language name) खारबाङ हा�द셍बाङ (Kharagang)

셁कु म �ज�ा (Rukum)

१: � क (blue पद्मी (Padmi) चारगांउ बा�楍छइ गांउ (Bachhigau) बागलङु �ज�ा (Baglung) जाङ (Jang) तकसेरा* (Takasera) प��म रा敍सी (Rangsi) घरखानी (Gharkani) ५: � (blue) पव셍ु (west) नाखा (Nakha) कोल (Kol) बजीु (Bhuji) (east) के 敍 स ी (Kyangsi) गो쥍खादा �नसी (Nisi) लकु ु म (Lukum) ग�म쥍बाङु (Ghumilbang) �समा (Sima) काक्र� (Kakri) रो쥍प �ज�ा (Rolpa)

२: � ग (blue) ४: � (blue) महत (Mahat) थाबाङ (Thabang) �सरम भसभाङु �म셁ल () जेलवाङ (Jelbang) �सउरी के त ग ा ं उ (Kotgau) कु रेली () दबाङ उवा जङ्कोत (Jangkot)

द��ण (south)

Place names have been represented just as they were transcribed by the participants.

129

Location: Kathmandu, Lalitpur (Takasera)

January 20th, 2019

उ�र खाम* (Kham) (north) मगर खाम ३: � ग (blue) रꅍमा (Ranma) गइबाङ्गु (Magar Kham) गꅍमाु (Ghunma) मेकोट (Maikot) पे쥍मा (Pelma) (Language name) अज셍ल (Arjal) हकामु (Hukam) काजारजङ्गु पव셍ु (Kajarjang) (east)

१: � क (blue) कोल (Kol) बा�楍छगांउ तंपाु (Bachhigau) रा敍सी (Rangsi) जाङ्ग (Jang) पदमी (Padmi) घ��बाङ्ग*ु (Ghumilbang) प��म नाखा (Nakha) गोलाखाड गखा셍नी (Gharkani) तकसेरा* (Takasera) (west) २: � ख (blue) घाबा लकु ु म (Lukium) 啍यासी (Kyangsi) घ्रासा셍ला काक्र� (Kakri) �समा (Sima) खाबा भागर ५: � (yellow) घाम खोला ४: � (blue) ठवङ (Thabang) �नसी (Nisi) महत (Mahat) �मरल (Mirel) ६: � (yellow) गोनाम वाखोला घाम खोला द��ण जे쥍बा (Jelbang) (south)

Place names have been represented here just as they were transcribed by the participants.

Appendix F: Population Calculation

Map 8: Persons registering their mother tongue as ‘Kham’ by VDC34

Map 8 presents the population density of persons registering their mother tongue as Kham in the “National Population and Housing Census 2011” (Central Bureau of Statistics 2014). These are a total of 26,806 persons. For various reasons concerning ethnolinguistic identity, this figure cannot be accepted as representing the Kham speaker population. To establish a plausible range of figures, the following steps were taken: Persons registering their mother tongue as ‘Kham’ in the remote VDCs of Dolpa coincide with the native territory of the Kaike language, which is sometimes called “Tarali Kham,” “Khamkura,” or “Kham” (Bradley 1997:11). These persons were subtracted from the total. Persons registering their mother tongue as ‘Kham’ in the remote VDCs of Myagdi coincide with the native territory of the Chhantyal language, which is sometimes called “Chhantyal Kham,” “Khamkura,” or “Kham” (Chhantyal 2012:3). These persons were subtracted from the total. David Watters (2003:2) reports that all Magars living in the Kham homeland are Kham-speaking Magars. However, many Kham will register their mother tongue as ‘Magar’ in the census. Therefore, in all VDCs coinciding with the Kham homeland, persons registering their mother tongue as ‘Magar’ were added to the total. Additionally, the average ratio of persons registering under ‘Kham’ to persons registering under ‘Magar’ was calculated. This ratio represents the probability that a Kham speaker will register their mother tongue as being ‘Magar.’ All speakers registering as Kham in VDCs not coinciding with the Kham homeland and not coinciding with the Kaike and Chhantyal homelands were considered to be Kham speakers living in diaspora. These make up 18 percent of the total Kham population. If the ratio from the previous step is applied to this diaspora figure the percentage of Kham living in diaspora increases to

34 The Village Development Committee (VDC) was the smallest unit of rural administration in Nepal prior to 10 September 2015.

130 131 approximately 30 percent. These figures were added to the homeland speaker population to produce a plausible range of total Kham speakers. The population of Kham speakers in Nepal is thought to be between 61,000 and 88,000.

Appendix G: EGIDS and FAMED

The following selections are quoted from Sustaining Language Use: Perspectives on Community-Based Language Development, by Lewis and Simons (2016: 99–100, 105–108, 153, 155).

G.1 Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

The EGIDS is made up of 13 levels. Table 16 gives the summary definition of each of the levels. The following subsections provide a more detailed description of levels 7 through 5 (the most common levels currently found in Nepal).

