INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND THEIR USES
OH
OH OH
. .
OH
OH OH
OH OH OH OH
OH OH
OH OH OH
OH OH
OH OH OH
OH OH
OH OH
A Handbook & Formulary
v Copyright @ 1996 by Noyes Publications No part of this \X)ok may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any informa- tion storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-29173 ISBN: 0-8155-1408-5 Printed in the United States
Published in the United States of America by Noyes Publication 369 Fairview Ave. Westwood, New Jersey 07675
10987 65432 I
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Industrial minerals and their uses: a handbook and formulary / edited by Peter A Ciullo. p. C!D. Includes index. ISBN 0-8155-1408-5 1. Inorganic compounds--Industrial applications--Handbooks. manuals, etc. I. Ciullo, Peter A, 1954- TnOO.I52 1996 661--dc20 96-29173 CIP
NOTICE
To the best of our knowledge the information in this publication is accurate; however the Publisher and Editor do not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy or completeness of, or consequences arising from, such information. This guide does not purport to contain detailed user instructions, and by its range and scope could not possibly do so.
Compounding raw materials can be toxic, and therefore due caution should always be exercised in the use of these hazardous materials. Final determination of the suitability of any information or product for use contemplated by any user, and the manner of that use is the sole responsibility of the user. We strongly recommend that users seek and adhere to a manufacturer’s or supplier’s current instructions for handling each material they use. vi
PREFACE
The technical orientation of most formulators and compounders is chemistry, not mineralogy. They may have a natural grasp of their chemical ingredients, but many lack training or background in the minerals they use as “fillers”. The reference works on formulating technology for the various minerals- consuming industries likewise often treat the mineral additives in a cursory fashion, if at all. My primary purpose in compiling Industrial Minerals and Their Uses has been to provide product development professionals − novice and seasoned − with a better understanding of their mineral raw materials. My hope is that through this understanding they can develop their skills in matching the most appropriate minerals to their applications while gaining an appreciation of both the common ground and differences in approach they have with counterparts in industries other than their own. Industrial Minerals and Their Uses accordingly offers a concise profile of the structure, properties and uses of eighteen of the most commonly employed industrial minerals, plus a comprehensive overview of how and why these minerals are used in eight consuming industries. Paints and coatings, paper, rubber, adhesives and sealants, and plastics technology are reviewed as major beneficiaries of the use of minerals as functional additives. Chapters on pharmaceuticals and pesticides are included as a contrast in perspective regarding the selection and use of mineral additives, while the chapter on ceramics and glass is offered as an introduction to the use of minerals as primary raw materials or reactants, with chemicals relegated to the role of additives. While formulators and compounders are the main audience for Industrial Minerals and Their Uses, the producers and marketers of the industrial minerals themselves will undoubtedly find this book a valuable resource for identifying potential new markets for current products, and for discovering opportunities for the development of new ones. It is, in fact, because the industrial minerals producers have been so successful in tailoring the particle size, shape, surface area, and surface properties of their raw materials that the classification “filler”, although still used generically, is now an anachronism and generally misapplied. In preparing Industrial Minerals and Their Uses, I have been very fortunate in obtaining the aid of minerals and formulating experts whose knowledge and experience extend well beyond my own. They have generously contributed their time and expertise in the form of several chapters in this book. For this I am deeply grateful. I must also sincerely thank Frank Alsobrook of Alsobrook & Co., Inc. and Dr. Slim Thompson,
iii
mineralogist emeritus at R.T. Vanderbilt Co., Inc. and my minerals mentor, for their much appreciated editorial attention to chapters one and two. My gratitude extends as well to R.T. Vanderbilt Co. for providing the opportunity over the past twenty years to learn about and contribute to the industrial minerals and their uses, and in particular to Bob Ohm, editor of the Vanderbilt Rubber Handbook for alerting me to the unsuspected (i.e., nerve-wracking) challenges of compiling a book of this nature, and most especially for not discouraging me from doing it anyway. Above all, my thanks and my love to my wife Claudia, and to Marissa and Adam, my children, for their unwavering support and understanding in this and all my seemingly neverending book projects.
