Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture Into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands

Vol. 8 Nº2 págs. 247-264. 2010

www.pasosonline.org https://doi.org/10.25145/j.pasos.2010.08.018

Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands

Wendy Agrusaii Hawaii Pacific University (EEUU)

Joseph Lemaiii Drexel University (EEUU)

John Tanneriv University of Louisiana at Lafayette (EEUU)

Tanya Hostv Hawaii Pacific University (EEUU)

Jerome Agrusavi Hawaii Pacific University (EEUU)

Abstract: The travel industry in Hawaii has been experiencing a trend towards more authentic tourism, which reintegrates Hawaiian culture into the visitors’ experience. This study investigated the reintegration of Hawaiian culture into the tourism experience on the Hawaiian Islands by reviewing existing literature, and by analyzing primary data collected through visitor surveys. The purpose of the study was to determine whether there is a visitors’ demand for a more authentic tourism experience in Hawaii through the reintegration of Hawaiian culture, and if so, which efforts should be made or continue to be made to achieve this authenticity. Important aspects that were taken into consideration in this research effort are the changes Hawaiian culture has experienced with the arrival of outsiders, and the authenticity of the Hawaiian tourism experience today. Further aspects that were examined include the visitors’ image of Hawaii, their expectations, their experiences and satisfaction during their stay, their interest in and understanding of Hawaiian culture, as well as the type of Hawaiian cultural experiences they are interested in. According to the findings of this study, English speaking visitors are interested in Hawaiian culture and feel that Hawaiian culture is not represented enough in the tourism experience today. The conclusion is, therefore, that efforts to integrate Hawaiian culture into the tourism experience need to be increased beyond what is currently being done. Ideas for reintegrating Hawaiian culture are discussed and possible solutions are provided.

Key words: Visitors; Hawaiian culture; Reintegrating; Tourism

ii Adjunct Lecturer. Travel Industry Management. Hawaii Pacific University. Email: [email protected] iii Assistant Professor. Hospitality Management. Drexel University. Email: [email protected] iv Professor. Business Systems, Analysis, and Technology. University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Email: [email protected] v Travel Industry Management. Hawaii Pacific University. Email: [email protected] vi Professor. Travel Industry Management. Hawaii Pacific University. Email: [email protected]

Resumen: La industria del viaje en Hawaii ha estado experimentando una tendencia hacia un turismo más auténtico, que reintegra la cultura hawaiana en la experiencia de los visitantes. Este estudio se cen- tra en la reintegración de la cultura hawaiana en la experiencia turística en las islas hawaianas repasando la literatura existente, y analizando los datos a partir de una encuesta a turistas. El propósito del estudio era determinar si existía una demanda de los visitantes para una experiencia más auténtica del turismo en Hawaii a través de la reintegración de la cultura hawaiana, y si era así cuales son los esfuerzos que se debían hacer o continuar haciendo para alcanzar esta autenticidad. Otros aspectos que fueron examina- dos incluyen la imagen que los visitantes tienen de Hawaii, sus expectativas, sus experiencias y la satis- facción durante su estancia, su interés y comprensión de la cultura hawaiana, además del tipo de experiencias culturales que les interesan. Según los resultados de este estudio, los visitantes de habla inglesa están interesados en la cultura hawaiana y sienten que la cultura hawaiana no está representada suficien- temente en la experiencia turística que actualmente se oferta. La conclusión es, por lo tanto, que deben incrementarse los esfuerzos por integrar la cultura hawaiana en la experiencia turística.

Palabras clave: Visitantes; Cultura hawaiana; Reintegración; Turismo.

Introduction up like weeds. In 1951, Hawaii hosted 3,500 visitors. By 1964 Hawaii was bom- Hawaii is among the world’s most fam- barded by 600,000 tourists, and by 1989 the ous tourist destinations and is comprised of number had soared to approximately 7 a group of eight major Hawaiian Islands. million. Today, the Hawaiian Islands are Scenery varies among these eight islands visited by over 7 million tourists per year where the landscapes consist of golden and contribute to Hawaii’s economy with sand beaches, glorious mountains, great approximately $12 billion in total expendi- stretches of barren lava beds, magnificent ture per year (Arakawa, 2006). Not surpri- cliffs and canyons, opaque rain forests, and singly, tourism remains the main industry more. Due to its spectacular scenery and for the state, and leaves Hawaii heavily year-round tropical climate, Hawaii is also dependent on it (Schmitt, 2002). known as the “Paradise of the Pacific”. Hawaii, in many people’s mind, brings There are more ethnical and cultural up images of soft sand beaches, warm groups located in Hawaii than any other breezes, grass skirts, and luaus (Agrusa, U.S. state. It is the only state in the U.S. 1998). In the past, tourists to Hawaii were where Asians are the largest racial group content with sitting on the beach drinking with Japanese representing the leading a Pina Colada or Mai Tai and getting a population. Other cultural profiles include rich, dark tan. However, tourists are numerous Polynesians including Hawaiian, changing, and there are segments of today’s Filipino, Korean, Chinese, and Portuguese. tourists who are more interested in having Marked by the diversification of its cul- a more authentic cultural experience while ture, Hawaii is one of the world’s renowned visiting Hawaii. travel destinations. Tourism is the most The recent trend in the tourism and tra- significant factor of economic activity in the vel related businesses in Hawaii are focus- state and the leading source of income. ing on increasing efforts to reintegrate Ha- However, Hawaii, the United State’s very waiian culture, both in the management own paradise, has been enduring the con- style and the visitor experience. Efforts in sequences of tourism for several decades. this direction have been made for several Before World War II, the islands were vi- years, in some cases decades; however, sited only by the few Americans who were more recently these efforts have been gain- willing to make the 12-day trip by boat, or ing attention from the media and the public those who could afford the airplane flight to eye. There is a trend and a demand to- Honolulu; at the time, Oahu received al- wards more sustainable tourism, a tourism most all of Hawaii’s visitors. After World that is true to the host culture, its values, War II, all of the major islands became and the sense of place in Hawaii (Agrusa, connected by airplane flights, more tourists Maples, Kitterlin and Tanner, 2008; Butler began to arrive, and high-rise hotels sprung and Hinch, 1996; Kim, Borges and Chon,