Table 16. Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

Level Label Description The language is widely used between nations in trade, knowledge 0 International exchange, and international policy. The language is used in education, work, mass media, and 3 National government at the national level. The language is used in education, work, mass media, and 2 Provincial government within major administrative subdivisions of a nation. Wider The language is used in work and mass media without official 3 Communication status to transcend language differences across a region. The language is in vigorous use, with standardization and 4 Educational literature being sustained through a widespread system of institutionally supported education. The language is in vigorous use, with literature in a standardized 5 Developing form being used by some, though this is not yet widespread or sustainable. The language is used for face-to-face communication by all 6a Vigorous generations and the situation is sustainable. The language is used for face-to-face communication within all 6b Threatened generations, but it is losing users. The child-bearing generation can use the language among 7 Shifting themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children. The only remaining active users of the language are members of 8a Moribund the grandparent generation and older. The only remaining users of the language are members of the 8b Nearly Extinct grandparent generation or older who have little opportunity to use the language. The language serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an 9 Dormant ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency. The language is no longer used and no one retains a sense of 10 Extinct ethnic identity associated with the language.

EGIDS Level 5 (Developing)

This is the level at which literacy is incipient, more often than not through informal educational structures and systems and with only weak or transient societal institutional support as defined above. Although the introduction of literacy can serve powerfully to improve the prestige of a minority language and may increase its prospects for survival in many cases, the stronger institutional support for literacy acquisition and maintenance found at the EGIDS level 4 is required for ongoing

132 133 transmission of local-language literacy from one generation to the next. The presence of incipient literacy in a speech community is not in itself sufficient to ensure sustainable ongoing use of the language. Furthermore, the existence of an orthography or the production of some literature are not, in themselves, sufficient to qualify a language as having achieved EGIDS level 5. Reading and writing must actually be used by some segment, albeit a small one, of the overall population. Many communities where preparations for the introduction of literacy have been initiated are effectively at EGIDS 6a (Vigorous). To qualify as EGIDS level 5, the language must also be in vigorous use as described for level 6a; when the language is losing uses and users, it should not be classified at level 5.

EGIDS Level 6a (Vigorous)

At this level, intergenerational oral or face-to-face transmission of the language is intact and widespread in the community. The language use and transmission situation is stable or gaining strength. At this level, the vast majority of adults, parents, grandparents, and great grandparents are using the language and making it possible for children to acquire and use the language for everyday communication. In most cases intergenerational transmission happens naturally in the home and neighborhood and is not dependent on schools or other more formal mechanisms outside of the “home and hearth.” Sign languages constitute a special case in that the acquisition of a sign language most often occurs in Deaf schools, especially when a deaf child has hearing parents. Languages with vigorous face-to-face use and clearly identified functional assignments within a speech community can remain in use for many generations. As described in section 4, stable multilingualism provides the ecological setting for sustainable use.

EGIDS Level 6b (Threatened)

This is the level of face-to-face use that indicates the beginnings of erosion in language use. Level 6a represents a stable multilingual configuration as described in section 4 where informal functions are assigned to the Low language and more formal functions are assigned to the High variety. In contrast, Level 6b represents the loss of that stable arrangement with the informal domains being overtaken by another language or languages. At Level 6b, a large number of parents continue to transmit the language to their children even while a significant number do not, so that intergenerational transmission is weakening. With each new generation there will be fewer speakers or fewer domains of use or both. At this level, there may only be barely discernible portents of language shift and few in the community may have any sense of impending danger. EGIDS 6b is the first of the EGIDS levels that is not considered “safe” according to the criteria used by UNESCO.

EGIDS Level 7 (Shifting)

This is the level that identifies clear cases of language shift in progress. The fact that parents are not passing the language on to their children is clearly discernible and has become the norm within the language community. Consequently the number of domains where use of the language is dominant are decreasing. Language revitalization through reestablishing home transmission would still be a possibility at this stage since the language is the first language for most of the parents and is in use among people in that generation and older. The language could be transmitted to at least some of the children if parents could be made aware of the need to do so.

134

G.2 FAMED Conditions

The EGIDS enables a community to evaluate its current level of language use and the vitality of the language, assigning it to a specific level on the scale. In this section we turn to the question of how to address the sociolinguistic, sociopolitical, and socioeconomic conditions which affect the EGIDS status of a language. The EGIDS level provides a useful shorthand description of the status of a language. That status, however, encompasses a complex set of factors and conditions that are interrelated. If a community wishes to engage in language development activities that will move it to one of the sustainable levels of use, it must answer the question what conditions need to be in place in order to achieve the desired sustainable level of use? This requires a more detailed analysis of the situation than the EGIDS provides. Though the factors contributing to a language’s status are many and are complex, they can be understood in terms of five general conditions, each of which addresses an important component in determining the vitality of a language within a given speech community. These five (FAMED) conditions are: • Functions — Functions (uses, bodies of knowledge) associated with the language must exist and be recognized by the community. • Acquisition — A means of acquiring the needed proficiency to use the language for those Functions must be in place and accessible to community members. • Motivation — Community members must be motivated to use the language for those Functions. They must perceive that the use of the language for those Functions is beneficial in some way. • Environment — The policy environment (including at national, regional, and local levels) must not be hostile to the use of the language for those Functions. • Differentiation — Societal norms must clearly delineate the Functions assigned to the local language marking them as distinct from the Functions for other languages in the speech community’s repertoire.

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