Through the Dąbrowski Lens: Philosophy, Faith, and the Personality Ideal

Amanda J. Harper and Christine Clifford

Kazimierz Dąbrowski’s (1902–1980) five-level theory of personality development, the Theory of Positive Disintegration, is one in which the experience of all emotions is essential for the process of individual growth toward the personality ideal. In this article, we introduce the phenomenological and existential influences on Dąbrowski, including the influence of Søren Kierkegaard. We also examine Dąbrowski’sreflections on faith, Christianity, God, and human purpose, with particular reference to his unpublished manuscript, Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms.

Keywords: confessions of faith, Dąbrowski, development, existential, gifted, Kierkegaard, phenomenology, philosophy, positive disintegration

The purpose of this article is to explore the phenomen- THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL MOVEMENT ological and existential influences on Kazimierz Dąbrowski (1902–1980). The philosophical perspectives The emergence of the phenomenological movement was of phenomenology and existentialism provide a platform heralded through a preparatory phase in the early 1800s; for engaging with Dąbrowski’s Theory of Positive however, it was during the time of Edmund Husserl (1859– Disintegration (Dąbrowski, 1964). Specifically 1938) that a second phase of phenomenological evolution addressed is the influence of Søren Kierkegaard on became more clearly established (Merriam, 2009). For Dąbrowski. This article discusses these ideas by exam- Husserl, phenomenology was “a study of the structure of ining an unpublished manuscript of Dąbrowski’s consciousness, which proceeds by ‘bracketing’ the objects obtained from the National Archives of Canada. In outside of consciousness itself” (Wrathall & Dreyfus, 2006, this important but undated manuscript, Confessions of p. 2). Thus, actions are determined by knowledge of cultural Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms,Dąbrowski (n.d.) heritage, which, by its nature, is incomplete. There is a reflects on many topics, including faith, Christianity, moral responsibility to acknowledge the incompleteness of and human purpose. Despite the manuscript being knowledge and, for the sake of intellectual integrity, all undated, there are indications within the text that place ideas and beliefs must be scrutinized before being accepted its composition between 1972 and 1976. Dąbrowski as true knowledge (Werkmeister, 1941). Existentialism and identifies Existential Thoughts and Aphorisms as “one phenomenology coexisted, even within the works of of our previous works” (Dąbrowski, n.d.,p.12).This Husserl, whose “epistemological considerations … [grew] work was published in 1972. Similarly, Dąbrowski’s out of the factual and existential conditions of intellectual 1976 paper, On the Philosophy of Development integrity and moral responsibility” (Werkmeister, 1941,p. Through Positive Disintegration and Secondary 80). A central theme in phenomenology is that of conscious- Integration, expands ideas introduced in Confessions ness, or intention, and the reflection of self within and out- of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms (Dąbrowski, n.d.), side this reality. This theme provides a clear connection thus establishing the approximate upper-bound date of from phenomenological thought to a significant element composition. within Dąbrowski’s Theory of Positive Disintegration, that being the dynamism of subject–object in oneself. The notions of self-awareness and analysis are also foundational concepts within the Theory of Positive Disintegration and Accepted 13 December 2016. underpin Dąbrowski’s concepts of multilevelness, hierarch- Address correspondence to Amanda J. Harper, Academic Division, fi University of Tasmania, Private Bag 45, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia. ization of self, and the identi cation of the personality ideal E-mail: [email protected] (Dąbrowski, 1996). THROUGH THE DĄBROWSKI LENS 263

Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), whose work featured pro- Pascal “had an overwhelming religious experience of Jesus minently in the field of existential thought, was also signifi- the incarnate Christian God,” who bore no resemblance to cantly influential within the phenomenological movement, the Hebrew/Christian God as described by philosophers notwithstanding his desire to distance himself from the think- (Dreyfus, 2006, p. 139). From this revelation Pascal began ing of Husserl (Speziale & Carpenter, 2007; Wrathall & a debate that still continues regarding the existence of, and/ Dreyfus, 2006). Contrasting with Husserl’s focus on the nature or relationships between, a human essence, the capacity for of consciousness, Heidegger’s phenomenological standpoint individual self-definition, and the separation of body and centered on the human experience of being-in-the-world and soul. This line of thought also influenced Dąbrowski and the relationships therein (Wrathall & Dreyfus, 2006). This can be seen throughout Confessions of Faith in Thoughts perspective appears through the dual notion that between and Aphorisms (Dąbrowski, n.d.). every