Peter A. Ciullo
iv
CONTENTS 1. SILICATE STUCTURES______1 Quartz ______3 Feldspar______4 Wollastonite ______4 Phyllosilicates ______5 Kaolinite ______6 Pyrophyllite______7 Serpentines ______7 Talc______8 Hormite Clay______10 Chlorite ______11 Vermiculite ______12 Mica ______14 Smectite Clay ______15
2. THE INDUSTRIAL MINERALS ______17 Asbestos ______18 Barite______21 Calcium Carbonate ______24 Diatomite______29 Feldspar______32 Gypsum______35 Hormite______37 Kaolin ______41 Mica ______45 Nepheline Syenite______49 Perlite ______52 Pyrophyllite______55 Silica ______58 Smectite ______63 Talc______68 Vermiculite ______72 Wollastonite ______75 Zeolite ______78
3. MINERAL SURFACE MODIFICATION______83 Modification vs. Treatment ______84 The Coupling Agents ______85 Modified Mineral Benefits ______93
vii
4. PAINTS & COATINGS______99 Types Of Coatings ______100 Architectural Coatings______101 Industrial Coatings______101 Convertible And Non-Convertible Coatings ______102 Formulating______104 Components______104 Characteristics ______104 Important Properties ______108 Raw Materials______109 Binders______109 Extender Pigments______125 Solvents ______129 Pigments ______132 Additives ______137 Dispersants And Surfactants ______137 Rheological Agents ______138 Driers ______144 Coalescing Agents ______145 Plasticizers______146 Biocides ______146 Antifoams ______147 Glycol ______147 Antiskinning Agents ______148 Corrosion Inhibitors______148 Flash Rust Inhibitors ______149 Photostabilizers ______149 Technology ______150 Pigment Dispersion ______150 Application Forms ______152 Test Methods______155
5. PAPERMAKING ______161 Pulping______163 Stone Groundwood ______163 Refiner Pulping ______165 Semi-Chemical Pulping ______165 Chemical Pulping ______166 Papermaking______170 Stock Preparation______170
viii
The Fourdrinier Former ______171 Water Recovery ______172 The Twin Wire Former ______173 The Cylinder Former ______173 The Press Section______173 The Dryer Section ______174 The Size Press ______175 The Calender Stack ______175 The Reel______175 The Supercalender ______176 Paper Pigments ______177 Paper Filling ______177 Opacity______177 Brightness/Whiteness ______178 Gloss ______178 Print Quality______178 Formation______178 Economy ______179 The Perfect Filler ______179 Papermaking and pH ______180 Minerals in Acid Papermaking ______180 Minerals in Alkaline Papermaking ______184 Paper Coating ______185 Roll Coaters ______186 Air-Knife Coaters ______186 Blade Coaters______187 Minerals in Paper Coatings ______188 Other Coating Pigments______191 Pitch Control______193 Paper Recycling ______194 Microparticle Retention______195
6. RUBBER ______197 Compounding Materials ______200 Elastomers______200 Natural Rubber (NR) ______202 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) ______204 Polybutadiene Rubber (BR)______205 Butyl Rubber (IIR)______206 Halobutyl Rubber (CIIR, BIIR) ______207 Neoprene (CR)______207
ix
Nitrile Rubber (NBR) ______208 Ethylene Propylene Rubbers (EPM, EPDM)______209 Polyisoprene (IR)______210 Chlorinated and Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CM, CSM)______211 Silicone Rubber ______212 Special Purpose Elastomers______214 Sulfur-Based Cure Systems ______216 Activators______217 Accelerators______217 Retarders ______219 Crosslink Length ______220 Non-Sulfur Cure Systems ______220 Peroxides ______220 Difunctional Compounds______221 Metal Oxides ______221 Fillers ______221 Filler Properties ______221 Filler Effects ______227 Filler Types ______231 Antidegradants ______247 Antioxidants______247 Antiozonants ______250 Other Additives______251 Rubber Processing ______253 Mastication ______253 Masterbatching ______253 Remilling ______254 Finish Mixing______254 Extruding ______254 Calendering ______255 Vulcanization______255 Physical Testing Of Rubber______258 Processability______259 Vulcanizate Tests______262 Weather and Ozone Resistance Tests ______269 Accelerated Aging ______271 Fluid Resistance______272 Low-Temperature Properties ______273
7. ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS______275 Definition and Purpose of Adhesives and Sealants ______275
x
General Properties ______276 Adhesive and Sealant Applications ______285 Packaging, Converting and Disposables ______285 Construction ______290 Transportation ______293 Adhesive and Sealant Processing ______297 Mixing ______297 Application______300 Adhesive and Sealant Testing______300 Chemical Raw Materials – Polymers ______300 Natural Base Polymers ______300 Oil Based Caulks ______303 Polymers for Evaporative Adhesives and Sealants ______304 Thermoplastic Polymers ______312 Reactive Base Polymers ______315 Chemical Additives ______325 Fillers ______332 Comparison Of Mineral Fillers ______345 PVC Plastisol ______345 Epoxy Sealant______345 Silicone Rubber RTV-1 Sealants ______347
8. PLASTICS ______353 Plastic Polymers ______353 Polymer Types ______353 Special Considerations______355 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plastics ______360 Why Plastics Are Used ______362 Minerals In Plastics ______365 Surface Treatment of Minerals Used in Plastics ______366 Effects of Mineral Addition on Plastics______367 General Effects of Industrial Minerals on Plastics Properties ______368 Special Effects ______368 Major End-Uses ______371 Commodity Thermoplastics______371 Poly(Vinyl Chloride) ______371 Polyolefins ______373 Styrenics ______378 Engineering Thermoplastics ______378 Polyamides______379 Thermoplastic Polyesters______380
xi
Poly(Phenylene Oxide)/Polystyrene Alloy ______381 Polycarbonate ______381 Thermosetting Polymers ______382 Unsaturated Polyesters______383 Polyurethanes, Polyureas______383 Compounding Methods ______385 Thermoplastics______385 Primary Processing ______386 Feeding Injection Molding and Extrusion Machines______389 Thermosetting Polymers ______390 Open Mold /Hand Lay-up Process______390 Open Mold /Spray-up Process______391 Resin Transfer Molding______392 Casting______392 Bulk Molding Compound ______393 Sheet Molding Compound______393 Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding (RRIM)______394 Test Methods______394 Filler or Reinforcement Content ______395 Thermoplastics Processing Tests______395 Thermoset Processing Tests ______395 Physical Properties______396 Appearance ______396 Short Term Mechanical Properties ______397 Electrical Properties______397 Thermal Properties______397 Fire Resistance______398 Aging Properties ______398
9. PHARMACEUTICALS______401 Minerals As Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients ______404 Gastric Antacids ______404 Laxatives ______405 Adsorbents______406 Topicals ______407 Mineral Excipients In Pharmaceutical Applications ______408 Minerals Used in Pharmaceutical Suspensions ______409 Gels ______411 Magmas and Milks ______412 Lotions ______412 Adsorbents______413
xii
Tableting Applications Of Minerals ______415 Tablet Fillers or Diluents ______416 Disintegrants ______417 Lubricants, Antiadherents, and Glidants ______418 Principle Minerals And Selection Criteria______419 Kaolin ______419 Bentonite ______420 Magnesium Aluminum Silicate ______421 Talc ______422 Precipitated Calcium Carbonate ______423 Calcium Sulfate ______424 Dibasic Calcium Phosphate ______425 Tribasic Calcium Phosphate ______426 Magnesium Carbonate______427 Colloidal Silicon Dioxide ______428 Sodium Chloride ______429
10. AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDES ______435 Defining and Regulating Pesticide Products ______435 United States – FIFRA______435 Europe – EC Guidelines ______437 Why Formulate Pesticidal Active Ingredients ______438 Mineral Uses ______439 Carriers ______439 Solid Diluents ______439 Minor Uses ______440 Pesticide Formulation Types ______440 Dusts ______441 Flowables______442 Granules______443 Water Dispersible Granules and Wettable Powders ______444 Processing Techniques ______445 Mixing/Blending ______445 Liquid Impregnation ______446 Size Reduction______447 Agglomeration ______448 Testing Techniques______449 Minerals______449 Formulated Products ______449 Example Pesticides ______452 Dusts ______452
