The Journal of The Dyslexia Guild Autumn 2008 Volume 20 Number 1

In this issue Assessment Practising Certificates: Renewal, CPD and APL Identification & Assessment Frameworks Supporting Vulnerable Learners in their Transition to Secondary School

Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Dyslexia Review The Journal of the Dyslexia Guild

Editorial Contents

page As anticipated and noted in our last journal, we have 4 Developing Language-appropriate Task been able to obtain a significant number of articles from Items for Identifying Literacy Difficulties people who contributed to the recent and very successful in Welsh-speaking Children BDA International Conference held in Harrogate. Further by Enlli Môn Thomas and Siân Wynn Lloyd articles from this conference are included here. I am very grateful to Barry Johnson for his work in obtaining and 10 Do Dyslexic Children’s Problems with the editing these articles. Ends of Words Suggest that Phonics Should be Taught in the Context of Real November saw the signing of the SEN Information Bill, Words? which will be known as the ‘Hodgson Act’, after the MP by Bernardine King, Clare Wood and who initiated this Private Member’s Bill. The good news Diane Rigg is that this will become law on 1 January 2009 and will oblige local authorities to provide information to the 16 Sense and Sensibility Secretary of State on SEN issues. Civil servants are now Identification & Assessment Frameworks: deliberating on the implementation of the act, but it will Institutional Practices, Processes and help all of us who want to improve services for children Dynamic Learning and Teaching by increasing transparency and local authority Environments accountability. by Geraldine A Price and Sandra Hargreaves These are busy times for all of us working in the Dyslexia Field. Sir Jim Rose is due to report on his 20 Assessment Practising Certificates: recommendations for the provision of dyslexic children in Renewal, CPD and APL the Spring, the significance of which cannot be by Margaret Rooms underestimated. At the same time the roll-out of the Inclusion Development Programme (IDP) continues to, 23 Creating Instructional Links to Learning: hopefully, make an impact on the practices in Engaging Students with Dyslexia Across mainstream education. the Curriculum by Andrew Stetkevich Editor 26 Supporting Vulnerable Learners in their Transition to Secondary School by Poppy Nash Editor: John Rack Editorial 31 Sporting Preferences and Achievements Committee: Steve Chinn of Dyslexic and Dyspraxic Sports Men Estelle Doctor John Rack and Women: Lessons for London 2012? Anne Sheddick by Dr David Grant Margaret Snowling 37 Psych’s Corner Mrs Jax de Action Dyslexia Review is published three times a year by

Dyslexia Action 38 Book Reviews Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0HH T 01784 222 300 www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk Cover: Photograph by Priscilla Maniez

©Dyslexia Action 3 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Developing language-appropriate task items for identifying literacy difficulties in Welsh-speaking children

Enlli Môn Thomas and Siân Wynn Lloyd

Abstract challenges to educators and therapists when trying to Although dyslexia is often associated with learners of assess a given child's developmental progression. opaque orthographic systems, children learning more transparent systems can also show persistent difficulties. In some cases, educators/therapists may want to This is often the case for Welsh-English bilinguals who compare a given child's linguistic performance against learn one opaque and one transparent system. This established age-matched norms as a quick and reliable paper outlines a series of tests that was developed to method of identifying whether a child's performance falls investigate Welsh-speaking children's performance on within or beyond the 'norm' for his/her age-group. specific items in Welsh in comparison to age-matched However, if the child is bilingual, tests normed on peers identified as having dyslexia. The results revealed monolingual samples are largely inappropriate. Yet, it is quantitative and qualitative differences between children often the case that bilingual children who are with dyslexia and children with no known language experiencing language difficulties are limited in terms of problems on these items. These data support the notion access to treatment procedures (eg, Cline & that there are language-specific items that can highlight Frederickson 1999), access to valid assessment tools in potential literacy problems, even in a transparent their native, non-English language (eg, Cotton, Crewther orthographic language like Welsh. & Crewther 2005, Cline 2000), and in terms of access to valid bilingual norms (eg, Gathercole & Thomas 2007, Background Gathercole, Thomas, & Hughes, in press). A number of It is widely recognised that specialist education studies have highlighted the need to test bilinguals in programmes and methods of measuring linguistic their two languages where bilingual norms are competence are commonly available, and are continually unavailable since testing in only one of a bilingual's being developed, in English. However, for many languages is likely to lead to the underestimation of the children, English is not their first or their 'home' child's abilities. Studies of vocabulary knowledge, for language. Rather, many children are learning English in example, have highlighted how the child's knowledge of addition to or alongside another language that deserves certain words is 'distributed' across their two languages equal consideration, exploration, and treatment. In the (see, eg, Oller & Eilers 2002), and other studies have UK, for example, there is a growing population of highlighted how bilinguals may initially perform below bilinguals who are developing English either as a second monolinguals on certain constructs at the very young or as an additional language, or simultaneously with ages, although they do eventually 'catch up' once they another language. One consequence of this is that receive the 'critical mass' of exposure necessary to learn many classrooms include a mixture of monolingual and those constructs (eg, Gathercole & Thomas 2005, bilingual children, some of whom are receiving their Gathercole, Laporte, & Thomas 2005, Oller & Eilers education in their 'dominant' language (or L1 - first 2002). language/mother tongue), others who are receiving most of their education in their 'less-dominant' language (often In terms of literacy, bilingual children often learn two their L2 - second language). Whilst most children in the typologically very different alphabetic systems. In Wales, UK receive their education through the medium of children are learning English - which operates a highly English, there is a growing number of children who are opaque orthographic system - alongside Welsh, which educated through a language other than English. In operates a relatively transparent (or 'shallow') Wales, for example, there is a long history of Welsh- orthographic system. Children who are receiving their medium and bilingual education, where recent figures education through the medium of Welsh are usually estimate that 1 in 5 children are receiving their education taught to read and write in Welsh, and studies have either wholly, mostly, or partially through the medium of shown that these children achieve better scores on Welsh (Lewis 2004). But regardless of whether the English reading tasks in comparison to children learning medium of instruction is in English or in Welsh, many to read in English (see Spencer & Hanley 2003). classrooms will contain a mixture of monolingual and Learning to read a transparent orthographic system, it bilingual children, with bilingual children of varying seems, accelerates later abilities in English. However, proficiency levels in their L1 and L2, providing major bilingual children learning one transparent and one

4 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

opaque system who are suspected as having certain Table 1 shows the occurrence of similar examples of difficulties with literacy are likely to be formally identified incorrect vowel-grapheme clusters, geminate omissions, as having difficulties via testing in English since there is, and incorrect vowel selection as produced by a Welsh- at present, limited scope for profiling their equivalent speaking adult identified as dyslexic in late childhood. abilities in Welsh beyond the use of non-diagnostic reading tests that are often adaptations of existing Table 1: Spelling errors performed by first language English tasks. In addition, since dyslexia (as a Welsh-speaking adult identified as dyslexic in late 'phonological' disorder) is associated mostly with children childhood learning opaque orthographic systems, researchers have questioned whether aspects of dyslexia are specific to Welsh-speaking Target spelling Meaning languages with opaque orthographies, or to English in adult with dyslexia particular (eg, Aro & Wimmer 2003), which renders seisnag Saesneg 'English' assessment in transparent languages unnecessary. howsach haws(ach) 'easier' Recent evidence suggesting faster non-word reading darllan darllen 'to read' abilities by children learning languages other than cufla cyfle 'opportunity' English (eg, Aro & Wimmer 2003) partially supports such cumraeg Cymraeg 'Welsh' claims. However, children learning more transparent duddia dyddiau 'days' systems can also show persistent difficulties with reading daud dweud 'to say' and writing, and can display the very same extra- hunyhynny 'that' linguistic behaviours that are characteristic of dyslexia defnuddio defnyddio 'to use' (eg, slow and effortful reading despite making relatively dudd dydd 'day' few errors, see eg, Wimmer 1993, Barca, Burani, Filippo helpy helpu 'to help' & Zoccolotti 2006), although when such problems occur, hunhyn 'this' it is not yet clear to what extent they reflect similar problems to those experienced by children learning Therefore, in Welsh, there are instances of single opaque systems. Nevertheless, such behaviours may phonemes corresponding to two graphemes (eg, in be central to the early identification of literacy problems Northern Welsh, / / corresponding to u in llun 'picture' in transparent orthographic languages. and to y in dyn 'man', and / / corresponding to y in byr 'short' and to u in pump 'five'). There are also instances Welsh structures of interest of the single vowel grapheme y eliciting three different

Figure 1 shows examples of typical errors performed by phonemes (eg, y eliciting / / as in llyn 'lake',/ / as in a typically developing 5-year-old Welsh-speaking child. bys 'finger', and /e / & / / respectively in mynydd These are normal developmental errors the children 'mountain'). This is complicated further by the fact that master as they become more proficient with reading and different diphthongs can elicit the same phonetic writing in the language. realisation in some dialects, yet different pronunciations for each in other dialects (tai 'houses', cau 'to close', cae 'field' are all realised as /ai/ in South Wales, but as /ai/, /a /, and / / in North Wales - see Jones 1993). These

vowels and diphthongs are also prominent in the Welsh pluralisation process, whereby singular nouns become plural via a complex system of various suffix additions,

internal vowel changes, etc. Some of these may be particularly difficult for a child with dyslexia - eg, in

Northern Welsh, the vowel cluster ae in cae 'field' is e pronounced / /, but it is pronounced / / in caeau

'fields', yet the same cluster in caead 'lid' and in caeadau 'lids' is pronounced the same for both words - /e /

(although information from syllable structure may help for pronunciation, but not for spelling).

Figure 1: Example spelling errors performed by a 5- Beyond such inconsistencies with the vowels and year-old first-language Welsh-speaking child with no diphthongs, there are also complexities involving known language difficulties. consonants. In particular, Welsh (like the other Celtic languages) involves mutation - a morphophonological Errors: sbtu (ysbyty - vowel omission, and wrong vowel system whereby the initial consonants and consonant substitution); tori (torri - geminate omission); breuch sounds of words change, depending on the syntactic (braich - wrong selection of vowel grapheme cluster to context in which a word appears (Thomas & Gathercole represent the diphthong). 2007). Thus, for example, pêl 'ball' can appear in one of 5 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

four ways - pêl, bêl, mhêl, phêl - depending on the Table 2: Number of participants across the two syntactic context in which it appears. Added to this is participant groups by age. the fact that Welsh-speaking children, as a consequence of their bilingualism with English, may experience Age (year; month) Children with dyslexia Control group transfer from English. Children with dyslexia may show 7:6 - 8:5 years 36 specific difficulties with cognates in particular, such as 8:6 - 9:5 years 33 pobl 'people' (often mis-spelled as poble), and with the 9:6 - 10:5 years 59 appropriate use of f vs v to denote /v/, ff vs. ph to denote 10:6 - 11:6 years 28 /f/, and th vs. dd to denote / /, etc. Stimuli Together, the examples presented in Figure 1 and in Five tasks were created for this study. The Table 1 demonstrate that even in a transparent methodologies used were based on those used in the orthographic system, children will make certain expected Dyslexia Screening Test (DST) (Fawcett & Nicholson errors, even under conditions of normal development. 1996), and included real and non-word reading and However, it is also likely that individuals who are spelling tests, and a text-copying task. experiencing literacy problems, on the other hand, may also show persistent difficulties with such items well into The items presented in each task were carefully selected adulthood. (real words) or created (non-words) based on the extent to which their form could elicit two or more different The purpose of this preliminary study was to explore pronunciations (reading) or on the extent to which a Welsh-speaking children's literacy skills using a set of given phoneme or phoneme cluster elicited more than real and non-words that were selected or created one plausible graphemic representation, but where only specifically to allow investigation of the more opaque one is correct (spelling). These included vowels, aspects of the Welsh orthographic system. We compared diphthongs, digraphs (ll / /, dd / /, th /θ/, etc.) etc., that Welsh-speaking children identified as having dyslexia often elicit two or more plausible pronunciations. For the with age-matched children with no known language non-words, attempts were scored according to whether difficulties, and predicted that: (i) children with dyslexia their written representations of the items were plausible would take longer to perform each task than children spellings in Welsh. (See Appendix 1 for example words with no known language difficulties; (ii) performance in the non-word reading task.) would be better on tasks of reading than on tasks of spelling for both groups of children; and (iii) patterns of Procedure errors would differ across the two groups. Each child was seen individually for approximately 1/2 hour. All children were given the tasks in a fixed order. Method The experimenter first explained what the child had to Participants do. Before each task, the child was presented with a A total of 13 Welsh-speaking children, from North Wales, series of practice items. Feedback was provided during were recruited through Bangor University's Dyslexia Unit. the experimental trials only. The experimenter timed how They were between the ages of 7:6 and 11:6 years, and long each child took to complete each task. Each were formally assessed as having dyslexia by an session was recorded on a tape-recorder to allow for Educational Psychologist using a standard battery of post-session analysis and cross-checks of the data. This tests in English. All children were acquiring Welsh from was essential in relation to the reading tasks. Once a very early age (determined by parents' response to a each child had completed all five tasks, he or she was detailed language background questionnaire), and all praised and received a small gift for their participation. attended Welsh-medium schools (as determined through consultation with the teachers). A separate set of 26 age- Results matched children with similar home- and school- Scoring language backgrounds, and with no known language Two types of scores - number of errors (calculated in difficulties, was recruited from local schools as controls. proportions) and task completion time (calculated in The distribution of children across four age groups and seconds) - were analysed separately. Since there were within the two participant groups is shown in Table 2. so few participants in each group, the data were collapsed across ages. A total set of 35 age-matched norms was originally tested, between the ages of 6:6 and 11:6 years. Error data However, since we were unable to find a Welsh-speaking An Analysis of Variance test (ANOVA) was applied to the child identified as having dyslexia between the ages of data, which included type of task (text-copy, real word 6:6 and 7:6 years, the analysis presented here includes spelling, non-word spelling, real word reading, non-word only those children between the ages of 7:6 and 11:6 reading) and participant group (with dyslexia, no known years. language difficulties) as independent variables. 6 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

The data revealed a strong effect of participant group (F analyses revealed a number of interesting findings that (1,37) = 16.55, p < .0005), task type (F (4, 34)=71.74, p deserve further attention beyond this study. Among these < .0005), and an interaction between the two findings were the following 'trends': (i) children with (F(4,34)=4.15, p <.01). Post-hoc analyses revealed that dyslexia were more likely to make errors with the correct children with dyslexia produced more errors in general use of the phonemic and graphemic representations of than children with no known difficulties on four of the the vowels i/u/y than children with no known difficulties; tasks (all Fs ≥ 3.32, all ps <.05). The only task where no (ii) they were more likely to omit the geminates; (iii) they significant difference was found was the non-word were more likely to omit letters/sounds; and (iv) they reading task (although the trend for children with dyslexia were more likely to make two or more errors in spelling to produce more errors than those with no known and/or reading a single word. difficulties was still prominent here - see Figure 2). Measure of content validity As a preliminary measure of task validity, we also applied the diagnostic scoring procedures that are used in the DST to identify children who are 'at risk' to the Welsh data. (Although the DST involves 11 different tasks in all, the authors suggest that a minimum of five tasks should be administered in order to achieve a valid identification of potential problems. It was possible to apply the DST scoring criteria to the spelling, reading, and writing tests. Although the non-word reading and non-word spelling tasks were not part of the original DST battery, they followed the same structure as the spelling task and were scored using the DST guidelines for the Figure 2: Number of errors performed, per task, spelling task. Since these are not exact replications of across the two participant groups. the DST tasks, the results that follow must be taken as 'suggestive', at best.) The results revealed that of the 13 Task completion time data children who had been identified as dyslexic in English, 7 A further set of analyses revealed differences between would also be identified as dyslexic given the task items children with dyslexia and children with no known presented in Welsh. This is not entirely surprising given difficulties on the text-copying, real word spelling, real that these were not direct translations or adaptations of word reading, and non-word reading tasks (all Fs ≥ 4.96, the original task, and given the differences between the all ps < .05). Unlike with the error data, where there was Welsh and English orthographies and the low number of no difference between the two groups on the non-word participants involved in the study. In addition, one of the reading task, the only task where both groups performed children with no known language difficulties was also similarly (although the pattern suggests longer task identified as 'at risk' in Welsh. completion time for the children with dyslexia) was the non-word spelling task (see Figure 3). Both groups took Discussion longer to complete this task than any of the other tasks. The results of this preliminary study support our initial hypotheses in the following way.