mode of being in the world there is a corresponding Links between Dąbrowski and Kierkegaard extend across mode of experiencing the world. When combined, these modes existential and phenomenological inquiry. Jürgen Habermas equate to the totality of existence and Heidegger’s concept of (1989) refers to Kierkegaard’s “either/or” where the individual beingness. It is the consideration and investigation of this takes on responsibility for his or her own existence. Michael concept that is, according to Heidegger, the purpose of philo- Tilley (2013) interprets this as meaning sophy. In this way, the connection is drawn from phenomen- fi ology to ontology and, speci cally, existential philosophy The self is not created, but it is chosen among a host of other (Werkmeister, 1941). possibilities; the identity of an individual is developed by taking The works of Husserl and Heidegger also contributed to the up a particular understanding of the history of the individual and “German phase” of phenomenological emergence by high- directing one’s life according to this historical portrait. (p. 405) lighting the development of central concepts: those of essences, intuiting, and phenomenological reduction. The con- The alliance between existentialism and phenomenology was cept of essence highlights the close links between the work of also demonstrated through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Dąbrowski and the phenomenological thinkers. We expand both of whom continued the traditions of thought established fl ’ this link later when exploring his thinking in Confessions of by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. The in uence of Nietzsche s ą Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms (Dąbrowski, n.d.). thinking can also been seen in the work of D browski. ą ’ fi The third phase in the evolution of phenomenological D browski s contemporaries within the elds of psychol- fl thought was led by French philosophers. This included ogy and psychiatry were also in uenced by the work of Gabriel Marcel, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Maurice Merleau- Kierkegaard and Heidegger, notably Ludwig Binswanger, “ ‘ ’” Ponty and saw the emergence of the concept of embodiment the named founder of existential analysis (Frie, 2000,p. and further development of the idea of being-in-the-world. 108). After initially examining the work of Sigmund Freud, Building on their thinking, contemporary phenomenology is Binswanger turned to the work of Heidegger. Binswanger fi ’ used to describe the phenomena of everyday life through the was the rst to identify the importance of Heidegger s work ’ lived and conscious experiences of those people living it to psychiatry. Binswanger s existential analysis is an “ (Barrasso, 2010; Gibson & Hanes, 2003; Punch, 2005; approach to psychiatry where person and world are one. Speziale & Carpenter, 2007; Titchen & Hobson, 2011). It It is thus a question of attempting to understand and explain provides an understanding of how the world might appear to the human being in the totality of his or her existence, which ” those living in it and the essence of the shared experiences always includes his or her relationship to others (Frie, of those people, which are considered the foundational units 2000, p. 114). However, while acknowledging the impor- ’ fi of common understanding (Speziale & Carpenter, 2007). tance of Heidegger s thought, Binswanger was not satis ed with Heidegger’s treatment of the social aspect of being human and the inherent part that human interactions play CONTEMPORARY EXISTENTIAL THINKING in the achievement of authenticity. In Binswanger’s continu- ing search for deeper meaning around the social dimension, Contemporary existential thinking has its roots in the work he turned to the work of Buber and as such moved away fl of Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), who saw the human experi- from the in uence of both Kierkegaard and Heidegger. ence as a paradox between mind and body. This notion was While the works of Buber and Binswanger did depart ’ shared by Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). During the 20th from Kierkegaard, Kierkegaard s social ontology and con- century, existential thought was divided into two schools: cept of community link his work to the domain of conti- that of a Christian nature where Kierkegaard was positioned nental religious philosophy and phenomenological inquiry ’ and that of an atheistic nature, encompassing the thinking of (Tilley, 2013). This conception also relates to Kierkegaard s “ Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), with both maintaining a notion of Existential Dread, where people become con- focus on human freedom, responsibility, and authenticity scious of their own responsibility for their intentions, ” (Wrathall & Dreyfus, 2006). Important for this discussion, choices and actions (Owen, 1994, p. 347). 264 A. J. HARPER AND C. CLIFFORD