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

Wendy Agrusa, Joseph Lema, John Tanner,Tanya Host and Jerome Agrusa 249

2006; Kirschenblatt-Gimblett, 1998). This that a leisure trip or a vacation includes trend is manifested in visitors’ interest and cultural experiences. demand for a more authentic Hawaiian For a majority of cultural travelers, a cultural experience, as well as the travel cultural or historic event, or a cultural ac- industry’s shift in efforts to provide an ex- tivity was often the reason for choosing a perience that is unique and one that diffe- particular destination; a majority also ex- rentiates itself from other sea & sand des- tended their trip specifically to participate tinations, such as Mexico and the Carib- in a cultural or historic activity (Gnoth, bean. Previous studies about visitors’ as 1998; Gursoy and Chen, 2000; Oh, Kim and well as residents’ sentiments on tourism in Shin, 2004). Therefore, it becomes evident Hawaii have been conducted and general that cultural or historic travel represents data about visitors exists (Lui and Var, an important market in the travel industry 1986); however, these studies did not spe- with historic and cultural travelers spend- cifically focus on the variables, which were ing millions of dollars on lodging, food, en- examined in this study. tertainment and shopping (Agrusa, 2000; The purpose of this study was to deter- Dwyer, Agrusa and Coats, 2001). mine whether there is a visitors’ demand The trend of cultural and historic travel for a more authentic Hawaiian tourism has been growing; from 1996 to 2002, and experience in Hawaii through the reinte- there has been an increase of 14% (from gration of Hawaiian culture, and if so, 192.5 to 216.8 million person trips), as op- which efforts should be made or continue to posed to only a 5.6% increase in travel be made to achieve this authenticity. Visi- overall (Goldener and Ritchie, 2009). tors’ expectations prior to visiting Hawaii, their experiences once they have arrived, Sustainability and Authenticity in Tourism their interest in Hawaiian culture, Ha- While the concept of sustainability can waiian cultural experiences, and their posi- be interpreted and defined differently tion on the authenticity of the tourism ex- among various stakeholders, one of the perience in Hawaii were examined. more common themes concerns the most effective use or balance of resources. More Literature Review specifically, the World Tourism Organiza- tion (WTO) conceptualizes sustainable The cultural traveler tourism as preserving resources while en- By examining studies and existing re- hancing a region’s opportunities for the search, it becomes evident that a different future and at the same time meeting type of traveler has emerged. There is a present tourists needs (WTO, 1998). Fur- trend among travelers towards cultural thermore, according to Croall (1995), pre- tourism and historic sightseeing (Agrusa serving cultural heritage, maintaining tra- 2002; Fredline and Faulkner, 2000b; ditional values and providing authentic McDonnell, Allen and O’Toole, 1999). experiences for tourists have often been Travelers do not seem to be satisfied with highlighted as important elements of sus- destinations that are homogenous and that tainable tourism. do not offer unique cultural experiences. Sustainable cultural tourism however, According to a study conducted by the Tra- may be seen as a mutually beneficial part- vel Industry Association of America (TIA), nership between tourism and the cultural which focuses on cultural and historic tra- heritage of the region (McKercher and vel in the U.S., more than half (56%) of Cros, 2002). While there can exist conflict- adults in the U.S. participated in at least ing interests in preserving the authenticity one activity related to culture, art, history of cultural assets there are also opportuni- or heritage (TIA, 2003). Furthermore, cul- ties for complimentary relationships that tural tourists are interested in learning can exist when effectively managed (Filipo- new things on their trip, and they are in- va, 2008). It is challenging but also impor- terested in going to places that are popular tant for decision makers to value the link with the local residents (Agrusa, 2006; between preserving the authentic culture of MacKay and Couldwell, 2004). In addition, the region while offering the optimal prod- it is important for a majority of tourists ucts for sustainable tourism (McKercher,

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

250 Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands...

1993). Previous cases have indicated that waii became the 50th state in the United partnerships can help to develop a greater States in 1959, Hawaiian culture expe- mutual understanding of stakeholder’s rienced an increasing commodification. interests among the preservation of cultur- The culture started to be portrayed in a al authenticity and tourism development distorted way, for example, by marketing that can ultimately lead to more sustaina- “penny postcards” of Hawaiian women who ble tourism for a region (UNESCO, 2002; appeared to be of “mixed-blood WTO, 1998). Asian/white” descent and demonstrations of hula in a hotel entertainment fashion Evolution of Hawaii’s Unique Culture (Hall, 2005). In addition, Hawaii and things associated with Hawaii were increa- According to the Los Angeles Times singly downgraded as “kitsch” with the (2007) Hawaii is currently experiencing a increasing numbers of middle and lower- revival of its culture through performances middle class visitors traveling to the Isl- of ancient chants and hula. The article ands (Hall, 2005). Examples of this describes the tradition of the Aloha Festiv- “kitsch” are colorful Aloha shirts, tiki bars als throughout the Hawaiian Islands, and “Tin Pan Alley hapa-haole” songs. The which are made up of approximately 500 marketing of these items leads to misinter- individual festivities that celebrate Ha- pretations of Hawaiian culture and can be waiian culture from August to October. seen as the degradation of Hawaiian cul- The Los Angeles Times (2007) also men- ture (Davis, Allen and Consenza, 1988; tions Gloriann Akau, the manager of the Derrett, 2000; Hall, 2005). Big Island’s Aloha Festivals, who indicates In the years between the 1930’s and that the goal of the Aloha Festivals is to 1960’s, most of Hawaii’s hotels, tour agen- teach and share Hawaiian culture. cies, restaurants, and other tourism related Since tourism depends on a place and its businesses were still under local manage- uniqueness, Kanahele (1991) found that ment. Local managers were knowledgeable preserving and maintaining the people’s of and also connected to the spirit of the cultural identity should be a top priority for place which is Hawaii and the Hawaiian the tourism industry (Fredline and Faulk- culture (Smith, 1994). ner, 2000a; Pearce, Moscardo and Ross, It can be said that after the 1960s Ha- 1996). However, the greatest asset of Ha- waiian culture further lost its substance waii’s tourism industry, the Hawaiian cul- and influence in the tourism industry. ture, has not been managed in a satisfacto- Hawaiian music, for example was increa- ry manner over the years. singly being replaced by Rock’n’Roll music As Kanahele (1991) describes, Ha- and people lost interest in the Hawaiian waiians are part of a larger Polynesian race language, arts, and crafts. Even though but have developed their own social, eco- the hula continued to be performed, it had nomic and political system after they set- been altered and lacked substance. Fur- tled in the Hawaiian Islands. When Cap- thermore, hotels in Waikiki began to be tain Cook arrived in Hawaii in 1778, the owned and managed by U.S. mainlanders Hawaiian people had already achieved so- and Japanese nationals who were not as phisticated levels in craftsmanship, naviga- informed or connected to the Hawaiian tion, agriculture, irrigation, fishing and culture or the spirit of the place. Resulting medicine. When the first visitors arrived in from this shift in management, Hawaiian the late 1800’s, Hawaii’s visitor industry shows were closed and Las-Vegas style benefited from the appeal of its unique entertainment took over. Hawaiian musi- people and culture (Fredline and Faulkner, cians were assigned to play at dinner-time 2000b; McDonnell, Allen and O’Toole, and cocktail receptions (Kanahele, 1991). 1999). This “Hawaiianness” is what distin- Kanahele (1991) describes that in order guishes the Hawaiian Islands from similar to understand a place one needs to realize sun, sea, and sand tourism destinations, that all places are locations of experiences, and is what attracted tourists to the Ha- which trigger feelings, images and memo- waiian Islands (Kanahele, 1991). ries. Therefore, it is important for manag- According to Hall (2005), after Ha- ers and employees in the tourism industry