First, the data revealed that, in general, children with dyslexia took longer to complete each task than children with no known language difficulties. This is supportive of other findings from studies of other languages that operate a transparent alphabetic system (eg, Barca, Burani, Filippo, & Zoccolotti 2006). Contrary to previous findings, however, Welsh-speaking children with dyslexia also tend to make many errors as compared to children with no known difficulties. This warrants further investigation. Figure 3: Mean reaction times, per task, across the two participant groups. Second, for all children, performance was better on tasks of reading than on tasks of spelling. This is not surprising Error type given the nature of the system in relation to these two In order to identify whether the nature of the errors domains (eg, in Northern dialects u is almost always performed by the two groups differed, a further set of pronounced as a long or a short / /, but can be qualitative analyses was performed on the data. These represented graphemically as y or u). Spelling, 7 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

therefore, may be particularly problematic for children References learning Welsh, and may provide a more accurate and Aro M & Wimmer H (2003) an earlier indication of 'at risk' factors than reading tasks. Learning to read: English in comparison to six more regular orthographies Applied Psycholinguistics 24 pp 621-635 Finally, although the patterns or errors produced by Barca L Burani C Filippo G D & Zoccolotti P (2006) children with dyslexia did not deviate enormously from Italian developmental dyslexic and proficient readers: those of the control group, qualitative, item-by-item Where are the differences? analyses of the data revealed that the nature of their Brain and Language 98 pp 347-351 errors was slightly different. The main difference - which Cline T (2000) may become a necessary feature of future tools for the Multilingualism and dyslexia: challenges for research identification of literacy problems in Welsh - was that and practice. Dyslexia 6 pp 3-12 children with dyslexia tended to produce two errors on the same word whilst children with no known language Cline T & Frederickson N (1999) problems produce very few examples of multiple errors. Identification and assessment of dyslexia in bi/multilingual children What was also clear from the data was that all children International Journal of Bilingual Education and produced errors on reading and writing words involving Bilingualism 2 pp 81-93 variants of i/u/y and their corresponding sounds, on other Cotton S M Crewther D P & Crewther S G (2005) vowels and diphthongs, and on producing the geminate Measurement error: implications for diagnosis and consonants, and often omitted a letter or a sound in their discrepancy in models of developmental dyslexia attempts as spelling and reading. However, in all cases, Dyslexia 11 pp 186-202 children with dyslexia were more likely to perform such Gathercole V C M & Thomas E M (2005) errors than the controls. Minority Language Survival: Input Factors Influencing the Acquisition of Welsh. In J Cohen K T McAlister K Rolstad & J MacSwan (eds) Proceedings of 4th Together, these findings reveal that when children are International Symposium on Bilingualism, Cascadilla learning a transparent alphabetic system like Welsh, press specific differences can be found between children with Gathercole V C M & Thomas E M (2007) dyslexia and children with no known language problems. Prawf Geirfa Cymraeg: Fersiwn 7-11 (Welsh Vocabulary Not only do these differences appear in terms of the time Test: Version 7-11) taken to complete a task, but also in the number of www.PGC.bangor.ac.uk errors they make. By careful selection of items that have Gathercole V C M Laporte N I & Thomas E M (2005) vowel graphemes with multiple pronunciation possibilities Differentiation, Carry-over, and the Distributed Characteristic in Bilinguals: in addition to measures of timing and multiple errors, it Structural 'Mixing' of the Two Languages? may be possible to develop a screening tool to identify In J Cohen K T McAlister K Rolstad & J MacSwan (eds) those children 'at risk' in a transparent language like Proceedings of 4th International Symposium on Welsh and provide an initial step towards developing Bilingualism, Cascadilla press appropriate tools for identifying literacy problems among Gathercole V C M Thomas E M & Hughes E (in press) bilingual children in Wales. Designing a normed receptive vocabulary test for bilingual populations: A model from Welsh To appear in International Journal of Bilingual Education Enlli Môn Thomas and Siân Wynn Lloyd and Bilingualism Jones B M (1993) Enlli Môn Thomas: College of Education and Lifelong Ar lafar ac ar bapur: cyflwyniad i'r berthynas rhwng yr Learning, Bangor University & ESRC Centre for iaith lafar a'r iaith ysgrifenedig (Spoken and on paper: an Research on Bilingualism in Theory and Practice, introduction to the relationship between the spoken and Bangor University the written language) Y Ganolfan Astudiathau Addysg: Aberyswtyth Siân Wynn Lloyd: ESRC Centre for Research on Lewis G W (2004) Addysg Gynradd Gymraeg: Trochi a Chyfoethogi Bilingualism in Theory and Practice, Bangor University Disgyblion (Welsh-Medium Primary Education: Immersion and Enrichment of Pupils) Dr Enlli Thomas is currently a Lecturer in the College of Welsh Journal of Education, 12 (2) pp 49-64 Education and Lifelong Learning, and a core member of Oller D K & Eilers R E (2002) the ESRC Centre for Research in Bilingualism in Theory Language and literacy on bilingual children and Practice. Her research interests include various Clevedon: Multilingual Matters aspects of language acquisition, bilingualism, and the Spencer L l H & Hanley R (2003) development of assessment tools for language. Sian Effects of orthographic transparency on reading and Lloyd is currently a Researcher at the ESRC Centre for phoneme awareness in children learning to read in Wales Research in Bilingualism in Theory and Practice. Her British Journal of Psychology 94 pp 1-28 interests are in language acquisition and contact, bilingualism, dyslexia and assessment. 8 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Thomas E M & Gathercole V C M (2007) Appendix 1: Children's productive command of grammatical gender and mutation in Welsh: an alternative to rule-based learning Example non-word reading passage (non-words First Language 27 (3) pp 251-278 highlighted in bold): Wimmer H (1993) Characteristics of developmental dyslexia in a regular Un bore dyma swrdd yn mynd i mewn i'r lleg. Roedd o writing system wedi teol a gyn a dyma fo'n dechrau crio. 'O! baeth' Applied Psycholinguistics 14 pp 1-33 meddai. Fe aeth yn ôl i'w baith. 'O! chws' meddai hi, a rhoi cry pyd eren iddo. Dyslexia Action/Real Training: Certificate of Competence in Educational Testing CCET (Level A) ‘An excellent course which allowed me to learn a great deal’ ‘Tutorial support great!’ ‘I have learned such a lot on this course’

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9 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Do Dyslexic Children’s Problems with the Ends of Words Suggest that Phonics Should be Taught in the Context of Real Words?

Bernardine King, Clare Wood, and Diane Rigg

Abstract dyslexia? If so, what might underlie it and how might it Children with dyslexia often exhibit difficulties in forming be addressed? relationships between letters and sounds. Training in ‘phonic’ skills has therefore become an integral part of dyslexia intervention. However, it is often anecdotally reported that children with dyslexia persist in Totally frustrated by his almost total lack of literacy experiencing problems with letter-sound skills, 13-year-old Tom decided to take up the help on correspondences at the ends of words, even after offer and embarked on a programme aimed at building mastering phonic relationships at the beginnings of phonological awareness alongside a structured words. This study therefore aimed to see whether multisensory approach to linking phonemes with children with dyslexia demonstrated phonic deficits at the graphemes. This programme was delivered three end of words. We found that children with dyslexia times a week on an individual basis. The fundamental exhibited significantly more problems with relating skills of segmenting words into phonemes and of sounds to letters at the ends of words than at the blending phonemes into words, which had previously beginnings of words. They were also significantly worse eluded him, were quite fluent after 12 weeks. Tom was at identifying sound-letter correspondences at the ends also now able to read about 60 high frequency words of words than typical readers of the same age. Such a giving him considerable confidence in his daily pattern of impairment could suggest that children with reading tasks. He was beginning to grasp some dyslexia rely on a different form of word recognition from spelling rules. However, there was a barrier to this typical readers whereby correspondences between impressive progress. Tom struggled to read and write letters and sounds only at the start of a word are fully the ends of words accurately, especially where there utilised during word identification. If the location of was a consonant blend at the end of the word. He sound-letter correspondences within a word is important either omitted a sound (spelling ‘stad’ instead of for dyslexic children, there may be implications for the ‘stand’), replaced sounds (‘lift’ instead of ‘list’) or way in which the teaching of literacy is approached. transposed sounds (‘split’ instead of ‘spilt’). Phonic training contextualised within real-words and Alternative known words were sometimes written eg concentrating on word endings may be efficacious. thing instead of think.

Introduction Figure 1: Tom Phonics (the ability to match letters to their corresponding sounds) is essential to literacy, and its Importance of Phonic Relationships in Reading importance is recognised both in early reading instruction Development and in dyslexia interventions (Adams, 1990). The current Ehri’s (1995) theory of typical reading development question is not ‘should phonics be taught?’ but ‘how stresses that reading is more than a purely visual should it be taught?’ The context in which phonic process, that it is intrinsically phonic. Written language instruction is given is likely to have a bearing on how development, she suggests, is the result of increasing effective it is: will the emphasis be on teaching connectivity between graphemes and phonemes, there grapheme-phoneme (and phoneme-grapheme) initially being no connections between the two (pre- correspondences in isolation or within words or within alphabetic phase). During the partial alphabetic phase ‘nonwords’ (eg ‘pib’)? Another consideration is whether an incomplete set of linkages is made and a full set of the method of teaching phonics is equally appropriate for phonic connections is established during the full both students with dyslexia and typical readers. Teachers alphabetic phase which enables automatic whole-word report that children with dyslexia often demonstrate reading. Finally, during the consolidated phase a particular problems in reading and spelling the ends of reorganization of literacy skills takes place under the words (see figure 1). Is there evidence that there is such influence of a well-developed understanding of the a specific phonic impairment with the ends of words in underlying patterns of written language.

10 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

The Rationale Behind Our Study Phase Letter- Sound Associations Given the importance of the first and last letters of

words, as suggested by Ehri, and the possibility that Consolidated Alphabetic Phase: Reorganisation of lexicon to accommodate irregular spelling children with dyslexia may particularly struggle with the patterns. ends of words, our intention was to investigate whether

children with dyslexia found phonic connections at the ends of words more difficult than those at the starts of Full Alphabetic Phase: A complete set of alphabetic links. words and, if they did, was this indeed an impairment compared to typical readers of the same age.

The dyslexia group comprised twenty-three children Partial alphabetic Phase: Some links, between salient letters

and sounds. (twenty boys and three girls), seventeen of whom had

been diagnosed as having learning difficulties where they had been explicitly described as having dyslexia

No links between sounds and by an educational psychologist. The remaining six had Pre-alphabetic Phase: letters. been diagnosed by an educational psychologist as

having specific learning difficulties equivalent to dyslexia Figure 2: A Summary of Ehri’s (1995) Phase Model of but without explicit reference to ‘dyslexia’ within their Reading Development statement of special educational needs. They had a mean age of 11 years 6 months, ranging, from 6 years 10 months to 15 years 10 months. However, their mean What are Phonic Connections? reading age was 8 years 6 months, ranging from 5 years Ehri maintained that in skilled reading, words are 1 month to 13 years 9 months. These dyslexic children represented in memory as links between the visual were compared to 23 typical readers of the same age, representations on the page, word sounds and word comprising nineteen boys and four girls. All the children meanings. The memory of a word is therefore with dyslexia had IQs in the normal to high range (i.e. conceptualized in Ehri’s theory as an integrated, cross- 85-120). modal representation, ensuring that seeing the word will trigger the memory of the word’s spelling, its meaning Phoneme-Grapheme Awareness Tasks: (semantics) and pronunciation, as well as triggering Phonic connections, which link the visual and auditory associations with other related words. Within the word, senses (as well as connecting with the semantic and each letter /letter group is linked to its sound. The phonic motor domains), can be considered as operating in both connections referred to in this article are these grapheme directions due to their multi-modal nature: from the visual to phoneme / phoneme to grapheme links. to the auditory modality and from the auditory to the visual modality. Phonics and Dyslexia A skilled typical reader is able to move effortlessly Our two tasks tested the ability of the participants to between whole word and grapheme-phoneme reading select the letter that was: (i) at the start of a spoken word strategies but reverting to a strategy of reading an in the Initial Phoneme Task; (ii) at the end of a spoken unfamiliar word through letter-sound associations is often word, in the Final Phoneme Task. a difficulty for a reader with dyslexia (Snowling, 2000). It may be that the dyslexic reader has not mastered the Thirteen monosyllabic real words, such as ‘pack’, and 13 automated mapping of sounds and letters which occurs nonwords, such as ‘pem’, were pre-recorded and were in typical reading. Ehri (2005) thought that the partial randomly presented via a lap-top loud speaker. The alphabetic phase, when some but not all phonic target phonemes were matched between the words and connections are established, is likely to be the starting nonwords and between the initial and final phoneme point of the deviation from typical reading patterns for tasks, eg the sound /b/ was represented by ‘ball’ and individuals with dyslexia. During the partial alphabetic ‘baf’ in the Initial Phoneme task and by ‘rob’ and ‘lub’ in phase, Ehri observed that not only do children struggle the Final Phoneme task. The participants listened to the with making connections between graphemes and word or nonword and responded by clicking the mouse phonemes, but they show other characteristics, such as on the corresponding letter (there was a choice of five) confusing letters (eg b /d reversals) and they concentrate on the computer screen. on ‘salient’ letters in words, such as first and last letters in the word. These characteristics are often observed in Results dyslexia. However, anecdotal evidence from the Comparing Sensitivity Within Each Group classroom suggests that difficulties with the last letters of Reaction Times words may be a persistent problem in dyslexia, as for Both groups of children responded significantly more Tom in Figure 1. slowly in identifying the last letters of spoken real words 11 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

and nonwords than they did to the first letters of spoken Table 3: Group Comparison of Response Times to items. First Phoneme-Graphemes for Words

Accuracy There was no significant difference in how well the typical readers were able to identify the first letter or last letter of spoken items (either words or nonwords). However, the dyslexia group was significantly worse at identifying the last letter of spoken items (for both words and nonwords) than the first letters of spoken items. See tables 1 and 2.

