HESPERIA 72 (2003) PAI NTE D EARLY Pages 4 os-44 6 CYCLADIC FIGU RES AN EXPLORATIONOF CONTEXT ANDMEANING

ABSTRACT

EarlyCycladic marble figures were commonlyenriched with paintedpat- terns.Certain motifs occur on a greatnumber of figures,supporting the hy- pothesisthat small communities separated by spaceas well as timewished to acknowledgeand confirmcultural unity. Other patterns are relatively rare, suggestinga needto expresssmaller group or individualidentities (perhaps associatedwith particularevents). Possible functions and meaningsfor the figuresare proposed here on the basisof thesepainted motifs, the archaeo- logicalcontexts of the figures,and ethnographic parallels.

INTRODUCTION

Theexamination of Early Cycladic figures in collections in the United States andabroad makes it clearthat most were finished with strongcolors in patternsthat are not easilyfathomable to observerstoday (e.g., Fig. 1).1 Ihave examined approximately 450 such figures under various conditions- mostlythrough vitrine glass-and haverecorded evidence for painton morethan 200 examples(e.g., Figs. 2, 3). To this numbercan be added manyfigures with evidencefor paintthat I haveseen only in published illustrations.2Why werethese works painted? In orderto approachthis question,we mustask another: Why were they made at all? 1. This studycould not have been Ihave also benefited from the com- donot comefrom documented carriedto this pointwithout the mentsof audiencemembers at the excavations.These examples can none- generousencouragement and critical BronzeAge Colloquiumin New York, thelessprovide information about their adviceover the lastseveral years of whereI presented an earlierversion of originalappearance if one is willingto TonyFrantz, Pat Getz-Gentle, Gunter thispaper on February11, 2002.I am takethe timeto checkfor surface Kopcke,Joan Mertens, John M. Rus- gratefulto RobertKoehl for inviting patternscaptured by the photograph sell,and George Wheeler. My debtto meto presentmy work there. My (whichis usually composed and lit to caretakersof collections in Greeceand thanksalso to the editorof Hesperia showform rather than surface texture). theUnited States is gratefullyacknowl- andto the anonymousreviewers, whose Someof the mostuseful illustrations edged;in particular I wish to thank suggestionsgreatly improved the text. canbe foundin the followingcata- KatieDemokopoulou, Dolly Goulan- All photographsand drawings are logues:Zervos 1957; Thimme and dris,Nikolaos Kaltsas, Marisa Mar- thework of the author. Getz-Preziosi1977; Doumas 1983; thari,Joan Mertens, Photeini Zaphei- 2. The majorityof EarlyCycladic Getz-Preziosi1987a, 1987b; Getz- ropoulou,and Eos Zervoudaki. (EC)figures illustrated in catalogues Gentle2001; Renfrew 1991.

American School of Classical Studies at is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to Hesperia ® www.jstor.org 406 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

In this articleI seekto identifysome of the possiblefilnctions and meaningsassociated with the paintedfigures of the EarlyBronze Age .3To addressthe relationship between individuals and the marble figuresthat they made and used, I consideronly some types of evidence relevant:1) themarble figures themselves, their forms and especially their paintedsurfaces, which are made more visible by various methods of docu- mentation;and 2) patternsof deposition,the archaeologicalcontexts of thefigures. I assumethat an analysis of the artifacts-thevisual informa- tion-will allowus to addressmy original questions: how did the marble figuresfilnction in EarlyCycladic communities, and what (various things) couldthey have meant to the peoplewho usedthem? That is, canwe discernthe sorts of memoriesthat were being maintained and transmitted by the figures?4The pursuitof thesequestions may also reveal who those peoplewere. Why were some individuals associated with the figures while otherswere not?

APPROACHES TO THE MATERIAL

In referringbelow to EarlyCycladic "culture(s)" I mean, in a general Childeansense, the tendencyfor a groupof peopleliving in the Cyclades to expressa commonidentity by makingartifacts or usingmaterial in a broadlyconsistent way. This expression may change over time, and smaller groupswithin the greaterenduring community will addto andsubtract fromthe basiccultural complex, giving it a localflavor. None of thatdi- minishesthe overriding "pan-Cycladic" identity that can be recognizedas such(now, and, I wouldargue, during the EarlyBronze Age), made tan- giblein stone,clay, and metal, and through burial habits and other behav- iorsless resistant to the passageof time.5This largercommunity may in facthave encompassed only some of the inhabitedislands, but the salient featureis that multiplesmall groups seem to haveallied themselves to forma largerentity capable of satisfyinggeneral needs. Comparisonsto othercultures will be madewhen relevant. These in- cludeNeolithic groups from the Aegean, as well as modernnonindustrial groupsdescribed in theanthropological and ethnographic literature. Neo- lithicexamples are useful for insights they provide regarding the possible originsof (anddepartures from) Early Cycladic attitudes toward the use

3. Thefunction of the paintedpat- 4. Melionand Kuchler (1991, p. 3) ternwas to alertthe viewerthat anoth- definememory as "a process precipi- er layerof meaningwas present on the tatedand shaped by the relayingof figure,whereas the meaningof the par- visualinformation." ticularmarkings would have been un- 5. As Nakou(1995, p. 13)writes, derstoodonly by thosewho hadbeen "theuse of metaltechnologies was taughtthe correspondencebetween tiedto the life cycleof its users,while motif(including placement on the body the persistenceof the abstractforms of the figure,color, context of applica- throughconstant repetition and re- tion)and concept. See Hoffman2002, creationwith eachgeneration, ensured p. 525, andespeciallyTalalay 1993, the timelesscontinuity of groupiden- p. 38, for a generaldefinition of the titywithin and above the individual terms"function" and "meaning" in ar- community." chaeologicalscholarship. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 4o7

Figure1. EarlyCycladic marble figurefrom ,Kavos. H. 54.5 cm. ,Archaeological Museum, Chora,4691. A t etOt w40>

408 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

Figure2 (lefi). Detail of painted nostrilson EarlyCycladic folded- armfigure; no knownfindspot. H. 36.3 cm. New York,Metropolitan Museumof Art 34.11.3, Fletcher Fund, 1934.

Figure3 (below). Sketchof Early Cycladic"Violin" figures from Naxos,Akrotiri, tombs 20 (Naxos, ArchaeologicalMuseum, Chora, 1993) and21 (Naxos,Archaeological Museum,Chora, no visibleaccession number).

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of figuresand the function of surfacemarkings.6 Studies of moderngroups areuseful for suggestingpossible meanings associated with figuresand especiallytheir painted "skins." The EarlyCycladic figures are found almost exclusively in graves, promptingthe need to examinemortuary data. Recent work has made use of severalmethods for consideringthe relationshipbetween prehistoric Aegeanpeoples and their cemeteries. For example, types of burialgoods fromEarly and Middle Minoan have been correlated with, among otherthings, "social differentiation" aswell as rankingboth in life andin death.7In makingthese correlations, we tendto assumethat artifact types we findvaluable today would have been similarly valuable to the people whomade them in thepast, and that a similarstatus is conferredon indi- vidualsburied with thesegoods. The assumptionis madethat there are consistenthuman tendencies to valueexotic or rare materials, labor-inten- siveproducts, and specialized skills.8 As we shallsee, the archaeological datafrom the EarlyBronse Age suggestthat differentindividuals had accessto certainkinds of artifacts,and within this groupsome had ac- quiredmore of them.Well-provided tombs, although rare, are known for a fewindividuals, but these did not contain (preserved) goods that were not availableto others.It is difficultto drawconclusions about social stratifi- cationfrom this evidence, but we maysurmise that particular individuals, whether"rich" or "poor," had access to particularsets of material.9 Underlyingmuch of the followingdiscussion is the assumptionthat humanbeings make, use, and become intimately associated with certain kindsof objectsthat help themunderstand and control the worldthey inhabit.The veryexistence of gravetypes, burial goods, and other clues regardingattitudes toward death demonstrates that the EarlyCycladic peopleshad worked out a culturallyspecific set of behaviorsto helpthem copewith this event. The material remains that have survived the past four to fivemillennia can thus be treatedas windowsto someaspects of this behavior,and the marblefigures are a partof thisevidence. I wouldstress here,however, that final deposition need not representsole function;as detailedbelow, some evidence associated with the painted motifs suggests usesfor the figuresprior to burial.

6. The paintedmotifs found on parallelsdrawn between skin embel- value,an incipienttrend that was dras- Middleand Late (MN, LN) lishmentsin modernNew Guineaor ticallyamplified in EBII."Helms terracottafigures from the Aegeanand Africaand strikingly similar EC de- (1993,pp. 3-4) alsoargues that pos- surroundingcoasts provide apparent signs.Close examination of allthe sessionof specialmaterials or skills antecedentsfor some of the motifs evidenceis necessarybefore one alter- (amongother things) defines and is foundon EC marblefigures. Difficult nativecan be favoredover the other. restrictedto the "elite."I would rather to explain,however, is the dearthof 7. Karytinos1998, pp. 78-79;Mag- remainmore neutral, and use the term surfaceembellishment on the decreased gidis1998, pp. 87-91. "specialists"for those who areactively numberof anthropomorphicfigures 8. See Helms1993 for a fulltreat- associatedwith restricted materials or recoveredfrom sites dating to the Final mentof thisthesis. skills.Metcalf and Huntington (1991, Neolithic(FN) period,just prior to the 9. Broodbank(2000, p. 263) p. 17) alsocaution that the equationof EarlyBronze Age (EBA).There are observesthat "possession and with- expenditureon graveconstruction, for two possibilities:either the motifswere drawal[of goods]through fianerary example,with the statusof the deceased carriedon in perishablematerials such depositionwas starting to be reworked is risky;much more effort might have aswood, cloth, or bodypaint; or the in a few partsof the Cycladesinto a beendevoted to "rituals"or otherbe- apparentlinks are as fortuitousas meansof definingstatus or controlling haviorsthat left no permanentrecord. 4IO ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

In additionto mortuarystudies, consideration of contemporary Bronze Agepractices related to bodymodification and modern ethnographic par- allelsmay also shed light on how someof the marblefigures were used. Likethe production and use of objects,body modification also helps orga- nize the worldaccording to a group'svisual lexicon. Several studies by TristanCarter, for example,demonstrate that prismatic obsidian blades wereoften depositedin EarlyCycladic burials unused, suggesting that eventhe potential effect of usewas sufficient.l° Carter argues convincingly thatthe ideaof the bladeswas intended to conjurebody modification- shaving,cicatrization, tattooing, bloodying-rather than food preparation or otherexternal tasks. The patternsof painton the marblefigures may similarlyhave signified the idea of bodyembellishment, either upon actual peopleor thosepersonae represented by the marblefigures.ll GailHoffman, in a relatedstudy, concludes that the long-lived prac- ticeof womenscratching visible (bloody) lines down their cheeks as part of the mourningritual in manyparts of the Mediterranean,even today, maybe representedby the redstriations painted on the cheeksof a num- berof EarlyCycladic marble figures, as on laterand more certain repre- sentationsof mourningwomen.l2 These red markings would have been appliedat the appropriatetime, suggesting a modificationof meaningvia the actof painting,a pointI returnto below. The significanceof paintedmotifs may be furtherrevealed by a con- siderationof elaborated"skin" in thelonger tradition of figureembellish- ment,stretching back to theNeolithic period in thelands surrounding the Aegean.Lauren Talalay, for example, uses the nonanatomicaldesigns on southernGreek clay figurines from the Neolithicto arguefor intersite communication,particularly between and Corinth.l3 The autonomousand painted"split-leg" forms from several Middle Neolithic sitesin thevicinity of FranchthiCave filrther suggest to Talalaythat these sortsof objectsfunctioned as two halvesof a socialagreement between partiesat differentsites. She proposes that "the circulation and use of such deviceswould only make sense in a sphereof regionalintegration where literacywas not yet availableto renderexplicit a rangeof obligationsor ties amongseparate but interdependent settlements.''l4 Here the painted patternshelp to "matchup" two halves, physically demonstrating the bond the two partieshad when the figureswere split. The ideaof agreement betweenseparate groups embodied in a paintedanthropomorphic figure is thepoint that interests me here. In otherregions and times, communities have used painted motifs on three-dimensionalanthropomorphic figures to expressthe socialstatus of the deceased,as, for example, in the elaboratelypainted Malangan wood

