For other uses, see Langston Hughes (disambiguation).

James Mercer Langston Hughes (February 1, 1902 – May 22, 1967) was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist. He was one of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary form called jazz . Hughes is best known as a leader of the Renaissance. He famously wrote about the pe- riod that “the negro was in vogue”, which was later para- phrased as “when Harlem was in vogue”.[1]

1 Biography

1.1 Ancestry and childhood

Both of Hughes’ paternal great-grandmothers were African-American and both of his paternal great- grandfathers were white slave owners of Kentucky. Ac- cording to Hughes, one of these men was Sam Clay, a Scottish-American whiskey distiller of Henry County and supposedly a relative of Henry Clay, and the other was Silas Cushenberry a Jewish-American slave trader of Clark County.[2][3] Hughes’s maternal grandmother Mary Patterson was of African-American, French, English and Native American descent. One of the first women to at- Hughes in 1902 tend Oberlin College, she first married Lewis Sheridan Leary, also of mixed race. Lewis Sheridan Leary subse- quently joined John Brown’s Raid on Harper’s Ferry in After the separation of his parents, while his mother trav- 1859 and died from his wounds.[3] eled seeking employment, young Langston Hughes was In 1869 the widow Mary Patterson Leary married raised mainly by his maternal grandmother, Mary Patter- again, into the elite, politically active Langston fam- son Langston, in Lawrence, Kansas. Through the black ily. Her second husband was Charles Henry Langston, American oral tradition and drawing from the activist ex- of African-American, Native American, and Euro- periences of her generation, Mary Langston instilled in American ancestry.[4][5] He and his younger brother John her grandson a lasting sense of racial pride.[10][11][12] He Mercer Langston worked for the abolitionist cause and spent most of his childhood in Lawrence, Kansas. After helped lead the Ohio Anti-Slavery Society [6] in 1858. the death of his grandmother, he went to live with family Charles Langston later moved to Kansas, where he was friends, James and Mary Reed, for two years. In his 1940 active as an educator and activist for voting and rights for autobiography The Big Sea he wrote: “I was unhappy for .[4] Charles and Mary’s daughter Car- a long time, and very lonesome, living with my grand- oline was the mother of Langston Hughes.[7] mother. Then it was that began to happen to me, Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri, the sec- and I began to believe in nothing but books and the won- ond child of school teacher Carrie (Caroline) Mercer derful world in books — where if people suffered, they [8] suffered in beautiful language, not in monosyllables, as Langston and James Nathaniel Hughes (1871–1934). [13] Langston Hughes grew up in a series of Midwestern small we did in Kansas.” towns. Hughes’s father left his family and later divorced Later, Hughes lived again with his mother Carrie in Carrie, going to Cuba, and then Mexico, seeking to es- Lincoln, Illinois. She had remarried when he was still an cape the enduring racism in the United States.[9] adolescent, and eventually they lived in Cleveland, Ohio,

1 2 1 BIOGRAPHY where he attended high school. tant to the historian Carter G. Woodson at the Association While in grammar school in Lincoln, Hughes was elected for the Study of African American Life and History. As class poet. Hughes stated that in retrospect he thought the work demands limited his time for writing, Hughes it was because of the stereotype that African Americans quit the position to work as a busboy at the Wardman Park have rhythm.[14] Hotel. There he encountered the poet Vachel Lindsay, with whom he shared some poems. Impressed with the poems, Lindsay publicized his discovery of a new black I was a victim of a stereotype. There were poet. By this time, Hughes’s earlier work had been pub- only two of us Negro kids in the whole class lished in magazines and was about to be collected into his and our English teacher was always stressing first of poetry. the importance of rhythm in poetry. Well, ev- eryone knows, except us, that all Negroes have rhythm, so they elected me as class poet.[15]

During high school in Cleveland, he wrote for the school newspaper, edited the yearbook, and began to write his first short stories, poetry, and dramatic plays. His first piece of jazz poetry, “When Sue Wears Red”, was written while he was in high school.

1.2 Relationship with father

Hughes had a very poor relationship with his father. He lived with his father in Mexico for a brief period in 1919. Upon graduating from high school in June 1920, Hughes returned to Mexico to live with his father, hoping to con- vince him to support Langston’s plan to attend . Hughes later said that, prior to arriving in Mexico: “I had been thinking about my father and his strange dislike of his own people. I didn't understand it, because I was a Negro, and I liked Negroes very much.”[16][17] Initially, his father had hoped for Hughes to attend a university abroad, and to study for a career in engineering. On these grounds, he was willing to pro- vide financial assistance to his son but did not support his desire to be a writer. Eventually, Hughes and his fa- ther came to a compromise: Hughes would study engi- Hughes at university in 1928 neering, so long as he could attend Columbia. His tu- ition provided; Hughes left his father after more than a The following year, Hughes enrolled in Lincoln Uni- year. While at Columbia in 1921, Hughes managed to versity, a historically black university in Chester maintain a B+ grade average. He left in 1922 because of County, Pennsylvania. He joined the Omega Psi Phi racial prejudice, and his interests revolved more around fraternity.[20][21] Thurgood Marshall, who later became the neighborhood of Harlem than his studies, though he an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United [18] continued writing poetry. States, was an alumnus and classmate of Langston Hughes during his undergraduate studies at Lincoln Uni- 1.3 Adulthood versity. After Hughes earned a B.A. degree from Lincoln Univer- Hughes worked various odd jobs, before serving a sity in 1929, he returned to . Except for travels brief tenure as a crewman aboard the S.S. Malone in to the Soviet Union and parts of the Caribbean, Hughes 1923, spending six months traveling to West Africa and lived in Harlem as his primary home for the remainder of Europe.[19] In Europe, Hughes left the S.S. Malone for a his life. During the 1930s, Hughes became a resident of temporary stay in Paris. Westfield, New Jersey.[22][23] During his time in England in the early 1920s, Hughes be- Some academics and biographers today believe that came part of the black expatriate community. In Novem- Hughes was homosexual and included homosexual codes ber 1924, he returned to the U.S. to live with his mother in in many of his poems, similar in manner to Walt Washington, D.C. Hughes worked at various odd jobs be- Whitman. Hughes has cited him as an influence fore gaining a white-collar job in 1925 as a personal assis- on his poetry. Hughes’s story “Blessed Assurance” 3 deals with a father’s anger over his son’s effeminacy I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it. and “queerness”.[24][24][25][26][27][28][29][30] The biogra- I heard the singing of the Mississippi when Abe Lincoln pher Aldrich argues that, in order to retain the respect and went down to New Orleans, and I've seen its muddy support of black churches and organizations and avoid ex- bosom turn all golden in the sunset.... acerbating his precarious financial situation, Hughes re- [31] “ mained closeted. ” in The Weary Blues (1926)[36]