Table 1: Group Comparison of Scores on the First and Last Phoneme-Grapheme Task in Real Words Table 4: Group Comparison of Response Times to First Phoneme-Graphemes for Nonwords

Table 2: Group Comparison of Scores on the First and Last Phoneme-Grapheme Task in Nonwords Table 5: Group Comparison of Response Times to Last Phoneme-Graphemes for Words

Comparisons Between the Groups Reaction Times The typical readers were significantly faster than the children with dyslexia in identifying the correct letters at Table 6: Group Comparison of Response Times to the beginnings and ends of the items they heard, with Last Phoneme-Graphemes for Nonwords the exception of how quickly they could identify the first phoneme-grapheme correspondence in real words. On this measure the groups performed at an equivalent speed. See Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6.

Accuracy The typical readers scored higher than the dyslexia group in their identification of the last letters of spoken real words but there was no significant difference in correct responses between the groups in relation to nonwords. There was also no significant difference between the groups in their accuracy in identifying the first letters of spoken items (either words or nonwords). 12 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Table 7: Group Comparison for Last Grapheme- memory becomes overburdened and they run out of Phonemes Task for Real Words working memory capacity to help them to attend to and analyse the sound-letter correspondences at the end of the word. This explanation raises questions of its own: (a) Do children carry out phoneme-grapheme conversions on all the sounds from the start of the word until the end in a serial manner (it should be noted that our task does not require this type of analysis to arrive at a correct response). Is this something that is only characteristic of children with dyslexia? (b) Is it just the case that the typical readers are able to Note: the dyslexia group score was significantly lower than the isolate the final sound of a word more effectively than typical readers (p=0.012) the dyslexia group? (c) Why did we not find an equivalent impairment in the Table 8: Group Comparison for Last Grapheme- identification of the last sound-letter correspondences Phonemes Task for Nonwords in nonwords as in words? The words and nonwords were matched for the target phonemes and for the number of phonemes they contained, so the main factor distinguishing the words and nonwords was that the words have meanings and that these words are common words which were chosen because they are likely to be familiar to the children.

A Possible Explanation for End of Words Problems: A fascinating possibility is that an explanation for the observed specific impairment in phonic processing at the Note: there was no significant difference (p=0.065) between the ends of words may be due to a notion put forward by groups Coltheart, Rastle, Perry, Langdon & Ziegler (2001) when developing a computer model of reading (the Dual Discussion Cascade Model). They pointed out that as more letters in The results of this study suggest that children with a word are recognised, the identity of the word becomes dyslexia do experience persistent problems in accessing more evident, eg the letters ‘c’ then ‘a’ are likely to be phonic relationships when decoding the ends of words, followed by ‘t’ to make ‘cat’. In terms of human literacy, even after mastering them at the beginning of words. when reading the word ‘cat’, the letter-sound conversions of ‘c’ to /c/ and ‘a’ to /a/ will be activated, but a parallel AMystery activation of whole-words beginning with ‘ca’ will also be The children with dyslexia in this study showed a specific taking place. Hence, the word ‘cat’ might be activated difficulty when compared with typical readers of the before the last letter-sound conversion, of ‘t’ to /t/, has same age in identifying the last letter of a spoken (real) taken place (see figure 3). We found the readers with word. They did not experience this problem to any dyslexia were slower than typical readers in sound-letter significant extent in relation to the last sound-letter conversions. Therefore, in a sound-letter task such as in connections in nonwords. This finding appears to be this study, (and presumably in a letter-sound task such counterintuitive. If readers with dyslexia encounter as in reading), the dyslexia group may be more likely to difficulty in accessing links between sounds and letters, give erroneous word choices than the typical readers’ they should experience this problem in equal measure, group, eg if the word they heard was ‘can’, there might regardless of whether the item being decoded is an be a tendency to identify ‘t’ for ‘cat’ instead. actual word that has meaning or if it is a pronounceable nonword with no accepted meaning. Both the typical readers group and the dyslexia group were found to be slower in responding to the ends of Possible Explanations: words and nonwords than to their beginnings, which Response Times, Memory and Segmentation implies that all readers may be susceptible to a word- The children with dyslexia were slower than the typical level effect. However, as the only deviation from the readers in all but one of their response times to the pattern shown by typical readers in response accuracies phoneme-grapheme tasks. This could explain their in our tasks was in terms of the last sound-to-letter links problems with the ends of the items. That is, if every of words, it would appear that the dyslexia group may be phonic conversion takes them longer than that of a more influenced by activations of whole-word cognitive typical reader, then perhaps their short term phonological representations than are typical readers. This is in line 13 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

with research that suggests that readers with dyslexia Teaching Phonics tend to exhibit more of a holistic strategy to word reading The results of this study suggest that a problem with the than do typical readers (Snowling, 2000). phonic relationships at the ends of words may persist in dyslexia. Perhaps the phonic abilities of people with dyslexia may be assessed in terms of their ability to All phonemes relate letters and sounds, and sounds and letters (word-level activation) ‘drink’ together, not merely in isolation or at the start of words but also at the ends of words. Practice in separating the last sound in a word may raise the students’ awareness of checking their selection of a word, in spelling and reading, by cross referencing it with the phonic characteristics at the end of the word. One of the ways in / d / which this might be accomplished may be through / r / adapting some of the principles that are part of / i / established early reading schemes, such as training in blending the constituent sounds of words together whilst / n / pointing at the relevant letters, and in segmenting words down to their constituent phonemes whilst pointing to the corresponding graphemes. These methods have been Phoneme Activation shown to be effective in teaching beginning readers Time (eg Early Reading Research; Solity, Deavers, Kerfoot, Crane & Cannon, 2000). However, perhaps a greater Figure 3: A Possible Explanation of Problems with emphasis on final sounds, and on final sound blends, the Ends of Words: based on Coltheart et al’s (2001) should be made in cases of dyslexia. Identification of modelling of phoneme and whole-word activation. particular end sounds and end-sound combinations that Here, the word ‘drink’ is activated before the last the student finds difficult, might aid students in their letter-sound link has been processed. individual awareness of their difficulties and enable self- monitoring as a long-term strategy. Other Problems with the Ends of Words: Visual? In general, our study suggests that a reliance on the Anecdotally, there have been reports of people with teaching of phonics in isolation of real word contexts is dyslexia having visual problems with the ends of words, unlikely to be an effective form of instruction for students especially when they are long words. One of the theories with dyslexia or for children who are at risk of dyslexia. advanced to explain these difficulties is a phenomenon called visual persistence, whereby images which are Bernardine King works at the Centre for Evaluation and presented in quick succession appear to fuse together Monitoring at Durham University. and become distorted (see King, Wood & Faulkner, 2008 Clare Wood is a Reader in Developmental Psychology at for a discussion of this). The method we have used in Coventry University. this study avoids the possibility of phonic problems at the ends of words being due to visual distortions. Diane Rigg is Head of Language and Literacy at Thriftwood School, Essex. If we asked the children to read a word and to say the last sound, then a purely visual difficulty might have References Adams M J (1990) accounted for any observed impairments. The tasks Beginning to read were designed so that any visual impairment in word Cambridge MA: MIT Press reading would be excluded, so that we could assess the Coltheart M Rastle K Perry C Langdon R & Ziegler J (2001) child’s ability in accessing phonic correspondences DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word within the context of words. recognition and reading aloud Psychological Review, 108 204-256 Auditory? Ehri L C (1995) A difficulty in hearing the ends of items would not explain Phases of development in learning to read words by sight why in this study the dyslexia group showed a problem Journal of Research in Reading 18 116-125 with the ends of words but not with the ends of Ehri L C (2005) nonwords. If anything, research evidence points to a Learning to read words: theory, findings, and issues Scientific Studies of Reading 9 167-188 problem with hearing the initial part of a word or a sound in dyslexia (King, Wood & Faulkner, 2008; Richardson, King B Wood C & Faulkner D (2008) Thomson, Scott & Goswami, 2004). Sensitivity to visual and auditory stimuli in children with developmental dyslexia Dyslexia 14 116-141 14 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Richardson U Thomson J M Scott S & Goswami U (2004) Auditory processing skills and phonological representation in dyslexic children Dyslexia 10 215-233 Snowling M J (2000) Dyslexia MA: Blackwell Publishers Solity J Deavers R Kerfoot S Crane G Cannon K (2000) The early reading research: the impact of instructional psychology Educational Psychology in Practice 16 109-129

WRAT-4

The fourth edition of the world’s most widely-used short CReSTeD test now includes a new Sentence Reading sub-test to measure reading comprehension along with the original sub-tests. Council for the Registration of Schools Norms extend from 5 years to 75 years, solving Teaching Dyslexic Pupils assessment problems with older individuals. CReSTeD provides a Register Two parallel forms and a third combined form allow of schools approved re-testing after a period of teaching. for their dyslexia/SpLD provision. DYSLEXIA ACTION is a major UK distributor. For your free Register or information about how your school may be included, contact:

Available from DI Trading Ltd Tel/Fax: 01242 604852 Dyslexia Action Email: [email protected] Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0HH www.crested.org.uk T 01784 222300 F 01784 222333 Registered Charity No. 1052103

15 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Sense and Sensibility Identification & Assessment Frameworks: Institutional Practices, Processes and Dynamic Learning and Teaching Environments

Geraldine A Price and Sandra Hargreaves

Abstract identification. The confluence of political, economic and This paper explores the impact of responding to new social factors has had an impact upon institutional legislation relating to Higher Education Identification and practices. Legislative changes in recent years have Assessment. SENDA (2001) provided the impetus, while brought about a more inclusive system of support for the recommendations and guidance which came out of Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD) (HEFCE, 1998; the DfES working party’s publication (2005) were the real QAA, 2000; DfES, 2003). A national survey (Singleton, catalyst for change. At the heart of this change is the 1999) of 150 HE institutions and the Association of developing role of the specialist teacher assessor. The Dyslexia Specialists in HE (ADSHE) survey have traditional psychometric approach to identification and highlighted not only the support needs of SpLD learners the holistic process embraced by many specialist teacher but also the disparity in practices relating to screening assessors is explored. A survey conducted by ADSHE procedures for SpLDs. Widening participation opened (2002) demonstrated that a plethora of screening flood gates, and the demand for assessments could not practices exists across the sector. The paper outlines a be met under the old systems. If students were not to be new framework for identification which is emerging. disadvantaged, more qualified assessors were needed to Differential identification and assessment is closely cut down the long waiting lists. Through consultation the linked to the student’s learning experience and examples DfES working party (2005) reviewed the standardised of this process reflect good practice models. The tools available and proposed standards and a code of traditional diagnosis of SpLD is giving way to a dynamic practice for all those involved in assessing adults for framework which recognises that students’ needs are of specific learning difficulties, including presenting reports paramount importance. The paper shows that in an agreed and accessible format. An off-shoot of this identification and assessment can be a cathartic and working party is a standing committee, the SpLD enabling process, and can combine screening, Assessment Standards Committee (SASC), which has assessment and tutorial and IT support. worked tirelessly to devise and promote a robust framework for training assessors and tutors. The new Background to Change structures with their quality kite-marks have strengthened Adult assessment at university requires sensitivity and the professional role of the specialist teacher assessor, an understanding of the impact this process has upon placing them on an equal footing with psychologists. The the students. It is often a life-enhancing and life-changing SpLD Assessment Practising Certificate, which is experience and as such should be treated with sense used by Local Authority (LA) officers to determine the and sensibility by the professionals involved. Seven status of diagnostic reports for Disabled Students’ years after the introduction of Special Educational Needs Allowance (DSA), underpins the aims of SASC. For and Disability Act (SENDA, 2001) a plethora of practices further information visit the SASC web site: in the screening, assessment and identification of www.sasc.org.uk students in Higher Education (HE) has emerged. However, the recommendations and guidance which Traditional Approaches to Assessment came out of the DfES working party’s publication (2005) and Identification were the real catalyst for change. At the heart of this The traditional assessment approach utilised the WAIS- change is the developing role of the specialist teacher III and was accompanied by literacy testing. This suite of assessor. Historically, prior to these recommendations, tests provided scores of verbal and perceptual abilities; the majority of assessments were carried out by working memory and processing speed. Often the chartered and educational psychologists. For many years assessment was conducted by a psychologist who psychometric assessment, using the Wechsler Adult visited the institution on specified days throughout the Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III), a closed test, was the academic year. Subsequent reports were sent directly to mainstay of the traditional approach to assessment and students or, in some cases, sent to the Learning Centre