10. Carter1994, 2002, and forth- Pottery,too, mayprovide a "skin"for andcontext (for public consumption coming. embellishment.Cullen (1985) suggests or in domesticor funeraryspheres), 11. Sherratt(2000; cited in Brood- thatmotifs on GreekUrfirnis ware describingdeliberate expressions of bank2000, p. 253) suggeststhat the fromthe MN periodhelped maintain communitydifferences or similarities. marblefigures may represent women relationshipsamong disparate commu- He notes(p. 190) thatthis marksa broughthome as bridesby seafarers nities.Emberling (1995, pp. 182-192) breakfrom earlier periods where the withinexogamous networks. This seems demonstratesthat painted designs on potterywas "largely undecorated, and to be pushingthe pointsomewhat. early-third-millenniumpottery from as muchas 90%mass-produced." 12. Hoffman2002. Mesopotamiaand northwestern Iran 14.Talalay 1993, p. 46. 13.Talalay 1993, pp. 16, 45, 83. canbe correlatedwith period, region, PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 4II

carvingsmade for fianerary rituals in PapuaNew Guinea.As Melionand Kuchlerobserve, "the engraved images posit their own biography by being depictedas an assemblageof independentmotifs with their own history andtheir own filture.''l5 "Cultured" individuals would be ableto interpret the meaningsof thosemotifs, teach them to the uninitiated,and thereby passdown specific group memories. A moregeneral model that seems to workwellwiththe Early Cycladic datais looselybased on G. W. F. Hegel'sdiscussion of ourtendency as humanbeings to seekboth the universal and particular aspects of ourrela- tionshipto societyand beyond.l6 In Hegel'sphilosophy, the individual recognizesthat the externalworld can (and must) serve as a toolfor self- consciousness.Self-consciousness generates free will, which passes through threekey stages of developmentduring the growth of theindividual within "civil"society: 1) expressionof selfin possessions;2) establishmentof free- domamong individuals through familial"contracts" (by sharingposses- sions);and 3) statedor unstated dependence on othersin a broadercom- munitythat defines and respects individual rights to possessions.l7This viewcan be appliedto theBronze Age: a personachieves and expresses his orher own personality by 1) exhibitingat differenttimes a particularrela- tionshipto theexternal world through specific skills, roles, or possessions; 2) acknowledging"vertical"(along a temporalaxis) relevance through fam- ily/clanbonds that connect to the pastand future via manifestationsof memory;and 3) establishing"horizontal" relevance through cultural bonds thatlink the individual and clan to thelarger contemporary community or communities.l8Thus the individualexists as a dualityof particularand universalstates of being:I canown particular things(including skill sets androles) because I belongto a community thataccepts this idea of owner- ship-in thepast, present, and future. If we feeluncomfortable projecting the conceptof privateproperty onto a prehistoric,preindustrial commu- nity,we canreplace "possessions" with "closely associated goods or skills," forwhich there is ampleevidence in the tombassemblages.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The peoplewho inhabitedthe coastsbordered by the southernAegean Seaduring the EarlyBronze Age producedpeculiarly stylized anthropo- morphicfigures that have come to be knownas "EarlyCycladic figures" or,rather dismissively, "figurines" (Fig. 4). These are with some few excep- tionsmade of whitemarble and were finished with abrasives that resulted

15. See Melionand Kuchler 1991, Westerncollectors), but the functionof 16. See alsoHelms 1998, pp. 3, p. 29; the authorsgo on to write: the motifsremained as potent,now 6-13, on the basicorganization of "Sculpturesare conceived as skinsthat protectedby a consensusthat treated humansinto "individualand group replacethe decomposedbody of a themessentially as a variantof intel- identificationsof Us andnot-Us." deceasedperson and thus provide a lectualproperty: people had rights over 17.The relevantpassages in containerfor his or herlife force.The certainmotifs, which they could "lease" Hegel [1821] 1981 canbe foundin life forcemerges with the material, fortangible goods or exchangefor right paragraphs44, 75, 164, 170,and whichis thoughtto comealive in the of accessto neighboringlands, etc. In 186. processof sculpting."This meaning otherwords, the sharedimage estab- 18. On the use of theseterms, see changedonce the carvingsbecame a lishedand maintained relationships Helms1998, p. 37. valuablesource of income(sold to betweenseparate parties. 4I2 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

Figure4. EarlyCycladic marble figurefrom Keros,Kavos. H. 58.0 cm. Naxos,Archaeological Museum, Chora,4181. in smoothtransitions between forms.l9 Grooved lines made with narrow abradingtools often emphasize interior details such as the neckline, pubic triangle,spine, buttocks, legs, and knees, as well as define fingers and toes on manyof the figures.Conspicuous in theirabsence, facial features are onlyvery rarely indicated with grooves, except on the earlier varieties, such as the so-calledPlastiras type, where a shorthorizontal incision some- timesrepresents the mouth.20 Thechoice of materialis significant.In earlier periods, the overwhelm- ing majorityof anthropomorphicfigures made on Creteand the Greek mainlandwere produced in clay,which lends itself to anadditive mode of

19. Formanufacturing techniques, 1970,p. 7, pl. I:4;and in the Athens Eyeswere often indicated on thistype see Oustinoff1984, 1987. NationalArchaeological Museum by pebblesinlaid in boredsockets; the 20. See,for example,the Plastiras- (NAM),no. 3919,which preserves the socketsare usually all thatremain today. typefigures illustrated in Thimmeand pebblein the left eye (""is See Getz-Preziosi1987a, pls. 18, 19, Getz-Preziosi1977, pp. 231-235, writtenon its labelbut I havenot been fora preservedpebble inlay. nos.65-79; Preziosi and Weinberg ableto confirmthat this is the source). PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 4I3

productionrather than the subtractive,abrasive mode required by stone.2l Claycan be smoothedand polished as a finalstep, as was commonfor pottery,but in figureproduction the plasticityof the materialpermits, evenencourages, the joining together of majorparts and the additionof three-dimensionaldetails on top of the basicshapes. Forms are quickly builtup, not laboriously polished down. Planning is lesscritical; mistakes areeasily fixed. Surface textures may be appliedspontaneously, in a single stroke,and smoothedover if deemedunsatisfactory. This processis in markedcontrast to thatused to shapemarble figures: the persistentrub- bingback and forth with a narrowtool aidedby constantlyapplied abra- siveslurry to cut (generallystraight) surface features in stone.The com- mitmentof time requiredfor shapingstone is fargreater than that for clay;22the choiceof materialis thussignificant since clay and stone were equallyavailable to the inhabitantsof the Cyclades. Modeof production,as much as final effect, may be relevant.To pro- ducea marblefigure, a grindingmotion is requiredthat must have been familiarto those(women, I imagine)in chargeof producingmeal from grain.It is an activitythat requires endurance, strength, patience, and an abilityto resumeafter being interrupted by more immediate concerns that cropup duringa dayof domesticduties. On the otherhand, it is alsoan activitythat could be carriedout in a socialsetting, since it is not danger- ous,loud, or associatedwith largepieces of equipment(as weavingon somekinds of loomswould be). Grinding, it maybe noted,is alsoa major componentof pigmentpreparation. It is possiblethat women were the producersof the marblefigures;23 the scenariosuggested above is consis- tentwith women's work in ruralsettings.24 The greatmajority of EarlyCycladic figures are female,25 displaying breasts-usuallyof smallsize andpubic triangles. It shouldbe noted, however,that these gender signifiers are not exaggeratedbeyond the di- mensionsof averageanatomy. There is no conventionalvisual evidence on thesefigures that fertility and procreation were the primary concepts that inspiredtheir production. The few figureswith abdominalgrooves that

21. Forclay figures, see illustrations regionsaround the Aegean(see Evans with domesticwork areas, particularly in Papathanassopoulos1996, pp.298, andRenfrew 1968, fig. 75, andtext thosewhere some kind of grinding 299,302,307, nos.203,204,211,221. with bibliography,p. 86;see alsoPapa- activitieswere conducted" (Talalay Talalay(1993, p.126, n.12) reports thanassopoulos1996, p. 319, no.240, 1993,p. 48). thatNeolithic stone or marblefigures forcolor pls.). See Talalay 1993, p. 30, 24. In thevillage of TellAhmar, predominateat Thebesas well as at fortechniques of makingNeolithic northernSyria, for example, I have Kouphovouno,near ; she does figuresof clay. participatedin wool-sortinggatherings, not list sitesthat produced both clay 22. Talalay(1993, p. 32) reportsthat whereall the womenof an extended andstone figures in equalabundance. it takesten minutesto an hourto create familygroup convene to separateraw Significantly,there are more white a clayfigure, and, citing Oustinoff wool accordingto quality.Much of the stonethan clay Neolithic figures known 1984,five to sixtyhours to produce villagenews was communicated during fromthe islands,excluding Crete; the one of marble. suchgatherings, and it appearedto me oppositeis trueelsewhere around the 23. See Gero1991 for the likeli- thatrelationships among women were Aegean.A notableexample of a Neo- hoodthat women in prehistoryworked formedand maintained in thatsetting. lithicstone figure is the "FatLady of stonefor tools in a domesticsetting. It See the essaysin Geroand Conkey ,"a marble seated female from mayalso be relevantthat at Franchthi 1991for approaches to discerningthe LN Saliagosthat is similarin formto Cave"on given occasions throughout Orgazzatlonot r womenln. prellstory. . Neolithicexamples from non-Cycladic the Neolithic,figurines were associated 25. Butsee Getz-Preziosi1981. 4I4 E L I Z A B E T H A . H E N D R I X

havebeen interpreted aspost-partum lines may be exceptions.26 The depic- tionof identifiableroles, such as (rare,and mainly male) musicians, is un- usual;the "folded-arm figures" are much more abundant. MostCycladic figures are quite generic, represented with feet angled downward,legs together and bent slightly at the knee,arms folded across the chest(left overright), face forward and occasionally tilted upward. Hundreds,if not thousands,of examplesthat fit into this categorywere produced,even if the proportionsand angles shifted somewhat over time andplace. Whether this canonicalposture was meant to representa re- cliningposition or one moreor lessupright (leaning or perhapsheld) is debatable.27Painted features may weight the argumentin favorof thelat- terposition (see below, pp. 439-440). Establishinga chronology for the EBACyclades is difficultgiven the lackof stratifiedsites. Several attempts have been made to ordergroups of artifactsbased on seriation,most notably by ColinRenfrew and Christos Doumas.28For present purposes, I am concernedwith broad trends; the archaeologicalevidence indicates that Early Cycladic peoples buried their deadwith painted anthropomorphic figures throughout the thirdmillen- niumB.C. In this paperI seekto establishthe essentialmotives of this practice;a studyestablishing the variationsin paintedmotifs over time mustbe left to the future. It is importantfor my argument to useexcavated examples as often as possible;not onlyare questions of authenticitythus avoided, but associ- atedburial goods can also bring more meaning to the presenceof paint, andto themarble figures in general. I sometimes refer, however, to unprove- niencedfigures in NorthAmerican and European collections in orderto makeit easierfor a widelydispersed audience to examineaccessible fig- ures"in the flesh." Unless the lighting for a photographwas designed spe- cificallyto revealvestigial traces of paint,it is nearlyimpossible to see suchevidence in individualphotographs of figuresin publications. Eventhe nonspecialist can easily recognize "Early Cycladic sculpture," as it is oftenreferred to today.Several varieties and subvarietiesof the figureshave been recognized, and these can be seenas evolvingfrom one to the nextonce their relative chronology is identified.29While the term "sculpture"is anachronistic, its use suggestshow these objects have come to be categorized.In our own age they havemade the transitionfrom "repulsivelyugly"30 curiosities to elegantworks of art,worthy of displayin thefinest art collections in theworld. Indeed, one may argue that in many casesa degreeof formalrefinement must have been a concernfor some of

26. Getz-Gentle2001, p. 10. (e.g.,Attica and the Troad), he wasable andEC IIIA andB. These are the most 27. Getz-Gentle(2001, pp. 35-37) to arrangegroups of objects,including commonlyused designations for the espousesa recliningposture. the marblefigures, in roughlychrono- periodsRenfrew describes using cultur- 28. Renfrew(1972, pp. 72-75, 138- logicalorder. Although details of this al terms.For a recentexamination of 142)developed a relativechronology orderare debated, (see, e.g., Doumas EC chronology,see Broodbank2000, basedprimarily on the stratigraphyof 1972,p. 151,n. 1), the basicframework pp.53-55. Emporioon the islandof Chiosand stillholds. Barber and MacGillivray 29. Fora descriptionof the varieties, Phylakopion Melos.By comparingthe (1980)object to Renfrew'sidentifica- see Renfrew1969; Getz-Preziosi 1987a. potteryand other finds at thesesites to tion of chronologicalperiods with 30.Wolters 1891, p. 47, "abstossend findsfrom less well stratifiedsites in dominant"cultural"groups, and prefer hassliche"(referring to a headin the islandsand surrounding mainlands insteadthe moregeneral EC I, EC II, Athens,NAM 3909). PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 4I5

the EarlyCycladic marble workers.31 No casecan be made,however, that theoriginal purpose of theworks was to pleasethe eye or satisfy a senseof aesthetics,although this is a legitimateresponse for a modernaudience.32 If one considersthe additionalsurface elaboration on thesefigures (see,e.g., Figs. 1, 4), it is mucheasier to imaginethat they were made to satisfya widerrange of needs.The presenceof anysort of embellishment on the polishedwhite surfaces of EarlyCycladic figures may be visually startlingto oureyes, trained to look approvinglyat sculpturalanalogies suchas thoseproduced by Modiglianiand Brancusi,33 but in the context of prehistoricfigure production in the Aegeanbasin, the paintedEarly Cycladicfigure fits, even comfortably, into an earlier and apparently com- plextradition.

