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What Is It”? Containing the Threat of the Black Male Body In “What Is It”? Containing the Threat of the Black Male Body in American Popular Culture. Jonathan David Tomas Ward A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of East Anglia, School of American Studies, May 2016. This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived there from must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. 2 Abstract. This thesis takes a critical look at the representation of the black male body in American popular culture throughout the twentieth century, intending to examine the meanings ascribed to this body and analyze the ways that these meanings are communicated to the consumers of these cultural productions. The focus will be on visual examples of popular cultural productions, with the intention of examining representations of the black male body in film, photography, and television, and the viewer. In looking at these cultural texts, the thesis will seek to examine the relationship between visual text and spectator, in terms of how these contribute to understandings of black masculinity. Because of the impact of cultural productions upon conceptions of the world, the self, and the relationship between the two, this thesis will seek to develop an understanding of the way that black masculinity is depicted visually, and what the implications of this are for American culture. 3 Acknowledgements. Although I may have typed these words myself, this thesis could not have been completed without the help of many others: as they say, it takes a whole village…….and this certainly feels like my child in many ways! Heartfelt thanks go to the following: Sarah and Jon – for being my cheerleaders, counsellors, sounding boards, sage advisors…. I am so lucky to have had you both in my corner providing constant inspiration. Becky and Bex – for believing in my ability and academic potential, and ensuring that I had the reassurance to stay in academia when I doubted it was a space to which not only did I belong, but that I had something valuable to contribute. Gerry – for inspiring me to believe in myself and showing me what a great thing it can be to combine work and passion. Ailish – for always being there with love, laughter, and prosecco and reminding me of the importance of forging a path for you to follow! JP, Alex, and Tim – for inspiring me with your love, compassion, kindness, creativity, glittery fabulousness, and always being there to dance with. BD clan – for consistently demonstrating the importance of love and family, and ensuring that I have always felt included within the warm embrace of both. Yvonne – for being such a constant source of love and support, you have always made me feel at home when I’m with you. FPOC’s – for being a constant reminder of the importance and value of forging community and resistance. You both exemplify that “the personal is political,” and have taught me that this only makes our work stronger. Lemara – thanks for always making me feel as though what I had to say was wise – even if it was only because of my role as “Grandaddy Gay!”…….. C’mon 4 ladies, now let’s get in formation, ‘cause WE slay! And particularly to Becky, I will be eternally thankful for your presence by my side throughout this ordeal, I truly would not have made it without you there. To me, you will always be “Becky with the……FABULOUS hair!” Andi – for being there with love, wine, and cooked dinners. James – for reminding me of the importance of excitement and to always be an unrepentant trashbag, but equally important, for all of the fabulous glittery drag cast-offs. Jo – for making my time as an undergraduate at UEA such a great time that deciding to go back took no hesitation, and for everything since. Jona, Kat, Gerry – for always making me laugh, and being the fabulous queer folks that you are. Laura – for accepting me into your life with such love and warmth, and reminding me of the sheer strength and kindness to which we should all aspire. Adam – what can I say my love: I don’t think there are any words to do you justice (but I’ll give it a go anyway!). You’ve been with me every step of the way along this journey, with love, support, advice, and laughter that have never run out and I will be forever indebted to you…….thanks pamplemousse, I love you. Contents. 5 List of Illustrations: ...…………………………………………………………………………………………………8 Introduction: ...………………………………………………………………………….……………………………..10 Control: ...………………………………………………………………………………………………………..19 Spectacle: ...……………………………………………………………………………………………………..20 Containment: ...………………………………………………………………………………………………..26 Gendering the Freak: ……………………………………………...……………………………………….27 Key Terms: …………………………………………………………………………………………………….29 Black: …………………………………………………………………………………………………….29 Male: …………………………………………………………………………………………………..