16 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

so that tutors could explain the results to the students. It ✓ Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing was often regarded as an add-on facility and isolated (CTOPP) from the student experience. Such assessments were ✓ Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) often regarded as a procedure to meet the requirements ✓ Literacy tests such as Wide Range Attainment for application for additional funding through the Disabled Tests (WRAT 3 & 4) Students’ Allowance (DSA). Many specialist teacher ✓ Mathematics Competency Test assessors felt that key parts of the jigsaw were missing ✓ The Beery-Butenica Developmental Test of with the traditional assessment procedure. Whilst it is Visual-Motor Integration, 5th. Edition (Beery VMI) vital to gain an accurate measurement of the student’s abilities, of equal importance is an understanding of how A New Framework: More than just a label the student uses these abilities in the learning The need to provide an integrated, one-stop-shop environment. approach to provision was now possible. Specialist teacher assessors were well placed to provide this. They This traditional approach meant that students often had can combine the accuracy of cognitive measurement to see two or three specialists in order to ascertain with a knowledge of the skill demands of the curriculum relevant support. Often a student would go through an to recommend a diagnosis and personalised learning informal interview as a first stage in a lengthy process; programme. The framework for identification which is then see the assessor and finally have a meeting with a emerging in Higher Education (HE) incorporates both learning support tutor to work out the most appropriate formative and summative elements, alongside diagnostic support for the individual’s learning environment and observation and interpretation. The outcome should be a curriculum. This could be a time-consuming process and life-enhancing process rather than a mechanistic in the meantime the student was having to cope with the procedure. It should be regarded as a crucial element in demands of the course. the establishment the student’s individual profile and entitlement. In the past measurement of the cognitive The DfES guidelines outlined criteria for the formulation profile was the crux of diagnosis and the labelling of of a diagnosis, and these formed the headings for the students. Indeed measurement still plays an important recommended format for reporting. The diagnostic role in the whole process by providing a base line for criteria were: differential exploration of strengths and weaknesses • History of difficulty with the acquisition of literacy within an individual. Nevertheless, this is but one skills element: • Persisting difficulties ‘For the dyslexic adult, being diagnosed is at the • Evidence of an underlying cognitive deficit eg heart of coming to terms with being dyslexic and phonological processing difficulty/working can have a profound effect, making sense of memory weaknesses years of confusing frustration and failure.’ • Consideration of barriers to learning (Morgan & Klein 2000: p21) • Underlying ability/achievement differentials A list of tests was drawn up. Selection from a range of A tripartite paradigm is emerging. The four factor-based suitable HE assessment tools is suggested. The SpLD scores - verbal comprehension, perceptual organisation, Test Evaluation Committee (STEC), a sub-group of working memory and processing speed - are set against SASC, regularly updates this list. The DfES/DIUS key indicators of SpLD. The DfES Model of Assessment guidelines emphasised the need to ensure that relevant retains the cognitive processing elements but and appropriate tools were to be used by practitioners: incorporates phonological memory and processing and ‘Wherever possible, tests should be properly perceptual and motor integration. Key indicators of standardised on the adult population, with dyslexia, for example, are poor performance on measure clear evidence of validity and reliability. Tests of phonological awareness, verbal memory and rapid not suitable for use with adults should be naming ability. Interpretation of the differentials in avoided.’ Diamonds, Matrices (WRIT) and Visuo-motor integration DfES Guidelines, 2005, p.10 (Beery VMI ) abilities might lead to consideration of dyspraxic specific learning difficulties. The third and Specialist teacher assessors frequently have the essential aspect of the assessment process is individual following in their assessment toolkit: functionality. It goes beyond literacy scores and ✓ Wide Range Intelligence Test (WRIT) examines how the student copes with the reality of ✓ WIAT-T research reading and academic writing under pressure. ✓ Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) Performance in listening comprehension, continuous text ✓ Digit Span reading and timed prose writing is set against cognitive ✓ Wide Range Assessment of Memory and measurement and literacy attainment scores. Learning (WRAML2) Consequently, a full and in-depth picture of the student gives a rich data source upon which to develop a 17 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

personalised support programme. Thus, the new & Nicolson 1998), despite recent debate about its validity framework can combine formal and informal procedures (Harrison & Nicols 2004). The computerised Lucid Adult in an eclectic manner to explore the strengths and Dyslexia Screening (LADS) (Singleton et al 2002) was weaknesses of the student and set this within the used by many of the respondents. curricular context of that individual. Figure 1 demonstrates how each of the parts of the ‘testing’ feed This is the first stage in the process: some indicators of into each other. SpLDs, background details, educational performance and emotional/motivational information. For some students, further probing is not necessary and a learning

Screening programme can be devised and put into place. However, Devices: Questionnaires for many more formal testing to measure ability and interviews checklists performance is necessary, particularly if DSA is appropriate.

The screening springboard is essential. It helps to justify the cost of the full, diagnostic assessment. Screening Functionality: Cognitive Tests: Subject The General ability, processes in HEIs often include literacy testing. It makes demands, memory, organisation, Student processing sense to cover these elements initially and to use these self-image, speed, motivation perceptual skills scores as part of the cognitive and phonological aspects. In this way ‘testing’ is minimised and students are not put through another set of literacy tests in the diagnostic part of the process. Screening is also essential for picking up

Attainment: indicators of other specific learning difficulties such as Reading, spelling, dyspraxia (DCD), dyscalculia and AD(H)D. These other numeracy, phonology difficulties are very often indicated through good screening practices where sound checklists and personal history compilation are used in the screening interview. Figure 1: Differential Identification & Diagnosis It is then the responsibility of the student adviser conducting the interview and screening to make the most Screening Practices appropriate referral for full diagnostic assessment. The The results of the ADSHE screening survey (2002) SpLD Working Group 2005/DfES Guidelines (page2) demonstrated that there is, as yet, no uniformity make it clear that the new form of assessment performed nationally. All institutions used the interview. Some HE by tutor assessors includes these other specific learning institutions (HEIs) used questionnaires and asked the difficulties. There is still a lot of discussion about who students to complete these prior to the first meeting. should assess for specific difficulties such as dyspraxia, Opponents of this practice point out that dyslexic dyscalculia and ADHD, but if the indicators for these are students, in particular, often have an aversion to filling in overlooked, many students will fail to be assessed questionnaires because of inherent properly and will miss out on the support which they reading/comprehension difficulties. However, for some need. students being able to prepare quietly in advance is a bonus. Price and Skinner (2007) provide a framework of Personalised Learning Support questions which can be used for the interview and/or the The role of holistic, integrated, dynamic, differential questionnaire. The questionnaire provides information screening & assessment is to provide information which upon which decisions can be made about indications of the specialist teacher assessor can use to negotiate the various SpLDs. Literacy and numeracy skills, personalised learning support. Personalised learning sequencing, directionality are explored as well as support brings together four elements: eliciting additional information about visual stress, attentional behaviours, mathematics anxiety and ➢ Current levels of achievement and strengths underlying characteristics of developmental co-ordination ➢ Future needs disorder (DCD) This is an opportunity to gain insight into ➢ How the student learns the way in which the student works, student self- ➢ The learning context: demands and outputs perception and emotional perspectives. Some institutions, for example, London Metropolitan University, Knowledge of the student’s performance must be linked combine the interview/questionnaire with a dictation, to functionality. In this way the single dimension of the Digit Span tests and the Spoonerisms test. measurement data becomes multi-dimensional. A student may have a reading age of 18 years 4 months The ADSHE survey (2002) showed that 30% of HEIs but what is important is to assess whether this used the Dyslexia Adult Screening Tool (DAST) (Fawcett performance will be adequate for the demands placed 18 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

upon the student by the chosen course. For example, a Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2003) law student or a medical student will have to cope not The Future of Higher Education, White Paper London: HMSO only with a great amount of reading but the types of texts will present challenges to those with perceptual Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2005) difficulties, slow processing speed and weak short term Assessment of Dyslexia, Dyspraxia, Dyscalculia and Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) in Higher Education working memory. This will in reality result in a drain on London: HMSO time and psychological resources. Fawcett A and Nicolson R (1998) The Dyslexia Adult Screening Test (DAST) In conclusion London: Psychological Corporation Best practice involves integrated screening and Harrison A and Nicols E (2004) assessment which is holistic. The tripartite framework set A validation of DAST in a post-secondary population in out here reflects the emergence of new ways of Canada managing the processes. Armed with a full picture of the BDA conference paper student, the specialist teacher assessor is in a position to Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) (1998) diagnose the problems and to initiate a relevant and Widening Participation in Higher Education: funding contextualised support programme which is proposals, consultation 98/39 London: HEFCE personalised. By integrating the various procedures, due regard is given to the student’s emotional well-being. At Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) (2000) Code of Practice for the Assurance of Academic Quality the end of the process, the student is armed with and Standards in Higher Education: students with additional knowledge to increase success and disabilities satisfaction. London QAA Morgan & Klein (2000) Dr G A Price and Mrs S Hargreaves The dyslexic adult in a non-dyslexic world London: Whurr Dr G A Price has worked for over thirty years in the field Price GA & Skinner JS (2007) of dyslexia in Primary, Secondary and Higher Education. Support for Learning Differences in Higher Education: She initiated the MSc in SpLD at Southampton the essential practitioner’s manual Stoke on Trent: Trentham University, has presented papers internationally and conducts diagnostic assessments in HEIs. SENDA (2001) Special Educational Needs and Disability Act London: HMSO Mrs S Hargreaves is the course leader for both the PGC: SpLD Working Group 2005/DfES Guidelines Teaching Adult Dyslexic Learners in Higher Education Final Report July 2005 and the PGDip: Assessment for Specific Learning www.sasc.org.uk Difficulties (Dyslexia) at London Metropolitan University. Singleton C (1999) www.sasc.org.uk She also is director of Mind Aligned through which she Dyslexia in Higher Education: policy, provision and conducts diagnostic assessments of adults and tutorial practice: Report of the National Working Party on support for adults in HE and the workplace. She has Dyslexia in Higher Education. presented at international conferences. Hull: University of Hull Singleton C Horne J and Thomas K (2002) References Lucid Adult Dyslexia Screening Plus (LADS). Beverley, East Yorkshire: Lucid Innovations Ltd Association of Dyslexia Specialists in Higher Education (ADSHE) (2002) The dyslexia screening process in HE London: ADSHE

Dyslexia Guild Symposium Cancellation

Sadly we have had to cancel this year’s Symposium on Dyslexia and Visual Impairment - finding the common ground due to lack of support.

As far as possible we will try to cover the content with articles for Dyslexia Review over the next year instead.

We will not be able to replace it with another large event this year, but we will be putting on a CPD course related to the Practising Certificate.

19 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Assessment Practising Certificates: Renewal, CPD and APL

Margaret Rooms

The Dyslexia Guild has been issuing Assessment • Fill in the Practising Certificate Renewal form Practising Certificates since the summer of 2006 and so • Pay the application fee of £80 it is time now to consider the criteria for renewing them, • Send your evidence to: Lesley Freedman, the to address what is ‘relevant CPD’ and the issues in route Dyslexia Guild, 2 Grosvenor Gardens, London, 2 criteria for APL. This article sets out to inform Dyslexia SW1W 0DH. Guild members primarily what is required for renewal and what would be ‘relevant CPD’. You need to send your application in at least 5 weeks prior to your renewal date to ensure there is no gap in For background information on the setting up of the certification. We will remind you when renewal is due but Assessment Practising Certificate see John Rack’s this is something you need to be mindful of yourselves to article in Dyslexia Review Autumn 06 or look at the be sure that there is no last minute panic. SASC (SpLD Assessment Standards Committee) website www.sasc.org.uk . For full information on renewal and application forms see the Dyslexia Action website / Dyslexia Guild Renewal www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk The Practising Certificate is issued for a term of 3 years by The Dyslexia Guild or PATOSS and teachers holding Any teacher who has been routinely conducting the PC are listed on the SASC website. Both of the assessments and has made sure he/she is up to date in issuing bodies are membership organisations and it is a terms of professional practice should have no trouble in requirement to maintain membership during the currency renewing the PC. We do however, reserve the right to of the PC in order to remain listed. ask for additional information such as a second report where it is unclear that the competences have been met. To renew your Practising Certificate we want to see evidence that your assessment reports are accurate, Continuing Professional Development (CPD) comprehensive and of high quality, and that you have CPD is the term teachers are faced with at every turn at undertaken a certain amount of CPD to ensure that your the moment: CPD for maintaining their registration as a assessment skills continue to develop and that your teacher with the GTC or IfL, CPD for AMBDA and now knowledge is up to date. for the Practising Certificate.

You will need to collate evidence of this practice and The first thing to remember is that you have probably development in the form of: been doing plenty of CPD for years - it’s just that now there is more of a requirement to write it down, to keep • Training and development plan (proforma certificates of attendance and to reflect on what you supplied) have gained from the experience. This reflection may in • Assessment log (proforma supplied) turn tell you what further CDP would be useful. • One recent assessment report + accompanying forms (copies) The minimum requirements of CPD are, as you can see, • CPD log which should include a minimum of; quite modest. Many teachers will meet these in one year • 5 hours attendance covering at least one of let alone three. The word ‘relevant’ is important: although • Principles of psychometrics, statistics, you may keep one master list for a CV it is your assessment responsibility to do the sifting, not the organisation you • SpLD testing methods, interpretation, test are sending it to. For instance, I would not expect to see materials certificates of courses on management skills or history • Further evidence of relevant CPD totalling at curriculum development in a PC application, whereas I least a minimum of another 15 hours over the would want to see things like learning to use a new test, 3 year period. and an attendance course on good assessment practice, • Copies of certificates of attendance as or understanding statistics for assessment. applicable Personally, I have always been a great fan of CPD type Once you have assembled your evidence you will need training as anyone who has attended one of my Units of to: Sound courses will know. It is satisfying to see such 20 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

practical training receiving the recognition it deserves. It Lesson or assessment observations: you may need to is important however to bear in mind the ‘at the observe a lesson or assessment as part of your role appropriate level’ condition. Attending a dyslexia followed by discussion with that colleague on your awareness course for a PC teacher would not be observations and/or make a written report. Alternatively, appropriate for instance as we would expect such a a senior colleague may observe one of your lessons or teacher to be beyond that level. assessments and give valuable feedback on improving practice. The Dyslexia Guild will put on at least one day’s attendance course a year that will fulfil the 5 hours Reading: reading a new book or research report and compulsory element, although of course you are free to writing a review for Dyslexia Review or for colleagues is find that training from another provider. all part of developing your own practice, eg reading Dyslexia Review consistently over the year and either To fulfil the requirements of the PC a teacher needs to discussing articles with colleagues or reflecting on the have expertise in two main areas: content. • Assessment • Provision for people with SpLD. Writing: writing an account of a research project you were involved in for colleagues (or again for Dyslexia Relevant CPD therefore will always have to address one Review?) or something new you had tried with students. of these areas. The added element is reflection: What This should include either an evaluation of effectiveness impact does this training have on my practice? What or a reflection on the issues. have I learned that is new? How does this change what I have done before? What else do I need to do now to Investigating a topic: you might follow up on something extend this knowledge and understanding? you heard at a conference or read about, with additional reading, perhaps a visit to a school or a discussion with Attending external events are the easiest part of CPD to a particular expert in the field. comprehend and it feels very tangible. There are however many other equally valuable ways of accessing You can see that it is much more likely that you greatly CPD. exceed the minimum requirement than that you are searching around for an emergency course to attend! CPD could include: The thing to remember is to write everything down as External events: attending conferences or courses, or you do it rather than to try and remember what you did at as a trainer, preparing for and delivering a session at a the end of the year. We would normally expect to see conference or on a course eg Dyslexia Guild CPD drawn from a range of areas (such as listed above) Symposium. rather than a narrow formula.