METHODS FOR REVEALING EVIDENCE FOR PAINTED PATTERNS

Usinga broadrange of lightingand photographic techniques, computer enhancement,and microscopic examination, I have begun to document the paintedsurface features that were applied to EarlyCycladic figures.34 The patternsrevealed include recognizable features such as eyes,jewelry, andhair, as well as less easily identifiable markings on thehead and body. In mostcases no pigmentremains, but photographic and computer ma- nipulationtechniques can enhance the subtleeffects of ancientpainting. Ultravioletlight has proved useful, although the reasons for its efficacyare stillnot understood. Raking light exaggerates topographic differences on themarble's surface resulting from the effects of paint(or surface prepara- tion priorto painting)long sincevanished. These "ghosts," described in 1970by Preziosiand Weinberg on a varietyof Cycladicfigures, had been alreadyidentified earlier by Papathanassopouloson a figurenow in the AthensNational Archaeological Museum, although he did not use the term"ghost."35

31. See Getz-Preziosi1987a. Cory minutetraces of extantpigment; differently.Finely divided reds, which (1956,p.33) reportsthat while any (3) ultraviolet(UV) visiblefluorescence canbe suspendedin mediawith low memberof the modernBantu commu- photography,which permits fluores- viscosities,tend to seepinto the pores nitymay make figurines for the various cencein the visiblerange of the spec- of the stone,while coarse pigments, functionsfor which they are needed, trumto exposethe film;(4) UV-reflec- suchas azurite,stay on the surfaceof thosewho aremost skilled are suffi- tancephotography, which permits only the stone,protecting that surface from cientlyvalued to be invitedto make thosewavelengths below the visible the corrosiveeffects of water.This lat- figuresfor others.See alsoBroodbank rangeof the spectrumto exposethe ter sortof paintpreserves the surface 2000,p.63. film;and (5) computerenhancement whereverit is applied.Over time, the 32. Forthe influenceof Cycladic of digitizedphotographs to expand unprotectedsurface (including areas designon modernsculptors, and thus andcontrast image information. I also paintedwith low-viscosity media) modernexpectations, see Sachini1984. producea detailedsketch (e.g., Fig. 3) deterioratesmore than protected sur- 33. See Renfrew1991, pp.168-185, basedon prolongedobservation of the faces.The variablesthat control the rate pls. 116-119. object. andcharacter of the weathering,how- 34. See Hendrix2003 forfull 35. Preziosiand Weinberg 1970; ever,have not yet beenstudied. I am descriptionsof thesetechniques. In Papathanassopoulos1963, p. 132. gratefulto JerryPodany at theJ. Paul brief,I use (1) rakinglight photography Differentkinds of paintintegrate with GettyMuseum for discussing with me to enhancetopographic differences the marblesubstrate in differentways, (March2003) the problemsthat result causedby differentialweathering; andthey therefore affect the marble's fromassuming we understandthese (2) close-upphotography to capture abilityto withstandweathering agents weatheringmechanisms on EC figures. 4I6 E L I Z A B E T H A . H E N D R I X

In otherinstances, enough pigment particles survive to bedocumented by close-upphotography. This salutarycondition has in somecases per- mittedelemental or optical analyses of pigments,resulting in theidentifi- cationofthe minerals used bythe Cycladic islanders for their colors.These findingsmay have important ramifications regarding the significanceof certainminerals beyond their coloring effects (see below). Perhapsthe mostimportant method for revealing traces of painton Cycladicfigures, however, is theproduction of a carefillsketch of the fig- ure(e.g., Fig. 3). The timerequired for this exercise is timespent looking, whicheventually enables the observerto distinguishevidence for paint fromfortuitous burial stains.

PAINT MOTIFS

In the followingpages, I describethe motifsin orderof frequencyof occurrence,with the caveatthat what appears to be mostcommon is sim- plywhat has been most commonly (seen and) preserved; this may or may not reflectwhat was mostoften painted in the EarlyBronze Age. For example,if a yellowrobe made from saffron and saliva had been repre- sentedon everyfigure, there would be littleor no evidencefor such paint- ing today.

EYES:ANATOMICAL, BELOW CROWN BAND Mostof the Cycladicfigures that preserve evidence of paintbear traces of almond-shapedeyes, placed (usually not entirely symmetrically) on either sideof the nose(e.g., Fig. 1).They are the moststriking of the painted motifs,heralding a dramatic break from the Neolithic tradition of cursory sliteyes.36 These eyes are often very large, extending from the nose to the edgeof the face,and are frequently enlivened with pupils, lashes,and eyebrows. Accompanying these eyes, vertical hair(?) strokes or, moreusually, a palehorizontal band ("ghost") may be seenat the top of the crown.This latter pattern suggests some sort of hairstyleor headdress (theearlier "Plastiras"-type figures were often provided with a grooveacross theforehead to indicatea polos). Numerousexamples can be cited.Figures fromknown contexts that preserve this motifinclude a largeexample from Kavos(Keros) in the NaxosArchaeological Museum at Chora(Fig. 4; no. 4181),and four Naxian figures in the NationalArchaeological Mu- seum(NAM) in Athens:one fromKarvounolakkoi (NAM 6140.16), anotherfrom Phyrroges (Fig. 5, NAM 6140.19),and two fromSpedos

36.Talalay (1993, p. 12) notesthat phicexamples. Eyes are infrequently Cycladicfigures exist, and may hint at on Neolithicfigures from Franchthi markedand small, and modeled noses recollectionsof earlierfigures. A marble Cave(produced throughout the Neo- appearcommonly" (emphasis mine). headfrom tomb 112 of the Krasades lithicperiod), "facial features are fairly The figuresfrom Achilleion, Sitagroi, cemeteryon (NAM 4848) perfunctory:mouths and ears are never andelsewhere generally have coffee- hastwo incisedslits for eyes, as well as indicatedon anthropomorphicimages, beanor slit eyes.Exceptions to the noseand ears in relief. thoughthey are detailed on zoomor- canonicallarge open eyes on Early PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 4I7

Figure5. EarlyCycladic marble fig- urefrom Naxos, Phyrroges, tomb 28. H. 19.8cm. Athens, National ArchaeologicalMuseum 6140.19. 4I8 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

(NAM6140.21, 6140.22), to list a few.37Careful examination of illustra- tionsin cataloguesof EarlyCycladic figures, such as thosepublished by Getz-Preziosi/Gentle,and Doumas, demonstrates that this patternwas evidentlywidespread and long-lived.38

HAIR

In additionto a polos, numerousCycladic figures were given an elaborate coiffure.Again, symmetry was not alwaysimportant, although it is most oftenthe symmetrical examples that have been published (reflecting modern receptivenessmore than Bronze Age custom). Hairstyles made up of curls or shortstraight "pigtails" or sideburnsare generally preserved as paint ghosts,suggesting the paintused was thick enough to actas a barrierto weatheringagents (see Fig.5). This would be consistentwith a paintmade withazurite, which requires a thick medium in whichto suspendand bind the largeparticles. Tentatively, I would suggest that most caps and many hairstyleswere originally blue,39 with the exception of a fringeof redver- ticalstrokes that occasionally appears across the forehead(e.g., on a head in theMetropolitan Museum of Art [MMA], no.69.5.11, whose red stripes wereidentified as cinnabarby energydispersive X-ray spectrometry40). Sometimesthis fringe appears in conjunctionwith a ghostedband as though representingshort-cropped hair protruding below the cap. Clear examples maybe seenon figuresin the MetropolitanMuseum of Art,the J. Paul GettyMuseum, the HonoluluAcademy of Arts,and the Museum of Art andArchaeology, University of Missouri-Columbia.41 An excavatedexample of a figurewith elaborate coiffure "ghosts" is the folded-armfigure from Phyrroges tomb 28 (Fig.5) mentionedabove in conjunctionwith eye ghosts.Although many more examples are dis- playedin museums,I havenot beenable to tracethose to documented excavations.Some examples in disparatebut accessible collections include figuresin the NaxosArchaeological Museum in Chora(4695/8927), the

37. ForNaxos 4181, see Zapheiro- The top of the head,which is flattened, see Getz-Preziosi1987b, p. 204, no. 55. poulou1980, p.534, pl.240;for NAM hasa slightlypaler band at the top of My sincerethanks to PatGetz-Gentle 6140.16,see Papathanassopoulos1963, the crown,and the righteye, with pupil formaking her notes from the "Cyclad- p. 112,pl. 43;for NAM 6140.19,see andpossibly eyelashes, is visibleas ic ExaminationProject" (in connection Marangou1990, p. 152,no. 157 (color darkerlines on the stone.Although I withthe VirginiaMuseum of Fine pl.) andbibliography. These figures are havenot yet examinedthis figure out- Arts,Richmond, exhibition and cata- alsoillustrated, with drawingsof sideits vitrine,additional paint on the logue)available to me. See alsoa figure paintedmotifs, in Hendrix2000: rightcheek of the figureseems to be in the BritishMuseum (no. 1971.5- nos.23,28, and41. Largephotographs visiblein the photograph.As muchas 21.1),discussed below. of the figuresfrom Spedos, tombs 13 the motifrecalls earlier traditions, it 40. Hendrix1997-1998, pp. 7-8 (6140.21)and 10 (6140.22),are pub- alsoheralds the newapproach to the 41. See Hendrix1997-1998, p. 10, lishedin Zervos1957, pls. 114 and115, humanform (specifically the openeyes) figs. 10-12 (MMA34.11.3), and also respectively. thattook hold in the EBACyclades. Getz-Preziosi1987b, p. 107,pl. III 38.The samemotif can be dis- 39.This possibilityis alsosuggested (J. PaulGetty Museum); p. 204, no. 55 cernedon a marbleseated figure from by Getz-Preziosi(1987b, p. 169).A (HonoluluAcademy of Arts4386.1); LN Sangrion Naxos;an excellentpho- figurein the HonoluluAcademy of andpp. 246-247, no. 81, with drawing tographis publishedin Papathanasso- Arts(4386.1) preserves traces of blue of paintremains (University of poulos1996 (p.321, no.243). The con- on the foreheadand right sideburn curl, Missouri-Columbia76.214). See also toursof the Sangrifigure foreshadow in additionto reddots on the cheeks n. 39 above. the shapeof the EC I "Violin"figures. andvertical strokes across the forehead; PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 4I9

N. P.Goulandris Collection in Athens(304), and the BadischesLandes- museumin Karlsruhe(70/SSO).42

DOTS/STRIPESON FACE Rowsof dots single,double, or multiple-were painted across the faces of manyfigures and on occasionextend around the backof the heador occurelsewhere on the body.Still evidentis a patternof blue-over-red paint,neatly used on twolarge examples I have examined, one in a private collectionin NewYork, 69 cmin height,the other, 77 cmin height,in the BritishMuseum, neither from a documentedcontext.43 The largesize of thesefigures may suggest that they were used differently than the more common30- to 50-cm-tallfigures. Does the largersize suggest a greater audience,either in termsof numberor status?There is no evidenceto argueone way or the other.The shiftin color,however, does suggest that therewere two audiences, separated either by time(the earlier group see- ing onlythe reddots) or by accessto the knowledgethat two colorswere present(one group aware of theunderlying red, though only the blue was visible). At leastfive rows of carefilllyrounded dots were painted across the foreheadof theNew York figure, and nine or more rows across the cheeks, extendingbelow the nose but perhaps interrupted by the mouth area, where dotsare only partially preserved. At theback of thehead, a neatlysquared hairmass (now a ghost)was bordered by blue-on-red dots.44 The dots,as wellas the very large (slightly asymmetrical) eyes and eyebrows, call atten- tionto the headas theprimary area of focuson thefigure. Two rowsof dots werepainted across the foreheadof the British Museumfigure, and as many as seven rows can be discernedon thecheeks. Moredifficult to detectare at leasttwo rows of dotson the chin.A stripe downthe nosewas also painted with blue over red. Blue paint is clearly visibleat the edges of thelarge eyes, as eyebrows, and on theleft side of the forehead(in an unidentifiablepattern); a shortdark stroke appears just belowthe nose.45The spineof thisfigure was highlighted with red paint, aswere the incisionsbetween the neckand the baseof the skulland the jawline (thered on the BritishMuseum figure was analyzed and identi- fiedas cinnabar46). The figure was given red nostrils, a detailalso preserved on a figurein theMetropolitan Museum (Fig. 2, above). The majorityof the preservedface dots are in redpaint. Catalogues of Cycladicfigures demonstrate that face dots wererelatively common on bothlarge and small figures, and on figuresthat span the EC II period

42. ForNaxos 4695/8927, see pl. Vl:a,for the figurein New York; beenin contactwith the marblewhile Zapheiropoulou1980, pl. 235;for Fitton1989, front and back cover, it wasburied. The patternis visiblein N. P.Goulandris Foundation, Museum forthe BritishMuseum figure rakinglight (see below, Fig. 13). OfCycladic Art, Coll.304, see Renfrew (no.1971.5-21.1). 45.This line is describedas black by 1991,pls. 2, 3, 100:7(detail); for 44. Seebelow ("Jewelry") for a de- Higgins(1972), but it mayonce have BadischesLandesmuseum 70/550, see scriptionof additionalpainted motifs beenred if it waspainted with cinnabar. Thimmeand Getz-Preziosi 1977, on this figure.Also of interestis the See Hendrix2001, pp. 53-54, on the p. 271, no. 171. patternin the surfacesheen of the belly colorshift of cinnabarfrom red to black. 43. See Getz-Preziosi1987a, of a plain-weavetextile that must have 46. Higgins1972. 420 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

(the Kapsalathrough Late Spedosstyles).47 Unfortunately, none to my knowledgecome from documented excavations. Published examples in accessiblecollections include Spedos-type figures in Boston,Pasadena, Karlsruhe,and Munich.48 Verticalstripes on thecheeks are still visible on a handfulof figures.49 As mentionedabove, Hoffman has recently explored the meaningof this motifin the contextof mourning.Her argumentis convincing,although otherinterpretations are also possible (e.g., clan or age-relatedcicatriza- tion).The figures that bear these markings are unprovenienced works dated on thebasis offormal style; the styles range from those of theearlier phases of productionof folded-armfigures to thelater. Thus the motif appears to spanat leastseveral hundred years in the Cycladicperiod, and beyond, if Hoffmanis correct.Unfortunately, here too we cannotturn to associated goodsor findspots.Therefore interpretations rely on the evidenceon the figuresthemselves. This evidencemay be comparedto the ethnographic andhistorical records, as Hoffmanhas done, but for identifying possible functions,the motif may also be usefully considered in thecontext of other paintedfigures (see below).

