VOLUME 18 SPRING/SUMMER 2004 A R C T I C R E S E A R C H O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S

I N T E R A G E N C Y A R C T I C R E S E A R C H P O L I C Y C O M M I T T E E The journal Arctic Research of the United refereed for scientific content or merit since the About States is for people and organizations interested journal is not intended as a means of reporting the in learning about U.S. Government-financed scientific research. Articles are generally invited Arctic research activities. It is published semi- and are reviewed by agency staffs and others as Journal annually (spring and fall) by the National Science appropriate. Foundation on behalf of the Interagency Arctic As indicated in the U.S. Arctic Research Plan, Research Policy Committee (IARPC). The research is defined differently by different agen- Interagency Committee was authorized under the cies. It may include basic and applied research, Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984 monitoring efforts, and other information-gathering (PL 98-373) and established by Executive Order activities. The definition of Arctic according to the 12501 (January 28, 1985). Publication of the jour- ARPA is “all United States and foreign territory nal has been approved by the Office of Manage- north of the Arctic Circle and all United States ment and Budget. territory north and west of the boundary formed Arctic Research contains by the Porcupine, Yukon, and Kuskokwim Rivers; • Reports on current and planned U.S. Govern- all contiguous seas, including the Arctic Ocean ment-sponsored research in the Arctic; and the Beaufort, Bering, and Chukchi Seas; and • Reports of IARPC meetings; and the Aleutian chain.” Areas outside of the bound- • Summaries of other current and planned ary are discussed in the journal when considered Arctic research, including that of the State of relevant to the broader scope of Arctic research. Alaska, local governments, the private sec- Issues of the journal will report on Arctic tor, and other nations. topics and activities. Included will be reports of Arctic Research is aimed at national and inter- conferences and workshops, university-based national audiences of government officials, scien- research and activities of state and local govern- tists, engineers, educators, private and public ments and public, private and resident organiza- groups, and residents of the Arctic. The emphasis tions. Unsolicited nontechnical reports on is on summary and survey articles covering U.S. research and related activities are welcome. Government-sponsored or -funded research rath- Address correspondence to Editor, Arctic er than on technical reports, and the articles are Research, Arctic Research and Policy Staff, intended to be comprehensible to a nontechnical Office of Polar Programs, National Science audience. Although the articles go through the Foundation, 4201 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, normal editorial process, manuscripts are not VA 22230.

Researchers observing massive ice calving near the face of the Steller Lobe of the Bering Glacier. This ice face is Front Cover nearly 100 m high and 15 km long. VOLUME 18 SPRING/SUMMER 2004 A R C T I C R E S E A R C H O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S

INTERAGENCY ARCTIC RESEARCH Report from Federal Agencies for 2002–2003 POLICY COMMITTEE This issue of Arctic Research of the United States presents DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE highlights and results of major fiscal year 2002 and 2003 Arctic research programs and selected projects of the Federal agencies. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE For more information, you may contact the agency staff representatives listed on page 147. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY National Science Foundation ...... 2 Department of the Interior ...... 14 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES Minerals Management Service ...... 14 DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY Fish and Wildlife Service ...... 26

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR National Park Service ...... 33 Bureau of Land Management ...... 38 DEPARTMENT OF STATE Geological Survey ...... 47 DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION Department of Defense ...... 63 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION A GENCY National Aeronautics and Space Administration ...... 70 Department of Commerce ...... 78 NATIONAL A ERONAUTICS AND SPACE A DMINISTRATION Department of Agriculture ...... 97 NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION Department of Energy ...... 103 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Department of Health and Human Services ...... 111

OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET Smithsonian Institution...... 126 Environmental Protection Agency ...... 133 OFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY Department of Transportation ...... 137 Department of Homeland Security ...... 139

Managing Editorial Committee Department of State ...... 145 Charles E. Myers, National Science Foundation—Editor

John Haugh, Bureau of Land Management—Associate Editor Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee Staff ...... 147 David W. Cate, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory—Consulting Editor

Editing and production: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire

1 National Science Foundation National Science Foundation research is concerned with the entire Arctic region, including Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Svalbard, the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas, the upper atmosphere, and near space. Research falls principally within eight major scientific disciplines: atmosphere, ocean, biology, earth science, glaciology, social science, engineering, and science education.