Internal events: attending or participating in training or Teaching and Development Plan professional development events provided by your This is where you set out your aims in professional employer eg INSET. development over one or more years with a suggested path for achieving them. This is not a static document Professional development meetings: you may have a and will evolve as your practice develops. A proforma is departmental meeting to address progress rates in available on the Dyslexia Guild section of the website. literacy for your SpLD students for instance where you discuss the most effective strategies and consider Who is the Practising Certificate for? changes in practice. The only people who are required to have a PC are teachers who assess for the Disabled Student’s Learning how to use a new literacy tool: acquiring the Allowance ie if you do not have a PC your skill to use material you hadn’t used before requires recommendations will not be accepted. The key word time, commitment and practice and could have a there though is required. There are many other teachers considerable impact on your teaching. who want a PC even though their work does not involve DSAs. This is really about the PC developing currency in Learning how to use a new test: similarly, you are the area of assessment as a stand alone mark of quality. increasing the range of resources for assessment and Anyone with a PC has had to meet the requirements as possibly gaining additional information on any subject for set by SASC and so it is becoming an easy way to assessment. identify a qualified assessor.

Discussion: having learnt how to use a new teaching Practising Certificate Route 2 - Approved Prior Learning resource or test you might discuss it in a forum or with a The details for how Dyslexia Guild members acquire the colleague. Note - this is not a ‘chat’. PC via this route are still being worked out so do look at 21 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

the Dyslexia Guild section of the website for more something we haven’t covered. What we cannot do is tell information when you get this review. This route is for someone if they will get the PC before they apply. You people who are confident they meet the PC requirements have to make that call yourself from the information in practice but who do not have the certification to prove supplied. it. The important thing here is for teachers not to think that this is a quick way of circumventing the rigid Margaret Rooms requirements of the other routes. This is only for people who have kept up to date with assessment procedures, Margaret Rooms is Head of Educational Development at who meet all of the BPS competences covered in the Dyslexia Action and responsible for the Dyslexia Guild. CCET course (Certificate of Competence in Educational [email protected] Testing) and are fully able to demonstrate an understanding of the principles and practice of For all information on the Practising Certificate look at addressing the needs of dyslexic people. the Dyslexia Guild section of the website www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk What can we do to help? We try to give as much information on the website as possible and answer individual queries if there is

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22 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Creating Instructional Links to Learning: Engaging Students with Dyslexia across the Curriculum

Andrew Stetkevich

As I walked into the classroom, I noticed more than just keeping them engaged in their own learning (Gettinger a class full of 15 and 16 year old high school special 1988, Heward 1996). Teachers need a repertoire of education students awaiting my first words. I observed 2 strategies to accomplish this (Martens and Meller 1990, experienced special education teachers, a counsellor, Graham and Perin 2006). Teachers and educational and what appeared to be a parent of one of the students. therapists can effectively incorporate these strategies in My job was to demonstrate a new reading strategy that their content instruction by considering 9 essential would engage these learning disabled students sitting in components of student engagement (Muir 2006). front of me and help them learn to read. I was nervous Practical examples for integrating each component are enough, but having sceptical adults sitting at the back outlined below. desks almost put me over the edge. 1. Develop positive relationships and school climate. Students with dyslexia have in many instances I began my lesson by telling the students what we were experienced years of failure in schooling. It is going to learn and why it was important. Then I told them essential that teachers remember to provide that we would be using gestures, such as air writing and immediate descriptive feedback when possible. For finger blending to help us read words and spell them. I example, a teacher might say ‘good work’ or more related the use of our bodies to athletes and artists who effectively state, ‘Your topic sentence had both used their bodies to help them conceptualize and master required elements - a subject and a key point.’ This skills. With that, I dove directly into my lesson. provides more meaningful and genuine feedback to students to help establish an honest and supportive As I expected, some students ‘played along’ with me and rapport. Teachers should also remind themselves to others just rolled their eyes. I continued a brisk pace and provide at least 5 positive comments to 1 negative gave the class some challenges for learning comment when dealing with dyslexic students who sophisticated vocabulary and multisyllable words. By the might have behavioural difficulties. Behavioural end of the period, I had a majority of this summer school change is more likely to occur when students are class calling out sounds, letters, syllables, and words recognized for desired behavior rather than while using their hands to represent these words. I felt it reprimanded continually for negative behaviours. was a good start! I had actually engaged a group of 2. Provide feedback and help students to succeed. As adolescents with learning disabilities in tasks where they stated previously, descriptive feedback is important to had failed countless times before. Yet, this time they build positive relationships with students with dyslexia. were experiencing success. I even received a comment However, feedback from students also allows teachers from that parent who stayed the entire period. She told to check for understanding. Some simple strategies me that she could see her son involved and actually that are easily implemented include: a) Students responding to instruction. I later learned that this parent repeat back chorally exactly what you have stated. For had observed because she was planning to take the example, the teacher might state, ‘Every word has a school district to court due to her son’s poor progress in vowel sound.’ The students repeat this back in reading. I am so happy that this information was not unison. b) Desktop white boards allow students to given to me prior to my lesson. draw or write responses and show their work immediately to the teacher. Students might show their What made this a successful learning experience for work in mathematics, vocabulary, spelling, or even these special education students? The answer for me phonemic awareness. c) Silent signals allow teachers was active student engagement during the learning and students to give feedback on behaviour and process. Once the students understood the ‘how’ and student understanding of the learning task. ‘why’ of what we were doing, they actually appreciated 3. Create hands-on, active work for students with the strategies that kept them focused and involved in the dyslexia. Multi-modal teaching and student response learning situation. engage students by using all learning channels. A variety of strategies can be used across the How teachers teach does make a huge difference. One curriculum. Teachers might teach vocabulary by of the critical factors in teaching students with dyslexia is associating a gesture with the term. One middle

23 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

school teacher in Riverside, California uses body choices within the parameters of the learning objective gestures to teach the format of a business letter to 12 increases the likelihood of student engagement. Let year old students. The students begin at the top of me share with you a math lesson I observed in an their head and work their way right down the body elementary special education classroom of 9 and 10 with a gesture for each format section in a business year olds. The learning objective was for students to letter. Students stand as they learn and retrieve the write large numbers in standard and expanded information. Students with dyslexia are active and fully notation. The teacher paired the students and posted involved in the lesson and their learning. various problems along the walls of the room. The 4. Provide variety and attention to learning modalities. students were given a set amount of time to choose The use of multi-modal methods can take various any three problems they would solve. The problems forms. Some teachers have students move in a clock- varied in levels of difficulties. The teacher did point wise manner as they learn key terms or concepts. students to a challenge problem that was available to When the student stands at the 12 o’clock position them. It was fascinating to watch these 12 students they review or learn a particular concept. As the roaming the room using formal math terms and cross- students move clock-wise, they learn additional checking their thinking. Some students even coaxed concepts. This provides a visual-spatial and their friends into attempting the challenge problem. kinesthetic retrieval system for the student. The use The lesson succeeded in part because the students of icons is exceptionally helpful for students with had some choice in their learning task. dyslexia. Since words may not have as much 8. Make connections and teach higher-order thinking meaning, dyslexic students can draw pictures or icons skills. Connections help students make sense of new to represent the language. For example, students can concepts and allow them to explore deeper levels of plot out a story by placing icons on Post-it notes, such thinking. Although making connections for students as a picture of a house and clock for the setting of the seems common sense, it requires some simple, pro- story. As students read, they place the Post-it near the active planning. Let me provide you with a simple words that state the setting in the story. These icons example used to help students understand an help students to track through text and provide a algebraic concept, the formula for slope. A teacher in visual anchor for them (Greene and Enfield 2008). my school district began to talk to his students about 5. Tie learning into interests and make it interesting. I the hills near the school. He asked the students to use observed an example of this engagement component their hands to show the slant of the hill if they were in a special education science class. The teacher was hiking up the hill and breathing heavily. The students instructing students on the parts of a plant cell. To help showed a steep angle. He then asked them for words students learn the parts and their function, she that named the side of a hill. One of the students used brought in pieces of candy to represent the plant cell the word ‘slope.’ The teacher continued his story, but parts. Students worked in small groups and selected this time changed the setting to an airport runway. He the candy that best represented each component of drew a simple picture of the runway and asked the the plant cell. They glued the candy on poster board students to show again with their hands how a plane and labelled the part and its function. Most middle rises in the air. He also asked them to name the school students love candy. Consequently, the teacher ground from which the plane lifts off the ground. They used this interest to present an opportunity to stated that it was a runway. Finally, the teacher shared compare and contrast the candy pieces with diagrams that this rise in the air by the plane looked very similar from a book. The challenge for educators is to tune to the slope of the hill. He wrote this formula on the into the interests of their student population. Learning board: slope=rise/run. By making these real world takes on a new relevance for the students who simply connections, the students had no problem have an interesting task to complete. understanding the algebraic concept for the formula of 6. Avoid bribery rewards. Teachers can reward and slope. While the connection was straightforward, it reinforce learning without bribing students. Provide required some preplanning by the teacher to pick opportunities for students to celebrate new learning. concrete connections that students could understand. Allow students to talk and move as they support each The example also focused the students far more than other. Novel celebrations that can easily be beginning the lesson with an abstract formula written implemented are: high fours (use four fingers instead on the board. of five when students give each other a ‘high four’), 9. Give context and real world connections. This finger snaps, table taps, chants, and individual component of student engagement aligns very closely acknowledgements. Also, take a survey of student with the previous component. In many primary interests and activities to establish reinforcers that classrooms, students learn about the concept of carry meaning for the students. balance. Still, to most 2nd and 3rd graders, the 7. Give choice and voice to students. Students with explanation in most textbooks does not make the dyslexia need an opportunity to have some choice and concept real to 7 and 8 year olds. However, having voice in their learning. Allowing students to make students try to balance on one foot and using the 24 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

arms to stabilize themselves shows clearly the Andrew Stetkevich concept of stability. If students were asked to stay on one foot and lift up their heel, they would learn that Andrew Stetkevich, MA is currently a Staff Development maintaining balance was even more difficult because Specialist for the Riverside Unified School District in of the reduced mass pressing against the floor with Riverside, California. He is a board member for the the bulk of the weight of the body above the foot. Inland Empire Branch of the International Dyslexia Once students experience this, the instructor can bring Association with over 25 years of experience in the field another real world experience by showing the pictures of special education. of a sports car that is low to the ground and a van with equipment and luggage strapped to the roof of the References van. The students can discuss which vehicle has more de Porter B Reardom M & Singer - Nourie S (1998) stability and will likely maintain its balance going Quantum Teaching: Orchestbrating Student Success Prentice Hall around a curve. These connections bring physics to life and provide real world problems or questions for Gettinger M (1988) Methods of Proactive Classroom Management students to explore. School Psychology Review 17 pp 227-242 Graham S & Perin D (2006) Conclusions Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of Students with dyslexia typically face many hurdles during Adolescents in Middle and High School their academic studies. They have faced failure many Washington D C: Alliance for Excellence in Education times. Many students do not take any learning risks and Greene T & Enfield M (2008) disengage from the learning process. However, teachers www.projectread.com and therapists have the power to reignite that spark for Heward W L (1996) learning by deliberately incorporating strategies that Three Low-Tech Strategies for Increasing the Frequency engage students. I think back to that summer school of Active Student Response during Group Instruction special education class I faced. I also think back to the Behavior Analysis in Education: Focus on Measurably Superior Instruction pp 283-320 Pacific Gove CA: student whose parent observed me teach her son. I am Brooks/Cole happy to report that I continued to work with that student Martens B K & Meller P J (1990) through his high school years. He graduated from high The Application of Behavioral Principles to Educational school and went on to college. He is now serving in the Settings Coast Guard and has travelled the world. He is living The Handbook of School Psychology 2nd Ed pp 612- out his passion working as an in-flight technician on 634 New York: John Wiley & Sons rescue helicopters and airplanes. Hopefully, his potential Muir M (2001) for improving his reading skills was realized that day he www.mcmel.org ‘played along’ during my lesson using those ‘crazy’ hand signals and body gestures. Student engagement does make a difference.