PAINTEDGROOVES

Groovesbetween contiguous body parts (such as the spine, head/neck; not betweenarms/torso or legs)were often picked out withred paint, as on the figurein the BritishMuseum described above. Fingers and toes were alsooccasionally colored red, with paint either filling incisions or defining the digits.The earliestexample with which I am familiaris a "Pre-Ca- nonical"figure with arms meeting at the center of thetorso in themanner 47. See Hendrix,2000,fig.18, fora of Plastiras-varietyfigures. Red strokesdefine the fingers,and red was sketchof fourteenexamples. paintedin the toe incisions.Mercury and lead were detected on the fin- 48.Thimme and Getz-Preziosi 1977,nos.139, 156,171,190.The gers,indicating that cinnabar and perhaps red lead were used for the color.50 Karlsruheand Munich figures are pro- Redgrooves can be observed on figures ofthe Plastiras, Kapsala, and Spedos videdwith tentative proveniences in typesand on figuresfrom transitional phases, but not on the(later) Doka- Thimmeand Getz-Preziosi 1977, thismataor Chalandrianivarieties. basedon old museumnotes associated withtheir acquisition. For published photographsof examplesin private JEWELRY collections,see Thimme and Getz- Preziosi1977, nos. 141,209. Necklacesand arm bangles can be discernedon a fewEarly Cycladic fig- 49. Hoffman2002, pp.526-530, ures,although this motifis not as commonas othersorts of embellish- withbibliography and comparanda. See ments,such as facedots. One of the mostspectacular examples in this alsoHendrix 2000, fig.22. respectis the figurein a privatecollection in NewYork discussed above.5l 50. See Hendrix2000, no.5. The figureis currentlyon loanto Alongwith numerousanatomical details and skinembellishments, the the MetropolitanMuseum of Art, figurewas provided with bangles on the left wrist,a "choker"below the L.1997.70,from the Wallach Museum, chin composedof linkedbutterflylike motifs with a bandof fringede- ColumbiaUniversity. My thanksto scendingfrom it. At the baseof the neckis anothernecklace, this one of SarahElliston Weiner for permission linkedscallops with dots at the center of eachscallop. Both the choker and to examinethis figure.See Hendrix the necklaceextend partway around the backof the neck.They, and the 2000,pp.95-97, tablesI:5 andI:6, whereadditional figures with painted bangles,are painted red. On otherfigures (see, e.g., Fig. 1), red lines in the groovesare listed. groovesbetween the headand body (which occur at the top andat the 51. See Getz-Preziosi1987b, pl. I, baseof the neck)may represent necklaces, or maybe relatedto the red- no.24; Hendrix2000, no. 17. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 42I

Figure6. EarlyCycladic marble head fromfigure with painted diadem; no knownfindspot. H. 10.6cm. Naxos,Archaeological Museum, Chora,4182.

Figure7. EarlyCycladic silver diademfrom Amorgos, Dokathis- mata,tomb 14. Athens, National ArchaeologicalMuseum 4729. After Zervos 1957, pL 127

paintedgrooves that arefound with somefrequency elsewhere on the bodyas described above. The bangles on thewrists of a largefigure in the BadischesLandesmuseum in Karlsruhe52 and a smallerfigure in theStaat- licheAntikensammlungen und Glyptothekin Munich (10.382) survive as grooves;no tracesof paint,if paintwas ever there, remain. The dottedlozenges painted across the crown of a headin theNaxos ChoraMuseum (Fig. 6) mayrepresent a diadem, the significance of which cannotbe preciselyascertained from the archaeologicalrecord. A similar headdressmay have been worn by someEarly Cycladic people: a silver bandwith zigzag motifwas found in a tombon Amorgos(Fig. 7; see also below,p. 440).Whether such a headdressstrictly conveyed a specificsta- 52. Thimmeand Getz-Preziosi 1977, p. 259, no. 151;Badisches tusor was more fluid in its meaningis uncertain.Jewelry motifs seem to Landesmuseum75/49. be restrictedto EC II, whichaccords with the dramaticincrease in per- 53. Carter,forthcoming. sonaladornment at thistime observed by Carter.53 422 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

Figure8. EarlyCycladic marble fig- ure;no knownfindspot. H. 39.0 cm. Naxos,Archaeological Museum, Chora,4675.

ZIGZAGS/STRIPESON BODY Markingson thechests of EarlyCycladic figures most often take the form of a seriesof vertical,or nearlyvertical, stripes or a zigzag.This departs somewhatfrom the Neolithic tendency to representa crossed-strap motif, althoughsimilarities can be found.54The incisionson someViolin-type figuresfrom the very beginnings of theBronze Age maypreserve the last vestigesof the Neolithicform of thismotif (see, e.g., Fig. 17, below). A zigzagis visibleacross the chestof a figurein the NaxosChora Museum(Fig. 8). In additionto the zigzagand the commoneyes and crownband, this Spedos-typefigure also effiibits at leastfour additional "nonanatomical"eyes, a motifdiscussed in moredetail below. The upper 54. See,e.g., Papathanassopoulos halfofaDokathismata-type figure in theMetropolitan Museum of Artis 1996,pp. 295, 303, 304, 306, nos.196, 213, 214, 220. Fora clayfigure with illustratedhere in a photographtaken under normal light conditions as clearvertical stripes across the chest wellas in an ultravioletreflectograph (Fig. 9). The latteris characterized andzigzags across the belly,see p. 293, by a mottledsurface; a pale zigzag can be discernedacross the chest. no. 189. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 423

a b Figure9. EarlyCycladic marble fig- ure;no knownfindspot. H. 23 cm. EarlyCycladic figures with verticalstripes on theirckests may in New York,Metropolitan Museum somecases actually have been given zigzags originally, since the marks are of Art 1971.258.1.Gift of Alastair generallypoorly preserved, and often not quite vertical. Stripes across the BradleyMartin, 1971. (a) Photo- chestappear clearly on at leastfour Early Cycladic figures. One figure graphtaken under normal light; comesfrom tomb 14 at the siteof Dokathismataon Amorgos.Dark red (b)W-reflectance photograph. stripes,slightly off-vertical, are still easily visible across the chest(see be- low,pp. 435, 437, for a descriptionof this figureand its archaeologi- calcontext). The othersare unprovenienced works. In eachcase the color is red,but it is notcertain that the same pigment was used for all of them. The redpigment on the stripeson a figurein the VirginiaMuseum of FineArts, Richmond, was identified as cinnabar,55 whereas my attempts to analyzeby X-rayfluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) the stripeson the chestof a figurein theMetropolitan Museum of Art(a "Post-Canonical" or "Dokathismata"type hermaphrodite[possessing breasts and penis], MMA1972.118.10356) yielded slightly elevated levels of iron,but no mer- cury(which would have been easily detected by the instrument) indicative of cinnabar.I have thus tentatively identified the red of the Metropolitan Museumfigure's chest stripes as iron oxide (either red ocher or hematite). Both cinnabarand iron havebeen identifiedon EarlyCycladic and NeolithicGreek figures and vessels.57 Unlike some of the previouslyde- 55. Getz-Preziosi1987b, p. 207. 56. See Hendrix1997-1998, p. 8, scribedmotifs, the stripes on thechest appear to be a motiffavored toward figs.6, 7. the endof the EC II period. 57. See Hendrix2003, table I. On A zigzagpattern on the bellyis stillvisible today on a figurefrom cinnabar,see below,n. 70. tomb14 of the Spedoscemetery on Naxos,as it wason the photograph 424 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

Figure10 (left).Early Cycladic marblefigure from Naxos, Spedos, tomb14. H. 33.5cm. Athens, NationalArchaeological Museum 6140.20.

Figure11 (below).Late Neolithic fragmentof claylegs from Thessaly, Sesklo.P.H. ca. 6 cm.Athens, NationalArchaeological Museum 12246.

takenby Zervosin 1957before the encrustationwas removed (Fig. 10).58 Centuriesearlier, a verysimilar zigzag was scratched on the surfaceof a clayfigure fragment from LN Sesklo(Fig. 11). There is no reasonto sup- posethat the motifwas carefully passed down over this long span of time. Theidea of a beltwith a simplepattern, however, may have been common to bothLN Thessalyand Early Cycladic Naxos. Verticalzigzags on the armsor legswere also applied. These may be opposed,forming a seriesof stackeddiamonds, as at thejuncture of the rightupper arm and torso of a Plastiras-typefigure from Naxos, Akrotiri, tomb20,59 andon theright thigh of anunprovenienced Late Spedos-type figureillustrated in the Karlsruhecatalogue.60 Again, it is likelythat hun- dredsof yearsseparate these two examples, suggesting that much evidence forthe motifon interveningfigures has been lost, and that motifs could endure(as motifs, not necessarilyas particular symbols) over impressively longintervals of time.

58. Zervos 1957, pl. 108. wheretraces of redare noted); Hendrix 59. Doumas 1977, p. 93, pl. 32:f-g; 2000, no. 36. See Hendrix2000, figs. Hendrix 2000, no. 3. 23 and24 for sketchesof figureswith . . 60. Thimme and Getz-Preziosi vertlca s zlgzags. 1977, p. 267, no. 162 (and p. 467, PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 425

Figure12. Early Cycladic marble headfrom figure; no knownfindspot. EYES:NONANATOMICAL P.H.10.7 cm. Athens, N. P.Goulan- I concludethis selectedcatalogue of motifswith a patternthat is more drisFoundation, Museum of mysteriousthan rare. "Eyes" painted on thebody and multiple (more than CycladicArt, Coll. 701. two)eyes on theface are visible on a surprisingnumber of EarlyCycladic figures.A clearexample is in the NaxosChora Museum, mentioned and illustratedabove (Fig. 8). In additionto the zigzagon the chestand two verylargeopen eyes on the face ofthat figure, a largedotted lozenge or eye is wellpreserved in greenpigment at the baseof the neck.Closer exami- nationreveals that two more eyes can be seen on the face below the better- preservedeyes. Whether all four eyes on the facewere visible simultane- ouslyis difficultto determine,since the effectsof the mediamay result in ghostsor othervestigial remains even after the pigmenthad been mostly removedor hadflaked away. The greeneye at the baseof the neck,how- ever,was surely visible at the sametime as two or moreeyes on the face (sincethey are still visible today), suggesting that the simultaneous display of multipleeyes was in someinstances deliberate. It is possiblethat a sec- ondset of eyeswas painted after the firsthad worn away, but sufficiently soonafter for the painterto avoidthe (charged?)space of the firstset. Anotherpossibility is thattwo setsof eyeswere painted to be visibleat once,two sets representing more "eye power" than a singleset. 61. Doumas(2000, p. 146) shows A strikingexample of thisphenomenon occurs on a headin theN. P. howanother lighting situation reveals GoulandrisCollection, in theMuseum of CycladicArt in Athens (Fig. 12). aeyesand eyebrows." An illustrationin In rakinglight, the two pupilson the rightside of the faceconfirm that Renfrew1991 (pl.76) alsoshowsaeyes two setsof eyeswere painted not a singleset of eyeswith eyebrows, as andeyebrows," as well as an almond- shapedmouth. Neither author men- previouslythought.61 The archspanning the top set of eyescan alsobe tionsthe fourpupils or the archabove seenon twoother figures in thesame museum (Coll. 252, 280); the larger the top set of eyes. example(Coll. 280) is betterknown for its redparallel stripes that cover 426 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX theface, chest, forearms, and belly.62 Including the head illustrated in Fig- ure12, I knowof sevenfigures that preserve double sets of eyespainted in thismanner, that is, in approximatelythe same location but distant enough fromeach other to implythat one locationwas chosen in orderto avoid the other.63 A seriesof relativelydark open lozenge shapes arranged around the faceappear in anultraviolet reflectograph of a largefigure in theMetropol- itanMuseum of Art(MMA 68.148).64 When the figure was subsequently examinedunder low magnificationwith a stereomicroscope (x7 to x30 magnification),particles of brightred pigment were discerned. After the particleshad been mapped, it wasapparent that many (although not all) correlatedwith the lozenge shapes. These shapes are exceedingly difficult to discern,but theirpresence is renderedmore probable both by the re- mainsof pigmentand by the number of figuresthat bear these faint traces in similarplaces.65

MOTIFS: PLACEMENT, STYLE, MATERIALS

Identificationof the mostcommon positions of the motifson the figures providesanother perspective on the significance ofthe motifs.These trends canbe consideredapart from the archaeologicalcontext, giving us anidea of whatthe appropriatepositions were according to pan-Cycladiccus- toms. Motifssuch as hair configurations and jewelry occur where one might expect,but there are telling limits. Although hair curls may extend down thesides ofthe neck, and well down the back,66 theywere not to myknowl- edgepainted down the front of thetorso (as on kouroi,for example) . Rep- resentationsof bangleson the wristsare attested, but not on the upper armsor aroundthe ankles.We beginto forman ideaof EarlyCycladic groomingand adornment for (some) women. These motifs reflect mate- rial,three-dimensional objects that were part of the worldof the living; braceletsand possible necklace components have been found in a number of tombs,and we canassume that Early Cycladic humans grew hair that requiredattendance. Dress is missingfrom the marblefigures, although textilepseudomorphs on atleast one large figure (Fig. 13) hint at the pos- sibilitythat articles of clothingwere provided as actualtextiles.67

62. Hoffman2002, p. 533, figs.7, 8. CycladicArt, Coll. 252: Renfrew 1991, N. P.Goulandris Foundation, Museum See Doumas2000, the mostrecent p. 117,pl. 77, fig. 10;Hendrix 2000, of CycladicArt, Coll. 1105:Doumas catalogueof this collection,p. 145, no. 33;3) Karlsruhe,Badisches Landes- 2000,p. 138,no. 187. no.252; p. 158,no. 280. See Hendrix museum70/550: Getz-Preziosi 1987a, 64. See Hendrix1997-1998, 2000, no. 43, for a "map"of the paint no.29, fig.42:g; Hendrix 2000, no. 48; pp. 12-13, figs.13-15 (fig.14 is the remains. 4) privatecollection: Hendrix 2000, UV reflectograph). 63.The sevenfigures are published no. 53;5) Athens,N. P.Goulandris 65. See Hendrix2000, fig. 19, for as follows:1) MunichStaatliche Foundation,Museum of CycladicArt, sketchesof ten figureswith nonana- Antikensammlungenund Glyptothek Coll.701 (Fig.12 here):Renfrew 1991, tomicaleyes. 10.382:Fellman 1981, pp. 14-16, no. 6; p. 121,pl. 76;Hendrix 2000, no. 55; 6) 66. See Renfrew1991, p. 122,fig. 7. Hendrix2000, no. 27; 2) Athens,N. P. privatecollection: Getz-Gentle 2001, 67. Hendrix2000, p. 47, n.64. GoulandrisFoundation, Museum of pl. 71:d("Keros hoard"); 7) Athens, PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 427

Figure13. Detail of textilepseudo- morphon thebelly of anEarly Cycladicmarble figure; no known findspot.P.H. 69.4 cm. New York, ShelbyWhiteand Levy Collection.