Dąbrowski portrays the norms of society as largely coun- the empirical model for shaping one’s own personality. ter to the personal awareness and motivation that is required (Dąbrowski, Kawczak, & Piechowski, 1970, p. 175) as an individual moves through the levels within the Theory of Positive Disintegration. Kierkegaard similarly held little As the individual gains insight and progresses toward the regard for the broader norms of society, suggesting in Two upper levels of the Theory of Positive Disintegration, and Ages that society is “a demon that forms people in its image thus toward the personality ideal, Dąbrowski describes an but is itself unable to be controlled” (Tilley, 2013,p.406). element of spiritual awakening, and exemplars of the high- Nietzsche also was critical of the influence of society on est level have been cited in the persons of Socrates, human development and believed that individuals could not Abraham Lincoln, and Mother Teresa (Tillier, 2008). develop their own values while adhering to “dogmas of the Though Dąbrowski outlines complex processes that endow day … [which simply stimulate mediocrity, or a] homogeni- the individual with certain capacities for development, the zation … [of] values and ideals” (Tillier, 2008, pp. 109–110). journey of personality development is a personal one For Nietzsche, one of the strong influences in society, albeit through self-awareness, metacognition, and the spiritual one he considered less than desirable, was that of the Church. realm. This is articulated throughout Confessions of Faith Blind compliance, through the command “though shalt,” in Thoughts and Aphorisms (Dąbrowski, n.d.). along with potential guilt and fear with each deviation, is at For Dąbrowski, personality ideal is achieved by reaching ’ level V,or secondary integration, within the Theory of Positive the center of Nietzsche s rejection of religion, thus ensuring that the individual has the “right to pursue new values and a Disintegration. Secondary integration is the “integration of all freedom for new creation … [through] a continual process of mental functions into a harmonious structure controlled by self-overcoming” (Tillier, 2008, p. 113). higher emotions. … [It] is the outcome of the full process of Furthering the notion of the individual taking responsibility positive disintegration” (Dąbrowski, 1972,p.304).Forthose for his or her own existence, Abraham Maslow, a humanistic individuals with the potential for development, level V is psychologist, described existential psychology as “starting achieved only after immense personal growth facilitated by from experiential knowledge. … Existentialism rests on phe- movement through the levels of development via disintegra- nomenology, i.e., it uses personal, subjective experience as the tive and reintegrative processes, the catalysts for which are foundation upon which abstract knowledge is built” (Maslow, found within the three factors of development. Personal 1962, p. 9). Extending the thinking of the humanistic psycho- growth through positive disintegration places the locus of logical movement is transpersonal psychology, which “began control within the realm of emotional function, rather than through the experiential study of meditation, altered states of intellectual capability (Dąbrowski et al., 1970). A detailed consciousness, and non-Western epistemology” (Gordon, description of the full theory is beyond the scope of this article 2012, p. 81). In this, Gordon (2012) also noted: and can be found elsewhere (Harper, Cornish, Smith, & Merrotsy, 2017; Mendaglio, 2008). Existential–humanistic or phenomenological knowing, based Critical to the development of the personality ideal and the on the empathic understanding of one’s private world of mean- inherent emergence of an individual’strueidentityisthe ing and internal frame of reference associated with the growth- hierachization of values, the development of subject–object oriented dimension of personality, self-actualization, and the in oneself, and the capacity to develop oneself from what is to reality of higher states of consciousness, is missing from our what ought to be, which occurs through a process of inner models of human development. (p. 85) psychic transformation. Fundamental to this process of development is the individual struggle, the unique human experi- However, the inherent spiritual awakening through higher ence of growth and conscious differentiation, of states of consciousness to which she refers is evident in much “individualized love” (Dąbrowski, n.d.,p.4).Dąbrowski con- of the thinking outlined within Dąbrowski’s(n.d.)unpublished tends that it is through this transformation that full realization manuscript, Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms. of the self occurs. He states that the human “personality is a global phenomenon, a synthesis of all the fundamental psychic fi DĄBROWSKI’S CONCEPT OF THE PERSONALITY qualities, a self-realized unity, self-chosen, self-af rmed and IDEAL self-educating. In this way it set up the possibility of self- determination and self-creation” (Dąbrowski, n.d.,p.18). The personality ideal is defined as CONFESSIONS OF FAITH IN THOUGHTS AND An individual standard against which one evaluates one’s APHORISMS actual personality structure. It arises out of one’s experience and development. Personality ideal is shaped autonomously fl and authentically, often in conflict and struggle with the In keeping with the