xiii
Flowable Concentrate ______453 Granules______454 Water Dispersible Granules______455 Wettable Powders ______456
11. CERAMICS & GLASS ______459 Major Classifications Of Ceramics ______459 Glass ______459 Whiteware ______460 Refractories ______460 Artware ______460 Structural Ceramics ______460 Other Ceramic Industries______460 Glass______461 Soda-Lime Glass ______461 Aluminosilicate Glass ______462 Borosilicate Glass ______462 Lithia Glass ______462 Phosphate Glass______463 Opal Glass ______463 Lead Glass ______463 Whiteware ______464 Ceramic Tiles______464 Tile Raw Materials ______467 Typical Ceramic Tile Bodies ______471 Ceramic Tile/Whiteware Processing______471 Materials Handling ______472 Grinding & Classifying ______472 Milling & Blending ______473 Body preparation ______474 Pressing ______475 Drying ______476 Glazing______476 Firing ______477 Sorting and packaging ______479 Other Whiteware Industries______479 Refractories______480
12. FORMULARY ______483 Paint Formulas ______484 Rubber Compounds ______517
xiv
Adhesives & Sealants______538 Plastics ______559
13. COMMERCIAL MINERAL PRODUCTS ______571 Ball Clay______572 Barite ______574 Calcium Carbonate ______575 Feldspar ______582 Kaolin Clay______583 Muscovite Mica ______587 Phlogopite Mica ______589 Pyrophyllite ______590 Silica, fumed______591 Silica, precipitated ______593 Silica, ground ______595 Silicates, precipitated ______596 Smectite Clay ______597 Talc______598 Wollastonite ______603 Zeolite______604
INDEX______607
xv
ONE
SILICATE STRUCTURES
Peter A. Ciullo R.T. Vanderbilt Company, Inc. Norwalk, CT
Technologists charged with using industrial minerals typically draw their expertise from disciplines other than mineralogy. They may have a strong practical understanding of chemical raw materials but often lack an appreciation of minerals beyond their obvious effects on product properties and cost. A mineral’s name and chemical formula are admittedly seldom enlightening. A grasp of mineral crystal architecture can therefore provide at least a foundation for using industrial minerals as constituents in many products. Conjuring up images of mineral structures will perhaps unleash long- suppressed memories of space groups, unit cells, and planes of symmetry. These topics of Inorganic Chemistry 101 seem of little relevance when the job at hand is to improve the heat deflection temperature of polypropylene or to ensure the durability of a bridge coating. Picturing the structures of common industrial silicate minerals can, nevertheless, at least provide insight into their common features and subtle differences and how these are reflected in the properties and uses described in the following chapter. In simplest terms, the silicate minerals can be considered inorganic polymers based on two basic “monomer” structures. These are the tetrahedron of Figure 1 and the octahedron of Figure 2. Many of the silicates can be pictured as the configurations made by joining of such tetrahedra and octahedra to themselves and to each other in three dimensions. These involve the sharing of corners, edges, and faces in numerous conformations. The possible geometric permutations are further modified by chemical substitutions within the structure, which usually depend on how well a metal ion will fit among close-packed oxygen ions. This is largely a matter of relative ionic radii. Given an O2- ionic radius of 1.40 angstroms, the preferred (most stable) coordination of cations common in industrial silicate minerals has been calculated and expressed in terms of ionic radius ratio.