First published in The Crisis in 1921, “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”, which became Hughes’s signature poem, was collected in his first book of poetry The Weary Blues (1926).[37] Hughes’s first and last published poems ap- peared in The Crisis; more of his poems were published in The Crisis than in any other journal.[38] Hughes’s life and work were enormously influential during the of the 1920s, alongside those of his contem- poraries, , Wallace Thurman, Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, Richard Bruce Nugent, and Aaron Douglas. Except for McKay, they worked together also to create the short-lived magazine Fire!! Devoted to Hughes’s ashes are interred under a cosmogram medallion in the Younger Negro Artists. foyer of the Arthur Schomburg Center in Harlem Hughes and his contemporaries had different goals and aspirations than the black middle class. They criticized Arnold Rampersad, the primary biographer of Hughes, the men known as the midwives of the Harlem Renais- determined that Hughes exhibited a preference for other sance: W. E. B. Du Bois, Jessie Redmon Fauset, and [32] African-American men in his work and life. How- Alain LeRoy Locke, as being overly accommodating and ever, Rampersad denies Hughes’s homosexuality in his assimilating eurocentric values and culture to achieve so- [33] biography. Rampersad concludes that Hughes was cial equality. probably asexual and passive in his sexual relationships. He did, however show a respect and love for his fel- Hughes and his fellows tried to depict the “low-life” in low black man (and woman). Other scholars argue for their art, that is, the real lives of blacks in the lower social- economic strata. They criticized the divisions and preju- Hughes’s homosexuality: his love of black men is evi- [39] denced in a number of reported unpublished poems to an dices based on skin color within the black community. alleged black male lover.[34] Hughes wrote what would be considered their manifesto, “The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain”, published in The Nation in 1926: 1.4 Death “The younger Negro artists who create now On May 22, 1967, Hughes died from complications after intend to express our individual dark-skinned abdominal surgery, related to prostate cancer, at the age selves without fear or shame. If white peo- of 65. His ashes are interred beneath a floor medallion in ple are pleased we are glad. If they are not, the middle of the foyer in the Arthur Schomburg Center it doesn't matter. We know we are beautiful. for Research in Black Culture in Harlem. It is the en- And ugly, too. The tom-tom cries, and the [35] trance to an auditorium named for him. The design on tom-tom laughs. If colored people are pleased the floor is an African cosmogram entitled Rivers. The ti- we are glad. If they are not, their displeasure tle is taken from his poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers". doesn't matter either. We build our temples Within the center of the cosmogram is the line: “My soul for tomorrow, strong as we know how, and has grown deep like the rivers”. we stand on top of the mountain free within ourselves.”[40]

2 Career Hughes identified as unashamedly black at a time when blackness was démodé. He stressed the theme of “black from “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” (1920) is beautiful” as he explored the black human condition in ... a variety of depths.[41] His main concern was the uplift of My soul has grown deep like the rivers. his people, whose strengths, resiliency, courage, and hu- I bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young. mor he wanted to record as part of the general American I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep. experience.[17][42] 4 2 CAREER

His poetry and fiction portrayed the lives of the working- Chambers.[51] class blacks in America, lives he portrayed as full of strug- In 1932, Hughes and Ellen Winter wrote a pageant to gle, joy, laughter, and music. Permeating his work is Caroline Decker in an attempt to celebrate her work with pride in the African-American identity and its diverse cul- the striking coal miners of the , but it ture. “My seeking has been to explain and illuminate the was never performed. It was judged to be a “long, arti- Negro condition in America and obliquely that of all hu- [43] ficial propaganda vehicle too complicated and too cum- man kind,” Hughes is quoted as saying. He confronted bersome to be performed.”[52] racial stereotypes, protested social conditions, and ex- panded African America’s image of itself; a “people’s Maxim Lieber became his literary agent, 1933–45 and poet” who sought to reeducate both audience and artist 1949-50. (Chambers and Lieber worked in the under- by lifting the theory of the black aesthetic into reality.[44] ground together around 1934–35.[53]) The night is beautiful, So the faces of my people. The stars are beautiful, So the eyes of my people Beautiful, also, is the sun. Beautiful, also, are the souls of my people. “ ” “My People” in The Crisis (October 1923)[45]

Hughes stressed a racial consciousness and cultural na- tionalism devoid of self-hate. His thought united people of African descent and Africa across the globe to encour- age pride in their diverse black folk culture and black aes- thetic. Hughes was one of the few prominent black writ- ers to champion racial consciousness as a source of in- spiration for black artists.[46] His African-American race consciousness and cultural nationalism would influence many foreign black writers, such as Jacques Roumain, Nicolás Guillén, Léopold Sédar Senghor, and Aimé Cé- saire. Along with the works of Senghor, Césaire, and other French-speaking writers of Africa and of African descent from the Caribbean, such as René Maran from Martinique and Léon Damas from French Guiana in South America, the works of Hughes helped to inspire the Négritude movement in France. A radical black self- Hughes’ first collection. examination was emphasized in the face of European colonialism.[47][48] In addition to his example in social at- Hughes’ first collection of short stories was published in titudes, Hughes had an important technical influence by 1934 with The Ways of White Folks. He finished the book his emphasis on folk and jazz rhythms as the basis of his at a Carmel, cottage provided for a year by poetry of racial pride.[49] Noel Sullivan, another patron.[54][55] These stories are a In 1930, his first , Not Without Laughter, won the series of vignettes revealing the humorous and tragic in- Harmon Gold Medal for . At a time before teractions between whites and blacks. Overall, they are widespread grants, Hughes gained the support of pri- marked by a general pessimism about race relations, as vate patrons and he was supported for two years prior to well as a sardonic realism.[56] publishing this novel.[50] The protagonist of the story is In 1935 Hughes received a Guggenheim Fellowship. The a boy named Sandy, whose family must deal with a vari- same year that Hughes established his theater troupe in ety of struggles due to their race and class, in addition to Los Angeles, he realized an ambition related to films relating to one another. by co-writing the screenplay for Way Down South.[57] In 1931, Hughes helped form the “New York Suitcase Hughes believed his failure to gain more work in the Theater” with playwright Paul Peters, artist Jacob Burck, lucrative movie trade was due to racial discrimination and writer (soon-to-be underground spy) Whittaker within the industry. Chambers, an acquaintance from Columbia.[51] In 1932, In Chicago, Hughes founded The Skyloft Players in 1941, he was part of a board to produce a Soviet film on which sought to nurture black playwrights and offer the- “Negro Life” with Malcolm Cowley, Floyd Dell, and ater “from the black perspective.”[58] Soon thereafter, he 5 was hired to write a column for the Chicago Defender, in Hughes wanted young black writers to be objective about which he presented some of his “most powerful and rel- their race, but not to scorn it or flee it.[46] He under- evant work”, giving voice to black people. The column stood the main points of the Black Power movement of ran for twenty years. In 1943, Hughes began publishing the 1960s, but believed that some of the younger black stories about a character he called Jesse B. Semple, often writers who supported it were too angry in their work. referred to and spelled “Simple”, the everyday black man Hughes’s work Panther and the Lash, posthumously pub- in Harlem who offered musings on topical issues of the lished in 1967, was intended to show solidarity with these day.[58] Although Hughes seldom responded to requests writers, but with more skill and devoid of the most vir- to teach at colleges, in 1947 he taught at Atlanta Univer- ulent anger and racial chauvinism some showed toward sity. In 1949, he spent three months at the University of whites.[63][64] Hughes continued to have admirers among Chicago Laboratory Schools as a visiting lecturer. Be- the larger younger generation of black writers. He often tween 1942 and 1949 Hughes was a frequent writer and helped writers by offering advice and introducing them to served on the editorial board of Common Ground, a liter- other influential persons in the literature and publishing ary magazine focused on cultural pluralism in the United communities. This latter group, including , States published by the Common Council for American whom Hughes discovered, looked upon Hughes as a hero Unity (CCAU). and an example to be emulated within their own work. He wrote , short stories, plays, poetry, operas, es- One of these young black writers (Loften Mitchell) ob- says, and works for children. With the encouragement served of Hughes: of his best friend and writer, , and patron and friend, Carl Van Vechten, he wrote two volumes of “Langston set a tone, a standard of broth- autobiography, The Big Sea and I Wonder as I Wander, as erhood and friendship and cooperation, for all well as translating several works of literature into English. of us to follow. You never got from him, 'I am the Negro writer,' but only 'I am a Negro writer.' He never stopped thinking about the rest of us.”[65]