The NSF supports a formal Arctic research Funding (thousands) program within the Office of Polar Programs (OPP). FY 02 FY 03 Other divisions and programs throughout NSF, Arctic Natural Science 11,472 12,200 Arctic System Science Prog 19,093 20,699 primarily in the Directorate for Geosciences and Arctic Social Sciences Prog 1,975 2,758 the Division of Environmental Biology in the Arctic Education Research 250 300 Directorate for Biological Sciences, support Arctic Research Support 797 823 research in and on the Arctic as part of their over- Arctic Data/Info/Coord 248 270 all funding. Most research grants are awarded on Arctic Research Commission 1,017 1,080 Arctic Logistics/Instrumentation 27,580 29,166 the basis of unsolicited proposals and are merit Subtotal for OPP 62,431 67,296 reviewed. Other NSF Science Programs 23,557 25,786 In FY 03, NSF awarded funds for 356 Arctic Total 85,988 93,082 research projects at 136 institutions in 43 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. etal support systems. The program is coordinated, The following sections present highlights of managed, and supported financially by the OPP, several major programs and selected projects. A with contributions from other NSF directorates complete listing of NSF Arctic funded projects can and other Federal agencies where appropriate. be found in the publication Arctic Science, Engi- NSF/ARCSS has been successful at establishing neering, and Education Awards: FY 2003, avail- partnerships with other Federal agencies; consid- able from the Office of Polar Programs, National erable cost and in-kind sharing with NASA, ONR, Science Foundation, Arlington, VA 22230. and NOAA on current and past projects has occurred for projects dealing with Arctic climate Arctic System Science and ocean processes and modeling research. ARCSS research continues to contribute to the In 1989 the NSF established the Arctic System U.S. Global Change Research Program. Science (ARCSS) program, an interdisciplinary ARCSS has employed a series of workshops program that examines the interactions within and and interactions with a broad scientific community between the climatic, geologic, biologic, and socio- to develop goals and priorities aimed at under- economic components of the Arctic system. ARCSS standing the role of the Arctic as a system under- is predicated on the premise that the Arctic system going change. Planning is focused on three the- is sensitive to, and important in, global change. matic questions: What are the limits of Arctic The ARCSS goal is to understand the physical, system predictability? How do human activities chemical, biological, and social processes of the interact with changes in the Arctic to affect the Arctic system that interact with the total Earth sustainability of ecosystems and societies? How system and thus contribute to or are influenced by will changes in Arctic cycles and feedbacks affect global change, in order to advance the scientific Arctic and global systems? These questions basis for predicting environmental change on a emphasize three concepts fundamental to research decade-to-centuries time scale, and for informing on Arctic change: predictability, sustainability, and policy options in response to the anticipated feedbacks. Focusing the ARCSS program on these impacts of changing climate on humans and soci- concepts reflects the increased ARCSS emphasis