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

Wendy Agrusa, Joseph Lema, John Tanner,Tanya Host and Jerome Agrusa 251

to have an understanding of the place, and ly not sufficient to educate visitors about to help the guests in their understanding Hawaiian culture, or to prepare them ade- the feel of the place (Dwyer, Mellor, Mistilis quately for their stay (Agrusa, 2003; Far- and Mules, 2000; Getz, 1987). rell, 1982). This lack of understanding of the place, history and culture of Hawaii poses the Today’s efforts in reintegration of Hawaiian question of how managers can communi- culture cate “the feel of place” appropriately. In When it comes to reintegrating the Ha- addition, it will be very difficult for manag- waiian culture into the management style ers in the hospitality industry to create an and the visitor experience, much is already atmosphere and experience where the being done to preserve Hawaiian culture guests feel welcome and at home if the and to present it in an authentic way. manager does not feel at home him- Many of these efforts are based on the self/herself (Stokes, 2008) teachings of Dr. George S. Kanahele who When it comes to the guest experience was a historian and expert in Hawaiian in Hawaii, it is important to realize that culture. Kanahele (1991) and the Waiaha Hawaii’s attractiveness as a destination Foundation started “Aloha Service 101” in largely depends on its unique culture. To- 1989. They define Aloha as a genuine feel- day, Hawaii is competing with various in- ing which is shared by many people in Ha- ternational tourism destinations, such as waii and which has been an important part Mexico and Southeast Asia, which can offer of Hawaii’s history and culture. Generally beach vacations at much lower prices (Di- speaking, being caring and loving, and hos- gance 1997; Formica and Uysal 1996; Getz pitable overall is an integral part of the 1992; Martin and Uysal 1990; Newby 1981; Hawaiian culture. Therefore, the hospitali- Pretes 1995; Prideaux 2000). Therefore, ty industry in Hawaii is automatically Hawaii must concentrate on its uniqueness, linked with Aloha. Guests come to Hawaii which differentiates it from other destina- and they expect to be treated with Aloha. tions. Getting residents involved and gain- Incorporating these values and prin- ing their support is crucial, as this helps in ciples can give businesses of any kind guid- preserving the “Aloha spirit”, which at- ance in reintegrating Hawaiian values into tracts visitors to Hawaii (Radway, 2007). the management style and communicating Usually a first-time visitor to the Ha- these values to the customers or visitors. waiian Islands already has an image or an Several businesses in Hawaii have already expectation of the destination. This image taken these principles to heart and are is usually pieced together by accounts of applying most of them or parts of them in previous visitors, existing books (e.g. their businesses today. Twain), articles (National Geographic), In his report “Restoring Hawaiianness movies, documentaries, art work (e.g. Gau- To Waikiki”, Kanahele (1994) describes guin) and other forms of media (Beeton, efforts that can be made to make Waikiki 2001a, 2001b, 2005; Busby and Klug, 2001; more Hawaiian again. The difficulty is to Connell 2005a, 2005b; Hsu, Agrusa and define what is truly Hawaiian or part of Park, 2006; Kim, Agrusa, Lee and Chon, Hawaiian culture, as the culture has not 2007; Riley, Baker and Van Doren 1998; been static, and has changed over the years Riley and Van Doren, 1992; Tooke and with the increasing influence of outsiders. Baker, 1996). The quality of the informa- Kanahele (1994) has created 15 major action differs; some sources may give accu- tions steps, 26 goals, and 143 specific ideas rate facts, whereas others place too much as to restore Hawaiianness to Waikiki. The emphasis on color and ambiance (Butler, use of Hawaiian language in an accurate 1990; Fisher, 2004; Kim and Richardson, way, for example, when it comes to the 2003; Mercille, 2005). Travel articles and names of places, is a crucial part of Ha- stories usually have an advertising charac- waiian culture and essential to the restora- ter, and place too much emphasis on sights, tion of Hawaiianness to Waikiki (Kanahele, activities, and events in order to attract 1994). Various ideas are described as to visitors to Hawaii. The information availa- how the travel industry can encourage the ble often includes stereotypes and is usual- use of the Hawaiian language by their em-

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

252 Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands...

ployees, and ultimately by the visitors. books and other educational materials on One example for hotels would be to hire a Hawaiian culture and Hawaii as a destina- “Hawaiian Culture Specialist”, or to offer tion in general (HTA, 2007). Hawaiian language classes for hotel employees (Kanahele, 1994). Another empha- Methodology sis is on honoring historical Hawaiian fig- ures, events and themes and to teach about The population for this study consisted Hawaiian myths and legends to their em- of English-speaking tourists who were va- ployees as well as their guests. Hawaiian cationing on the island of Oahu. Oahu was traditions should also be revived, such as chosen as the island to conduct the re- lei-making and selling the leis on the search because the majority of tourists who streets in Waikiki. The idea of communi- visit the state of Hawaii stay on the island, cating and treating people with Aloha and the majority of the population in the should also be exercised, for example, to state of Hawaii (80%) resides on this island establish “Aloha corners” where guests can of Oahu. In an effort to learn more about communicate or interact with local resi- the perceptions of the tourists and due to dents (Gentile, 2002; Stokes, 2008; Telfer, time and economic constraints, surveys 2000). Furthermore, some of Kanahele’s were distributed randomly to 200 English- ideas have already been realized, but there speaking tourists at various major tourist is still room for improvement to realize attractions on Oahu including Waikiki more and to create a more authentic Ha- Beach and Ala Moana Shopping Mall. Of waiian experience in Waikiki (Plog, 2001; the 200 surveys distributed, 181 were re- Wang and Fesenmaier, 2007). turned and 21 questionnaires were deemed The Native Hawaiian Hospitality Asso- unusable because of multiple missing res- ciation (NHHA) plays a great part in mak- ponses, which resulted in 160 usable sur- ing tourism in Hawaii sustainable and veys or an 80% usable return rate. more authentic. This private nonprofit Data were collected using a self- corporation was founded in 1997 by George administered questionnaire developed by Kanahele and Kenneth Brown in order to the researcher, through a review of pre- increase the respect for Hawaiian culture, vious literature. The questions chosen for values, and traditions in Hawaiian tourism. the survey concerned tourists’ perceptions The organization’s mission is “to promote that are widely used in the international Hawaiian culture, values, and traditions in travel literature (Kim, Lee, and Klenosky, the workplace through consultation and 2003; Kim and Prideaux, 2005; Jang and education and to provide opportunities for Cai, 2002; Kozak, 2002). To avoid ambigui- the Native Hawaiian community to shape ty in the questions, and to ensure that all of the future of tourism” (NHHA, 2007). the questions written on the survey in- Unfortunately, some travel articles and strument were clearly understood, a pilot advertising featuring the Hawaiian Islands test of 20 English-speaking tourists in have portrayed Hawaiian sites, culture, Waikiki was completed prior to data collec- and values in an inaccurate or insensitive tion. After completion of the pilot test, a way, which has led to some misconceptions few questions were modified for clarity. about Hawaii. In order to work help solve The research questionnaire used for this this problem, the Hawaiian Tourism Au- study included questions pertaining to atti- thority (HTA) has published a “Style & tudinal and behavioral characteristics to- Resource Guide”, which can serve as a ref- ward cultural tourism in Hawaii as well as erence guide to promote Hawaii more accu- demographic questions. The research in- rately and to clarify facts about Hawaiian strument consisted of questions that asked culture and Hawaiian sites for visitors the respondents to indicate their knowledge (HTA, 2007). This “Style & Resource of Hawaiian culture as well as the impor- Guide” features an explanation of the Ha- tance of experiencing Hawaiian culture waiian language and alphabet, common during their visit to Hawaii. A five-point Hawaiian words and their meaning, and Likert-type scale where 1 = very low/not at explains Hawaiian sites. In addition, the all, 4 = average/indifferent, and 5 = very guide provides a useful list of references for high/highly was applied to quantify the