Would YOU like to teach for Dyslexia Action? Northern Region: J Keogan If you have trained with us or on a similar • recognised course and would like to teach within T 01423 705605 our organisation, we would be happy to discuss E [email protected] this with you. Central Region: Helen Boyce Our improved salary structure and excellent T 02476 224082 • Inservice training will make teaching with Dyslexia E [email protected] Action a wise choice. Southern Region: M Saunders If you would like to discuss this further, please T 01784 7222348 • contact: E [email protected]

25 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Supporting Vulnerable Learners in their Transition to Secondary School

Poppy Nash

Introduction equipping the participants with effective strategies for There is growing awareness on a national level of the coping with learning difficulties, whatever form these may pressing need to nurture children's mental health at take. secondary school. For example, the DfES report Every Child Matters: Change for Children (2004), clearly The objectives of the Year 7 programme can be identifies the need for schools to focus more on this presented as WALT ('We Are Learning That') objectives area. In addition, the Ofsted report (2005) refers to: 'the familiar to school staff based on Cooper (2000) and vital role played by schools in promoting the emotional Grotberg's (1997) work on promoting psychological well-being of their pupils.' (Healthy Minds: Promoting resilience: Emotional Health & Well-being In Schools). More recently, the DfES has produced Social & Emotional WALT for promoting psychological resilience: Aspects of Learning (SEAL) materials for primary • 'We Are Learning That ... We ARE' (Cognitive schools (2005) and latterly also for secondary schools resilience): (2007 - Secondary SEAL). We ARE able to tell the difference between the helpful and unhelpful messages we give ourselves In addressing the need to continue to support vulnerable children in their transition to secondary school, the • 'We Are Learning That ... We HAVE' (Emotional author and a colleague from the City of York Council resilience): have developed and implemented a small group We HAVE people around us who can support us in intervention in three secondary schools. For the purpose difficult and challenging situations of this project, 'vulnerable learners' refer to Year 7 children who continue to struggle at school (for example, • 'We Are Learning That ... We CAN' (Behavioural with a specific learning difficulty). This intervention resilience): comprises eight weekly one-hour sessions held in school We CAN make responsible choices and decisions during the Autumn term, for a maximum of 10 about the way we behave with other people participants per group, one group per school. In one school, further funding enabled the intervention to be Participants for small group intervention continued for the first half of the Spring term with a Three secondary schools expressed an interest in smaller group. The sessions took place during the participating in the pilot project in Autumn 2007. The weekly form period or the Citizenship lesson. In one respective feeder primary schools for these secondary school, the timing of the sessions varied each week, to schools were asked to identify up to six Year 6 children, avoid the same lesson being missed each time. whom they thought would benefit from attending the small group intervention at their new secondary school. The Year 7 small group intervention has been developed Guidelines were sent with this request. in conjunction with Secondary SEAL objectives (DfES, 2007: Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning), with Guidelines for selection of vulnerable Year 6 students for special reference to the learning outcomes entitled Year 7 intervention Managing Feelings, Self-awareness, Empathy and Social • Need for regular help with literacy and/or numeracy Skills and Motivation. The intervention programme • Language impairment supports ideas embedded in the national SEAL materials • Negative attitude towards school and learning for Year 7 school children. • Difficulties relating to peers/people in general • Shy and lacking in self-confidence Aim and objectives of intervention programme • Risk of being bullied eg seen as 'easy' target The aim of the intervention programme is to enhance the psychological resilience and emotional literacy of the Following the selection of participants, parental consent young people taking part in the project. Children who was obtained for the children's inclusion in the groups. A are confident in their ability to develop and maintain total of 27 children were involved in the project (aged 11- rewarding relationships with other members of the school 12 years old), as shown in Table 1 below. It is community, are more likely to engage with education and regrettable that due to limited funding, it was not possible avoid exclusion. The programme also focuses on to include a control group in the pilot project.

26 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Table 1: Summary of participants in the three • positively affects child's health and body image intervention groups • encourages child to stay true to self, resist pressures School Participants Girls Boys Intervention • helps child respond to adversity in positive and A10648 weeks empowering manner B7078 weeks C10468 weeks The fundamentally different messages vulnerable and [C-Spring term] [5] [2] [3] [5 weeks] confident learners give themselves, can be seen in TOTAL (excluding 27 10 17 comparing the two responses when asked to read aloud Spring group) in class. The vulnerable learner may immediately panic and think 'I can't do it', 'I'm no good at reading' (unhelpful The majority of the children nominated for the negative self-talk). The confident reader, on the other intervention were on the Special Educational Needs hand, is more likely to think 'I'll do my best', 'I'm a good Register. Four of the children had a Statement and three reader' (helpful and positive self-talk). Thus, by enabling children had a diagnosis of dyslexia The remaining children to identify and change the nature of the children were on School Action or School Action Plus for unhelpful messages they give themselves on a daily learning difficulties, or were being monitored by the basis, it is possible to promote more positive self- school for their social and emotional needs. perceptions, especially regarding attitudes towards learning and experiences of school. In view of the participants' identified needs, the groups were each led by two facilitators, the author and a Table 2 outlines the 'themes' presented in the 8-week behaviour support teacher with the assistance of a programme, beginning with the identification of thoughts member of the school support staff. The high adult:child and feelings about changing school, and progressing to ratio meant that greater attention could be devoted to the introduction of self-talk and the practice of helpful individuals within the group. The facilitators met each strategies to encourage positive self-talk. week to review progress and plan for the next group meeting. The member of staff proved to be a crucial link Table 2: Outline of 8-week intervention programme person in reminding the children and staff about the group each week, and to reinforce group objectives Timetable Theme for session during the week and on completion of the programme. Weeks 1-3 Transition to school - managing change Week 4 Introducing self-talk (messages we give Intervention programme ourselves) The intervention programme has been drawn from Weeks 5-6 Recognising the messages we give materials already developed as part of the Key Stage 2 ourselves, especially at school Circle Time curriculum (developed by Jackie Lown, Week 7 Choice & changing our habits Poppy Nash and Sam Dunderdale, 2005). This Week 8 I'm in charge of me! curriculum was distributed for use with children in Years 3-6, to all York primary schools in September 2005. The In developing the programme, it was felt important to materials continue to elicit a very favourable response keep to a consistent framework for each session, to from both teachers and children. enable the participants to become familiar with the group setting. Table 3 shows the framework for the eight The Year 5 Circle Time curriculum focuses on promoting sessions. psychological resilience, with particular emphasis on encouraging children to give themselves positive Table 3: Framework for intervention sessions messages about their learning. In the literature, this is referred to as 'self-talk' or 'inner dialogue', and is Activity recognised as an effective and powerful means of 1. Icebreaker & Group rules (Week 1 only); Recap group enhancing children's academic self-concept. Bloch & rules (Weeks 2-8 if necessary) Merritt (2003;9) highlight that conscious use of 2. Introductions affirmative language (positive self-talk), can foster 3. How am I feeling today and why might that be? emotional health and self-esteem in children in many 4. Topic for week ways: 5. Relaxation • fosters independence, autonomy and self- 6. This week ..., next week ... responsibility • shifts self-concept from external to internal Assessment of participants • enhances self-confidence and self-esteem The participants completed a battery of assessments • provides antidote to unhealthy shame approximately one week before and one week after the • assists child in setting and achieving personal goals intervention. An external researcher administered the 27 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

assessments for each group. In planning the on the contrary, discouraging messages when faced with assessments, particular consideration was given to different situations at school. participants with a specific learning difficulty. For this reason, the assessments were undertaken as a group, 4. Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ, where the assessor could moderate the pace by reading Goodman) out the items on the measures, one at a time, and The SDQ investigates aspects of behaviour which a child waiting for all participants to respond to an item before may display. The child is asked to rate him/herself on 25 progressing to the next one. Participants were also each items, on a three-point scale ('Not true' to 'Certainly given a strip of card, to enable them to focus on one item true'). The items are subdivided into five aspects of at a time. The link member of staff was present at the behaviour, namely, Emotional Symptoms, Conduct assessments, to support any child who needed help. Problems, Hyperactivity, Peer Problems and Prosocial Behaviour. A Total Difficulties score is elicited by Assessment battery summing the responses to the first four dimensions. The • Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents score for each subscale determines the 'caseness' or (RSCA, Prince-Embury) banding according to Normal, Borderline or Abnormal • Me-As-A-Learner Scale (MALS, Burden) performance on that scale. A consistent indication of • Situations and Sayings (Nash, adapted from Burnett) Abnormal responses to the items may suggest that the • Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ, child needs specialist help. Goodman) Evaluation of pilot project - findings 1. Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents The following section will focus on Schools A and B only, (RSCA, Prince-Embury) as the programme was expanded to address more basic The Resiliency Scales investigate different aspects of a emotional literacy needs in School C. That is, in child's ability to cope with challenging situations (such as implementing the Year 7 small group intervention, it school) and how they perceive themselves. There are became apparent that in order to benefit from the three subscales and the respondent has five response programme, some vulnerable learners needed first to options for each item, from 'Never' to 'Almost Always'. develop fundamental emotional literacy skills (such as • Sense of Mastery (MAS, 20 items) - Optimism, Self- listening, turn-taking and managing strong emotions). It Efficiency and Adaptability is increasingly evident that Year 7 children with poor • Sense of Relatedness (REL, 24 items) - Trust, emotional literacy skills have difficulty attending to the Support, Comfort and Tolerance teacher and working independently in class, and cannot, • Emotional Reactivity (REA, 20 items) - Sensitivity, as yet, take responsibility for the feelings that such Recovery and Impairment difficulties engender. Furthermore, they often behave in a way that distracts not only the teacher but their class 2. Me-As-A-Learner Scale (MALS, Burden) peers as well. This measure looks at children's perceptions of themselves as learners and problem-solvers (academic The following discussion of the findings relates to 15 self-concept). The 20-item scale considers different participants in Schools A and B (9 males and 6 females), aspects of learning and school work, and requires the since two children did not fully complete the child to respond on a five-point rating scale, 'Definitely assessments by omitting some items. True' - 'Definitely Not True'. Table 4 shows the comparison of mean scores for the 3. Situations and Sayings (Nash, adapted from Burnett) eleven outcome measures at Time 1 and Time 2. This instrument was adapted from Burnett's Inventory of Attention is drawn to the direction in which the scores Self-Talk, specifically for the pilot project, since it offers have changed following completion of the intervention insight into what may be reinforcing a child's attitude (Time 2). For some of the assessments, one would towards their learning in school. The adapted scale hope to see a reduction in scores for negative comprises three familiar school scenarios, namely, being perceptions or problem behaviours over time, and an asked to read aloud in class, tackling a challenging increase in scores for positive perceptions and desirable maths problem and receiving praise from the teacher in behaviours. It is notable that with one exception class. For each scenario, the participant is presented (Hyperactivity, Mean at Time 1 = 4.00, compared with with seven different 'messages' that such a scenario may mean at Time 2 = 4.40), the scores at post-intervention trigger (positive and negative), for example, 'I can do are all in the desirable direction of change. The most this' (positive) and 'I am a hopeless reader' (negative). significant of these changes in mean score concern For each of the 'messages', the child gives one of three Sense of Mastery, Sense of Relatedness, Sayings and possible responses, 'Often', 'Sometimes' or 'Never'. The Situations and Me-As-A-Learner. These findings suggest child's score on this scale suggests the extent to which that the intervention programme was effective in they give themselves encouraging, helpful messages or addressing the participants' peer relationships, level of 28 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Table 4: Comparison of Mean Scores at Time 1 and Time 2 (n=15)

Measure Desired change Pre-intervention - Time 1 Post-intervention - Time 2 at Time 2 Mean SD Range Mean SD Range Resiliency Scales Sense of Mastery Increase 51.73 8.83 38-69 54.33 11.99 21-68 Relatedness Increase 66.13 10.43 47-88 71.80 12.94 50-88 Emotional Reactivity Decrease 28.93 11.85 7-51 26.40 14.77 6-63

Me-As-A-Learner Scale Increase 64.67 9.03 53-87 68.53 11.73 43-89

SDQ Emotional Symptoms Decrease 4.27 2.87 1-10 3.13 2.03 0-7 Conduct Problems Decrease 3.00 2.04 0-8 2.73 2.15 0-8 Hyperactivity Increase 4.00 1.85 1-7 4.40 1.50 2-7 Peer Problems Decrease 3.60 1.76 1-7 3.27 2.15 1-8 Prosocial Behaviour Increase 6.67 1.68 4-10 7.33 1.59 5-10 Total Difficulties Decrease 14.87 4.72 6-20 13.40 4.50 5-21

Sayings & Situations Increase 46.53 4.70 40-58 51.00 3.59 41-57 (Positive self-talk) positive self-talk and a more positive perception of participants' pre- and post-intervention assessment learning. For example, whereas before the start of the scores. The findings show that improvements at post- intervention programme, the mean score for positive self- intervention were greater than chance (p<0.05) for Total talk for the group was 46.53 (maximum 66, Saying and Difficulties banding (SDQ), Me-As-A-Learner Scale, and Situations), on completion of the programme, the mean Sayings and Situations. Statistical significance reached score had increased to 51.00. This finding suggests that the p<0.01 level for Emotional Symptoms (SDQ). These the intervention programme has had a desirable impact are promising findings, as the most notable changes upon the participants' self-talk. It is interesting to note have occurred in the measures directly related to the that there was not a significant gender difference in objectives of the intervention programme. The findings improvements made at Time 2. Table A in the Appendix show a desirable increase in the children's academic gives a summary of the statistical significance of these self-concept, positive self-talk and ability to relate well to findings. others, and a desirable reduction in their anxiety surrounding transition to a new school. Table A in the Table 5 shows the banding corresponding to the Total Appendix gives a summary of these findings. Difficulties scores (SDQ) at Time 1 and Time 2. Having calculated the Total Difficulties score on four dimensions Feedback from participants of the SDQ, it is possible to identify the banding of the During the final session of the programme, the Year 7 Total Difficulties score according to whether it reflects children were given the opportunity to comment on their Normal, Borderline or Abnormal behaviour. Abnormal experience of being in the group. One participant scores suggest that a child may need to seek specialist commented: 'I'd like it to happen again'. The feedback help. The findings in Table 5 indicate a notable increase elicited suggests that the participants perceived the in the number of Normal scores at Time 2 compared with group as somewhere they could: Time 1, and a welcome reduction in Borderline and • Share with friends Abnormal scores. • Share worries • Share stuff Table 5: Total Difficulties banding (SDQ) at Time 2 • Have fun, you shouldn't worry all the time • Participate in lots of games Total Difficulties No. of children No. of children • Make new friends at Time 1 at Time 2 • Belong to a caring, friendly, kind, honest group Normal 5 (33.3%) 10 (66.7%) • Enjoy some good activities Borderline 8 (53.3%) 4 (26.7%) Abnormal 2 (13.0%) 1 (6.7%) Feedback from school staff and facilitators involved Total 15 (100%) 15 (100%) in intervention Feedback from participating staff and facilitators The Wilcoxon matched-pairs test was used to analyse following completion of the programme focuses on the any statistically significant differences between the benefits of participating in the intervention, as suggested 29 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

by these examples: children and young people, for use in both whole-class • Increased self-confidence and more positive and small group contexts in primary and secondary perception of self as learner schools I think the children benefited from developing their own voice and having the confidence to use it References • Belonging to a supportive group in which they felt safe Bloch D and Merritt J (2003) The pupils also seemed to open up during the course The Power of Positive Self-Talk: Ways To Help Every Child and be able to address the group with problems and Succeed. A Guide For Parents, Teachers and Other issues much more than if it had been in a classroom, Caring Adults or with staff that they had no relationship with. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Pub • Being supported by a trusted member of staff Cooper C (2000) Having a member of school staff there was very Face On: Discovering Resilience To Disfigurement beneficial, as she could follow up things and was a The New Therapist Vol 7 No 3 pp 31-33 point of contact for the students. Grotberg E (1997) • Improved behaviour The International Resilience Project. In: M John (Ed) A Charge Against Society: The Child's Right To Protection I think the children benefited from having very clear London: Jessica Kingsley boundaries set and learning that these could not be crossed without manifesting consequences. Lown J, Nash P and Dunderdale S (2005, updated 2007) • Key Stage 2 Circle Time Curriculum Personal gains from being involved in project Social and Emotional Development Working with other professionals always helps to City of York Council develop my own practice, seeing different ways of doing things helps me to evaluate my own practice Appendix and take on new ideas and try them out. • Gained further insight and understanding of vulnerable Table : Comparison of pre- and post-intervention learners data: Wilcoxon test (n=15) I gained a valuable understanding of the issues that some Year 7 children experience in their transition to Measure z N - Ties Sig. secondary school in relation to their vulnerability. (Total (15) - Ties) 1-tailed Resiliency Scales Conclusion Sense of Mastery -1.573 13 .058 In light of the findings, it appears that the 8-week Relating -1.563 15 .059 intervention programme for vulnerable Year 7 children, is Emotional Reactivity -.967 15 .167 an effective means of addressing many of the issues surrounding transition to secondary school. The MALS -2.107 15 .018* programme can be implemented by trained school support staff with minimal cost to the school. It appears SDQ to be of greatest benefit to children who are particularly Emotional Symptoms -2.288 11 .011** anxious about changing school, those who experience Conduct Problems -1.000 1 .159 difficulties with peer relationships and those who hold Hyperactivity -.778 15 .219 negative beliefs about their learning abilities and school Peer Problems -.606 14 .273 in general. Prosocial Behaviour -1.301 11 .097 Total Difficulties -1.295 13 .098 Dr Poppy Nash Total Difficulties banding -1.732 6 .042* Dr Poppy Nash is currently a Research Associate at the Sayings & Situations -2.387 14 .017* University of York, and has developed various Key: * p<0.05 ** p<0.01 programmes for promoting psychological resilience in