aforementioned philosophical in u- prevalent ideals of society. It is a mental structure which is ences, Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms first intuitively conceived in its broad outline and serves as (Dąbrowski, n.d.) opens with a commentary on the nature THROUGH THE DĄBROWSKI LENS 265 of God’s will for His people and questions the much-cele- monologues about God “and not dialogues with Him. brated notion of fusion with God, asking: Indeed, there exists saints, but not many of them, who demonstrate comprehensible reasonable dialogue” (Cienin, ą Is it the engulfing of us like crumbs without any meaning? Is 1972a, p. 25). In this, D browski is referring to those “ ” “ ” it to be fusions through a complete shedding of our own considered saintly who profess to be all-knowing in individual personality, personal experiences, personal, indi- regard to God and His wishes for humanity; however, vidual memories, emotional ties, differentiations, and a these people do not demonstrate this through their own “calm and happy” entrance into intellectual, abstract exis- actions and words. Dąbrowski is referring to a hypocrisy tence, i.e., into a nothingness devoid of personality? (p. 3) that demands conformity and loss of individualization. Through entries within Confessions of Faith in Thoughts Dąbrowski, a man of Christian faith raised as a Polish and Aphorisms,Dąbrowski (n.d.) includes Saint John of the Roman Catholic, argues that this is not the intention of Cross and particularly the teachings of Saint Thomas God, that this engulfing of individuality is a creation of Aquinas within this perspective, where “an intellectual, the institution of the Church, which then leads an individual uncomplicated, undeviating, perpetual God is to engulf us, to “re-enter a state of non-existence” (Dąbrowski, n.d., p. 4). i.e., to destroy our ‘small personalities’” (p. 14). The exam- Throughout Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and ple of Christ provides a regular contrast to the behaviors of ą

Aphorisms,Dbrowski (n.d.) is incredulous that perhaps, the Church and those therein, who are perceived to bask in having traveled the path of positive disintegration and estab- the adulation of the masses and wallow in the trappings of lishing an individualized, differentiated, and hard-won per- pseudo-glorification and “pseudomystic majesty” sonality, the end result is a “non-individualized perfection” (Dąbrowski, n.d., p. 96). (p. 3) and a “devaluation of all aspects of an individualized Dąbrowski is also wary of “those who are well situated way toward achieving one’s personality” (p. 10), where … [noting that] one can have the badge of a Christian, a “ideas … shine in their unchangeability, in their generality, Catholic, a priest, a professor, a psychiatrist, a psychologist, in their perpetuality” (p. 36). a director, a member of this or that ‘sublime association’ and This also represents Dąbrowski’s attitude toward the still be a blackguard” (Dąbrowski, n.d., p. 22). Thus, life’s institutionalized indoctrination from the Church and its purpose and virtue are not associated, in any way, with representation of God. Dąbrowski takes a different view. position or function. Dąbrowski (n.d.) appears quite passio- Having discussed other doctrines—for example, Hinduism nate when he suggests that from within such groups of and Buddhism—he suggests that there is “only one hope— power comes many a human animal who “stalks its prey, Christ” (Dąbrowski, n.d., p. 4), who led by example in the ‘scents’ its victim which it eventually devours, has no living of an individual experience and of unconditional love. shame, conscience, feeling of guilt, but it does all this … Dąbrowski (n.d.) considered “that only the thought, exam- in an intelligent, logical, masked or underhand way” (pp. ple and way of Christ give a positive departure in religions 22–23). and philosophical systems which occupy themselves with Dąbrowski (n.d.) is also adamant that a life “in which ‘ultimate matters’” (p. 8). At the core of the meaning of life circumstances arrange themselves without particular hin- sits love, which, through development, “slowly rises to the drances, a life without suffering and inhibitions, without level of St Paul’s ‘Letters to the Corinthians’ and loses its great joys and disappointments, without sensitive reactions primitive, impulsive connotation” (p. 39). to injustice–is a basically automatic life, coupled to the Though Dąbrowski published all Theory of Positive biological life cycle of the person” (p. 50) and as such Disintegration material under his own name, his two works of will not develop toward the personality ideal. Without the a more philosophical nature, Existential Thoughts and tragic, the challenging, the conflicting, and the confronting, Aphorisms (Cienin, 1972a) and Fragments from the Diary of a an individual cannot—will not—experience the inner psy- Madman (Cienin, 1972b) were both published under his pseu- chic transformation necessary for multilevel development or donym. Through this separation of content and use of pseudo- the emergence of a full empathic condition and cannot move nyms, Kierkegaard’sinfluence is further seen upon Dąbrowski. toward the