3 Political views

Hughes, like many black writers and artists of his time, was drawn to the promise of Communism as an alterna- tive to a segregated America. Many of his lesser-known political writings have been collected in two volumes pub- lished by the University of Missouri Press and reflect his attraction to Communism. An example is the poem “A New Song”.[66] In 1932, Hughes became part of a group of black people who went to the Soviet Union to make a film depicting the plight of African Americans in the United States. The film was never made, but Hughes was given the opportu- nity to travel extensively through the Soviet Union and to the Soviet-controlled regions in Central Asia, the latter parts usually closed to Westerners. While there, he met Robert Robinson, an African American living in Moscow and unable to leave. In Turkmenistan, Hughes met and Langston Hughes, 1943. Photo by Gordon Parks befriended the Hungarian author Arthur Koestler, then a Communist who was given permission to travel there. During the mid-1950s and −1960s, Hughes’ popular- As later noted in Koestler’s autobiography, Hughes, to- ity among the younger generation of black writers var- gether with some forty other Black Americans, had orig- ied even as his reputation increased worldwide. With inally been invited to the Soviet Union to produce a So- the gradual advancement toward racial integration, many viet film on “Negro Life”,[67] but the Soviets dropped the black writers considered his writings of black pride and film idea because of their 1933 success in getting the its corresponding subject matter out of date. They US to recognize the Soviet Union and establish an em- considered him a racial chauvinist.[59] He found some bassy in Moscow. This entailed a toning down of Soviet new writers, including , lacking in such propaganda on racial segregation in America. Hughes pride, overintellectual in their work, and occasionally and his fellow Blacks were not informed of the reasons vulgar.[60][61][62] for the cancelling, but he and Koestler worked it out for 6 4 REPRESENTATION IN OTHER MEDIA

themselves.[68] Hughes also managed to travel to China and Japan before returning to the States. Hughes’s poetry was frequently published in the CPUSA newspaper and he was involved in initiatives supported by Communist organizations, such as the drive to free the Scottsboro Boys. Partly as a show of support for the Republican faction during the Spanish Civil War, in 1937 Hughes traveled to Spain[69] as a correspon- dent for the Afro-American and other vari- ous African-American newspapers. Hughes was also in- volved in other Communist-led organizations such as the John Reed Clubs and the League of Struggle for Negro Rights. He was more of a sympathizer than an active par- ticipant. He signed a 1938 statement supporting Joseph Stalin's purges and joined the American Peace Mobiliza- tion in 1940 working to keep the U.S. from participating in World War II.[70] Hughes initially did not favor black American involve- ment in the war because of the persistence of discrim- inatory U.S. Jim Crow laws and racial segregation and disfranchisement throughout the South. He came to sup- port the war effort and black American participation af- ter deciding that war service would aid their struggle for The poem “Danse Africaine” as wallpoem in Leiden civil rights at home.[71] The scholar Anthony Pinn has noted that Hughes, together with Lorraine Hansberry and , was a humanist “critical of belief in God. They provided a foundation for nontheistic participation in social struggle.” Pinn has found that such writers are sometimes ignored in the narrative of American history 4 Representation in other media that chiefly credits the civil rights movement to the work of affiliated Christian people.[72] Hughes was accused of being a Communist by many on Hughes was featured reciting his poetry on the album the political right, but he always denied it. When asked Weary Blues (MGM, 1959) with music by Charles Min- why he never joined the Communist Party, he wrote, “it gus and Leonard Feather and also contributed lyrics to was based on strict discipline and the acceptance of direc- Randy Weston's Uhuru Afrika (Roulette, 1960). tives that I, as a writer, did not wish to accept.” In 1953, Hughes’ life has been portrayed in film and stage pro- he was called before the Senate Permanent Subcommittee ductions since the late twentieth century. In Looking for on Investigations led by Senator Joseph McCarthy. He Langston (1989), British filmmaker Isaac Julien claimed stated, “I never read the theoretical books of socialism or him as a black gay icon — Julien thought that Hughes’ communism or the Democratic or Republican parties for sexuality had historically been ignored or downplayed. that matter, and so my interest in whatever may be con- Film portrayals of Hughes include Gary LeRoi Gray's sidered political has been non-theoretical, non-sectarian, role as a teenage Hughes in the short subject film Salva- and largely emotional and born out of my own need to tion (2003) (based on a portion of his autobiography The find some way of thinking about this whole problem of Big Sea), and Daniel Sunjata as Hughes in the Brother to myself.”[73] Following his testimony, Hughes distanced Brother (2004). Hughes’ Dream Harlem, a documentary himself from Communism.[74] He was rebuked by some by Jamal Joseph, examines Hughes’ works and environ- on the Radical Left who had previously supported him. ment. He moved away from overtly political poems and towards more lyric subjects. When selecting his poetry for his Se- Paper Armor (1999) by Eisa Davis and Hannibal of the lected Poems (1959) he excluded all his radical Socialist Alps (2005) by Michael Dinwiddie are plays by African- verse from the 1930s.[74] American playwrights that address Hughes’s sexuality. Spike Lee's 1996 film Get on the Bus, included a black gay character, played by Isaiah Washington, who invokes the name of Hughes and punches a homophobic char- acter, saying, “This is for James Baldwin and Langston Hughes.” 7