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

Wendy Agrusa, Joseph Lema, John Tanner,Tanya Host and Jerome Agrusa 253

responses to the questions. Questions re- (11.9%) were self-employed, and nearly quiring answers of categorical and quantit- another twelve percent (11.9%) were stu- ative value included image of Hawaii prior dents. to visit, primary information source, number of visits to Hawaii, number of nights Hawaii Tourism-Related Responses staying in Hawaii for this trip, interest in experiencing Hawaiian culture, specific Table 2 demonstrates the responses of types of Hawaiian cultural experiences that the visitors to questions concerning their would be of interest, as well as demograph- trip to Hawaii, as well as their opinions ics such as gender, age group, marital status, country visiting from, and educational about Hawaiian culture. As the table level. shows, more than 81 percent (81.2%) of the Participation in this study was com- respondents had a particular image of Ha- pletely voluntary and assurance of absolute waii before they came to visit, and more confidentiality of answers to all question- than 82 percent (82.5%) of the respondents naire items was given to respondents. It is said that Hawaii met their expectations. believed that all respondents answered the With respect to their trip to Hawaii, survey instrument honestly as the survey more than 11 percent (11.2%) of the res- was anonymous and self-administered. pondents said that travel agencies were The data were computed and analyzed us- their main source of information, while the ing the SPSS (Statistical Package for Social media (TV/Radio and/or Newapa- Sciences) statistical program including pers/Magazines) served as the source for frequencies, t-tests, and chi-squares. In only about 7 percent (6.8%) of the respon- order to determine if a correlation exists dents. Previous experiences were the from the tourists’ knowledge of Hawaiian culture and the importance of experiencing source of travel information for almost 34 Hawaiian culture during their visit to Ha- percent (33.8%) (this makes sense, since waii, the Pearson’s Product Moment Corre- more than 50 percent (50.6%) of the res- lation test was used. pondents had visited Hawaii at least one other time before this trip). Interestingly, Results the internet was the source of information for a little more than 14 percent (14.4%) of Demographic Profile the respondents.Only 7.5 percent of the Table 1 illustrates the visitor respon- respondents were traveling alone, and more dents’ replies to the demographic and tra- than 84 percent (84.4%) were traveling vel-related questions. The respondents with family, relatives/friends, or significant were almost evenly divided with respect to others. Also, more than 53 percent (53.1%) gender, with slightly more females. The booked the trip independently. More than majority of the respondents (73.1%) were 61 percent (61.8%) were staying from 4 to 9 between the ages of 20 and 50 and were nights. either married or in a relationship. The With respect to Hawaiian culture, as in- country that most respondents were visit- dicated in Table 3, more than 85 percent ing from was the U.S. mainland (85.6%) stated that they were interested in represented by 48.1% of the respondents, one form or another of Hawaiian culture, followed by 16.3% from Europe, 14.4% from and over 87 percent (87.9%) had expe- Australia and 11.9% from Canada. More rienced some Hawaiian culture during than 27 percent (27.5%) had taken some their visit. Also, more than 78 percent college courses, and more than 26 percent (78.8%) felt that the tourism experience had either a bachelor’s or master’s degree. should be more authentic, but only roughly Finally, regarding the respondents’ occupa- 43 percent stated that they knew at least tion, 15 percent were manag- two words in the Hawaiian language. ers/administrators, almost twelve percent

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

254 Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands...

Variable % Variable % Gender Home Country Male 49.4 U.S. Mainland 48.1 Female 50.6 Canada 11.9 Australia 14.4 Russia 3.8 Europe 16.3 Middle/South America 1.9 Other 3.6 Age Group Education Under 20 5.0 Some high school 3.1 20 - 29 22.5 High school graduate 32.5 30 - 39 25.0 Some college 27.5 40 - 49 25.6 Associate’s degree 6.9 50 – 64 16.3 Undergraduate degree 13.1 65 or older 5.6 Graduate degree 13.8 Post-graduate work 3.1 Marital Status Occupation Single 28.1 Manager/Administrator 15.0 In a relationship 22.5 Self-employed 11.9 Married 41.3 Engineer 3.1 Divorced 8.1 Farming/fishery 1.2 Teacher/Public Servant 4.4 Professional 9.4 Military/Government 4.4 Student 11.9 Retired 6.2 Other 32.5

Table .1Demographic Profile of Respondents.

With respect to Hawaiian culture, as in- “not ticked” by the respondent. The indi- dicated in Table 3, more than 85 percent vidual results for each possible source of (85.6%) stated that they were interested in information about Hawaii are as follows. one form or another of Hawaiian culture, When it comes to the source “travel agen- and over 87 percent (87.9%) had expe- cy”, 11.2% indicated that it was a source rienced some Hawaiian culture during they use. “Word of mouth” was a source for their visit. Also, more than 78 percent 29.4% of respondents and “TV/radio” was (78.8%) felt that the tourism experience considered to be a source for only 5.6%. should be more authentic, but only roughly “Newspaper/magazine” was a main source 43 percent stated that they knew at least of information for only 1.2%. For 4.4% of two words in the Hawaiian language. respondents, “brochures” were a main in- When asked which Hawaiian cultural formation source, and for 14.4% the “inter- experiences were of particular interest to net” was a main source of information them, more than 30 percent (30.6%) stated about Hawaii. The most important source that they were interested in authentic hula was “previous experiences” with 33.8 % of performances, with more than 23 percent respondents indicating that their main (23.1%) stating an interest in authentic source of information is “previous expe- Hawaiian music as well as over 16% riences”. Therefore, according to the analy- (16.3%) stating authentic luaus. sis, the most important source of informa- Since one or more main sources of in- tion was “previous experiences” with 33.8% formation about Hawaii could be provided followed by “word of mouth” (29.4%), the by the respondents, each possible answer “travel agency” (11.2%), and the “internet” had to be coded separately as “ticked” or (14.4%).

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

Wendy Agrusa, Joseph Lema, John Tanner,Tanya Host and Jerome Agrusa 255

Question Percent of Respondents Did you have a particular image of Hawaii before you came to visit?

Yes 81.2 No 18.8 What is your main source of information about Hawaii?

Travel Agency 11.2 Word of Mouth 29.4 TV/Radio 5.6 Newspaper/Magazine 1.2 Brochure 4.4 Internet 14.4 Previous Experiences 33.8 Including this trip, how many times have you visited Hawaii?

1 time (this is my first visit) 49.4 2 – 4 25.0 4 – 6 11.8 More than 6 times 13.8 Who are you traveling with on this trip?

Alone 7.5 Family/Relatives 28.1 Friends 26.9 Spouse/Significant Other 29.4 Tour Group 3.8 Colleagues 4.3 What is your travel mode?

Independent Traveler 53.1 Full-Package Tour 15.6 Partial Package (Air + Hotel, etc.) 31.3 How many nights are you staying in Hawaii?

