Perspectives eous diffusion rates, that any ‘aged’ pothesized degassing of ‘old’ carbon Revised datings for carbon dioxide would intermix with dioxide from the Mediterranean sea the conventional ‘zero age’ carbon fl oor (regardless of its exact cause), is ‘Little Foot’ and other dioxide so rapidly and completely that an astonishing development that has, in no signifi cant 14C anomaly could occur effect, ‘thrown a monkey wrench’ into fossil at any appreciable downwind distance the archaeological sciences: hominoid remains from the source of the anomaly. As ‘In conclusion, the hypothesis is evidence, they cite the rapidity with plausible, and further research is Greg Beasley which 14C concentrations, emanating required to verify or refute it. It from nuclear power stations, become would be ironic if the “cradle of 1 14 In September of this year Reuters homogenized with the much-lower C civilization” turned out to be in just reported that the famed South African concentrations of the surrounding at- the right place and time to make its fossil site at Sterkfontein may be a mosphere. However, such reasoning is 14C dates erroneous, but that might million years younger than previously not applicable to geographically large be the case.’9 14 thought. sources of ‘aged’ C, if only for the It is not just a question of how The Sterkfontein caves are rich in following reason: inaccurate most currently-accepted fossiliferous material. Over many dec- ‘Note that nuclear power stations are C-14 dates are, but also how many ades the site has become synonymous essentially continuous point sources. perfectly valid C-14 dates have never with many famous fossil hominine In contrast, a large sea area is essen- seen the light of publication because fi nds, including af- tially a continuous line source, for an they were incorrectly deemed errone- ricanus (e.g. Sts 5) and Homo habilis adjacent land mass. Simple geom- ous. A top-to-bottom re-examination (Stw-53). etry implies that gas concentration of all the raw C-14 dates is necessary downwind from line sources declines before we are in a position to even The discovery of ‘Little Foot’ much more slowly than gas concen- begin to entertain questions related tration from point sources. Degas- to Middle Eastern chronologies of the In 1995, palaeoanthropologists Ro- sing seas would thus be expected to second millennium BC. For the Bible nald Clarke and Philip Tobias, of the induce large gas concentrations at believer, as well as the honest skeptic, 7 University of Witwatersrand, announced substantial distance.’ it is necessary to withhold judgment the discovery of four fossilised hominid To further substantiate his about the correlations of Biblical and 8 foot bones from material extracted from hypothesis, Keenan provides several secular history, from the indicated time Dump 20 at Sterkfontein Cave in 1980.2 recent examples of ‘aged’ deep-sea period, at least until the top-to-bottom The material derived from Member 2 carbon dioxide being brought to the re-examination actually takes place. ocean surface, and inducing notable 14C of the six-member Sterkfontein forma- tion. The fossils became affectionately anomalies over downwind land areas. References These include a surface atmosphere known as ‘Little Foot’ (Stw 573a-d), because of their small size. They also built-in ‘age’ of 350 years, measured 1. Down, D., Searching for Moses, TJ 15(1): 250 km inland in Equator, probably 53–57, 2001. revealed that their owner—a gracile caused by the upwelling of deep Pa- 2. Down, D., David Down replies, TJ 15(3): australopithecine (Australopithecus cifi c water and its 14C-defi cient carbon 48–49, 2001. aff. africanus)—was adept at climbing dioxide. Other examples include C- 3. Wood, B., More searching, TJ 15(3):47–48, trees. The bones revealed a curious 14 dates centuries older than tree ring 2001. mix of human and ape traits.3 The four dates in California and in Thailand, the 4. Keenan, D.J., Why early-historical radiocar- bones comprised: latter believed caused by exceptionally- bon dates downwind from the Mediterranean A left talus (ankle bone) (Stw 573a), are too early, Radiocarbon 44(1):225–237, which was described as resembling intense monsoonal upwelling of deep, 2002. the human condition; ‘aged’ water. Still other examples are 5. Keenan, Ref. 4, p. 225. cited from various locations on Earth. A left navicular (a concave wrist or 6. Woodmorappe, J., Much-infl ated carbon-14 dates from subfossil trees: a new mechanism, foot bone) (Stw 573b), which was Conclusions TJ 15(3):43–44, 2001. said to comprise a curious mix of 7. Keenan, Ref. 4, p. 230. human and ape traits; Questions about the historicity 8. Keenan, Ref. 4, p. 229. Trivial explanations, A left medial cuneiform (wedge of the Mosaic accounts turn out to such as the effects of fossil fuels, can be ruled shaped bone in the ankle) (Stw be much more fundamental than such out on the basis of geographic distance, and 573c), which featured a substan- issues as the veracity or otherwise of carbon-isotope signatures. tially ape-like morphology, and 9. Keenan, Ref. 4, p. 231. the standard Egyptian chronology. The A left first metatarsal (instep systematic distortion of past Middle bone)(Stw 573d), which, when Eastern C-14 dates, caused by the hy- locked into position against the

TJ 17(1) 2003 15 Perspectives