5 Literary archives 7 Bibliography

The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale 7.1 Poetry collections University holds the Langston Hughes papers (1862– 1980) and the Langston Hughes collection (1924–1969) • The Weary Blues, Knopf, 1926 containing letters, manuscripts, personal items, pho- • Fine Clothes to the Jew, Knopf, 1927 tographs, clippings, artworks, and objects that document the life of Hughes. The Langston Hughes Memorial Li- • The Negro Mother and Other Dramatic Recitations, brary on the campus of Lincoln University, as well as 1931 at the James Weldon Johnson Collection within the Yale • University also hold archives of Hughes’ work.[75] Dear Lovely Death, 1931 • The Dream Keeper and Other Poems, Knopf, 1932 6 Honors and awards • Scottsboro Limited: Four Poems and a Play, Golden Stair Press, N.Y., 1932 • 1926: Hughes won the Witter Bynner Undergradu- • Let America Be America Again, 1938 ate Poetry Prize. • Shakespeare in Harlem, Knopf, 1942 • 1935: Hughes was awarded a Guggenheim Fellow- • ship, which allowed him to travel to Spain and Rus- Freedom’s Plow, 1943 sia. • Fields of Wonder, Knopf, 1947 • 1941: Hughes was awarded a fellowship from the • One-Way Ticket, 1949 Rosenwald Fund. • Montage of a Dream Deferred, Holt, 1951 • 1943: Lincoln University awarded Hughes an hon- orary Litt.D. • Selected Poems of Langston Hughes, 1958 • 1954: Hughes won the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award. • Ask Your Mama: 12 Moods for Jazz, Hill & Wang, 1961 • 1960: the NAACP awarded Hughes the Spingarn Medal for distinguished achievements by an African • The Panther and the Lash: Poems of Our Times, American. 1967 • 1961: National Institute of Arts and Letters.[76] • The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, Knopf, 1994 • 1963: Howard University awarded Hughes an hon- orary doctorate. • 1964: Western Reserve University awarded Hughes 7.2 Novels and short story collections an honorary Litt.D. • Not Without Laughter. Knopf, 1930 • 1973: the first Langston Hughes Medal was awarded • The Ways of White Folks. Knopf, 1934 by the City College of New York. • Simple Speaks His Mind. 1950 • 1979: Langston Hughes Middle School was created in Reston, Virginia. • Laughing to Keep from Crying, Holt, 1952 • 1981: Landmark status was given • Simple Takes a Wife. 1953 to the Harlem home of Langston Hughes at 20 • East 127th Street (40°48′26.32″N 73°56′25.54″W Sweet Flypaper of Life, photographs by Roy DeCar- / 40.8073111°N 73.9404278°W) by the New ava. 1955 York City Landmarks Preservation Commission • Simple Stakes a Claim. 1957 and 127th Street was renamed Langston Hughes Place.[77] The Langston Hughes House was listed on • Tambourines to Glory 1958 [78] the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. • The Best of Simple. 1961 • 2002: The United States Postal Service added the • Simple’s Uncle Sam. 1965 image of Langston Hughes to its Black Heritage se- ries of postage stamps. • Something in Common and Other Stories. Hill & Wang, 1963 • 2002: scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Langston Hughes on his list of 100 Greatest African Ameri- • Short Stories of Langston Hughes. Hill & Wang, cans.[79] 1996 8 10 NOTES

7.3 Non-fiction books 8 Other writings

• The Big Sea. New York: Knopf, 1940 • The Langston Hughes Reader. New York: Braziller, 1958. • Famous American Negroes. 1954 • Good Morning Revolution: Uncollected Social • I Wonder as I Wander. New York: Rinehart & Co., Protest Writings by Langston Hughes. Lawrence Hill, 1956 1973. • A Pictorial History of the Negro in America, with • The Collected Works of Langston Hughes. Missouri: Milton Meltzer. 1956 University of Missouri Press, 2001.

• Famous Negro Heroes of America. 1958 • “My Adventures as a Social Poet” (), Phylon, 3rd Quarter 1947. • Fight for Freedom: The Story of the NAACP. 1962 • “The Negro Artist and The Racial Mountain” (arti- cle), The Nation, June 23, 1926. 7.4 Major plays

• Mule Bone, with Zora Neale Hurston. 1931 9 See also • Mulatto. 1935 (renamed The Barrier, an opera, in • African- 1950) • Langston Hughes Society • Troubled Island, with William Grant Still. 1936 • Pan-Africanism • Little Ham. 1936 • Emperor of Haiti. 1936 10 Notes • Don't You Want to be Free? 1938 [1] Francis, Ted (2002). Realism in the Novels of the Harlem • Street Scene, contributed lyrics. 1947 Renaissance.

• Tambourines to Glory. 1956 [2] Langston Hughes (1940). The Big Sea. p. 36. ISBN 0- 8262-1410-X. • Simply Heavenly. 1957 [3] Faith Berry, Langston Hughes, Before and Beyond Harlem, Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill & Co., 1983; • Black Nativity. 1961 reprint, Citadel Press, 1992, p. 1. • Five Plays by Langston Hughes. Bloomington: Indi- [4] Richard B. Sheridan, “Charles Henry Langston and the ana University Press, 1963. African American Struggle in Kansas”, Kansas State His- tory, Winter 1999. Accessed December 15, 2008. • Jericho-Jim Crow. 1964 [5] Laurie F. Leach, Langston Hughes: A Biography, Green- wood Publishing Group, 2004, pp. 2–4. 7.5 Books for children [6] Ohio Anti-Slavery Society

• Popo and Fifina, with Arna Bontemps. 1932 [7] William and Aimee Lee Cheek, “John Mercer Langston: Principle and Politics”, in Leon F. Litwack and August • The First Book of the Negroes. 1952 Meier (eds), Black Leaders of the Nineteenth Century, Uni- versity of Illinois Press, 1991, pp. 106–111. • The First Book of Jazz. 1954 [8] “African-Native American Scholars”. African-Native • Marian Anderson: Famous Concert Singer, with American Scholars. 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-30. Steven C. Tracy. 1954 [9] West, Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance, 2003, p. 160. • The First Book of Rhythms. 1954 [10] Hughes recalled his maternal grandmother’s stories: • The First Book of the West Indies. 1956 “Through my grandmother’s stories life always moved, moved heroically toward an end. Nobody ever cried in my • First Book of Africa. 1964 grandmother’s stories. They worked, schemed, or fought. But no crying.” Rampersad, Arnold, & David Roessel • Black Misery. Illustrated by Arouni. 1969; (2002). The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, Knopf, reprinted 1994, . p. 620. 9

[11] The poem “Aunt Sues’s Stories” (1921) is an oblique trib- [24] Nero, Charles I. (1997). “Queer Representations: Read- ute to his grandmother and his loving Auntie Mary Reed, ing Lives, Reading Cultures”. In Martin Duberman (ed.), a family friend. Rampersad, vol. 1, 1986, p. 43. Re/Membering Langston, New York University Press, p. 192. [12] Imbued by his grandmother with a duty to help his race, Hughes identified with neglected and downtrodden black [25] Yale Symposium, Was Langston Gay? commemorating people all his life, and glorified them in his work. Brooks, the 100th birthday of Hughes in 2002. Gwendolyn (October 12, 1986). “The Darker Brother”, The New York Times. [26] Schwarz, pp. 68–88.

[13] Arnold Rampersad, The Life of Langston Hughes: Volume [27] Although Hughes was extremely closeted, some of his po- II: 1914-1967, I Dream a World, Oxford University Press, ems may hint at homosexuality. These include: “Joy,” p. 11. ISBN 9780195146431 “Desire”, “Cafe: 3 A.M.,” “Waterfront Streets”, “Young Sailor”, “Trumpet Player”, “Tell Me”, “F.S.” and some po- [14] Langston Hughes Reads His Poetry with commentary, au- ems in Montage of a Dream Deferred. LGBTQQ History, diotape from Caedmon Audio Iowa Pride Network. Retrieved June 23, 2014.