Motifsthat do not seemto representtangible objects include various sortsof stripes,zigzags, and the nonanatomicaleye. These may have had correatlons * ln. palnt,* scarrlng, * or tattoolng . on lvlng* b . wumans, or t.wey may havebeen reserved for the marblefigures alone. Theoretically they could be appliedanywhere, so anyconsistency in theirpositions on the body shouldaid in the interpretationof their significance. Verticalstripes occur on the cheeksand chests of the figures,but not acrossthe backsor on the legs.Rows of dotswere painted on the cheeks andbrow, and very occasionally around the backof the head.This motif hasnot beenobserved below the neck.Zigzags, however, may appear on theface (as on MMA1971.258.1; see above, Fig. 9), chest,upper arms, or legs.When almond shapes, and almond shapes vfith central dots (which I interpretas eyes),were applied, they also consistently appear on certain partsof the anatomy.Sets of doubleeyes on the facemay represent aug- mentedanatomical eyes. Other parts of thebody were also provided vfith eyes.The bellyand throat are favored, but eyesmay also occur on the upperchest and thighs. A figurein theNaxos Chora Museum (Fig. 4) has a largealmond-shaped motif on the belly(similar to the patternon the bellyof a figurein the N. P.Goulandris Collection, Coll. 724).68 Several almond-shapedmotifs vfithout central dots appear on the facebelow the high-setanatomical eyes (two in themouth region), and several more vfith 68. ForColl. 724^ see Renfrew1991^ pls.2^ 78^ 96:20^100:8^ 103; also centraldots appear on the throat. Hendrix2000^ no. 24^ for a "map"of Somemotifs appear to be favoredin the earlierpart of the Early the paintedpatterns. Cycladicperiod, and some in thelater. Early motifs include the red-painted 428 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

grooves,and late motifs include the chest stripes (although the sample size is too smallto feelconfident about these distributions). More importantly, mostof themotifs appear on figuresof nearlyall varieties, suggesting that theystayed in usefor a longtime. The possible functions and meanings of thesemotifs are considered below, following a discussionof the archaeo- logicalcontexts and ethnographic parallels. The playbetween symmetry and asymmetry is manifestin the rela- tionshipbetween contour (exterior) and interior designs and cannot be easilydismissed as unintentional: incisions, breast forms, and paint motifs areasymmetrical more often than can be ascribedto carelessness.The finalpolishing of the stonewill haveaffected the symmetryof the con- tours.Symmetrywas generally achieved, although itwould have been quite easyto abradeone side differentlyfrom the other.The interferenceof slurry,the difficultyof judgingprogress while abrading the surfaces,and thetemptation to finishwork prematurely were all overcome by stopping, cleaning,and checking repeatedly during the process.Clearly, symmetry wasculturally desirable when producing the basicform, which would be visiblefrom some distance. The interiordetails were approached with quite a differentattitude. In manyways the eyesand hand that judged symmetry for the contours couldhave found it easierto formbreasts at the sameheight and same sizeon the chest,yet thisresult is infrequentlyobserved. Similarly, sepa- ratingtwo equallysized features such as legs, arms, and toes should have been a simplematter, had it been desired.Such symmetry, however, is alsorare (note the oddplacement of the nosein Fig.4). We shouldnot be surprisedto findeyes at differentheights, or in seeminglyodd loca- tions,or zigzags swinging across incisions, or various strands of curlyand straighthair on the samefigure. The interiormarkings were directed to a moreintimate audience, with different expectations of symmetryfor these details. The choiceof pigmentsmay also be significant.Red, blue, and less oftengreen have been found on marblefigures, vessels, and in pigment containers.Red is by farthe predominantcolor on the figures(as they havebeen preserved). Both cinnabar and iron oxide have been identified by analyticalmethods on the figuresas well as in vessels.69The linkbe- tweenthe colorred and blood is wellattested in the ethnographiclitera- ture,and Hoffman applies this connectionin her interpretationof the cheekstripes. But why use cinnabar,a rare and exotic pigment,70 rather thaniron oxide, which is asbrilliant in hueas it is commonin theCyclades? I havetrouble telling the two apart visually since the hue of eachcan vary, sometimesresembling each other closely. Color must not havebeen the onlyvaluable property of the pigment.Cinnabar is mercuricsulfide, and

69. See above,n. 57. havebeen strictly exotic. It wascer- 70. Carter(forthcoming) discusses tainlyrare, however, and the expendi- severalpotential poor (i.e., not com- tureof knowledgeand time to locate merciallyviable) sources of cinnabarin andretrieve this pigment highlights its the Aegean,including Naxos, , specialdesirability. ,and Euboia. Thus it maynot PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 429 maybe associatedwith elementalmercury at its source.It is possible thatthis association and its exoticorigin added to the potencyof the red material.7l Bluepigment is oftenfound packed into tiny decorated clay pots or incisedbone tubes.72 It is morerarely found on the figuresthan red pig- ment,but may once have been prevalent, if the paintghosts visible today indicateareas that were originally painted blue. Several analyses of the bluein pigmentcontainers have identified the mineral azurite.73 Azurite is a coppermineral and may also have been valued in partfor its association withthis metal. Copper ores are found on Kythnosand, to a lesserextent, on Siphnos(better known for its silverores), Seriphos, and near the tip of Atticaat Laurion.All wereworked in the EarlyBronze Age, andboth copperand silver were fashioned into articles of apparentlyhigh value in the Cyclades.74The closestsource of the otherblue pigment used in early antiquity,lapis lazuli (with an entirely different chemistry than azurite), is Afghanistan,most likely beyond the reachof Cycladicislanders or their tradingpartners, if suchexisted. To dateit hasnot been identified in asso- ciationwith EarlyCycladic objects. In sum,blue pigment was selected, savedin specialpigment containers, interred, and used on marblefigures. Thesechoices reflect the value of thispigment. Unfortunately,the rare green pigments found in pigmentcontainers75 andon theone figure known to me (Fig.8) havenot been analyzed, but it maybe worthrecalling that one green pigment malachite is foundin the samegeological contexts as azurite,that is, withcopper ores. Azurite canturn into malachite after prolonged contact with water, leaving open thepossibility that only blue and red were used, with occurrences of green testifyingto the hydrationof blue.76

LOOKING AT PAINT MOTIFS

When recognizableanatomical features were painted in locationsthat makesense to us (e.g.,the nostrilsin Fig.2, or the hairin Fig.5), we are morewilling to see (andpreserve) traces of thepainting in thoseareas, or acknowledgethe existenceof paintghosts. Patterns that occur frequently, suchas a bandacross the top of the crown,become increasingly discern- ibleto individualviewers as greater numbers of figuresexhibiting the mo- tif arenoted. Evenpatterns that recall other objects from the sameculture may be recognized,if reluctantlyat first.As we haveseen, a marblehead in the

71. See Helms1993 for a discussion 73. Hendrix2000, pp.137-138, of the importanceof travelingand tableIII. travelersto earlysocieties for establish- 74. See Broodbank2000, pp. 79-80, ing andmaintaining ties amongwide- withbibliography. On the culturalim- spreadcommunities, and the associated portanceof metalsin the EC cultures, prestigeof materialsbrought home see Nakou1995, with bibliography. fromafar by suchtravelers. 75. Hendrix2000, appendixII. 72. Hendrix2000, appendixII. 76. Hendrix2001, p. 53......

43o ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

Figure14 (left). Tattooedmummy fromThebes, Egypt, late third millenniumB.C. Afterphotograph in NewYork, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Figure15 (above).Marble pebble figurefrom , Zoumbaria tomb 137. H. ca. 8 cm. Athens, NationalArchaeological Museum 4885.6.

NaxosChora Museum (Fig. 6) hasthe palecrovfn band that is so com- mon,but it alsodisplays a zigzagor lozengemotif across it, reminiscent of an objectof personaladornment such as the silverdiadem found in tomb14 at Dokathismata(Fig. 7). This maybe a cluethat some painted geometricmotifs represent objects in therealworld. Similarly, some ofthe dots,strtpes, or z1gzags may m1m1c s1gns ot tattoo1ng,scar1t1cat1on, or zoc Wy paintingpracticed by the islanders.There is solidevidence from third- millenniumB.C. Egyptthat these sorts of bodyalterations were practiced (Fig.14).77 It is a greaterchallenge to acceptsimilar evidence for asymmetrical designsor familiar shapes in the"wrong" locations or on the"wrong" sorts of objects.The veryclear eye, vfith extant red pigment around the inner corner,on a pebblefigure (Fig. 15) from tomb 137 in theZoumbaria cem- eteryon Despotikoeluded me foryears, despite my having dravfn it sev- eraltimes. Only when I wasopen to thepossibility and saw the figure in a certainlight did the paint suddenly appear, and then the eye was breathtak- inglyobvious. Likevfise, a nonanatomicaleye on whitemarble Cycladic figures(e.g., Fig. 8) hasbeen very difficult to accept,despite the plethora of ethnographicexamples for disassociated eyes, as well as isolated eyes on nonanthropomorphicobjects (e.g., Fig. 16) fromthe laterBronze Age 77. See alsoBianchi 1988; Talalay Cyclades.One must open one's mind as well as one's eyes to thepossibilities. 1993,pp. 7(F72. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 43I

Figure16. Vesselswith eyes depicted: (a) EarlyCycladic clay jug with incisedeye fromNaxos, Panormos. H. 20.4 cm. Naxos,Archaeological Museum, Chora357. AfterMarangou 1990,no. 108 (b)Middle Cycladicclay boat model with darkbrown painted designs, includingeyes, fromMelos, Phyla- kopi. L. 12.7 cm. Athens, National ArchaeologicalMuseum. After Zervos 1957,pl. 230

ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS

How do the archaeologicalcontexts and distribution of the figurescon- tributeto ourunderstanding of theirfunction or theirmeaning? Early Cycladicmarble figures have been excavated mainly in cemeteries,although occasionallythey have been discovered elsewhere, such as atMandres tou Roussou,a rock-crevicesite on Amorgos,78and at the settlementof Kas- trakion Naxos (near Melanes, the prime source of emeryin theCyclades).79 The siteof Daskaleio-Kavoson the tinyisland of Keros(between Naxos andAmorgos) has yielded hundreds of fragmentsof figures,marble ves- sels,and human bone. The sitemay testify to secondaryburial practices in theCyclades in additionto theevidence for a puzzlinglylarge settlement.80 Renfrewand Doumas have each examined the archaeologicalcontexts of

78. Marangou1997. see Atkinsonet al. 1904,pp. 194-195, Sotirakopoulou1998). At leasttwenty 79. Kastrakiwas published in very pls.2-8); AgiaIrini on (also in otherEC settlementsites have been cursoryfashion by Stephanosin 1904, post-EBAcontexts; see Caskey1971, exploredwhere no anthropomorphic 1908,and 1909. Additional settlement 1974);and Akrotiri on Thera(EC I figureshave been documented. sitesin the EBACyclades that have figuresfound at the LBAsite, most 80. See Broodbank2000, pp. 223- yieldedEC figuresinclude from"Cenotaph Square," also a secon- 236, withbibliography. Peggy Sotira- on Melos(in a probablydisturbed con- darycontext that points to knowledge kopoulouis currentlypreparing a fuller textbelow Mycenaean-period houses; of theseobjects beyond the EBA;see publicationof the findsfrom this site. 432 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

TABLE 1. MINIMUM NUMBER OF EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES PER ISLAND

Island ECI ECII ECIII

Andros(Northeast) Tenos(NE) (NE) 9 9 ? (NE) Naxos(Southeast) 37 24 GreaterParos(SE) 53 6 Erimonisia(SE) 1 (350fromKeros Hoard) ? Amorgos(SE) 6 20 ? (SE) 5 (SE) Pholegandros(SE) Thera(South) 24 7 6 Kea(West) (W) Seriphos(W) Siphnos(W) 2 GreaterMelos (W) 6 7

Datafrom Hendrix 2000, appendix II; Broodbank 2000, p. 225. Forthe KerosHoard, see n. 80. A questionmark indicates that some of the documentedfigures may belong to the indicatedperiod; a dashindicates lack of data.