1 – 3 4.4 4 – 6 18.7 7 – 9 43.1 10 – 12 19.4 More than 12 14.4 Would you say that Hawaii has met your expectations?

Yes 82.5 No 17.5

Table 2. Specifications of the Respondents’ Visit to Hawaii

Regarding the question as to how often dents has been to Hawaii “4-6 times” visitors have been to Hawaii, including this (11.8%). trip, most of the respondents (49.4%) are By analyzing the results of the next first time visitors to Hawaii; thus, more question, it becomes clear that most res- than half of the respondents were repeat pondents were traveling with visitors. The second largest group (25%) of “spouse/significant other” (29.4%), followed visitors has been there “2-4 times.” There by “family/relatives” (28.1%) and “friends” are a large number of repeat visitors who (26.9%). Only 7.5% were traveling “alone”, have been there “more than 6 times” 3.8% with a “tour group”, and 4.3% indi- (13.8%). The smallest number of respon- cated that they were traveling with “col-

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

256 Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands...

leagues. A great majority (82.5%) of visitors language introduction” would interest 8.1% stated that “Hawaii met their expecta- as well as an “Authentic Hawaiian craft tions,” as opposed to 14.4% who say it did making” would interest 8.1% and “Ha- not. Also, a vast majority of visitors waiian story telling” would interest 3.1% of (85.6%) were “interested in Hawaiian cul- visitors. ture,” as opposed to only 12.5% who were Table 4 demonstrates the responses of not. When asked if the ‘tourism experience the visitors to questions concerning their in Hawaii should be more authentic,” 78.8% knowledge about Hawaiian culture, as well said that it should be, as opposed to 21.2% as how important Hawaiian culture is to who disagreed. them. The table also demonstrates respon- A majority of visitors (86.9%), indicated dents’ level of satisfaction with their cur- that they have “experienced Hawaiian cul- rent vacation to Hawaii. As the table indi- ture during their stay,” as opposed to 13.1% cates, more than 37 percent (37.5%) of the who felt that they had not. When analyz- respondents felt that their knowledge about ing the knowledge of Hawaiian language, Hawaiian culture was low, while only 43.1% of visitors stated that they know slightly more than 12 percent (12.5%) felt “more than two words in the Hawaiian that they had a high knowledge about Ha- language,” and 56.9% did not. When it waiian culture. However, more than 80 comes to “Hawaiian cultural experiences” percent (80.7%) stated that it was of some the visitors would be interested in, the degree of importance for them to experience most popular “authentic hula performance” Hawaiian culture during their visit, and with 30.6% of the visitors expressing inter- more than 95 percent (96.4%) felt that it est; second was “authentic Hawaiian mu- was important for them to understand and sic,” with a response rate of 23.1%. An respect Hawaiian culture. Thus, while “authentic luau” was of interest to 16.3 % of their knowledge level of Hawaiian culture respondents. “Lei making” was popular was relatively low, they appeared to be with 10.6% of respondents. A “Hawaiian interested in learning much more about it.

Question Percent of Respondents Are you interested in Hawaiian culture? Yes 85.6 No 14.4 Should the Hawaii tourism experience be more authentic?

Yes 78.8 No 21.2 Have you experienced Hawaiian culture during your stay?

Yes 86.9 No 13.1 Do you know more than 2 words in the Hawaiian language?

Yes 43.1 No 56.9 Which Hawaiian cultural experiences would interest you?

Authentic Hula Performance 30.6 Authentic Hawaiian Craft-making 8.1 Lei-making 10.6 Hawaiian Language Introduction 8.1 Authentic Luau 16.3 Authentic Hawaiian Music 23.2 Hawaiian Story-telling 3.1

Table 3. Hawaiian Culture as it Relates to the Respondents’ Visit to Hawaii

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

Wendy Agrusa, Joseph Lema, John Tanner,Tanya Host and Jerome Agrusa 257

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

258 Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands...

More than 64 percent (64.4%) stated 16.3% as “very important”. For 58.8% of that it was important for them to come into respondents the importance was rated with contact with Hawaiian residents. Finally, “5” on the scale which is moderately high in more than 93 percent (93.8%) of these visi- importance. Less than 1% of the respon- tors had a high level of satisfaction with dents had the opinion that it is “not at all” their vacation to Hawaii. important to “understand and respect” Ha- When it comes to rating their “know- waiian culture. ledge about Hawaiian culture” on a scale “The overall level of satisfaction of this from 1 (very low) to 7 (very high), most particular vacation” was overwhelmingly respondents (50%) stated that they have an positive with 60% of visitors rating their average knowledge of Hawaiian culture, level of satisfaction “high” (“6” on the corresponding to “4”on the scale. A large scale). The second largest number of visi- amount rated their knowledge lower than tors (22.5%) rated their level of satisfaction average, 18.1% gave themselves a value of “5” on the scale and 11.3% of respondents’ “3” and 14.4% gave themselves a “2”which level of satisfaction was “very high”. Less is low or very little knowledge of Hawaiian than 1% answered that they were not satis- culture. A value of “5” moderately high fied with their vacation to Hawaii. knowledge was chosen by 11.9% of respondents, whereas below 1% (.6%) of respon- Correlation dents rated their knowledge as“ high”(6) with respect to Hawaiian Culture and no Two sets of variables were tested for respondents rated their knowledge as “very correlation. The first two variables tested high“ (7). Five percent of the respondents were (1) “How would you rate your know- answered “very low” (1) regarding their ledge about Hawaiian culture?” and (2) knowledge of Hawaiian culture. “How important is it for you to come into When asked, “how important it is to contact with Hawaiian residents?” The come into contact with Hawaiian resi- correlation test used for this set of metric dents”, on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 variables is the Pearson’s Product Moment (highly), 43.7% of respondents chose “5” Correlation. When analyzing the results, it “moderately high/slight importance”. For becomes evident that these two variables 16.3 % it is “very important” (“6” on the are significantly correlated at the 0.01 level scale) and for 4.4% it is “extremely impor- (two-tailed), with a correlation coefficient of tant” (“7” on the scale) to come into contact 0.313. with Hawaiian residents. While 28.1% of The second two variables analyzed were respondents chose indifferent, or “4”, and (3) “How would you rate your knowledge only 1.2% of visitors rate the importance as about Hawaiian culture?” and (4) “How “1”, not at all important. important is it for you to experience native The importance of “experiencing native Hawaiian culture during your stay?” The Hawaiian culture during their stay” was correlation test used for this set is the same also rated on a scale from 1(not at all) to 7 as for the previous set, since the variables (highly). Over 80% of the respondents are metric; the Pearson’s Product Moment answered that it was important to expe- Correlation test is used. When analyzing rience native Hawaiian culture during their the results, it becomes evident that these stay. Most visitors (46.9%) state that this two variables are significantly correlated at is very important (“6” on the scale) and 30% the 0.01 level (two-tailed), with a correla- rate it as important, “5” on the scale. To tion coefficient of 0.348. 15.6%, the importance is “average”. Less than 1% of respondents would say that it is Conclusion “not at all” important. When asked to rate the importance of After examining the results of the visi- “understanding and respecting Hawaiian tor survey, it becomes evident that there culture” on a scale from 1(not at all) to 7 are recognizable trends relating to visitors’ (highly), a majority of respondents (21.3%) expectations, their experiences once they regarded this as “extremely important”, have arrived, and their opinion about Ha-