[15] “Langston Hughes, Writer, 4, Dead”, The New York [28] “Cafe 3 A.M.” was against gay bashing by police, and Times, May 23, 1967. “Poem for F.S.” was about his friend Ferdinand Smith. Nero, Charles I. (1999), p. 500. [16] Langston Hughes (1940). The Big Sea. pp. 54–56. [29] Jean Blackwell Hutson, former chief of the Schomburg [17] Gwendolyn Brooks, Review: The Darker Brother, The Center for Research in Black Culture, said, “He was al- New York Times, October 12, 1986. Quote: And the fa- ways eluding marriage. He said marriage and career didn't ther, Hughes said, “hated Negroes. I think he hated him- work....It wasn't until his later years that I became con- self, too, for being a Negro. He disliked all of his fam- vinced he was homosexual.” Hutson & Nelson, Essence, ily because they were Negroes.” James Hughes was tight- February 1992, p. 96. fisted, uncharitable, cold. [30] “Though there were infrequent and half-hearted affairs [18] Rampersad, vol. 1, 1986, p. 56. with women, most people considered Hughes asexual, in- [19] “Poem” or “To. F.S.” first appeared in The Crisis in May sistent on a skittish, carefree 'innocence.' In fact, he was a 1925, and was reprinted in The Weary Blues and The closeted homosexual.” McClatchy, J. D. (2002).Langston Dream Keeper. Hughes never publicly identified F.S., but Hughes: Voice of the Poet. New York: Random House it is conjectured he was Ferdinand Smith, a merchant sea- Audio, p. 12. man whom the poet first met in New York in the early 1920s. Nine years older than Hughes, Smith first influ- [31] Aldrich, (2001), p. 200. enced the poet to go to sea. Born in Jamaica in 1893, [32] “Referring to men of African descent, Rampersad writes Smith spent most of his life as a ship steward and po- "...Hughes found some young men, especially dark- litical activist at sea—and later in New York as a resi- skinned men, appealing and sexually fascinating. (Both dent of Harlem. Smith was deported back to Jamaica in his various artistic representations, in fiction especially, for alleged Communist activities and illegal alien status and in his life, he appears to have found young white men in 1951. Hughes corresponded with Smith up until 1961, of little sexual appeal.) Virile young men of very dark when Smith died. Berry, p. 347. complexion fascinated him. Rampersad, vol. 2, 1988, p. [20] In 1926, a patron of Hughes, Amy Spingarn, wife of Joel 336. Elias Spingarn who was president of the National Associ- [33] “His fatalism was well placed. Under such pressure, ation for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Hughes’s sexual desire, such as it was, became not so provided the funds ($300) for him to attend Lincoln Uni- much sublimated as vaporized. He governed his sexual versity. Rampersad, vol. 1, 1986, pp. 122-23. desires to an extent rare in a normal adult male; whether [21] In November 1927, Charlotte Osgood Mason, (“God- his appetite was normal and adult is impossible to say. He mother” as she liked to be called), became Hughes’s major understood, however, that Cullen and Locke offered him patron. Rampersad. vol. 1, 1986, p. 156. nothing he wanted, or nothing that promised much for him or his poetry. If certain of his responses to Locke seemed [22] “Mule Bone: Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston’s like teasing (a habit Hughes would never quite lose with Dream Deferred of an African-American Theatre of women, or, perhaps, men) they were not therefore neces- the Black Word.”, African American Review, March 22, sarily signs of sexual desire; more likely, they showed the 2001. Accessed March 7, 2008. “In February 1930, lack of it. Nor should one infer quickly that Hughes was Hurston headed north, settling in Westfield, New Jersey. held back by a greater fear of public exposure as a homo- Godmother Mason (Mrs. Rufus Osgood Mason, their sexual than his friends had; of the three men, he was the white protector) had selected Westfield, safely removed only one ready, indeed eager, to be perceived as disrep- from the distractions of New York City, as a suitable place utable.” “Rampersad, The Life of Langston Hughes, Vol I, for both Hurston and Hughes to work.” p. 69.

[23] “J. L. Hughes Will Depart After Questioning as to Com- [34] Sandra West states: Hughes’s “apparent love for black men munism”, The New York Times, July 25, 1933. as evidenced through a series of unpublished poems he 10 10 NOTES

wrote to a black male lover named 'Beauty'.” West, 2003, [51] Tanenhaus, Sam (1997). Whittaker Chambers: A Biogra- p. 162. phy. Random House.

[35] Whitaker, Charles. Langston Hughes: 100th birthday cel- [52] “Witnesses to the Struggle,” Anne Loftis, University of ebration of the poet of Black America, Ebony, April 2002. Nevada Press, 1998, p. 46.

[36] “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”. Audio file, Hughes read- [53] Chambers, Whittaker (1952). Witness. New York: Ran- ing. Poem information from Poets.org] dom House. pp. 44–45 (includes description of Lieber), 203, 266fn, 355, 365, 366, 388, 376–377, 377fn, 394, [37] “The Negro Speaks of Rivers": first published in The Cri- 397, 401, 408, 410. LCCN 52005149. sis (June 1921), p. 17. Included in The New Negro (1925), The Weary Blues, Langston Hughes Reader, and Selected [54] Noel Sullivan, after working out an agreement with Poems. The poem is dedicated to W. E. B. Du Bois in The Hughes, became a patron for him in 1933. Rampersad, Weary Blues, but it is printed without dedication in later vol. 1, 1986, p. 277. versions. Rampersad & Roessel (2002). In The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, pp. 23, 620. [55] Sullivan provided Hughes with the opportunity to com- plete The Ways of White Folks (1934) in Carmel, Cali- [38] Rampersad & Roessel (2002), The Collected Poems of fornia. Hughes stayed a year in a cottage Sullivan pro- Langston Hughes, pp. 23, 620. vided. Rampersad. Langston Hughes. In The Concise Ox- ford Companion to African American Literature, 2001, p. [39] Hughes “disdained the rigid class and color differences 207. the 'best people' drew between themselves and Afro- Americans of darker complexion, of smaller means and [56] Rampersad (2001). Langston Hughes, p. 207. lesser formal education. Berry, 1983 & 1992, p. 60. [57] Co-written with Clarence Muse, African-American Hol- [40] “The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain”, in The Na- lywood actor and musician. Rampersad. vol. 1, 1986, pp. tion (June 1926). 366-69.

[41] "....but his tastes and selectivity were not always accurate, [58] “Langston Hughes”. Chicago Literary Hall of Fame. and pressures to survive as a black writer in a white society Chicago Writers Association. Retrieved 2013-06-11. (and it was a miracle that he did for so long) extracted an enormous creative toll. Nevertheless, Hughes, more [59] Rampersad, 1988, vol. 2, p. 207. than any other black poet or writer, recorded faithfully [60] Langston’s misgivings about the new black writing were the nuances of black life and its frustrations.” Patterson, because of its emphasis on black criminality and frequent Lindsay (June 29, 1969). “Langston Hughes—The Most use of profanity. Rampersad, vol. 2, p. 207. Abused Poet in America?", The New York Times. [61] Hughes said: “There are millions of blacks who never [42] Rampersad & Roessel (2002). The Collected Poems of murder anyone, or rape or get raped or want to rape, who Langston Hughes, p. 3. never lust after white bodies, or cringe before white stu- [43] Rampersad, 1988, vol. 2, p. 418. pidity, or Uncle Tom, or go crazy with race, or off-balance with frustration.” Rampersad, vol. 2, p. 119. [44] West, 2003, p. 162. [62] Langston eagerly looked to the day when the gifted young [45] “My People” First published as “Poem” in The Crisis (Oc- writers of his race would go beyond the clamor of civil tober 1923), p. 162, and The Weary Blues (1926). The rights and integration and take a genuine pride in being title “My People” was collected in The Dream Keeper black... he found this latter quality starkly absent in even (1932) and the Selected Poems of Langston Hughes (1959). the best of them... Rampersad, vol. 2, p. 310. Rampersad & Roessel (2002), The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, pp. 36, 623. [63] “As for whites in general, Hughes did not like them...He felt he had been exploited and humiliated by them.” Ram- [46] Rampersad. vol. 2, 1988, p. 297. persad, 1988, vol. 2, p. 338.