figuresin the Cycladesand individual site reportshave added to these syntheses.8l Despitelacunae in the record the resultof lootingand the cursory publicationof manyEarly Cycladic cemetery sites someobservations regardingdeposition patterns for marble figures may be drawnfrom pub- lishedexcavations. Throughout the third millennium, isolated tombs exist aswell as burialsites that range in sizefrom tiny clusters of two or three gravesto largecemeteries of wellover a hundredtombs.82 Broodbank'sproximal point analysis (PPA) of the EBACyclades in- dicatesthat connections between islands are likely to havebeen complex andvariable within certain boundaries.83 He discernsa westerngroup in- cludingKea, Kythnos, Seriphos, Siphnos, and the Meliancluster, and, in the east,subsets that center on someof the largerislands, in particular Naxos.When the overalldistribution of findspotsfor Early Cycladic fig- uresis considered,it becomesapparent that as ourinformation stands at to Naxoshave yielded the greatest 81. Renfrew1972, esp. pp. 135-195; present,the islands in closestproximity Doumas1977; Barber 1987. For a list numberof figuresthroughout the third millennium. Table 1 providesmini- of excavatedsites, see Leekleyand mumnumbers (the looting of sitesand limited exploration of someislands Noyes1975; Hope Simpsonand Dick- mustdeflate the numbersconsiderably). Despite the gapsin ourknowl- inson1979; Fotou 1983 (forsites on edge,Naxos and the islands immediately surrounding it seem to haveserved Naxos);Davis 1992. For a chartof most asthe focalpoint for the consumptionof figures. excavatedEC objects,arranged by island,see Hendrix2000, appendix II. A brieflook at the archaeologicalevidence from , Naxos, and 82. See Hendrix2000, appendix II. Amorgosgives a generalidea of the depositionof figuresin this group 83. Broodbank2000, pp. 183-191, duringthe third millennium. I examine them here in roughlychronologi- fig.53. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 433

calorder; the maincemeteries on GreaterParos (the islets to the southof Paroswould have been connected by landbridges) date generally to the earlierphases of the EarlyBronze Age, thoseon Naxosto the earlyto middlephases, and those on Amorgosto the middlephases. Excavationson GreaterParos yielded more schematic than folded- armfigures. In termsof materialsand time, these EC I figureswould have beenless expensiveto producethan the marblekandiles also found, an importantconsideration when assessing the relative "wealth" deposited in eachgrave. Tsountas excavated the EC I cemeteryof Krasadeson Antiparos in thelate l9th century,publishing the contentsof nineof the morethan fiftygraves identified there.84 The mostgenerously provided tomb (tomb 117)contained thirteen Violin-type figures deposited near the feetofthe skeleton.The tombalso contained two marble vessels, one very similar in typeto the FN marblevessels from Kephala on Kea,suggesting a linkto thewestern string.85 Other tombs also contained marble figures and ves- sels (includinga kandilaand a phialewith bluecolorant in tomb113), althoughnot in suchan impressive quantity. At Despotiko,at the southernmosttip of GreaterParos, Tsountas ex- cavatedtwo early cemeteries in a goodstate of preservationatLivadia and Zoumbaria,each comprising approximately twenty graves.86 Tomb 129 at Livadiaand tomb 137 at Zoumbariacontained the bulkor all of the fig- ures(Livadia's tomb 129 alsocontained the onlykandila, as well as the only documentedpigment container a perforatedmarble palette with redcolorant and two pebbles on top of it, one alsosmeared with red pig- ment),but othertombs contained marble vessels or obsidianblades in additionto potteryand beads, and another tomb at Livadiahad a marble figureas well. The findsfrom Zoumbaria are more segregated, tomb 137 containingall the figures(six, of variousschematic varieties, one with a largered eye painted on it; seeFig. 15).The othertombs for which finds werereported contained one or two terracottavessels, and occasionally 84.Tsountas 1898, pp.140,150, beads(tomb 135 was also well provided, equipped with one undecorated 161-162,pls.8:37-43,60-61,9:40, andtwo decorated pots and approximately fifty beads). 10:5,11:1,5,8,9,15,19. The smallercemetery at Glyphaon Paros,with a totalof ten graves, 85.The southerntip of Greater containedfour tombs that produced numerous marble vessels (kandiles) Paros(i.e., Despotiko and Antiparos) is andfigures.87 The similarlysized and dated cemetery at Plastirasalso re- anticipatedas the firstlink between the westernand southeastern Cyclades by vealeda variety of marblefigures and vessels, but all ofthe figures (and one Broodbank'sPPA from the earliest of thekandiles, as well as a marblebowl with red pigment, small fragments (leastpopulated) periods. See Brood- of obsidian,and a copperneedle toolsfor "skin" embellishment?) were bank2000, p.184, fig.53. foundin a singletomb, tomb 9.88 The largeEC I cemeteryof Pyrgoson 86. ForLivadia, see Tsountas 1898, Paros,also excavated by Tsountas, held fifty-eight tombs, of whichfour- pp.162-164,pls. 9:22,34,10:9,12. For vesselsand pierced stone beads Zoumbaria,see Tsountas 1898, pp. 141, teenwere specifically described.89 Terracotta 164-165,pls.8:22-36,11:2,3. werefound in manyof thesetombs; marble figures and/or vessels were 87.Tsountas 1898, p.155, pls.8:11, documentedin threegraves. One grave,tomb 103, containedfourteen 10:4,16,11:20. Violin-typefigures, stone beads, fragments of shell,and a potwith a deco- 88. Doumas1977, pp.97-100, ratedbase, while tomb 104 contained a marblekandila. In additionto two pls.34:a-f,35:a-d,ll:h, 12:a. terracottapyxides, tomb 98 wasoutfitted with a marblebowl and pestle, 89.Tsountas 1898, pp.149-151, 158-160,pls.8:20,21,44-47, 49-52, bothof whichpreserved traces of redpigment. 62,63, 9:14,18,27,10:17,11:4,6,7, The findsfrom Greater Paros suggest that individuals were interred 10,13, 14,17. withobjects that were associated with them specifically; not everyburial 434 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX had the samesuite of offerings.In manycemeteries one tombseemed moregenerously provided than the rest, but often another one or two graves werealso provided with numerous or "expensive" goods. The evidence hints at a loosecorrelation between certain individuals and the quantityand qualityof gravegoods, with only a fewother individuals having access to similarsets of objects.The marblefigures from Paros generally fall into thesetwo classes of gravesduring EC I. Excavationson Naxoshave to dateyielded the greatestnumbers of tombsand finds in the Cycladicsphere by far,thanks to the carefulexca- vationsof Doumas,and the painstakingreconstructions of Stephanos's excavationsby Papathanassopoulos.90The evidence from Naxos may be summarizedas follows. At Aeila,three tombs were explored in a cemetery containingan unknown number of graves.Each of the threetombs con- taineda distincttype of offering:copper tools, terracotta drinking vessels, anda terracottabox (pyxis) with lid. Butthis is an exceptionalsituation. At AgioiAnargyroi, where the excavator reported the existence of twenty- two graves(seven of whichwere plundered), one tomb(tomb 21) con- taineda Spedos-typemarble figure as well as skeletalremains (including atleast nine crania), a stone"pillow slab," three marble bowls, nine obsid- ianblades or fragments, a terracotta cup, and a "fryingpan.''91 At leastone othergrave (tomb 5) had an equallyimpressive array of goods,but no marblefigures, and several other graves were also rich in finds.The pres- enceof the"," an object that is consideredEC I in date,and the Spedos-stylefigure, indicative of theEC II period,in onegrave with mul- tipleinhumations strongly suggests that the subgrouputilizing this grave intendedto assertits longevity;the marblefigure contributed to thisex- pression. A similar-sizedcemetery on Naxos,Akrotiri, suffered less than Agioi Anargyroifrom plundering. Four of the twenty-fourgraves documented containedmarble figures, and two containedboth a Violin-typeand a Plastiras-varietyfigure.92 The figuresin the remainingtwo graveswere alsosimple schematic or Violin-type figures. Many of thetombs contained a richvariety of goods,including marble vessels, so it is unlikelythat the tombswith the figures were occupied by individuals considered "wealthier" thanothers in thecommunity. A possibleexception is tomb5, whichcon- tainedone of the Violin/Plastirasfigure pairs, as well as the onlymarble kandila,a marblepalette, stone beads (and one of copper),and two deco- ratedterracotta pyxides. Nevertheless, tomb 21, withonly one Violin fig- ure,also had a richassortment of othergoods (see below). The decisionto includemarble figures in tombsseems to havebeen based on othercon- 90. Doumas 1977; Papathanasso- cerns,which may be furtherilluminated by the painted and incised mark- poulos 1963. ingson someof thesefigures. 91. "Fryingpans" are discussedby Of the ten tombsat Aplomatarecorded by Kontoleon(total number Coleman 1985. of gravesunknown), six contained marble figures oftenmore than one- 92. Doumas 1977, esp. pp. 87, 93, aswell as marblevessels, marble or terracotta"," objects made pls. 28:i-k, 32:f-i. 93. Kontoleon 1970, p. 151, pls. 192, of metal(personal ornaments, in onecase a sword,in anothera silverladle), 193, 195; 1971, pp. 178-179, pls. 210- obsidianblades, or pigmentcontainers.93 The tombswithout figures also 215; 1972, pp. 149-151, 154, pls. 133, containedmarble vessels, terracotta "frying pans," metal objects, and bone 134, 136, 138, 139-144. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 435

tubes,so againit is difficultto distinguish"economic" status on the sole basisof marblefigures. A similarsituation exists at the siteof Spedoson Naxos.94If we turnour attention to muchsmaller clusters of graves,we findsimilar assemblages. Three tombs, in which multiple burials evidently tookplace, comprise the "cemetery"at Audeli on Naxos.This smallsite producedtwo marble figures as well as marble vessels, many obsidian blades, terracottavessels, and an elaborate silver pin.95 Objects from a (contempo- rary?)house nearby include a lumpof redocher (not analyzed as faras I amaware), an obsidianblade, a grinder,and a pieceof emery,suggesting thatstone working as well as painting may have been practiced at the site despiteits distancefrom a largersettlement. Other very small cemeteries alsoindicate that on Naxosmarble figures were not the possessionsof membersof largercommunities alone.96 On theisland of Amorgosthere are cemeteries containing more than twentytombs, such as at Dokathismataand Kapros, cemeteries half that size,as at Kapsalaand Agios Paulos, and numerous isolated burials. A1- thoughthe tomb with the greatest number and variety of burialgoods in- 94. Stephanos1903, pp.56-57; 1906,p.88, n.1; Papathanassopoulos cludingmarble figures (tomb 14 atDokathismata) was found in oneof the 1963,pp. 114,115,120,122-125, largestcemeteries on the island,marble figures were also found in much pls.46:a,b,47:a-c,48,49:a-d,50:a-c, smallercemeteries and even solitary graves.97 Moreover, graves containing 51:a,b,52:a-d,53:a-c,54:a, b,55:a-c, a figuremight contain nothing else (as at Aigale), or a fewceramics (as in 56:a,b,57:a-d,58:a-c,59:a, b,60:a-c, tomb13 at Dokathismata),or a greatvariety of otherobjects including 61. additionalmarble figures (as in tomb 14 at Dokathismata).Most sites 95. Doumas1977, pp.122-126, pls.22:e-g,49:e,h-n,51:b, e. containedsome evidence of marblefigures, but several did not, including 96. Marblefigures have been found AgiosPaulos (with a totalof elevengraves) and Phoinikies (just two graves). in cemeterieswith less thanten graves (Thetwo EarlyCycladic settlements on Amorgosof whichI am aware, on Amorgos:at Stauros(six tombs; Markianiand the settlementnear the AgiosPaulos cemetery, yielded no Tsountas1898, pp. 138,153);Notina metalartifacts or marblefigures.) Although the totalnumber of recorded (seventombs; Dummler 1886, pp.17- 18, pl. 1:3-5;Tsountas 1898, p.138); goodsfrom Amorgos is notgreat (less than 200, counting unspecified num- andAigale (a singletomb; Tsountas bersof itemssuch as "potterysherds" or "stonerubbers" as representing 1898,p. 138;Renfrew 1972, p.523); fiveitems), at leasttwenty-five whole or partialmarble figures were re- andalso on Syrosat Pydima(two or corded,suggesting that thesewere relatively common burial goods on threetombs; Tsountas 1899, p.79). Amorgos.98These numbers do not,however, shed light on thepercentage 97. Fora figurein an isolatedgrave, of peoplewho were buried with marble figures. seeTsountas 1898, p.138 (Aigale). Verysmall cemeteries containing mar- It is evenmore difficult to estimatethe percentageof the population ble figuresare published in Tsountas thatpossessed figures. Broodbank's attempts to inferpopulation size from 1898,p. 138 (KatoAkrotiri, two numbersof gravesmay provide minimum numbers,99 but do not account graves),p. 153 (Stauros,six graves) . fordeaths at seaor outsidethe community,even if sometombs with no 98. See Hendrix2000, pp.191-194, skeletalremains were intended for those lost souls. The poorstate of pres- for a list of findsfrom Amorgos. 99. Broodbank1989, p.325, table1. ervationof skeletalmaterial also hampers our attempts to discernmultiple 100.For example,Jeremy Bent's burialsin singlegraves, for which there is much,although not consistent, excavationson Antiparos,published in evidence.Some tombs do preserve evidence for multiple inhumations, such the 1884volume ofJHS, are written as as tomb 10 at Kapsala(which contained copper and terracotta, but no a picturesquetravel diary rather than an marblegoods), and some preserve a singlecranium (such as tomb14 at excavationreport. The reportsof Klon Dokathismata,with two marblefigures and many other goods), but the Stephanos(1903,1904,1906,1908, 1909,1910,1911)of his earlyexcava- reportsfor most graves record no skeletalremains at all.The ratherbrief tionson Naxos,published in Prakt,are accountsof excavationsfrom the latel9th andearly 20th centuries com- justa few pagesin length. poundthe difficulty,100as it is uncertainwhether bones would have been 436 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX consistentlydocumented even if theyhad been found. We canconclude fromthe reports on theexcavations atAmorgos, however, that twenty-five marblefigures have been recovered thus far from about eighty-six graves, withat leastfour graves containing more than one figure. The burialcontexts from Amorgos suggest that marble figures were not the exclusivepossessions of onetype of individual,and they could be associatedwith persons buried either alone, or in largeor small cemeteries. Someof theseindividuals had no other(nonperishable) burial goods, or a fewpieces of pottery,but others had impressive amounts of burialgoods, includingitems made from relatively rare materials such as copperor sil- ver,which also would have entailed considerable labor to produce.This variabilitysuggests that individuals on Amorgospossessed marble figures forreasons that cannot be linkedsimply to economicstatus or to singular rolesin theircommunities. It mayalso be observedthat the burialswith themost"special" objects (metal, marble, elaborate pottery) did not always containa marblefigure. Whenthe largest Early Cycladic cemeteries are examined, such as at Chalandrianion Syros(with more than 500 tombs),a similarpattern emerges:seventy-five tombs are recorded and, despite some plundering, onlynine had no finds beyond skeletal material.10l Tomb 307 was equipped withtwo late EC II marblefigures, marble vessels, three pigment tubes, a terracotta"frying pan," and a terracottabowl. Tomb 354 containeda late EC II figure,two marblebowls (one with green pigment in its interior), andtwo terracottajars. Tombs 415 and468 eachincluded a singlesche- maticfigure of marble.Tomb 447 containeda marblefigure of theDoka- thismatavariety (late EC II), terracotta vessels, and a cranium.Other tombs, withoutfigures, contained many items, including goods made of marble, copper,and silver, or specializedobjects such as elaborately (and symboli- cally)decorated "frying pans," pigment tubes, or obsidianblades. Again, this evidencedoes not pointto the equivalencebetween marble figures and"wealth" per se. What conclusionscan be drawnfrom the archaeologicaldata thus far?Most broadly, the varietyof gravegoods and their presence in both the smallestand largest burial sites argue against the marblefigures serv- ing to circumscribeany sort of expressedeconomic hierarchy in Early Cycladicmortuary practices. Let us askinstead, however, who was in- terredwith the marble figures. Marble figures are found in themajority of cemeteriesthroughout the EBA Cyclades.From the earlierto the later phasesof the period,they were associated most often with one or two tombs(containing, it mustbe acknowledged,an unknown number of in- dividualswho were nonetheless buried as one entity), with additional tombs containingmarkedly fewer examples. This patternis mostevident at the beginningof the EarlyBronze Age. Thus, in mostcommunities, one en- tity (individualor family/occupationalclan) was mostclosely associated withthe figures. If we candetermine the filnction(s) ofthe figures, we may be ableto saysomething about the roles of thosepeople who were interred 101. See Hekman1990 for tomb withthem. assemblagesat Chalandriani. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 437