30 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Sporting Preferences and Achievements of Dyslexic and Dyspraxic Sports Men and Women: Lessons for London 2012?

Dr David Grant

Abstract dyspraxia achieving at a high level of motor performance In 2005 Grant reported that 13% of higher education in contemporary dance and in music performance (Quin students with dyslexia had excelled at sport. This paper et al, 2008). It would therefore be premature to conclude draws upon a longer series of diagnostic assessments that dyspraxics are unable to achieve at a high level of than the earlier survey. Of the total of 291 individuals sporting performance. diagnosed as being dyslexic between 2004 and 2007, 13.4% had excelled at sports. The figure for the 93 The only known survey of the relationship between dyspraxic students was 1.1% and 10.4% for the 48 sports achievements, dyslexia and dyspraxia is that students with both dyslexia and dyspraxia. An analysis reported by Grant (2004). This survey, Series 1, was by sports revealed a preference by students with based on a review of the case histories of all students dyslexia for individual rather than team sports. This referred for a diagnostic assessment across a two year preference for individual sports is particularly marked at period and subsequently diagnosed (n = 395) as being the national and international level. Factors influencing either dyslexic, dyspraxic or dyslexic with dyspraxia. both preferences and achievements are explored. Diagnoses were arrived at through the taking of a targeted and detailed life history, allied with the Introduction administration of reading and spelling achievement tests In spite of the outstanding sports achievements of Steve and 12 of the 14 WAIS-III (UK Edition) subtests. A Redgrave, Jackie Stewart, Duncan Goodhew and Bruce formal diagnosis of dyspraxia was only arrived at when a Jenner, all of whom have dyslexia, there is a dearth of student’s life history revealed a continuing history of research into the relationship between dyslexia and clumsiness that still impacted negatively on everyday life, sporting achievements and preferences. Starkes and combined with significant variation across the WAIS-III Ericsson (2003) suggest that ‘despite the lack of subtests. (NB When a student reported some current attention devoted to the influence of learning disabilities instances of clumsiness but there was no evidence this on sports performance, it is relatively safe to impacted in a significant way on everyday life, this was assume...they also significantly affect sports recorded as signs of dyspraxia.) performance.’ (page 41). This linkage is an explicit outcome of the cerebellar theory of dyslexia, for this Over the two-year period covered by Series 1, 46 theory links difficulties with motor coordination and individuals of the 395, that is, 11.6%, were recorded as balance with cerebellar dysfunction (Stoodley et al, having achieved at a county level or higher. The 2006). In addition, given the typical dyslexic determination of level of sporting achievement is a neurocognitive profile of weaknesses in working memory difficult one. One measure that can be used across a and processing speed compared with relative strengths range of sports in the UK and Ireland is that of being in verbal and visual abilities (eg Grant, 2007), it is selected to represent a county. This does not reasonable to predict these cognitive weaknesses will necessarily ensure equivalence, for being selected to impact on sporting preferences and performance (Grant, represent a county at cross-country may not be at the 2005), particularly on those sports, typically team games, same level of being selected to represent a county at that require the rapid processing and remembering of fencing given the greater numbers participating in cross- instructions and fast visual tracking. county at school than in fencing. However, it does provide a benchmark, as does being selected to Research into the relationship between dyspraxia and represent a nation. sporting achievements and preferences is equally sparse. Drew (2005) concludes that the long-term One unexpected trend reported by Grant (2004) was the consequences of being dyspraxic are ‘reduced relationship between sporting achievement and motivation to participate in physical activities ...and incidence of birthing complications. He reported that consequently fewer opportunities to develop proficient whereas 35% of dyslexic and dyspraxic students motor skills and fitness’ (p87). Given that the defining reported birthing complications, only 4% of male county characteristic of dyspraxia is impaired motor function level students with dyslexia reported birthing there are nevertheless examples of students with complications. There were too few county level students

31 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

with dyspraxia to draw any conclusions. While a 2) was calculated. Dyslexia was the main diagnostic possible association between birth complications and outcome, but in less than 50% in instances. Dyspraxia dyspraxia would not be unexpected (Drew, 2005), the was the next most common outcome, and the very low frequency of birth complications in male combination of dyslexia with dyspraxia the third most students with dyslexia who are high achievers in sport common outcome (Table 1). The co-occurrence of was unexpected. dyspraxia, or signs of dyspraxia, in over 25% of individuals who have dyslexia, requires that considerable Considerable caution has to be exercised over accepting caution should be exercised when researching questions Grant’s 2004 and 2005 observations for they are based of dyslexia and motor coordination. on a relatively small sample, and the analyses did not differentiate between students with dyslexia and students Table 1: Frequency of Diagnostic outcomes over a 40 with dyspraxia, nor take account of gender. This paper month period draws on a larger data base to examine the frequency of sporting achievements and preferences in students with Primary Percentage Accompanied by signs dyslexia and/or dyspraxia, and the relationship between Diagnosis of either dyslexia or dyspraxia sporting achievement, diagnosis, gender and birthing Dyslexia 47% With signs of dyspraxia being history. present in 16%

Participants Dyspraxia 15% With signs of dyslexia being The participants were predominantly students in higher present in 28% education attending more than 20 different universities and art colleges who had been referred to the author to Dyslexia with 8% n/a determine whether a specific learning difficulty, or Dyspraxia difficulties, was present. This assessment process consisted of three parts: the detailed taking of a personal Other 31% n/a history; the measurement of a set of achievement skills diagnostic (primarily those of reading and spelling); the outcomes administration of 12 of the 14 WAIS-III (UK Edition) battery of subtests. Sporting achievements and preferences of students The interview protocol used covered birth experience with dyslexia and attitude towards sports (including sporting Grant (2004) reported that approximately 1 in 9 students preferences and achievements). Data on sports was with dyslexia and/or dyspraxia had represented their gathered to help determine whether motor coordination county or achieved a higher level at one or more sports. difficulties were present or absent. In almost all As this figure was unexpectedly high a new frequency instances the information gathered is based on self- was calculated for a longer and more recent series of report by the student. While the author’s series of diagnostic assessments (Series 2). 13.4% of the 291 diagnostic assessments covering a seven-year period dyslexics had achieved a county level standard or higher, (Series 3, January 2001 to January 2008), is drawn upon as had 1.1% of 93 dyspraxics, and 10.4% of the 48 for examining both sporting level preferences and diagnosed as being having dyslexia with dyspraxia. The achievements and the relationship between level of figure of 13.4% for dyslexics is in close agreement with sports excellence and birthing experiences, a smaller the figure of 11.6% reported for the earlier but series, Series 2, covering a shorter period of time (40 undifferentiated Series 1. Once again, the figure of months, from April 2004 to July 2007) is drawn upon to students with dyslexia excelling at sports (approximately address questions of diagnostic outcomes and frequency 1 in 8) is surprisingly high. of level of sporting achievement. While the much lower figure of 1.1% for students with Diagnostic Outcomes dyspraxia was not surprising, the figure of 10.4% for As there is evidence dyslexia is often accompanied by those who have dyslexia with dyspraxia was unexpected other specific learning difficulties, such as dyspraxia (eg and gives rise to the question of whether being dyslexic Portman, 2003), and this may in itself account for when dyspraxia is also present helps in some unknown sensorimotor dysfunction, a direct correlate of cerebellar way to ameliorate those factors that impact negatively on dysfunction, in people with dyslexia but undiagnosed sporting performance. However, this subgroup sample dyspraxia (Ramus, 2003), it is important to ensure that size is too small to do more than note this figure. when dyslexia is present dyspraxia is absent. In order to generate subgroups of sufficient size to The frequency of diagnostic outcomes for all explore potential links between sporting preferences, assessments carried out over a 40 month period (Series gender and diagnostic category, it was necessary to 32 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

identify all students who had succeeded at a county level partially captured in the diagnostic report for Colin, a or higher using an unbroken series of diagnostic dyslexic and dyspraxic rugby player. assessments covering a seven year period (Series 3, January 2001 to January 2008). This survey identified ‘Colin described himself being “awful at throwing and a total of 97 dyslexic and 6 dyspraxic students as having catching”, and said that while he can hit a golf ball with achieved at a county level or a higher level in sport (52% great strength his accuracy is very poor. When Colin were male and 48% female). Of the 6 dyspraxic was fourteen he took up playing rugby and was so individuals 5 of the 6 had dyslexia with dyspraxia. 19 successful that he played for both his county and for the dyslexic individuals (19.6%) and 3 dyspraxic individuals region. He explained that he was selected for his (50%) had achieved at a national level or higher (Table tackling ability and fast running [100 metres in 10.8 2). seconds]. However, because his ball-handling skills were very poor he would be deliberately left out when Table 2: Sporting achievement by level, gender and the ball was being passed. He was not a member of diagnosis line-outs because of his difficulties with remembering the calls.’ As a rugby player Colin was strong and fast, but County level National level had poor fine hand-eye coordination skills, and a weak Number % Number % working memory. Females with dyslexia 37 36% 8 8% Males with dyslexia 41 40% 11 11% An exploratory analysis was undertaken for three groups: Females with dyspraxia 2 2% 2 2% male rugby players, male runners (track and cross- Males with dyspraxia 1 1% 1 1% country), and female cross-country runners. Average Totals 81 79% 22 21% percentiles were calculated for the four WAIS-III Index figures, plus reading and spelling scores, for these three groups (Table 4 and Figure 1). In the case of the male The frequency with which a given sport was undertaken runners the Working Memory deficit is almost twice that at a county level was calculated (Table 3). As some recorded for rugby players while the Processing Speed dyslexic students had represented their county at more weakness is just under half that recorded for rugby than one sport the totals exceed the total number of players. For female cross-country runners the average county level students. The combined frequency figure working memory weakness was very similar to that of 58% for cross-country, track athletics and swimming recorded for male runners while their average for women is much higher than the combined figure of Processing Speed weakness was half-way between the 16% for hockey and netball. (NB When all team sports two male groups. The variation in Working Memory were combined together the figure of 16% rises to 25%.) deficits between these three groups is not unexpected For men the disparity between team and individual given the greater memory requirements of rugby than sports is smaller. Just 32% had represented their county running. at either cross-country, track athletics or swimming, compared with the 32% who had participated in the team sports of rugby, hockey and cricket. (The total percentage for all team sports for males was 40% compared with 60% for individual sports.)

Table 3 Frequency of sports engaged in at county level by dyslexic women and men

Sports - females Frequency Sports - males Frequency County level County level Cross country 22% Cross country 10% Track [athletics] 20% Track [athletics] 14% Swimming 16% Swimming 8% Figure 1 Average WAIS-III Index figures and Hockey 10% Hockey 6% Reading and Spelling Scores, expressed as Netball 6% Rugby 20% percentiles, for three groups of county-level students Cricket 4% Badminton 10% with dyslexia: male rugby players; male runners; Other sports 22% Other sports 32% female cross-country runners.