[47] Rampersad. vol. 1, 1986, p. 91. [64] Hughes’s advice on how to deal with racists was "'Always be polite to them...be over-polite. Kill them with kind- [48] Mercer Cook, African-American scholar of French cul- ness.' But, he insisted on recognizing that all whites are ture wrote: “His (Langston Hughes) work had a lot to do not racist, and definitely enjoyed the company of those with the famous concept of Négritude, of black soul and who sought him out in friendship and with respect.” Ram- feeling, that they were beginning to develop.” Rampersad, persad, 1988, vol. 2, p. 368. vol. 1, 1986, p. 343. [65] Rampersad, 1988, vol. 2, p. 409. [49] Rampersad. vol. 1, 1986, p. 343. [66] The end of “A New Song” was substantially changed when [50] Charlotte Mason generously supported Hughes for two it was included in A New Song (New York: International years. She supervised his writing his first novel, Not Workers Order, 1938). Without Laughter (1930). Her patronage of Hughes ended about the time the novel appeared. Rampersad. [67] Tanenhaus, Sam (1997). Whittaker Chambers: A Biogra- “Langston Hughes”, in The Concise Oxford Companion to phy. Random House. Malcolm Cowley, Floyd Dell, and African American Literature, 2001, p. 207. Chambers were also involved in this intended film. 11

[68] Arthur Koestler, “The Invisible Writing”, Ch. 10 • Hughes, Langston (2001). “Fight for Freedom and Other Writings on Civil Rights” (Collected Works of [69] “Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives”. Alba-valb.org. Langston Hughes, Vol 10). In Christopher C. De- Retrieved July 24, 2010. Santis (ed.). Introduction, p. 9. University of Mis- souri Press ISBN 0-8262-1371-5 [70] Langston Hughes (2001), Fight for Freedom and Other Writings, p. 9, University of Missouri Press. • Hutson, Jean Blackwell; & Jill Nelson (February 1992). “Remembering Langston”. Essence, p. 96. [71] Irma Cayton, African American, said: “He had told me that it wasn't our war, it wasn't our business, there was too • Joyce, Joyce A. (2004). “A Historical Guide to much Jim Crow. But he had changed his mind about all Langston Hughes”. In Steven C. Tracy (ed.), Hughes that.” Rampersad, 1988, vol. 2, p. 85. and Twentieth-Century Genderracial Issues, p. 136. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514434-1 [72] Kimberly Winston, Religious News Service, “Blacks say atheists were unseen civil rights heroes”, Washington Post, • Nero, Charles I. (1997). “Re/Membering Langston: February 22, 2012. Homphobic Textuality and Arnold Rampersad’s Life of Langston Hughes”. In Martin Duberman [73] Executive sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee (ed.), Queer Representations: Reading Lives, Read- on Investigations of the Committee on Government Oper- ing Cultures, p. 192. New York University Press. ations, Volume 2, Volume 107, Issue 84 of S. prt, Beth ISBN 0-8147-1884-1 Bolling, ISBN 9780160513626. Permanent Subcommit- tee on Investigations, Publisher: U.S. G.P.O., Original • Nero, Charles I. (1999). “Free Speech or Hate from the University of Michigan p988 Speech: Pornography and its Means of Produc- tion”. In Larry P. Gross & James D. Woods [74] Langston Hughes: A Biography (2004) Laurie F. Leach (eds), Columbia Reader on Lesbians and Gay Men Greenwood Publishing Group, p118-119 2004 ISBN 9780313324970 in Media, Society, and Politics, Columbia University Press, p. 500. ISBN 0-231-10447-2 [75] “Langston Hughes Memorial Library”. Lincoln Univer- • Nichols, Charles H. (1980). Arna Bontempts- sity. Retrieved November 13, 2013. Langston Hughes Letters, 1925–1967, Dodd, Mead [76] “Langston Hughes — Poet”. h2g2: The Hitchhiker’s & Company. ISBN 0-396-07687-4 Guide to the Galaxy. Retrieved July 24, 2010. • Ostrom, Hans (1993). Langston Hughes: A Study of the Short Fiction, New York: Twayne. ISBN 0- [77] Jean Carlson (2007).. Retrieved June 30, 2007. 8057-8343-1 [78] “National Register Information System”. National Regis- • Ostrom, Hans (2002). A Langston Hughes Encyclo- ter of Historic Places. . 2009-03-13. pedia, Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313- [79] Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Ameri- 30392-4 cans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York: • Rampersad, Arnold (1986). The Life of Langston Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8. Hughes, Volume 1: I, Too, Sing America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514642-5 11 References • Rampersad, Arnold (1988). The Life of Langston Hughes, Volume 2: I Dream A World. Oxford Uni- versity Press. ISBN 0-19-514643-3 • Aldrich, Robert (2001). Who’s Who in Gay & Les- • bian History. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22974-X Schwarz, Christa A. B. (2003). “Langston Hughes: A true 'people’s poet'". In Gay Voices of the Harlem • Bernard, Emily (2001). Remember Me to Harlem: Renaissance, Indiana University Press, pp. 68–88. The Letters of Langston Hughes and Carl Van ISBN 0-253-21607-9 Vechten, 1925–1964. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-45113-7 • West, Sandra L. (2003). “Langston Hughes”. In Aberjhani & Sandra West (eds), Encyclopedia of • Berry, Faith (1983.1992,). “Langston Hughes: Be- the Harlem Renaissance, Checkmark Press, p. 162. fore and Beyond Harlem”. In On the Cross of the ISBN 0-8160-4540-2 South, Citadel Press, p. 150; & Zero Hour, pp. 185– 186. ISBN 0-517-14769-6

• Chenrow, Fred; Chenrow, Carol (1973). Reading 12 External links Exercises in Black History, Volume 1. Elizabeth- town, PA: The Continental Press, Inc. p. 36. ISBN • Yale Lecture on Langston Hughes audio, video and 08454-2107-7. full transcripts from Open Yale Courses. 12 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Interview with Emily Bernard, on Remember Me to Harlem: The Letters of Langston Hughes and Carl Van Vechten, 1925-1964, Booknotes, April 22, 2001. • Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston & the Harlem Renaissance Writers at C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History.

12.1 Profiles

• Langston Hughes on Poets.org With poems, related essays, and links.

• Profile and poems of Langston Hughes, including audio files and scholarly essays, at the Poetry Foun- dation. • Cary Nelson, “Langston Hughes (1902-1967)". Profile at Modern American Poetry. • Beinecke Library, Yale. “Langston Hughes at 100”.