personality ideal. Similarly, without these chal- For Kierkegaard, his religious, theologically based material was lenges and anxieties, we are not equipped to understand or identified under his own name; however, when contemplating experience in its fullness the tapestry, elation, and fulfill- aesthetic–philosophical matters, publication occurred under a ment of the process of development. Contentiously, pseudonym (Elrod, 1973; McKinnon, 1969). At this point it is Dąbrowski (n.d.) considers that for the significant majority reasonable to consider that had Confessions of Faith in Thoughts of people, the concepts captured within the existential or and Aphorisms (Dąbrowski, n.d.) been published, it indeed may essential questions, along with the nature of multilevelness have been done so under Dąbrowski’s pseudonym, Paweł,or and multidimensionality, will be largely incomprehensible. Paul, Cienin. Though this view casts a shroud over the potential of In Existential Thoughts and Aphorisms, writing under his humanity, Dąbrowski is not without hope and recognizes the pseudonym, Dąbrowski admonishes people for entertaining potential for the positive, uplifting, and virtuous within 266 A. J. HARPER AND C. CLIFFORD individuals. There is, at the core of every human, the poten- [towards the personality ideal], the more we gain in exis- tial for development, which for some can manifest in a tence and lose in essence. God is pure existence. Existence dynamic, lifetime’s passage, through inner psychic transfor- is prior to essence and essence cannot be differentiated but mation, toward the personality ideal. “Only then does in existence” (p. 16). That which is fundamental to human essence emerge from a chaotic or primitive existence, as existence and development has its genesis in the recognition the relevant form of human existence and as a the principal of the core qualities of an individual, including emotional condition of a meaning for its existence” (Dąbrowski, n.d., bonds of friendship and love; our given gifts and talents; p. 26). An autodeterministic approach is at the core of this consciousness and sense of identity. The qualitative aspects thinking, when free will links to our true essence and to the of these elements remain stable but do change in a quanti- emerging personality, rather than that which is imposed. tative correlation with development and are essential for an In subsequent writing, Dąbrowski expands the under- individual to perceive “the meaning of life” (p. 17). standing of the human essence, which is divided into two Dąbrowski (1976) states: qualities: the individual and the social. Individual qualities fi consist of three elements: rst, those aptitudes and talents From my point of view, the essence of man is the unity of the ’ that form the core meaning or purpose in a person s life conscious, the chosen, the affirmed and the developing major without which existence would have no meaning; second, characteristics of individual personalities. In this approach “ emotional bonds through love and friendship; and third, the essence is much more important than existence, which … self-conscious identification with oneself, with one’s devel- presents something extrinsic to individuality. (p. 134) opment and with one’s perspective for the future” (Dąbrowski, 1976, p. 132). Dąbrowski identifies the essen- Dąbrowski’sisapositionof“indeterminism, autonomy and tial social qualities as “empathy, social consciousness, authenticity” (n.d., p. 18) and it is by this approach to life that authenticity and responsibility” (1976, p. 132) that provide an individual, according to Dąbrowski, comes to a relationship the foundation for all our human interactions and suggests with God. “God … is a God of love and human freedom … that these are inextricably interconnected with each other. [who] loves man and longs for his love, but love out of free Again Christ provides the exemplar through “consciousness will, through the understanding and acceptance of ideals and of His own unrepeatable individual identity, and … His not just their imposition” (Dąbrowski, n.d.,p.19).Inthisway, constant readiness to serve all the people” (p. 133). “by ourselves—with God’s volition and grace as a basis—we Dąbrowski (n.d., p. 75) places empathy “at the peak of acquire our highest possible level. … We choose the genuine I; the developmental hierarchy” and suggests that it is synon- we self-assert and self-educate ourselves” (Dąbrowski, n.d., ymous with love. True personality, through authentic devel- p. 56) and move away from “a norm of healthy mediocrity” opment, moves through the “strong universal dynamisms of (Dąbrowski, n.d., p. 85) that facilitates the “squandering away the sexual instinct [to a true and deep understanding of love, of developmental dynamisms … [and] … mutilates the human which emerges from] a profound attitude of the emotion of psyche” (Dąbrowski, n.d.,p.87).Dąbrowski’s passion for both loyalty and a great spiritual need for permanence” the value of the autonomous, free-thinking individual and the (Dąbrowski, n.d., p. 131). Dąbrowski suggests that at level importance of faith within the journey toward the personality V the deepest of friendship replaces sexual love and