Figure17. EarlyCycladic Violin-type figurefrom Naxos, Akrotiri, tomb 20. H. 10.5 cm. Naxos,Archaeological Museum,Chora, 1993.

PAINTING: PERFORMANCE AND PARAPHERNALIA

A studyof burialassemblages reveals that in additionto the marblefig- ures,items that relate to pigmentand paint were also deposited in numer- oustombs. In somecases there may be a directrelationship between the activityof paintingand the marblefigure (and the deceased).102Tomb 14 at Dokathismata,mentioned above, is wellknown.l03 In thisundeniably 102.See Getz-Gentle1996, p.179; richgrave, one of two marblelug bowlscontained a lumpof darkred Hendrix2000, p. 158. pigment(unfortunately not analyzedas yet); a verysimilar color was ap- 103.Tsountas1898,pp. 154-155; pliedas a seriesof slightlyoff-vertical stripes arranged across the chestof Hendrix2000, p.192. oneof the twomarble figures found in thetomb.104 At Akrotirion Naxos 104.Getz-Gentle 1996, p. 79, a Violin-typefigure with a patternof grooveson the torso(including a pl.VII(2):D and E (color),NAM 4724 (bowl)and 4722 (figure). pubictriangle) was found in tomb20 (Figs.3, 173.In addition,a seriesof 105.See Thimme and Getz- redhorizontal stripes or partiallypreserved lozenges was painted up the Preziosi1977, pp. 439-440, no. 72 neckprong (Fig. 3, left).105Another Violin figure (slightly smaller) with (descriptionof painton p. 440),for an similargrooves and a "notch"at thetop of theprong was found in tomb21 unproveniencedPlastiras-type figure (Fig.3, right).Although no tracesof paintwere observed on thisfigure, withred horizontal stripes painted up tomb21 alsocontained two marblepestles, one withXthe remains of red the verylong neck. This figureis in a privatecollection in Germany. pigmenton its grindingsurface, and a whitestone mortar with red in its 106.Doumas 1977, p.94, pls.32:c, interior.106Clay vessels with incised decoration and stone beads-one in h, i,33:c, e. the shapeof a bird werealso included in tomb21 (itemsof personal 438 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX adornment,perhaps a necklace?);a copper bead and a marblePlastiras- typefigure were found in tomb20 alongwith the painted Violin figure. In otherwords, these were tombs that maybe describedas well provided (twoother tombs, of twenty-four,in the cemeterycontained one marble figureeach, and another two containedobjects with pigment:a bowlin tomb11, anda pestlein tomb23). The similarityof the Violinfigures fromtombs 20 and21 andthe remainsof paint- on a figureand as pre- paredfor use- suggestthat these two tomb occupants were somehow con- nectedand that an eventrelated to the actof paintingwas associated at leastwith the burial in tomb21. While painted designs on their own com- municatemore about the finaleffect than the process,this evidenceand thatfrom tomb 14 at Dokathismatasuggest that the processof painting itselfwas also culturally significant for some individuals. Theimportance of suchprocesses in othercultures has been discussed in the anthropologicalliterature. It is worthreviewing in somedetail one example,the Melville islanders (the Tiwi), since the processesof carving, painting,and dance as part of theburial ritual all contribute to thesuccess of the event.107The Tiwi carveand paint wooden burial poles during a two-to-fourmonth period after a memberof thecommunity dies. Due to taboosof proximity,the creators108of the poles must not be relatedto the deceased.Thegeneral process, from selection of rawmaterials to finalpaint- ing,is culturallyprescribed, although details of outputdepend on thecre- ativityofthe maker, and on the wishes (and finances) ofthe deceased's kin. Groupsof pole-makersgather, each group responsible for the production of onepole. The polemust be of a certainsize and type of wood,and the basicdesign must conform to tradition,a mandate ensured by the artisan's askingfor and receivingadvice from the moreexperienced individuals workingnearby. When the polesare finished they become the focusof dancingrituals during the final burial celebration. The particularqualities of thiswhole display relate to the deceased'sstatus in life aswell as to his orher ancestral status. The point of theritual is to facilitatethe deceased's transitionto theworld of the"once-living" since the Tiwi believe that the ancestorsare partaking in a simultaneousritual of dancingin whichthe newlydeceased member joins. After the dance,despite all the effortand materialsexpended on them,the polesare no longersignificant and are left to decaynaturally. The taboosand dancing associated with the poles, ratherthan the polesthemselves, are clearly the focusof the ritual.The polesare important insofar as they give tangible form to the maintenance of the ritual. We do not knowwhether the marblefigures were made specifically for burialrituals; repairs and multiple painted motifs may indicate that theyfunctioned in othercontexts as well. In somecases, however, we may be justifiedin interpretingthe findsas evidencefor mortuarybehavior (ritualpainting) that is eitherspecific to burialrites or thatrelates to ac- 107. Goodaleand Koss 1967. tivitiescarried on in life.The depositionof figures,paint, pigment con- 108.Primarily male, except when a femaleshows special aptitude during tainers,vessels, needles, and obsidian blades in gravesstrongly suggests mockrituals in whichall childrenpar- thatburial practices were complex and often (but not always) required at a takein all the roles;see Goodaleand minimumthe paraphernaliathat have survived to the present. Koss1967, p. 188. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 439

Inthe EBA Cyclades, similar burial good assemblages attest to a shared senseof appropriatepossessions among widely dispersed communities (the horizontalaxis). Just as importantly,connections to the pastwere main- tainedby the depositionwith the deceasedof goodsthat bear similarities to thosedeposited by previousgenerations (the vertical axis). The pres- enceof differentiatedburial goods within cemeteries suggests that indi- vidualentities were associatedwith particular subsets ofthe EarlyCycladic materialculture, and that these subsets accompanied particular roles within the EC culturalmilieu. In nonindustrialsocieties where differentiation is markedby particularsets of knowledgeor materialpossessions, agree- mentamong a populationthat some individuals hold the responsibility to maintaingroup identity may be attested. Helms has observed, for example, thatsome members of a communitycan be empoweredto transmitcul- turalidentity through special activities, of whichthe production and use of extra-utilitariangoods may play an important (and durable) role.l09 This is theclass of artifactinto which painted marble figures, paint paraphernalia, clayand marble"frying pans," marble kandiles, and prismaticobsidian bladescould, among other (and other less durable)goods, be ascribed. Helmsdefines the peoplewho possessthese objects and the knowledge systemsthat give them their meaning ''aristocrats.''ll° In the EBA Cyclades this categoryseems to haveexisted as well,but gravegoods and burial contextsuggest that these "aristocrats" were differentiated from other mem- bersof the communitynot in termsof materialwealth, but perhapsin termsof culturalresponsibilities and powers.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS

In attemptingto makesense of the Cycladicpainted figures, and having consideredthe physicalevidence, I wouldextend Talalay's assessment of GreekNeolithic anthropomorphic figures into the Bronze Age: "figurines wereultimately associated with the adaptive strategies of a givencommu- nityand [it is likely]that their functions varied.''lll Doublesets of eyes,multiple lozenge-shaped motifs on the faceand otherparts of thebody, and especially the wide-open "anatomical" eyes on so manyEarly Cycladic figures indicate a possibleshift in meaningof figurativeworks from the Neolithic to the EarlyBronze Age. Only rarely do we continueto see the slit-eyescharacteristic of the Neolithic,which werefashioned on clayas well as marblefigures.ll2 Rather, the eyeson EarlyCycladic figures are painted in sucha wayas to effecta returngaze. 109.Helms 1998, p. 7. The figuresappear wide awake, focusing straight ahead, one reasonwhy 110.Helms 1998, p. 6. I cannotaccept the hypothesis that the figures were utilized in a reclining 111.Talalay 1993, p. 37. position,although they may have been stored that way. Rather, the ani- 112. See Papathanassopoulos1996, matedeyes combined with the size of the figures(almost all areunder pp. 312-333, nos.231-233, for eyesin 0.50m), the slightly pointed feet and bent knees, and the additional painted clayvisages, and from Thessaly, a mar- ble headfrom a figurinein the Athens featuressuggest that the slenderfigures, held easily around the waistby NationalArchaeological Museum womenor men,played an active,upright role in ritual,storytelling, edu- (6001). cating,or somecombination of socialuses over the course of theiruse-life 44o ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

in the community,prior to burial.That they could not stand on theirown mayfurther indicate that they were objects to be handledrather than ven- eratedfrom a distance,although the largest figures may have been propped againstwalls to increasetheir visibility.1l3 Applicationsof painteddesigns specific to a givenevent may explain the relativelypoor state of preservationof somemotifs (see below), while otherfeatures, such as the two normal eyes and crown band, were intended to be morepermanent. The kindsof eventsthat mayhave inspired or requiredpainting designs or symbols on figurescannot be discernedfrom the archaeologicalrecord as it existsnow, with the exceptionof the event of death.We do havesome evidence that the materials and act of painting werepart of theburial process. I havealready noted the Violin figures and mortarand pestle with redpigment excavated from tombs 20 and21 in the earlyEC I cemeteryat Akrotirion Naxos,and the bowlwith pestle andred pigment and figure with red stripes painted across the chestfrom tomb14 in theDokathismata cemetery on Amorgos, dating to lateEC II. Tomb14 alsocontained the silverdiadem illustrated above (Fig. 7), a hu- mancranium, another similar marble figure, a marblefour-lugged bowl, severalclay jars, a fragmentof a silverbowl, a silverblade, a copperdagger withsilver rivets, two copper bracelets, and a silverpin with a goatfinial.1l4 Thiswas an exceptionally well stocked tomb, highly suggestive of anindi- vidual(if indeedthere was just one individualburied there) who was 113. SeeN. P.Goulandris Foun- wealthierthan others in the cemetery.Part of thiswealthy person's burial dation,Museum of CycladicArt, kit includedtools and materials that could enable someone to engagein Coll.968, a fragmentof handsholding a miniaturefigure, illustrated in Getz- the actof painting.It is clearthat painting as a processwas significant in Gentle2001, p. 37, fig. 18 (reconstruc- this context.Pigments associated with tombselsewhere in the Cyclades tion drawing),pl. 26. Fora provocative mayrelate to thispractice.1l5 anddetailed discussion of the possible It is necessaryto speculateif we wantto suggestwhat sort of events functionsof anthropomorphicfigures, duringa person'slife wouldhave been accompanied by the paintingof seeTalalay 1993, pp. 37-79. A rich marblefigures. Here the analysisof ethnographicparallels is positionof themotif on thebody may be reveal- alsoprovided. ing.As we haveseen, the head and neck are favored. The headespecially, 114.Tsountas 1898, pp. 154-155, with its wide-openeyes and other possible motifs, would have been the pls. 8:1,2; 9:11,lla, 21; 10:6;12:2, 8. focusof interest,commanding the attention of theviewer to thefigure and 115.Yellow ocher was found dis- whatevermessage it wasmeant to communicate.The function ofthe paint tributedon the slabfloor of a double at this levelwas to expressthe authorityof the particularmessage the burialin tomb8 at AgioiAnargyroi on Naxos(Doumas 1977, pp. 101, 108). figurewas set to convey. Lumpsof red-brown"ocher" were The bellyis a frequentlocation for zigzagmotifs and alsofor the notedjust outsidethe gravesin the nonanatomicaleyes (Figs. 4, 8, 10).Associations with pregnancy may not samecemetery (Doumas 1977, p. 119), be out of the question,signifying a temporarycondition for the persona andpigments were found throughout embodiedin the marblefigure. Early Cycladic female figures are rarely tomb23 in the Aplomatacemetery, also representedas obviouslypregnant. Bellies that protrude greatly enough on Naxos(Kontoleon 1972, p. 150; to Coleman1985, p. 210).Yellow powder indicatepregnancy unequivocally are far less common than slightly swol- wasalso found spread before tomb 8 in len abdomensthat seem more eharacteristic of normalfemale anatomy the Plastirascemetery on Paros(Dou- (perhapsenhanced by age).l16Enlarged breasts, which may also signify mas1977, p. 98), andtwo lumpsof red pregnancy,are altogether absent on EarlyCycladic figures, as arebroad pigmentwere found in tomb356 in the hipsor exaggerated buttocks; typical prehistoric representations of"fertil- Chalandrianicemetery on Syros (Tsountas1899, p. 113). ity"are not found in EarlyCycladic female figures. Nevertheless, the con- 116.This ideawas first suggested to ditionof pregnancymust have been fraught with a senseof awe,danger, me in May 1999by PatGetz-Gentle mystery,responsibility, and optimism, and would therefore seem an ap- (pers.comm.). PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 44I