• FBI profile

• "(James) Langston Hughes (1902-1967). PBS pro- file.

• Profile at Library of Congress. • Langston Hughes in Lawrence, Kansas. Pho- tographs and biographical resources.

12.2 Archive and works

• Langston Hughes Papers. Yale Collection of Ameri- can Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

• Langston Hughes Papers at the Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research

• Resources at Library of Congress including audio. • Representative Poetry Online, University of Toronto 13

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

• Langston Hughes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langston%20Hughes?oldid=631687289 Contributors: Olof, Ed Poor, Shsilver, Rmhermen, Ortolan88, William Avery, Zoe, DW, Edward, Shellreef, Lquilter, Zanimum, Theresa knott, TUF-KAT, SeanO, RickK, Jwrosenzweig, Zoicon5, Haukurth, JohnRogers, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Saltine, Nv8200p, Jose Ramos, Samsara, Raul654, Johnleemk, Jhobson1, Jni, Dimadick, Bearcat, Yelyos, Mschorr, Academic Challenger, JB82, Rasmus Faber, Alan Liefting, JamesMLane, Inter, Lupin, Zigger, Sashal, Leflyman, TDC, Everyking, Alison, Gamaliel, Varlaam, Rjyanco, Wmahan, Utcursch, SoWhy, Alexf, SarekOfVul- can, Antandrus, Savant1984, DNewhall, Rdsmith4, DragonflySixtyseven, Jokestress, Tothebarricades.tk, Cow, Ary29, Jareha, Gscshoyru, Joyous!, Jcw69, Ukexpat, Dcandeto, Gtru e, Adashiel, Grunt, Mike Rosoft, Quill, D6, DanielCD, Dablaze, Discospinster, Rich Farm- brough, Rhobite, Guanabot, Martpol, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd, El C, Aude, Jough, Bobo192, Apollo2011, Smalljim, Acjelen, Dar- winek, Anonymous Cow, Me-tan, Conny, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Alansohn, Philip Cross, Andrew Gray, Calton, Lightdarkness, Samar- itan, Linux using monkey, Wtmitchell, Bbsrock, BanyanTree, Keetoowah, Jobe6, RainbowOfLight, Sciurinæ, Henry W. Schmitt, Netki- netic, Richard Weil, Boothy443, Woohookitty, Mr Tan, Deeahbz, MrDarcy, Jacottier, Kmg90, Cbustapeck, Al E., Wikiklrsc, TreveX, EnterTheCircus, Randy2063, Wayward, Okc, Emerson7, Youngamerican, Paxsimius, Jwoodger, Graham87, Jack Cox, BD2412, Chun- hian, Dpr, Vanderdecken, Icey, Freedomlives, Lhademmor, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Ctdunstan, Vary, Ikh, Staecker, Tawker, Darguz Parsilvan, SMC, Ccson, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Naraht, Ian Pitchford, Cptbuck, Ground Zero, Nihiltres, JiFish, Who, MacRusgail, SouthernNights, *nondescript, RexNL, Gurch, Maltmomma, NotJackhorkheimer, Alphachimp, BradBeattie, Chobot, DVdm, AllyD, Mhk- ing, Stephen Compall, Hall Monitor, YurikBot, Chanlyn, TexasAndroid, Sceptre, Stan2525, Dannycas, Diliff, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cor- nelius, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Welsh, RazorICE, VetteDude, Dfgarcia, Aaron charles, Chumley41, Tony1, Gmosaki, EEMIV, Nlu, Wknight94, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Theda, Closedmouth, Pb30, QzDaddy, JoanneB, Whobot, Katieh5584, Airconswitch, Iago Dali, Jeff Silvers, Stumps, DVD R W, Soir, SmackBot, Avogadro94, YellowMonkey, Olorin28, Pgk, Rokfaith, Kilo-Lima, Yuyudevil, Pennywis- dom2099, Delldot, Igbo, Cool3, Aksi great, Gilliam, Hmains, Durova, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Static Universe, Marek4, Persian Poet Gal, Ian13, Ehhviin, Sadads, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Thelostlibertine, Sampi, Colonies Chris, Hongooi, Darth Panda, Irfali, Princess Home- star, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Kuram1, TheKMan, Rrburke, RedHillian, Edivorce, Vyxx, Phaedriel, Threeafterthree, Badbilltucker, Khoikhoi, Krich, Aboudaqn, Arthus, Nakon, Ajblakeney, TonyCrew, JohnHinsdale, BinaryTed, Mtelewicz, Wybot, DMacks, Springnuts, Ged UK, The undertow, Teabeard, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BrownHairedGirl, JzG, Soap, Khazar, John, T g7, Gobonobo, Robofish, Shlomke, JoshuaZ, Evan Robidoux, Special-T, Makyen, Mr Stephen, PRRfan, Mets501, TastyPoutine, Lordjazz, ISBN, Daviddaniel37, Thatcher, Andreworkney, Christian Roess, PaulGS, BranStark, ILovePlankton, Rbwise, Cbriem, Twas Now, GDallimore, Jeff10202, Color probe, Courcelles, JoannaSerah, O0pyromancer0o, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Jwill55nets, Mrmaroon25, Switchercat, SkyWalker, JFor- get, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Mattbr, Ninetyone, ShelfSkewed, NTDOY Fanboy, Neelix, Karenjc, Charlie Huggard, Sopoforic, Pointed- stick, Cydebot, Njlincolnlion, Aalbc, Aristophanes68, Mato, Crowish, JFreeman, Corpx, Tec15, MaryJones, Lugnuts, Cra0422, Cyrian, Shirulashem, DumbBOT, DBaba, Omicronpersei8, BetacommandBot, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Qwyrxian, TonyTheTiger, N5iln, Marek69, Tapir Terrific, James086, Doyley, Tellyaddict, Tinctoris, AgentPeppermint, Cute 1 4 u, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Obiwankenobi, Opelio, QuiteUnusual, Prolog, Doc Tropics, Sterki, Tjmayerinsf, Cjs2111, Modernist, LibLord, A.M.962, Zigzig20s, Gh- myrtle, SassyLee, Sluzzelin, MER-C, Fetchcomms, Midnightdreary, Leolaursen, East718, Rothorpe, RubyJ, LittleOldMe, Acroterion, Seedlessgrapes84, Magioladitis, Celithemis, VoABot II, ¥€$, Ling.Nut, Lizzysama, Rivertorch, Jim Douglas, Bugonthewall, Avicenna- sis, KConWiki, Cgingold, Grzegorz Wysocki, Marcel flaubert, PappyK, DerHexer, Peregrinef, Pan Dan, FisherQueen, Hdt83, MartinBot, Anaxial, Davshaw508, Uriel8, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Kt4441, Link12345161, Deathgecko, Panda, J.delanoy, Nev1, Pumpkin Pie, Uncle Dick, DD2K, Primroseapartments, Gzkn, Miltonkeynes, Katalaveno, McSly, Jmajeremy, JayJasper, Kmunsch14, AntiSpamBot, Belovedfreak, Wynia, Justin Jgh, SJP, Runt, JHeinonen, DiscordantNote, 2812, WJBscribe, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Mike V, Inter16, ClickForth, Ja 62, Flink the blind hemophiliac, Flickabugg, Nitsud, CardinalDan, Lights, Sam Blacketer, Malik Shabazz, Lsufan6, VolkovBot, ABF, Science4sail, Uyvsdi, Jeff G., Jennavecia, Ralphmagic, Jaaronw, Soliloquial, Ryan032, Philip Trueman, TXiKi- BoT, DISEman, DUBJAY04, Technopat, Hpfreak26, Ann Stouter, Drasticplastic, Someguy1221, Anna Lincoln, Urumi, Martin451, Jack- fork, LeaveSleaves, Pleroma, Snowbot, Cremepuff222, Master Bigode, RimJob101, Maxim, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Madhero88, Eubu- lides, Nmne, Hey jude, don't let me down, Ostrom, Falconclaw5000, Ignacio Bibcraft, Pjoef, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, Praefectorian, Logan, Milowent, Struway, W4chris, Brandon97, Astanto, Gaelen S., Stanley.cai, Copana2002, Strombollii, StAnselm, Calliopejen1, Tresiden, Jauerback, Hertz1888, Jack Merridew, Gravitan, Jonnypoo123, Bgoralskiis cool, Pubdog, Tiptoety, King Spadina, Oda Mari, Sterry2607, Monegasque, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Harry, Wysinger, SGilsdorf, Txcrossbow, Infinity22, Wikifan911, Malzees, Onopearls, Alatari, Bgfos, Mygerardromance, America’s Wang, Abiola99, Pinkadelica, Escape Orbit, Francvs, Tomdobb, Mcelite, ClueBot, JustThatGuy2, Snigbrook, Dem393, The Thing That Should Not Be, Matdrodes, All Hallow’s Wraith, RashersTierney, Cptmurdok, Sandpiper7, VQuakr, CounterVandalismBot, VandalCruncher, Blanchardb, LonelyBeacon, Parkwells, P. 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Burton, Skittles1234, CrazyLuca, Lame Name, Jea- nenawhitney, Souseiseki42, Excirial, Canis Lupus, Jusdafax, Erebus Morgaine, Nobledelaysadasas, NuclearWarfare, Super game wiz, Ce- narium, Altj1, Willy111, Razorflame, Asilonline, Thirdtry, ChrisHamburg, Unclemikejb, Akasha527, M.boli, Thingg, Versus22, SoxBot III, Egmontaz, DumZiBoT, BradJ47, AgnosticPreachersKid, Fastily, Чръный человек, Bradv, Olegkagan, Underdash yay, WikHead, NellieBly, Jbeans, Good Olfactory, Airplaneman, TFBCT1, Kbdankbot, HexaChord, Iranway, Addbot, Cxz111, Blanche of King’s Lynn, Zadeh79, Tcncv, Landon1980, NicholasSThompson, Ronhjones, LaaknorBot, Neonorange, Debresser, Favonian, Vysotsky, 5 albert square, Squandermania, Tassedethe, Alanscottwalker, Tide rolls, Nuberger13, QuadrivialMind, , Gail, MuZemike, Angrysockhop, Folklore1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Now05ster, Victoriaearle, Ajh16, CinchBug, Kjaer, Magicpiano, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, IRP, King- pin13, Plumber, Materialscientist, Limideen, Dendlai, Kasaalan, E2eamon, Carlsotr, Maxis ftw, Roux-HG, LovesMacs, Ikethebike, Lil- Helpa, GMBITB, Kroschka Ru, Xqbot, Moneymanjerrh, Capricorn42, 4twenty42o, Mononomic, Gregmasterson, Amore Mio, Abigail- Abernathy, Guto2003, Tarheels31, Mynameinc, Barrie415, GrouchoBot, Pumkinjuice, Becky ford, Bellerophon, Cerniagigante, Surelyhu- man, Amaury, Westover1, Nietzsche 2, Born Gay, Shadowjams, Žiedas, Zorgonwiz, Anirishwoman, Anna Roy, KuroiShiroi, AnatolyPm, Damitaa09, Sildean, Wkz, Skigrl512, Citation bot 1, Javert, Hippohenry, Bookluver2, Shadow At Dawn, Jonesey95, Cornfedprune, Calmer Waters, A8UDI, Motorizer, Brblweb, RandomStringOfCharacters, Selahobadiah, Steve2011, Jauhienij, SHALICAN, SIbuff, TobeBot, D climacus, DixonDBot, Malaprop123, Lotje, Pensativa, DragonofFire, Ink Falls, Langstonhughesnerd1973, Tbhotch, Sapereaud33, Bento00, Wayen, Beyond My Ken, Always tru, Moneybags518, Williamthethird, Slon02, Prettykitty2410, EmausBot, And we drown, Orphan Wiki, Chowderpicklepepper, Mjason12, BLM Platinum, Zoroastrama100, Minimac’s Clone, Accents, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Sheeana, Pboras, Monster1980, Mz7, ZéroBot, Fæ, Cotyferris, Thekittenman, Ilovepoetry, Spiltdmilk, Victoriavanmoppes, Rockivist, Pumpkinking0192, Coasterlover1994, ChuispastonBot, DASHBotAV, Superwhizkid, Treestorm, ClueBot NG, DeckerG, Proscribe, Rezabot, Delaywaves, WNYY98, Lowercase sigmabot, Polozooza, PhnomPencil, Tntgal2, BenMBerliner, Les801094, Coolbreeze4567, Supers34, Snow Bliz- zard, MisterMorton, Glacialfox, Smileguy91, Teammm, EbonyHistory, Itbeso, Eb7473, Ghosieman, VIAFbot, MrsCaptcha, Miobi123, 14 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Perkij, Midlothian09, JohnMarkOckerbloom, BenStein69, Bioscopic, Filedelinkerbot and Anonymous: 1325