it is this ideal are clearly articulated through these passages. Though level of love that provides the foundation for a spiritual Dąbrowski suggests that only God can truly know the human union. Dąbrowski credits this thinking to Kierkegaard entity, partial knowledge of self and the underpinning person- (Dąbrowski, 1996). Construction and creation of personality ality can be achieved “by a person who is modest, subtle and occurs in both the mundaneness of everyday life and in comprehensively developing” (n.d.,p.95). times of reflection where the process of autoeducation is Dąbrowski further aligns himself with existentialist thought incorporated. This process is documented throughout the through recurring references to the characteristics and contri- Theory of Positive Disintegration (Dąbrowski, 1964). butions of the existentialists (Cienin, 1972a). Specifically, Dąbrowski (n.d., p. 15) also reflects more closely on an Dąbrowski identifies the writings of Søren Kierkegaard as intrinsic existentialist question, that being “what is more influential. There are consistent references throughout fundamental; essence or existence?” Dąbrowski’s interpreta- Dąbrowski’s published and unpublished works, not just within tion of the definition postulated through his own experience Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms (Dąbrowski, of the institution of the Church is that essence is “an idea, it n.d.), where the influence of Kierkegaard is evident or expli- is that which is universal, unchanging, integrated, intellec- citly mentioned, particularly Kierkegaard’sideasoffear and tual as opposed to that which is differentiated, emotional, trembling (De Silentio, 2012)andeither/or (Kierkegaard, single, individual” (p. 15). This definition, which he con- 1992), where Dąbrowski links Kierkegaard’s concepts to siders to be based on a lack of individual differentiation and expressions of the human condition. the subjugation of emotion—even extracting emotion out of Similarly, philosopher Andrzej Kawczak, in the first God’s love, is quite contrary to Dąbrowski’s own perspec- chapter of Mental Growth Through Positive Disintegration tive. He counters that “the higher we are in development (Dąbrowski et al., 1970), identifies a relationship between THROUGH THE DĄBROWSKI LENS 267 the work of Dąbrowski and “existentialist ethics and exis- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS tentialist philosophy in general … [and specifically identifies that] Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling, Either/Or and Amanda Harper acknowledges and thanks Dr. Christine many other works are masterly descriptions of some states Clifford and Professor John Burgess for their support with of multilevel disintegration” (p. 9). article preparation. Dąbrowski uses the term either/or to depict the inner struggle or conflict within the consciousness of an individual, as choices and decisions are made regarding actions, ORCID values, desires, “the struggle between good and evil, with the tragedy-swollen feeling of the necessity of selecting and Amanda J. Harper http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7980-1438 deciding” (Dąbrowski, 2015, p. 31). The other significant and often-referenced idea from the work of Kierkegaard is that of fear and trembling. Dąbrowski, for REFERENCES example, suggests that the human experience of guilt is akin to fear and trembling, especially when the guilt response relates to Barrasso, J. (2010). Qualitative approaches to research. In G. LoBiondo- one’s own awareness of not functioning at the highest level of Wood & J. Haber (Eds.), Nursing research: Methods, critical appraisal and utilization (pp. 100–113). St. Louis, MO: Mosby/Elsevier. development. At this point there remains a pull toward the lower Cienin, P. 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AUTHOR BIOS

Amanda J. Harper (BMus, Ed; GradCertPubSectMgmnt; GradDipSocSci, Psych; Med Hons) is an educator with extensive experience in classroom delivery and curriculum design. She completed her master of education (Hons) examining the development of empathy in gifted children with consideration to Dąbrowski’s Theory of Positive Disintegration and is in the ﬁnal year of her PhD candidature further exploring empathy and the place of Dąbrowski’s theory in the clinical skills acquisition of undergraduate health care students. Amanda presented at the 11th and 12th International Congresses on Dąbrowski’s Theory of Positive Disintegration. E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Christine Clifford (BA Hons, PhD London MAPS) has been a clinical psychologist for over 30 years, graduating from the University of London with a PhD in 1983. Since then she has maintained a balance between academic and clinical work. She has been involved in teaching and research in the School of Medicine at the University of Tasmania since 1989. Her research interests are in medical education and mental health education in health professionals. In addition, Dr. Clifford has maintained a role at the Royal Hobart Hospital providing psychological care to cancer patients and their families. E-mail: [email protected] Downloaded by [Walden University] at 16:29 11 October 2017