propriatesubject for performance, storytelling, song, and other behaviors supportingthe actof paintingon the belly.But that was only one condi- tionworthy of socialattention. Nonanatomicaleyes that appear elsewhere on thefigure also presum- ablycall attention to thepart of thebody where they appear, although the particularsignificance is unknown.Ethnographic parallels generally sup- portthis broad meaning. Symbolic eyes are added to imagesor createdas isolateditems (ex-votos) in modernGreece, , Syria, Mexico, and elsewhere.ll7Thetsikuri, or "God's eyes" produced in yarnby the Huichol in Mexico,for example, symbolically ask a particulardeity to "keepan eye on"the individualwho possessesthe tsikuri.ll8Eyes that appear on par- ticularbody parts of marblefigures may similarly ask for safekeepingof thevoice, womb, spirit, arm/strength, heart, and so on. Thezigzags painted on theupper arms or legs of somefigures are also difficultto interpret.The functionof thesemarkings on thoseareas might be to callattention to the limbs,either strengthening or weakening their powersor the powersthe limbsmay have come to symbolizefor an indi- vidual,community, or networkof communities.ll9Alternatively, they may simplymimic body embellishments worn by living people. Clearly, in the absenceof contemporarytexts, too manyvariables exist to determinethe precisemeaning of thismotif. As alreadymentioned, very few, if any,Early Cycladic figures of the developedtypes are found in clay.That is highlysuggestive of a formof culturalcontrol over production. At thevery least, Early Cycladic island- ersdid not find it desirableor necessary to fashionclay versions for them- selves,which would have been relatively easy to do.l20The female(occa- sionallymale) human figure was an objectthat for somereason, and for centuries,was strictly linked to whitemarble. Given the whiteslip on so manyEarly Cycladic clay vessels, the colorof the stonewas not the issue, perhapsin the sameway that color was not the onlyvaluable property of the pigmentsused.l2l 117.On the "evileye" in othercul- Marbleworkers of variouslevels of skilland ambition produced an- tures,see Dundes1981 and Thomsen thropomorphicfigures that have been found throughout the Cycladic world, 1992. evenon islandswhere marble is not available.At thevery least, crafting a 118.Muller 1978, p. 93. figureof thismaterial expressed conformity to a pan-Cycladicnorm, and a 119.For the intriguingconnections betweenanatomy and power, see Win- willingnessto investconsiderable time in the effort.Those are two strong ter 1989,1996. messagesthat mayhave helped establish and maintainbeneficial and 120.There are exceptional figures friendlyrelations among members of an importantsubset in everyEarly madeof othermaterials, such as shell Cycladiccommunity: travelers and hosts. The presence of sucha figurein or lead,and on Crete,ivory. See Fitton a communitymay have signified to travelersthat the ownerwas "one of 1989,p. 58, fig. 76, fora leadfigure generallywasmore than one burial in a communityassoci- fromAntiparos, and Sakellarakis 1977, us."Thatthere p. 151,fig. 143,for the ivoryfigure atedwith figures suggests that a numberof specialindividuals within the fromTholos C at Archanes,Crete. communitycould maintain the largergroup identity. Multiple figures in 121.For EC white-slippedpottery, oneburial may hint at several networks, and may also symbolize the extent see Doumas1977, pl. 36:c(where the of thosenetworks as well as confirmthem. The imaginationsupplies nu- kandilashape clearly mimics marble merousavenues for speculation. examples),and Renfrew 1972, pl. 7 (withdark-painted patterns analogous Ourability to dividefigures into a relativelysmall group of stylistic to the contrastingeffects of painton typesattests to a certainlevel of conformity.At the sametime, there is marblefigures). muchvariety within the types. Great differences can also be foundamong 442 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX

the types,from the rudimentarynotched pebble figures to the near-life- sizefolded-arm figures.l22 Nonetheless, all can be easilyidentified as Cy- cladic,as opposedto Anatolianor Balkanor Levantine;there must have beena consensusamong the islandersfor forms appropriate to the Early Cycladiccultures. How doesthe presenceof paintcontribute to ourunderstanding of thefunction and meaning of thefigures? Certain motifs, in particularthe twoanatomical eyes and the crownband, are so common,and so broadly consistentin form,that they seem to havebeen part of thecanon that was communicatedasintegral to thepan-Cycladic norm. In thiscase the func- tion andthe meaningseem to havebeen broadly the same:Here is the activatedimage that you, as a memberof this (pan-Cycladic)world, will recognize. Certainother painted designs may have been applied or not, depend- ing on localcustoms or needs.l23The formof the figurewas essentially generic,and seems to havebeen initially detailed with two openeyes in orderto renderthe figurealert. The individualor groupthat possessed a figurecould use its genericform in a varietyof waysover time, since its appearancewas not tied to a specificcondition such as pregnancy or mourn- ing.Its appearance,and therefore meaning, could be alteredwith paint, andperhaps dress,l24 to workon a symboliclevel for a varietyof particular occasions.In otherwords, an unspecified human form can be particular- izedto suita specificstage of lifeor eventby the application of significant paintedfeatures.l25 Thishypothesis may also account for the poor state of preservationof so manyof thepainted motifs. Many of thesefeatures may not have been intendedto lastlonger than the duration of the eventfor which they were applied.l26The surprisingabsence of the mouthon mostCycladic figures maysuggest two explanations:either mouths were somehow inappropri- ateon theseworks (the handler doing all the talking),or theywere indi- catedwithmedia thatwere temporary. As a possiblesymbol of voice,story, song,channel, or port of nourishment,the mouthmay have been painted in a changingvariety of ways over the use-life of thefigure. Other features, suchas the anatomical eyes, may have been applied in moredurable media

122. See,e.g., plates in the abun- whosesignificance may be realized thatthe veryfriable biscuit of some dantlyillustrated catalogues edited by as muchin the actas the effectsof Neolithicclay figurines from Franchthi Thimmeand Getz-Preziosi (1977) and palntng. Cavemay indicate "that the actof mak- Getz-Preziosi(1987b). 125.Bynum, Harrel, and Richman ing the figurewas more important than 123. SeeTalalay 1993, pp. 4S44, (1986,p. 5) pointout thata givenmotif manipulatingthe artifact,"while hard- fora discussionof ethnographicpar- mayhave different meanings depend- firedexamples "might indicate that the allelsregarding the multipleuses of ing on the statusof the viewer,a point figurewas intended to havean 'active' figuresin modernnonindustrialized alsoobserved byTalalay (1993, p. 34). life and,consequently, that the maker communities.Songs and poems com- See alsoKelly, Lang, and Walters intentionallyexposed the pieceto a monlyaccompany the use of these 1972,p. 62, on the creationand use thoroughfiring in orderto ensureits figures;they are part of a complex of anthropomorphicfigures by the permanence."She points (p 127,n. 27) teachingprogram aimed at passing Navahoin orderto helprestore health to additionalstudies, such as thosecar- downtraditions that provide the com- to peoplewho havefallen ill. Applied riedout by Crowley(1973) and Fernan- munitywith its worldview. embellishmentssuch as dressand dez (1973),that demonstrate that the 124.Dress does not necessarily jewelryelements aid in the task. processof a figure'smanufacture was at negatethe inction of paintedmotifs, 126.Talalay (1993, p. 17) suggests leastas significantas the finalproduct. PAINTED EARLY CYCLADIC FIGURES 443

or evenreapplied when necessary, having a morestable function. Those featureswill be morelikely to survivecorrosive burial conditions (as well as modern"cleaning" efforts). To conclude,I wouldpropose that there was an implicithierarchy of identitiesexpressed in EarlyCycladic figures. First, the forms themselves express,without doubt, that the manufacturerand possessor belong to somedegree to the samebroad group of peopleinhabiting the islandsin the southernAegean. As Jack Davis has observed: In the EarlyBronze Age, the similaritiesin the formalcharacteris- ticsof ceramics,marble vessels, figurines, and metal objects that typifythe EarlyCycladic culture are indicative of socialand eco- nomicties maintained among the settlementsof the islands;these relationshipsmay also be regardedas necessaryadaptations that wouldhave provided access to additionalresources of foodand manpowerin timesof crisis.127 Thewhite, marble, pan-Cycladic, anthropomorphic forms were not com- plete,however, before two large open eyes were applied in paint.It is dif- ficultto resistthe notion that these eyes were meant to expressthe marble body'sconnection to theworld of humanbeings. Second,motifs such as stripesor zigzags,certain coiffures, perhaps, andred lines segregating specific body parts128 may have associated the figurewith a familyor other group within the broader culture. The funerary contextand the incisions on theViolin-type figures from tombs 20 and21 fromAkrotiri on Naxos,for example,suggest such a relationship.In a similarvein, links may have been expressed through similar motifs on fig- ures"belonging" to a woman'sor man'sparental family and subsequently theirspousal family, tracking personal histories of exogamy.129 Third,some motifs may have been applied in associationwith impor- tantevents: 1nltlatons. . . . 1nto. ac u t groups,marr1age, . pregnancy, an 1mpor-. tantsea venture, and, ultimately, the voyage to thenext world. Tattoos can alsomark personal events or status, as can scarification and body painting, andeven hair styles, as hasbeen argued for the youngwomen painted in theThera frescoes.130 The conceptof paintingthe marblefigures may de- rivefrom the practiceof paintingactual human bodies. Talalay, among

127.Davis 1992, p. 704. for discussionof ceramicdesign sim- essentialage divisions that are accom- 128.The relativelycommon red ilaritiesin the contextof MiddleNeo- paniedby differentsocial status, partic- linesonly occur in incisionsthat delin- lithicsettlement exogamy. ularlyin regardto sexualavailability. eateintegrated body parts, such as the 130.For tattoos see Helms1993, Besidesvarious sorts of bodypaint and juncturebetween the neckand head, p. 59, withbibliography, and Talalay modesof application,these life stages or the spine.It is extremelyrare for 1993,pp. 70-72. SeeTalalay 1993, aremarked by specifichair lengths, and separatebody parts, such as the lower pp.37-79, andRubin 1988 for body by specificarticles of dressand jewelry. foldedarms and the torso,to be out- markingthroughout the world.For hair Furthermore,the positionof the orna- linedin red.It is thereforetempting to treatmentsin theThera frescoes, see mentis meantto enhancethe (percep- imaginethat these red lines may also Davis1986. On the roleof womenas tion of) powerof the anatomyto which havebeen painted on humanindividu- bodypainters (the bodies of children it refers.Men andwomen use different als.Red paint between fingers and toes andother women), see Turner's (1971) methodsof applyingthe paint,and is the exceptionto thisrule, and may be studyof theTchikrin culture of Brazil. colorsas well as positionon the body specificto marblefigures (vs. humans). In thatcommunity painted symbols/ addto the meaningof the patterns. 129. See Cullen1985, pp. 94-97, designson the bodyare used to express 444 ELIZABETH A. HENDRIX others,has noted that a keydifference between body painting and tattoo- ing or scarificationis permanence."While[tattooing and scarification] reflectpermanent changes in status,body paint is usedto symbolizemore transientstates or specialoccasions.''l3l Here the choiceof materialmay againcome into play: incising clay figuresfeels more like permanent meth- odsof bodymodification; painting on marblefeels more like painting on flesh. I proposethat some of thepainted emblems were appropriate for cer- tainepisodes in the life or deathof the bearer,whether marble or flesh, addingparticular dimension to thehuman orat least anthropomorphic bodyunderneath. Body embellishment was not an innovation of theEarly Cycladicperiod, but neither was it rejectedthen, despite the modernap- pearanceof somemarble figures.The great innovation in theEarly Cycladic periodwas to provideanthropomorphic marble female figures with open eyesin additionto otherbody markings, some of whichhad been used earlier.These motifs, as appliedto the marblefigures, assisted individuals orsmall groups in theirendeavor to transfercultural memories across space 131. Talalay1993, p. 71, with refer- andthrough time to participatein the processof"being Cycladic." ences to ethnographicparallels.

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