and, indeed, somewhat controversial. In Clarke & Tobias Partridge et al. Berger et al. contrast to East Africa, where a long, (1995) (2000) (2002) continuous history of volcanic activity Member 4 2.6–2.8 Ma 1.5–2.5 Ma* has allowed palaeontologists to date the fossilised remains of hominids by Member 2 3.0–3.5 Ma 3.22–3.58 Ma 2.15–3.0 Ma* measuring the relative abundances of * The preferred dates by Berger et al. are based on a consideration of both the magnetostratigraphic radioactive isotopes in over and under- dating of the rocks and comparisons of the faunal assemblages at other South African sites. lying layers of volcanic rock, the South medial cuneiform, was angled me- the site from which they derived might African site has no way of radiometri- dialward—suggesting that the great yet reveal other elements of the same cally dating the deposits from which the toe (hallux) diverged away from the individual’s skeleton. bones derived. other toes, as in modern apes. Thus, in 1998, a nearly complete According to Clarke and Tobias, Many ape-like characteristics skeleton—including a virtually com- Stw 573 could not be less than 3.0 6 million years old, and more likely, was were present in the foot. As noted plete skull—was unearthed at the site. 8 above, the hallux was appreciably The composite picture assembled from dated to about 3.5Ma. These estimates were later confi rmed by the work of Par- medially diverged (varus) and strongly the fossilised remains, yielded an indi- tridge et al.9 mobile, as in apes. A strong muscle vidual approximately 120 cm tall, with More recently, however, Berger, La- peroneus longus adducted (turned it in- an overall skeletal morphology similar croz and de Ruiter have suggested that ward) the hallux, rendering it capable of to that of gracile australopithecines (A. there are other possible dating schemes powerful grasping movements. A wide africanus). However, when describing for the deposits at Sterkfontein—several range of movements was also possible the individual, Clarke noted that the of which raise the possibility that the at the fi rst tarsometatarsal joint, whilst massive cheekbones and evidence of Member 2 remains may be decidedly a locking mechanism was also present large jaw muscles were very different younger than the dates previously ad- between the metatarsal and the medial to those of other gracile australopith- vocated by Partridge.10 cuneiform. Indeed, it was stated that: ecines; so much so that he concluded According to Berger and his col- ‘ ... the medial cuneiform and fi rst that the remains could have belonged leagues, the deposits from Member 2 metatarsal retain primitive, Pan- to an early [i.e. more primitive] form could be as recent as 1.07–1.95 Ma. like [chimp] features, whereas of A. africanus or a southern form of This alternative dating range assumes 6 the navicular shows compromise A. afarensis. that there is a continuous magne- 4 morphology’. Now, the oldest deposits at Sterk- tostrategraphic sequence present at Yet even the navicular exhib- fontein derive from Member 1—the Sterkfontein.11 ited a large number of pongid [ape] youngest deposits from Member 6. Of In either case, the signifi cance of traits—with the ‘ ... angle between the these members, Member 1 through 3 these redatings is immediately apparent. navicular facet and the upright limb are exposed in the so-called Silberberg If the more recent dates for Member 2 of the L-shaped facet on the lateral Grotto. Member 2 deposits are sepa- have any validity, then A. africanus o 5 surface is c. 90 , as in Pan ... ’. Other rated from underlying Member 1 and may have been broadly contemporane- pongid characteristics included strong overlying Member 3 deposits by two ous with A. garhi, A. aethiopicus, A. lateral recurvation, a narrow distance thin layers of fl owstone. An erosional boisei and early members of the genus, between the talar and lateral cuneiform unconformity exists between overlying Homo.12 Under such circumstances, it facets and a marked angle between the Members 4 and 5. would no longer qualify as hominine.13 facets of the intermediate and lateral To date, only Members 2, 4 and Of course, if the creationist view of his- cuneiform bones. 5 have yielded fossilized remains of tory were to be accepted as correct, then Of course, an arboreal (tree-living) hominids. Not without signifi cance, the dates at Sterkfontein would have no lifestyle raised serious questions con- Member 4 has yielded an abundance relevance in an absolute sense at all. cerning the creature’s hominid status. of specimens (645 in all had been However, the layering of the depos- However, given a rather early dating (in identifi ed up to 1995) attributable to A. its—being intrusive in nature—would excess of 3 Ma (millions of years)), its africanus. The remains of Stw 573 were have some relevance in determining hominine status was assured. the fi rst to be recovered from Member relative dates. Subsequent to the discovery of 2, whilst Member 5 had yielded only 25 ‘Little Foot’ (1997), Clarke discovered hominid specimens up to 1995.7 What are the Sterkfontein fossil some fossilized lower leg bone frag- assemblages saying? ments, which had been stored away in Contentious dates the University vaults. Convinced that One thing that is immediately these bones and the bones of ‘Little Dating the Member 2 hominid evident in the fossil assemblages at Foot’ were associated, he reasoned that remains has proven extremely diffi cult Sterkfontein is that there is a prolif-