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

Wendy Agrusa, Joseph Lema, John Tanner,Tanya Host and Jerome Agrusa 259

waiian culture and the reintegration the- that the Hawaiian music has vanished reof. from Waikiki. An “authentic luau” and “lei It can be said that the majority of visi- making” were also popular with the res- tors have a preconceived image of Hawaii pondents and “Hawaiian language intro- and that this image is formed by the source duction” also seemed interesting to a large of information the visitors indicated. Since number of visitors. Most respondents also a majority of visitors in the survey are re- think that it is very important to “expe- peat visitors, it is not surprising that the rience native Hawaiian culture during their most important source of information was stay” and to “understand and respect Ha- “previous experiences.” Visitors also indi- waiian culture.” cated “word of mouth”, “travel agency,” and It is interesting to see that the “overall the “internet” as important sources. Print level of satisfaction of this particular vaca- materials and other media (TV/Radio, etc.) tion” was overwhelmingly positive with all do not seem to play a significant role as a visitors, despite the lack of authenticity source of information for visitors; even that most visitors stated. This indicated though a great amount of travel literature that a lack of authenticity does not have a and documentaries about the Hawaiian great impact on the satisfactory vacation Islands exist. experience for the visitors. It is also interesting to see that most When it comes to the correlations, it be- travelers organize their trip independently comes evident that visitors who rate them- and travel with family, their partner selves high on knowledge about Hawaiian (spouse/ significant other), and friends. culture also consider it important to meet Package tours and traveling with tour Hawaiian residents and to experience na- groups does not seem to be a trend. Most tive Hawaiian culture during their stay. visitors stay between 7-9 nights in Hawaii, This could be an indication that educating and the vast majority states that “Hawaii visitors about Hawaiian culture can bridge meets their expectations.” the gap between native Hawaiians and The results also confirm that there is in visitors through interaction, as well as sti- fact a vast majority of visitors who are “in- mulate the interest of visitors in Hawaiian terested in Hawaiian culture,” and who culture overall. state that the “tourism experience in Ha- Thus, the results would seem to indicate waii should be more authentic.” Even that visitors are in fact very interested in though a great majority has indicated that Hawaiian culture, and they feel that Ha- they have “experienced Hawaiian culture waiian culture is not represented enough in during their stay,” they still feel that more the tourism experience in Hawaii today. needs to be done to make the experience According to the survey, a vast majority of more authentic. The knowledge of the Ha- visitors (85.6%) stated that they are inter- waiian language is split in half with one- ested in Hawaiian culture and a majority of half knowing “more than two words in the respondents also think that it is very im- Hawaiian language.” This shows that the portant to “experience native Hawaiian Hawaiian language is not present enough, culture during their stay” and to “under- or used enough in contacts with visitors, in stand and respect Hawaiian culture.” order for the visitors to retain or to learn These findings show that there is a great words during their stay. When offering demand for experiences related to Ha- “Hawaiian cultural experiences,” the visi- waiian culture. In addition, when asked if tors’ preferences should be taken into con- the “tourism experience in Hawaii should sideration. The most popular experience be more authentic,” 78.8% stated that it with visitors is Hawaiian music, followed should in fact be more authentic, even by an “authentic hula performance.” By though a majority also indicated that they speaking with visitors while conducting the have experienced Hawaiian culture during survey, many visitors stated, that they their stay. This shows that the current miss the authentic Hawaiian music per- efforts of reintegrating Hawaiian culture formances in Waikiki. Most notably, visi- into tourism are not enough and that visitors who have been visiting the Islands for tors are demanding a more unique and decades stated that they are disappointed authentic experience.

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

260 Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands...

It can be said that the findings of this any way, perhaps offering concerts by au- study reaffirm the theory that there is a thentic Hawaiian musicians should be con- trend towards a more authentic traveler sidered. In addition, a majority of visitors and cultural tourism. As discussed in the would like to see authentic hula perfor- literature review portion of this study, ac- mances. There are already authentic hula cording to TIA, there is a growing market performances taking place on Kuhio Beach for cultural tourism, which should receive in Waikiki; however, authentic hula per- more attention in the future. As this study formances should be increased. Possibly has found, a majority of visitors to Hawaii even promoting an authentic hula show belong to the group of cultural travelers twice a week could be a beginning to this who are interested in experiencing the host development. In addition, since many visi- culture of their destination, and who are tors are interested in an authentic Ha- more sophisticated as to which experiences waiian luau, it would be a good idea to offer they are interested in. a traditional luau in Waikiki, which focuses Based on the findings and conclusions of more on the cultural aspect than on pure this study, it would be prudent for Hawaii’s entertainment and cocktails. tourism industry to increase efforts to inte- In the literature review portion of this grate Hawaiian culture into the tourism study, Kanahele’s ideas of a more authentic experience beyond what is being done to- Waikiki were presented. Some of these day. ideas have already been realized; however, there is room to realize many more. For Recommendations example his idea of having an authentic Hawaiian village in Waikiki would be a Since there is a trend towards a more great attraction for tourists seeking a more authentic visitor experience, and visitors authentic experience. Some of the activi- are interested in experiencing Hawaiian ties that visitors are interested in, such as culture, the recommendation has to be to Lei making or craft making could be incor- increase the efforts of reintegration and to porated in the form of work-shops in that offer tourists a more unique Hawaiian cul- village in Waikiki. This could be an alter- tural experience. The tourism experience native to the offerings of similar “work- in Hawaii has to focus on its most impor- shops” at the Polynesian Cultural Center. tant asset, the culture. The culture is the Native Hawaiians could interact with visi- element that can differentiate Hawaii from tors by educating them about Hawaiian all other beach destinations, which share culture and values, teaching them Ha- the same commodities, such as sun, sand, waiian language and engaging them in and sea. Other destinations might be able such activities as Hawaiian story-telling. to offer these commodities at a less expen- This is especially important, since the sive price, but they do not offer the cultural study found that educating visitors about authenticity and they cannot offer Ha- Hawaiian culture and interaction with Na- waiian culture. tive Hawaiians could help to bridge the gap The emphasis therefore needs to be to between Native Hawaiians and visitors, offer tourists what they are looking for, and and stimulate the interest of visitors in therefore benefit from the trend of cultural Hawaiian culture overall. tourism. Authentic cultural offerings need It is therefore important, for visitors and to be expanded, especially in Waikiki. As residents to get a chance to interact and this study has found, tourists are most in- communicate. Much damage has been terested in authentic Hawaiian music. done to the visitor industry by the commo- Repeat visitors articulated that they miss dification of Hawaiian culture, and there authentic Hawaiian music performances, are feelings of resentment toward visitors which used to be an everyday experience by the residents. Reintegration of Ha- some years ago. An effort could be to bring waiian culture is in its beginning stages at back authentic Hawaiian music to Waikiki. the moment and it is important to realize For example, instead of having street per- that it takes the combined effort of the formers on Kalakaua Avenue in Waikiki, community, Native Hawaiians, and the who do not portray Hawaiian culture in travel industry, in order to make it work.