The percentage of dyslexic individuals engaged in team While the figure of 20% for rugby may be surprising, sports drops very sharply at the national level for men rugby - arguably - requires a greater range of skills and (Table 4). Whereas 40% of male dyslexic individuals had abilities than most other team sports. This range is engaged in team sports (rugby, football, cricket, hockey, 33 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

volleyball and basketball) at a county level this drops to Table 4: Achievements at National and International 0% at national level. The decrease is much smaller for level for sports men and sports women with dyslexia female dyslexic sports women. Whereas 23% of female dyslexic sports women had engaged in team sports Male sports Level achieved Female sports Level (hockey, camogie, lacrosse, cricket, netball and rugby) at event event achieved a county level this drops to 13% at national level. Iso dingy World Cross Member of sailing champion country British team

Table 4: Average percentile figures for the WAIS-III Wu shu Bronze Swimming Member of Indexes for male rugby players, male runners, and at World & Syn. British team female cross-country runners [all with dyslexia]. Open swimming

Average WAIS-III Index percentiles and Index Disparities Young horse 5th in Singles Ice Gold at Sport Verbal Working Perceptual Processing eventing World Cup Skating national Compre- Memory Organisation Speed event hension Rugby 89 62 93 55 Cycling British 100 metres Silver at n = 10 Time trial champion/ English Olympic Schools VC/WM team [twice] & PO/PS 27 38 disparities Boxing Silver at Singles Ice Bronze, bantam National Skating Finland Male runners 78 30 90 76 weight event n = 9 Distance Represented Floor event, Bronze, VC/WM 48 14 swimming Singapore gymnastics Chile & PO/PS disparities Tae Kwondo Bronze at Camogie All-Ireland national medal Female cross- 71 29 67 40 event country runners, n = 12 Judo Taken part 100 metres All-Ireland in national medal VC/WM and & PO/PS international disparities 43 27 events

Rowing Taken part It is difficult to reconcile the high sporting achievements in national of these groups of dyslexic individuals with the and hypothesis that dyslexia is an expression of cerebellar international dysfunction (Fawcett & Nicolson, 2001). In 2003 Ramus events concluded that research to date on sensorimotor dysfunction in individuals with dyslexia has revealed it is Sailing Member of GB not a universal feature. The unexpectedly high numbers Junior Squad of students with dyslexia achieving high levels of sporting performance reported here reveals a significant number Gymnastics Member of with very high levels of sensorimotor skills, a finding that British Junior accords with the conclusion of Ramus. The frequency Squad with which dyslexia is co-morbid with dyspraxia, either fully or as signs of (see Table 1), requires that any Sporting achievements and preferences of students research into sensorimotor dysfunction must screen with dyslexia and/or dyspraxia adequately for the possible presence of dyspraxia. As the Series 3 set of diagnostic assessments included Without such screening the possibility of a dyspraxic just six individuals with dyspraxia (five of whom were sensorimotor dysfunction being wrongly attributed to the diagnosed as having dyslexia with dyspraxia), the presence of dyslexia is high. sporting achievements for each individual are given in Table 5. 34 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Table 5: Achievements at National and International of 28 males and 22 females) is drawn from the reports of level for dyspraxic men and women students assessed during 2007 and 2008. 58% described themselves as enjoying or loving sports at Diagnosis Sport and level Gender school while 44% reported a birthing complication of one Dyspraxia Surfed professionally:F kind or another. This figure of 44% compares with a won national and figure of 15% for county males with dyslexia, 38% for international competitions county females with dyslexia, 25% for national level females with dyslexia, and 9% for national level males Dyspraxia, Rowing - pairs M with dyslexia (Figure 5 and Table 2). While the dysgraphia & Gold for Italy relatively small numbers and definition difficulties require dysorthographia that considerable caution is required in interpreting this data, the trends reported by Grant (2004) for the Dyspraxia & Rowing - Junior F incidence of birthing complications for students with dyslexia Women’s quads dyslexia to decrease with increase in sporting level Gold for England achievement (a negative correlation), a trend more pronounced for males than females, both trends are still Dyspraxia & Diving [all boards] F evident when data from a seven-year series of dyslexic Top 10 ranking assessments is summarised.

Dyspraxia & Archery - represented F Table 6: Incidence of birth experiences by gender, dyslexic Kent sports level and diagnosis.

Dyspraxia & Rugby - represented M Sports Level & No birth Birth Not dyslexic Suffolk & Gender complications complications known SE England Dyslexic Males 91% 9% 0% national level Some of these achievements are not without a personal n = 11 cost in terms of injuries. Ann had to give up diving when she broke her back at the age of about twenty (NB it Dyslexic males 78% 15% 7% took her two years to learn how to walk along a county level springboard without falling off). Sophie surfed from n = 41 about the age of nine until she was seventeen-and-a- half, when damage to her knees and back forced her to Dyslexic females 75% 25% 0% give up. She broke two ribs when surfing in Australia. national level Maria took up rowing when she was thirteen and n = 8 continued until she was seventeen. She suffered broken ribs following a collision on the river. Dyslexic females 57% 38% 5% county level Birth complications and sports achievements n = 37 An exploratory analysis by gender, level of sports achievement and incidence of birthing complications was Dyspraxic 0% 100% 0% undertaken and percentage figures are given in Table 6. m & f national This analysis covers the period January 2001 to level February 2008. These figures have to be read with a n = 3 degree of caution for they are almost always based on self-report by the student. (In a few cases details were Dyspraxic 33% 33% 33% obtained directly from the mother.) While in a number of county level cases students’ knowledge of their births was very exact, n = 3 in others it was quite vague. The term birthing complications is also a catch-all category, for it includes prematurity, difficulty in labour, Caesarean-section - both Lessons for London 2012 planned and emergency, overdue induced births, and Given that 13% of students in higher education with being born with the umbilical cord wrapped around the dyslexia seen by this author have reached minimally a neck. county standard of sporting excellence (approximately every 1 in 8), it has to be asked why we know of so few In order to provide a comparison, a series of 50 students dyslexic individuals who have achieved at a national or with dyslexia who had not excelled at sports was international level. There may be at least three different compiled. This comparison series (Series 4, consisting reasons. 35 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

2000), and a UK Olympics team consists of over 300 competitors (eg Beijing, 2008), the number of UK Olympic sports men and sports women known to the public as having dyslexia (Steve Redgrave and Duncan Goodhew), is well below the number that could be anticipated.

This survey has identified dyspraxics who have achieved a high level of sporting performance. Given that about 5% of the population is estimated to be dyspraxic Figure 2 Incident of birth complications by gender, (Portman, 2003) and their lack of sports skills is often a diagnosis and sporting level, expressed as source of embarrassment and social exclusion (Grant, percentages 2005) schools have a vital role to play in aiding pupils with dyspraxia regain self-esteem. Once again, the early Firstly, many of the sports men and sports women in this identification of a specific learning difference is vital, as series were not formally diagnosed as being dyslexic is the identification of a sport, or sports, which best until after they had achieved sporting honours. This matches inherent skills, plus a training regimen that is factor points towards one potential danger: forgetting to patient and supportive in building up a skills basis. be available for a random drugs test as forgetfulness and difficulties with time management are characteristic of In conclusion, while the additional data presented here is dyslexia. supportive of the observations offered by Grant in 2004 and 2005, this survey should be treated as being one Secondly, dyslexic and dyspraxic individuals have to that adds just a small detail to the understanding of work harder than others of a comparable intellectual sporting achievement and excellence. ability to achieve the same level of educational performance. It is no surprise therefore, given the David Grant conflicting demands of exams in mid- and late-teen years, that academic demands usually - but not always - David Grant, PhD, is a Chartered Psychologist prevail, with many dropping their sports commitments to specialising in the diagnosis of specific learning focus on national exams. It is no surprise that three of difficulties in adults. the nationally achieving sportsman with dyslexia (cycling, wu shu and judo), all performed badly in their sixth form References Drew S (2005) years because of maintaining sports commitments, and Developmental Co-ordination Disorders in Adults were all mature students at the time of their diagnosis. Whurr Publishing: Chichester Fawcett A J & Nicolson R I (2001) Schools have a part to play by reducing the number of Dyslexia: The Role of the Cerebellum. In Angela exams that have to be taken (it is not unusual for pupils Fawcett [Ed] Dyslexia: Theory and Practice to be required to take ten or eleven GCSEs and, in the Whurr Publishers: London sixth-form, A-level General Studies, in addition to three Grant D (2004) or four A-levels). Pupils could also be provided with time From Myths to Realities: Lessons to be drawn about dyslexia from over 900 student assessments to focus on their chosen sport. For example, one of the Paper presented at the 6th BDA International male rowers described how his school excused him from Conference, Warwick, March 2004 having to take part in other sports to enable him to Grant D (2005) concentrate on rowing. ‘That’s the Way I Think’: Dyslexia and Dyspraxia Explained. This second point is not unique to pupils with dyslexia or David Fulton Publishing: London dyspraxia for it can be argued that all pupils who have Grant D (2007) shown an early aptitude for sports could benefit. Rather, Neurodiversity: Diagnostic Issues in Higher Education. it is one of degree in achieving a better balance between NADP Technical Briefings 3/2007 National Association of Disability Practitioners core academic requirements and maintaining and developing sports performance. Nurturing potential Portman M (2003) Dyslexia and Physical Education Olympic champions requires a high level of commitment David Fulton Publishing: London to training across many years. Quin E Wilkinson J & Hitchins J (January 2008) Phase I of the Trinity Laban TQEF funded project on Thirdly, it is just possible that at the very highest level the Dyspraxia in Music & Dance Students impact of dyslexia (and especially dyspraxia) results in a Ramus F (2003) marginal difference that is an additional barrier to gold. If Developmental dyslexia: specific phonological deficit or 3% to 10% of the population are dyslexic (Snowling, general sensorimotor dysfunction? Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 13, 212-218 36 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Snowling M J (2000) Stoodley C J Fawcett A J Nicolson R I & Crewther S G (2006) Dyslexia, 2nd Edition Balancing and Pointing Tasks in Dyslexics and Control Blackwell, Oxford Adults Dyslexia, 12, 276-288 Starkes J L & Ericsson K A (2003) Expert Performance in Sports Human Kinetics Europe Ltd Psych’s Corner

Tangled up in T scores? Lacking Confidence in your bands? Dear Margie Made ill by invalidity? Let down by unreliability? You have raised a good point with quite wide implications. When should we follow test instructions to Send your questions to Mrs Jax de Action, your the letter - and when should we ‘bend’ them to fit? Assessment Agony Aunt, who will solve all your problems. [email protected] In all psychometric testing we are trying to maintain reliability. The best way to be certain of this is to stick to Dear Mrs de Action, the rules - as far as possible. There are however occasions where a more universal rule overturns the I am in a quandary. Many of the tests I use for reading rules of test procedure - and I think you have given us an and spelling - such as, for example, the Wide Range example of this. If following the test instructions to the Achievement Test, WRAT4, instruct the test letter is going to cause real distress to the participant administrator that the participant must make ten, TEN!, then you would be wrong to pursue this course. You errors before the test is discontinued. Many of the have a duty of care to the person you are testing; children I see struggle to get even the first five words upsetting them unnecessarily is an abnegation of that right - forcing them to carry on until they have made ten duty. What you have to do is make a personal and errors makes me feel very uncomfortable. Do I really professional decision as to what is appropriate in each have to do this? case. But, IF you don’t follow the rules of test procedure then say so in your report. Say, when you quote your Please help scores, that you haven’t administered the test according to standardisation and that although you have Yours confidence in the results they should be considered in the light of this. OK? Margie Jax Units of Sound News - we have been busy!

Following on from the development of the home programme Units of Sound: Literacy that fits we found a need for a more portable solution. Children who spend time with different parents during the week and weekend do not necessarily have a laptop to carry around. Now a small pen-drive holding the programme and records slips in their pocket. The USB-drive edition is available as a www.unitsofsound.net is the new dedicated website for single user option (only one name can be entered). It Units of Sound where you can find all the information could also be used alongside a school programme so you need about the suite of products, technical support, that records do not have to be duplicated. This can also training and user options. The easy to navigate site be the solution for private tutors who are upset with us allows you to compare the different options and make an not providing a commercial licence for Literacy that Fits. informed choice as to which product and licence is best If the tutor gets the parents to purchase the pendrive for your situation. then students bring it to their lessons: the tutor checks the records to see that all is well, conducts the check- Units of Sound: Literacy that fits USB drive is £75 +VAT reading exercise and then the student continues using available from DI Trading the programme at home during the week. 37 Dyslexia Review Autumn 2008, Volume 20 Number 1

Meeting the Needs of Students with DYSLEXIA Book Reviews by Massey J (2008)

Publisher: York: Network Continuum Go Play in the Sand, John ISBN: 9781855394452 (paperback) The first 42 years of a severe dyslexic’s life Price: £19.99 by John Tipping (with Frances Kavanagh) There are already many books on the needs of dyslexic Publisher: Kavanagh Tipping Publishing learners but this latest one has several advantages. ISBN: 978-1-906546-01-1 Price: £8.99 Like many similar books it is clearly laid out with well- planned chapters which are inviting to read. It is essentially a very practical book that also contains a selection of brief John Tipping is as severe a dyslexic as any of us is case studies. These help to clarify the effects of dyslexia likely to have met. This is his book. He participated in and its remediation in a variety of situations. There are also Channel 4’s ‘Can’t Read, Can’t Write’, which led Philip ‘boxed’ key points at appropriate points throughout the text. Bottle to write, ‘this is a remarkable story about a remarkable man with a remarkable condition’. The first half of the book begins with a definition of dyslexia, its recognition and a description of assessment. Learning Perhaps John’s greatest achievement is in portraying styles and their relevance to dyslexia are discussed, as is the frustrations that may so easily result in despair the impact of dyslexia on literacy and communication skills. and depression, but, at the same time, reflecting how with unquenchable determination, perseverance and The second half of the book concentrates on practical loving support, it is possible to come to terms with the strategies to support dyslexic learners. These begin with ‘dragon’ that is severe dyslexia. strategies for reading and spelling, followed by study skills.

The structure of John’s book results in a degree of Whilst many similar books concentrate mainly on the above repetition. However, by including how his daughter and areas, this one gives equal space to the impact of dyslexia second wife, Jill, responded to his frustrations, the on maths and numeracy skills, (dyscalculia is also reader gets a more balanced view of his life and the included). stresses imposed on his families. Perhaps John undervalues the importance of his football ability in The last chapter briefly discusses dyslexia and the wider providing him with success in his earlier life, but he school community: parents; support staff and the attitude of recognises the importance of family support in peers. protecting him from ‘the pit - his term for the depths of Finally there are up to date lists of contacts, further reading despair. for both literacy and maths, and suppliers.The book is well researched with an extensive bibliography. John’s book also looks at how difficult it is to come to terms with the idea he is NOT a failure, perhaps Perhaps the term ‘dyslexic students’ is slightly deceptive as the most under-rated of the problems created by the author says that the book is primarily aimed at teachers dyslexia. In ‘Go Play in the Sand, John’ , the author and support staff in both primary and secondary education. has given of himself in a remarkable way. Read it and However she hopes that it will also be relevant to those you will better understand the mountain range many involved in teaching and supporting adult learners. I would dyslexic people have to overcome. agree that the relevance is across both school and adult education Michael Heigham The author hopes this book is ‘structured to enable teachers Michael has been working with dyslexic people for and support staff to relate strategies for the management of nearly forty years and now supports students at dyslexia to both the underlying theories about dyslexia and Canterbury Christ Church University. the first-hand experiences of students and practitioners in their day-to-day lives’. It was written for ‘busy teachers and support staff’ to ‘dip into, as the need arises’.

In its structure, format and content the book meets the author’s aims and hopes. It will be a useful, practical addition to the many books already available of dyslexia.

Pauline Clayton is Principal Tutor - Maths for Dyslexia Action and has considerable experience working with dyslexic individuals across the curriculum. 38

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