16 TJ 17(1) 2003 Perspectives eration of genera and species types have been recovered from Member 4, 8. Clarke and Tobias, Ref. 2, p. 522. 14 with the passage of time. Early whereas only a handful of remains have 9. Partridge, T.C., Shaw, J. and Heslop, D., deposits—such as those from which been recovered from Member 2. Yet Appendix on magnetostratigraphic analyses the remains of ‘Little Foot’ derived seemingly, by the time the Member 5 in Member 2 of the Sterkfontein Formation; in: Partridge, TC. and Maud, R.R. (Eds), The (Member 2)—contain but a handful of deposits were laid down (remember the Cenozoic of Southern Africa, Oxford Univer- carnivore and primate species. Later presence of an erosional unconformity sity Press, New York, pp. 129–130, 2000. deposits, such as those from Member 4, separating Members 4 and 5), A. africa- 10. Berger, L.R., Lacruz, R. and de Ruiter, D.J., however, contain vastly greater diver- nus remains are becoming scarce once Brief communication: revised age estimates of sity in genera of carnivores, primates, again. Could Member 2 be refl ecting Australopithecus-bearing deposits at Sterkfon- equids, herbivores, subungulates and tein, , Am. J. Phys. Anthrop. 119: an initial migration into the Transvaal 192–197, 2002. even rodents. by these so-called southern apes? If 11. Berger et al., Ref. 10, p. 195. Secondly, it is abundantly clear so, then Member 4 could represent a that there is a remarkable degree of period of consolidation and rapid popu- 12. Berger et al., Ref. 10, p. 196. persistence in species type. Indeed, it lation increase. But what of Member 13. Eatherley, D., Is Little Foot only a cousin? is this persistence that makes the Ster- New Scientist October 5, p.13, 2002. Eatherley 5? My suspicion is that with the drying explains the possible need for down-grading kfontein deposits diffi cult to date. (A out of the Transvaal (possibly during a as follows: ‘ … using revised dating methods feature of the mammalian assemblages brief, but intense, post-Flood Ice Age) Berger’s team now suggests the specimen at Sterkfontein is the absence of any food sources became scarce—driving known as Little Foot, thought to be the old- sensitive chronological indicators). est Australopithecus fossil at Sterkfontein, is the apes back into rainforest areas fur- less than 2.4 million years old. That makes Several species from the primate fam- ther to the north. A. africanus just an evolutionary offshoot of ily, Cercopithecidae (i.e. Old World So what of man? Could it be that modern humans.’ monkeys), for instance, are present the late arrival of domesticated ani- 14. Eatherley, Ref. 13, Table 1. Large mammal in both Members 2 and 4—includ- mals at Sterkfontein can be explained fauna reported from Sterkfontein Member ing Papio izodi and Parapapio jonesi. 4 and Member 2, compared to faunae from in terms of the late arrival of the mas- and Kromdraai. Likewise, in the Order Carnivora, the ter domesticator—mankind (Homo 15. Berger et. al., Ref. 10, pp. 193–194. leopard (Panthera pardus) and cheetah sapiens). After all, according to the (Acinonyx jubatus) are present in both 16. Beasley, G.J., A possible creationist interpre- Biblical view of history, post-Flood tation of archaic fossil human remains, CEN Members 2 (earlier) and 4 (later) as are man only began to repopulate the earth the remains of several other carnivores, Tech. J. 6(2):138, 1992. The author argued that after the dispersion from Babel.16 It’s the reason fossilised remains of Homo sapiens including the large Machairodontinae food for thought. do not appear in Tertiary deposits is that human felids [cats], Dinofelis barwoli and activity was confi ned to Mesopotamia until the Meganteron cultridens, and specimens time of the confusion of tongues at Babel. References of hyaenidae [hyenas] (Chasmaporth- etes silberbergi and nitidula). 1. . mals from the Member 2 assemblage. 2. Clarke, R.J. and Tobias, P.V., Sterkfontein Even equines are delayed until Member Member 2 foot bones of the oldest South Af- 4 and only become commonplace in rican hominid, Science 269:521–524, 1995. 15 the fossil assemblages of Member 5. 3. Oliwenstein, L., New foot steps into walk- The relatively small sample of equine ing debate, Science 269:476–477, 1995. remains in Member 4 could be refl ect- Oliwenstein stated: ‘The back part of the foot around the ankle joint is very human, but as ing the arrival of the fi rst domesticated you get out towards the toes, they get more animals about the time that the Member and more apelike. … One of these joints in 4 deposits were accumulating. (Some particular—the joint between the metatarsal have argued that the rarity of Equus in and the medial cuneiform, which makes up the Member 4 is grounds for assuming that ball of the foot—reveals features that Tobias says almost certainly indicate some time spent all Equus material should be consigned in trees. … An abductable big toe can grasp to Member 5). things like branches, which is a useful trait if you’re frequently up a tree.’ Towards an alternative 4. Clarke and Tobias, Ref. 2, p. 524. interpretation of the fossil 5. Clarke and Tobias, Ref. 2, p. 524, (Ref. 18). assemblages 6. Anon., Complete fossil ‘Ape-Man’ found, Science 282:2183, 1998. As noted above, an apparent 7. Clarke and Tobias, Ref. 2, pp. 521, 524 abundance of A. africanus remains (Ref. 7).

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