….31 Masculinity: …………………………..……………………………………………………………….31 Body: ………………….………………………………………………………………………………….32 Narrativization: ……………………..……………………………………………………………….33 Popular Culture: ……………………………………………………………………………………..34 Spectator: ………………………………………………………………………………………………35 Threat: ………………………………………….……………………………………………………….37 White Identity: ……………………………………………………………………………………….38 White Supremacy: ………………………………….……………………………………………….39 Key Theoretical Points of Departure: …………………………………………………………………...42 Thesis Outline: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..47 Chapter One: Lynching Postcards: ……………………………………..…………………………….50 Chapter Two: The Birth of a Nation : …………...…………………………………………………….51 Chapter Three: The Black Book : ……………………………………………………………………….51 Chapter Four: Oz : ……………………………...…………………………………………………………….52 6 Conclusion: ……………..…………………………………………………………………………………..….52 Chapter One: Framing the Black Male Body in the Lynching Postcards of James Allen’s Without Sanctuary: ……………………………………………………………………………………….53 Lynching as a Social Tool: ………………………………………………………………………………..53 Anatomy of a Lynching: …………………………………………………………………………………..66 Spectacle: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….77 Ethics of Looking: …………………………………………………………………………………………...78 Ethics of Memorialization: ………………………………………………………………………………84 Representation: ………………………………………………………………………………………………92 The Mechanics of the Lynching Postcard: ………..……………………………………………….94 Rape: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………104 Conclusion: …………………………………………………………………………………………………..107 Chapter Two – Filming the Black Male Body in D.W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation : ...108 The Representation of the Black Male Rapist on Film: …………………………………….108 The Birth of a Nation in Context: ………………………...………………………………………….115 The Mechanics of Cinema: …………………………………………………….……………………….121 The Representation of the Black Male: ………………………..………………………………….133 Miscegenation: ……………………………………………….…………………………………………….135 Rape: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………138 Castration: ……………………………...…………………………………………………………………….141 The Rebirth of a Nation: …………………………………………………………………………………143 Chapter Three: Objectifying the Black Male in Robert Mapplethorpe’s The Black Book: …………………………………………………………….………………………………………..….150 Reimagining the Black Male Rapist as a Rapacious Threat: ……………………………..150 7 Contextualizing Mapplethorpe Within the Art World: …………………………………….163 Spectacle: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..167 The White Gaze: ……………………………………………………………………………………………170 Racism: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………...175 Sexual Objectification: …………………………………………………………………………………..181 Submission: ………………………………………………………………………………………………….185 The Black Male as Sexual Threat: ……………………….………………………………………….192 Context of Looking: ……………………………………………………………………………………….198 Containment: ………………………………………………………………………………………………..203 Chapter Four: Containing the Threat of the Black Male Body in Oz: ………………………….214 Incarceration: ……………………………………………………………………………………………….214 Panopticon: …………………………………………………………………………………………………..216 Biopower: …………………………………………………………………………………………………….223 Whiteness in Oz : …………………………………………………………………………………………...237 Blackness: …………………………………………………………………………………………………….248 Rape: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………260 Conclusion: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...269 Thesis Summary: ……………………………………………..……………………………………………269 Get Rich or Die Tryin’ : ……………………………………………………………………………………270 Django Unchained : ………………………………………………………………………………………...274 The Legacy of the Spectacular Black Male Body: …………………………………………….285 Bibliography: …………………………………………………………………………………………………….….289 List of Illustrations. 8 1. What Is It? Shelburne Museum. 2. What Is It? New-York Historical Society. 3. What Is It? Smithsonian Institute. 4. The Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith , Aug 7, 1930. 5. The Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith , Aug 7, 1930. 6. The Lynching of Elias Clayton, Elmer Jackson and Isaac McGhie June 15, 1920. 7. The Lynching of Elias Clayton, Elmer Jackson and Isaac McGhie June 15, 1920. 8. The Lynching of Virgil Jones, Robert Jones, Thomas Jones and Joseph Riley 9. The Lynching of Four Unidentified African Americans, Circa 1900, Location Unknown. 10. Historical Fiction , Tyler Shields, 2014. 11. UC Berkeley Installation, 2014. 12. The Lynching of Frank Embree , July 22, 1899. 13. The Lynching of Frank Embree , July 22, 1899. 14. The Lynching of Frank Embree , July 22, 1899. 15. Charred Torso of an African American Male , 1902, Georgia. 16. Untitled, Robert Mapplethorpe, 1980. 17. Bruce , Robert Mapplethorpe, 1980. 18. Ajiito , Robert Mapplethorpe,
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