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

Wendy Agrusa, Joseph Lema, John Tanner,Tanya Host and Jerome Agrusa 261

It can be very difficult to bridge these vari- waiians in developing sensible efforts of ous interests; however, this reintegration of reintegrating Hawaiian culture into the Hawaiian culture into the visitor expe- tourism experience. Furthermore, from a rience is a common goal, and it is one which business standpoint, the effort should be to can be achieved. Change starts with a differentiate Hawaii from other similar common ground, and this study has shown beach destinations by focusing on market- that the majority of visitors do not want ing the culture, as resorts can be built an- experiences tailored to them, or experiences ywhere in the world where they share the that are interchangeable and similar from same commodities (sun, ocean, etc.); how- destination to destination. Hawaiian cul- ever, one cannot “build” Hawaiian culture ture is what makes Hawaii unique, and an someplace else. New structures that are authentic experience is what visitors de- being built should consider incorporating mand. Hawaiian elements in the architecture and As the literature review portion of this refrain from building structures that are study has shown, there are a number of not in harmony with the place Hawaii. travel industry related businesses that have already successfully integrated Ha- References waiian values into the management system and ultimately the visitors’ experience. Agrusa, J. These efforts can be examples for all other 1998 “Perceptions and attitudes toward the travel industry-related businesses not cur- legalization of gaming in Hawaii by rently engaging in these efforts. As we Japanese-Speaking tourists and Eng- have seen with the retail industry, even lish-Speaking tourists”. Asia Pacific businesses not directly related to tourism Journal of Tourism Research, 2(2), 57– can make a difference and provide a more 64. authentic experience to visitors. It is there- Agrusa, J. fore important to communicate the possibil- 2000 “Krewes and their activities and ities of reintegration of Hawaiian culture to spending on Mardi Gras in Lafayette, businesses. The Hawaii Tourism Authority Louisiana”. Event Management, 6(2): is making a great effort to encourage busi- 105-107. nesses to participate and to award busi- Agrusa, J. nesses and individuals for their achieve- 2002 “Cultural and heritage tourism, work- ments relating to the reintegration of Ha- ing from a bottom-up approach”. 52nd waiian culture. It is equally important for TOSOK 2002 International Tourism businesses to incorporate Hawaiian values Symposium and Conference. Buyeo in their management style and to commu- County, Korea, 33-39. nicate these values to the employees. Em- Agrusa, J ployees will then become hosts to the visi- 2006 “The Role of Festivals and Events in tors, much in tune with traditional Ha- Community Tourism Destination Man- waiian hospitality. agement”. In Jamieson, Community In addition, it is important to incorpo- Destination Management in Developing rate Hawaiian culture and values into new Economics, (pp. 181-192). New York: travel-related developments. Even though, The Haworth Hospitality Press. one cannot reverse the structural mistakes Agrusa, J., Maples, G., Kitterlin, M. and that have been made in the past, new Tanner, J. structures, hotels, resorts, etc, as well as 2008 “Sensation seeking, culture, and the new attractions, should be developed with a valuation experiential services”. Event sense for the “place” Hawaii, its people, Management, 11(3): 121 -128. culture and values. Arakawa, L. The final recommendation would be to 2006, 7 February “’06 plan to attract Jap- conduct more research, in the form of ex- anese visitors unveiled”. The Honolulu Advertiser, C1. tensive studies on residents’ sentiments Beeton, S. and visitors’ expectations directly relating 2001a “Smiling for the camera: the influ- to cultural tourism here in the Islands, and ence of film audiences on a budget tour- to work more closely with Native Ha- ism destination”. Tourism, Culture, and

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

262 Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands...

Communication, 3: 15-25. Digance, J. Beeton, S. 1997 “Life Cycle Model”. Annals of Tourism 2001b “Lights, camera, re-action. How does Research 24(2): 452-454. film-induced tourism affect a country Dwyer, L., Agrusa, J. and Coats, W. town?” In M.F. Rogers and Y.M.J. Col- 2001 “Economic scale of a community lins (Eds), the Future of Australia’s event: The Lafayette Mardi Gras”. Pa- Country Towns (pp. 172-183). Bendigo: cific Tourism Review, 5: 167-179. Centre for Sustainable Regional Com- Dwyer, L., Mellor, R., Mistilis, N. and munities, La Trobe University. Mules, T. Beeton, S. 2000 “A Framework for assessing ‘tangible’ 2005 “Film-induced Tourism: Aspects of and ‘intangible’ impacts of events and Tourism”. Clevedon, England: Channel conventions”. Event Management, 6: View Publications. 175-189. Busby, G. and Klug, J. Farrell, B. H. 2001 “Movie-induced tourism: The chal- 1982 “Hawaii, the legend that sells”. Hono- lenge of measurement and other issues”. lulu, HI: University Press of Hawaii. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 7(4): Filipova, M. 316-332. 2008 “Challenges before the achievement of Butler, R.W. a sustainable cultural tourism”. Tour- 1990 “The Influence of the media in shap- ism and Hospitality Management, 14(2): ing international tourism patterns”. 311-322. Tourism Recreation Research, 15(2): 46- Fisher, D. 55. 2004 “The demonstration effect revisited”. Butler, R. and Hinch, T. (Eds.) Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2): 428- 1996 “Tourism and indigenous peoples”. 446. London: International Thomson Busi- Formica, S. and Uysal, M. ness Press. 1996 “The revitalization of Italy as a tour- Connell, J. ist destination”. Tourism Management, 2005a “Toddlers, tourism and Tobermory: 17(5): 323-331. Destination marketing issues and TV- Fredline, E. and Faulkner, B. induced tourism”. Tourism Manage- 2000a “Host community reactions: A clus- ment, 26(5): 749-755. ter analysis”. Annals of Tourism Re- Connell, J. search, 27(3): 764-785. 2005b “What the story in Balamory?: The Fredline, E. and Faulkner, B. impacts of a children’s TV programme 2000b “Community perceptions of the im- on small tourism enterprises on the isle pacts of events”. In J. Allen, R. Harris, of Mull, Scotland”. Journal of Sustaina- L. Jago, and J. Veal (Eds.), Events ble Tourism, 13 (3): 228-255. beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda, Pro- Croall, J. ceedings of Conference on Event Evalu- 1995 “Preserve or destroy: Tourism and the ation, Research and Education, Sydney. environment”. London: Calouste Gul- Gentile, G. benkian Foundation. 2002, June, 24 “Road-trip trend may curtail Davis, D., Allen, J. and Cosenza, R. Hawaii visits”. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1988 “Segmenting Local residents by their D1, D3. attitudes, interests and opinions toward Getz, D. tourism”. Journal of Travel Research, 1987 “Event tourism: Evaluating the im- 27(2): 2-8. pacts”. In B. Ritchie and C. Goeldner Derrett, R. (Eds.) Travel, Tourism and Hospitality 2000 “Can festivals brand community cul- Research: A Handbook for Managers tural development and cultural tourism nd simultaneously?” In J. Allen, R. Harris, and Researchers (2 ed.) (pp. 437-450). L. Jago, and J. Veal (Eds.), Events New York: Wiley. Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda, Pro- Getz, D. ceedings of Conference on Event Evalu- 1992 “Tourism, planning and destination ation, Research and Education. Sydney. life cycle”. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(4): 752-770.