13.2 Images

• File:AmericaAfrica.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/AmericaAfrica.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Created by Edward Deutsch. Original artist: Created by Edward Deutsch. • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Langston_Hughes.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Langston_Hughes.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: Transferred from fr.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Alsop1 at fr.wikipedia • File:Langston_Hughes_-_Danse_Africaine_-_Nieuwe_Rijn_46,_Leiden.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/a4/Langston_Hughes_-_Danse_Africaine_-_Nieuwe_Rijn_46%2C_Leiden.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tubantia • File:Langston_Hughes_1902.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Langston_Hughes_1902.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from fr.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Korrigan using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Alsop1 at fr.wikipedia • File:Langston_Hughes_Interment.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Langston_Hughes_Interment. jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors: Langston Hughes Atrium, Schomburg Center Original artist: hitormiss • File:Langston_Hughes_Lincoln_University_1928.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c1/Langston_Hughes_ Lincoln_University_1928.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Padlock-silver.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg License: CC0 Contributors: http://openclipart.org/people/Anonymous/padlock_aj_ashton_01.svg Original artist: This image file was created by AJ Ashton. Uploaded from English WP by User:Eleassar. Converted by User:AzaToth to a silver color. • File:Quill_and_ink.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg License: CC-BY-SA-2.5 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Ebrenc at Catalan Wikipedia • File:Ways_of_white_folks_cover.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Ways_of_white_folks_cover.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/dl_crosscollex/brbldl_getrec.asp?fld=img&id=1024473 Original artist: Original uploader: User:TonyCrew • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

13.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0