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

Wendy Agrusa, Joseph Lema, John Tanner,Tanya Host and Jerome Agrusa 263

Gnoth, J. pleasure tourist motivations and other 1998 “Conference reports: branding tour- travel-related characteristics of visitors ism destinations”. Annals of Tourism to Korea”. Tourism Management, 26: Research, 25: 758-760. 347-357. Goeldner, C. R. and Ritchie, J. R. Kim, H. and Richardson, S. 2009 “Tourism”. Hoboken, New Jersey: 2003 “Motion picture impacts on destina- John Wiley & Sons. tion images”. Annals of Tourism Re- Gursoy, D. and Chen, J. S. search, 30(1): 216-237. 2000 “Competitive analysis of cross cultur- Kirschenblatt-Gimblett, B. al information search behavior”. Tour- 1998 “Destination culture: Tourism, mu- ism Management, 21(6): 583-590. seums and heritage”. Berkeley: Univer- Hall, L. K. sity of California Press. 2005 “Hawaiian at heart and other fictions. Kozak, M. The Contemporary Pacific”. 17: 404-413. 2002 “Comparative analysis of tourist mo- Hawaii Tourism Authority (HTA) tivations by nationality and destina- 2007 “Style and Resource Guide” viewed tions”. Tourism Management, 23: 221- 12 January, 2009, 232. http://www.hawaiitourismauthority.org/ Lui, J. and Var, T. docu- 1986 “Resident attitudes toward tourism ments_upload_path/home_pdfs/HTA_St impacts in Hawaii”. Annals of Tourism yle_Guide_051507_FINAL_Web.pdf Research, 13(2): 193-194. Hsu, K. H., Agrusa, J. and Park, B. Los Angeles Times 2006 “The impact of Korean soap operas on 2007 “Contemporary Hawaiian culture” Korea’s image as a tourism destination”. viewed 2 January, 2009, http://travel. 12th Asia Pacific Tourism Association & latimes.com/destinations/hawaii/clm/in- 4th APacCHRIE Joint Conference Ab- depth/today stracts, 61. MacKay, K. and Couldwell, C. M. Jang, S., and Cai, L. 2004 “Using visitor-employed photography 2002 “Travel motivations and destination to investigate destination image”. Jour- choice: A study of British outbound nal of Travel Research, 42: 390-396. market”. Journal of Travel and Tourism Martin, S. B. and Uysal, M. Marketing, 13(3): 111-132. 1990 “An examination of the relationship Kanahele, G. S. between carrying capacity and the tour- 1991 “Critical reflections on cultural val- ism lifecycle: management and policy ues and hotel management in Hawaii”. implications”. Journal of Environmental Honolulu, HI: Waiaha Foundation. Management, 31: 327-332. Kanahele, G. S. McDonnell. I., Allen, J. and O’Toole, W. 1994 “Restoring Hawaiianness to Waikiki”. 1999 “Festival and special event manage- Honolulu, HI: Queen Emma Foundation. ment”. Brisbane: John Wiley and Sons. Kim, S., Agrusa, J., Lee, H., and Chon, K. McKercher B. 2007 “Effects of Korean television dramas 1993 “Some fundamental truths about tour- on the flow of Japanese tourists”. Tour- ism: Understanding tourisms social and ism Management, 28(6): 1340-1353. environmental impacts”. Journal of Sus- Kim, H., Borges, M. C., and Chon, J. tainable Tourism, 1: 6-16. 2006 “Impacts of environmental values on McKercher, B., and Cros, H. tourism motivation: The case of FI- 2002 “Cultural tourism: The partnership CA”. Brazil. Tourism Management, between tourism and cultural heritage 27: 957-967. management”. New York: The Haworth Kim, S., Lee, C., and Klenosky, D. Hospitality Press. 2003 “The influence of push and pull fac- Mercille, J. tors at Korean national parks”. Tourism 2005 “Media effects on image: the case of Tibet”. Annals of Tourism Research, 32 Management, 24: 169-180. (4): 1039-1055. Kim, S. and Prideaux, B. NHHA 2005 “Marketing implications arising from 2007 “Welina mai” viewed 3 January, a comparative study of international 2009, http://www.nahha.com/default.asp

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

264 Integrating Sustainability and Hawaiian Culture into the Tourism Experience of the Hawaiian Islands...

Newby, P. 71-88. 1981 “Literature and the fashioning of Tooke, N. and Baker, M. tourist taste.” In D. Pocock (Ed.), Hu- 1996 “Seeing is believing: The effect of film manistic Geography and Literature: Es- on visitor numbers in screened loca- says on the Experience of Place (pp. 130- tions”. Tourism Management, 17(2): 87- 141). London: Croom Helm. 94. Oh, H., Kim, B., and Shin, J. Travel Industry Association of America 2004 “Hospitality and tourism marketing: (TIA), Research Department Recent developments in research and fu- 2003 “The historic/cultural traveler”. Wash- ture directions”. International Journal ington, D.C.: TIA. of Hospitality Management, 23: 425-447. UNESCO Pearce, P., Moscardo, G., and Ross, G. 2002 “International symposium on the Silk 1996 “Tourism Community Relationships”. Roads Xi’an Declaration”. Viewed 3 De- Oxford: Pergamon. cember, 2009, Plog, S. C. http://portal.unesco.org/culture 2001 “Why destination areas rise and fall Wang, Y. and Fesenmaier, D. R. in popularity: An update of a Cornell 2007 “Collaborative destination marketing: Quarterly Classic”. Cornell Hotel and A case study of Elkhart county, Indi- Restaurant Administration Quarterly, ana”. Tourism Management, 28(3): 863- 42(3): 13-24. 875. Pretes, M. WTO 1995 “Postmodern tourism: the Santa 1998 “Guide for local authorities on devel- Claus industry”. Annals of Tourism Re- oping sustainable tourism”. Madrid: search, 22(1): 1-15. World Tourism Organization, viewed 4 Prideaux, B. December, 2009, 2000 “The resort development spectrum: A http//www.unwto.org/index.php new approach to modeling resort development”. Tourism Management, 21(3): 225-240. Radway, S. 2007, January “Hawaii calls”, viewed 3 January, 2009, http://www.hawaiibusiness.com/archivea rticle.aspx?id=4002&qr=Hawaii%20Call Riley, R. W. and Van Doren, C. 1992 “Movie as tourism promotion”. Tour- ism Management 13: 267-274. Riley, R. W., Baker, D., and Van Doren, C. 1998 “Movie induced tourism”. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(4): 919-935. Schmitt, R. C. (ed.) 2002 “Hawaii Data Book”. Honolulu, HI: Mutual. Smith, S. L. J. 1994 “The tourism product”. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(3): 582-595. Stokes, R. 2008 “Tourism strategy making: Insights to the events tourism domain”. Tourism Management, 29(2): 252-262. Telfer, D. Recibido: 28/04/2009 2000 “Tastes of Niagara: Building strategic Reenviado: 08/10/2009 alliances between tourism and agricul- Aceptado: 09/01/2010 ture”. International Journal of Hospital- Sometido a evaluación por pares anónimos ity and Tourism Administration, 1(91):

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(2). 2010 ISSN 1695-7121