2 on integrative, interdisciplinary research that ecology of the Arctic, which can give valuable weaves disciplinary knowledge into system science. insight towards identifying system interactions. An important assumption underlying these ques- In recent years, PARCS, the principle paleoenvi- tions is that many changes in the global climate ronmental research effort of ARCSS, has been system affect the Arctic system. Changes in the Arc- supported through participation in the NSF Earth tic may, in turn, have impacts on the global system. System History program. ARCSS currently has several components, The PARCS program is devoted to reconstruct- including Ocean/Atmosphere/Ice Interactions ing paleoclimatic history from the sediments of (OAII); Land/Atmosphere/Ice Interactions (LAII); Arctic and sub-Arctic bogs and lakes and from Paleoenvironmental Arctic Sciences (PARCS); the information in tree-ring records and in sediments Russian–American Initiative on Shelf–Land Envi- from the marginal seas, continental shelves, ronments in the Arctic (RAISE); and Human slopes, and abyss of the Arctic Basin. A variety Dimensions of the Arctic System (HARC). How- of proxy indicators (such as pollen, diatoms, sedi- ever, the program is evolving to a more efficient ment chemistry, and grain size) in the sediments structure, and it is anticipated that these compo- yield vital information on the responses of terres- nents will change substantially, become woven trial and marine ecosystems to climate, land use into a structure more nearly reflecting the ques- change, and the physical conditions and produc- tions, and ultimately disappear, and that each of tivity of the Arctic Ocean. the ARCSS research efforts will contribute prima- rily to the three thematic questions above. OAII Contemporary and Process Studies and LAII have long been scheduled to end their A current example of a process-oriented ARCSS planning activities and will do so at the end of research activity is the Shelf–Basin Interactions 2004. RAISE has been on a trajectory to broaden (SBI) effort, begun to improve understanding its scope to a pan-Arctic Land–Shelf Interactions of the role of the large continental shelf seas for (LSI) effort and has already produced a science marine biological productivity and the exchange of plan to provide ideas to the ARCSS process. Simi- water, nutrients, heat, and energy with the perma- larly, new ideas emerged from the LAII group in nently ice-covered central Arctic basins. Through the form of a Pan-Arctic Cycles, Transitions and integrated field and modeling efforts, the SBI Sustainability (PACTS) plan, which proved to project is investigating the effects of global have intellectual content that was highly interdis- change on production, cycling, and shelf–slope ciplinary and went well beyond terrestrial science. exchange of biogenic matter, both seasonally and The ARCSS committee of the Arctic Research spatially. To this end, there are five study objec- Consortium of the U.S. provides recommendations tives deemed both timely and essential to an for overall coordination and integration of ARCSS. improved understanding of the effects of global The committee is actively engaged in the restruc- change on productivity as it contributes to shelf– turing of ARCSS and in doing so is drawing on basin interactions within the Arctic Ocean ecosys- ideas emerging from a synthesis effort that tem, including: explores our knowledge of the linkages and feed- • Understanding the roles of physical processes backs within the system. In the past ARCSS had in the transport and modification of water and science steering committees and science manage- biogenic materials across the shelf and into ment offices for each component to facilitate coor- the interior basin; dination and integration within the component • Identifying mesoscale oceanographic features and to provide a focal point for communication that support locally elevated concentrations with the scientific community. As ARCSS evolves of benthic and pelagic biota; towards a more integrated structure, it is expected • Quantifying upper ocean (water column and that some of this will change as the ARCSS com- sea ice) primary productivity in relation to the mittee engages more in the interdisciplinary, biomass and diversity of benthic and pelagic system-wide approach to ARCSS. A mechanism primary and secondary consumers; will be identified to maintain the function of com- • Assessing the relative importance of top- munity liaison that was provided by these offices. down as compared to bottom-up controls over pelagic–benthic coupling, biotic com- Paleoenvironmental Studies plexity, and carbon partitioning among differ- Paleoenvironmental research contributes to an ent trophic levels; and understanding of past climate, atmosphere, and • Assessing food web changes consequent to

3 the impacts of changing ice cover and hydro- and the teleconnection to the sub-Arctic graphic parameters on remineralization of oceans; organic matter, recycling efficiency, and bio- • Synthesis and integration of available data geochemical fluxes. and modeling studies to reveal processes, linkages, and causes of variability in the Arctic Human Dimensions of the Arctic System terrestrial, atmosphere, and upper-ocean Human Dimensions of the Arctic System hydrologic cycle; and (HARC) is a collaborative effort with the Arctic • Documentation and assessment of the vari- Social Sciences Program to integrate natural and ability of the Arctic hydrologic freshwater social sciences research that will demonstrate the cycle and associated changes in oceanic interactions of climate and human development water-mass properties in the Arctic Ocean on with the use of natural resources. Arctic Native the decade-to-century time scale. peoples have sustained themselves through hunt- ing, fishing, whaling, and wage employment Synthesis in ARCSS derived from petroleum revenues. The continued Finally, ARCSS supports the integration of sustainability of their culture and regional devel- research results across components within ARCSS opment could be affected by global environmental as well as with any other Arctic research program changes that affect vegetation and marine produc- through a Synthesis, Integration and Modeling tivity, year-round sea ice maintenance, and con- Studies (SIMS) effort. This activity is now achiev- struction and land use practices. Research at the ing new prominence in the program, and as interface between natural sciences and human ARCSS ventures into its first program-wide syn- dimensions will increase policymakers’ under- thesis, the program is increasingly interested in standing of regional natural and social systems efforts that expand on the existing data-oriented and build linkages between communities in the SIMS effort and propose to synthesize knowledge Arctic. Those linkages will enhance the knowl- of how the Arctic system works, with major empha- edge base necessary for examining policy choices sis on understanding the linkages between parts and risk assessments within the context of global of the system and better articulation of the impli- and regional climate changes. So far there is no cations for the future. major research effort within HARC, but numerous The Arctic system includes physical, chemical, collaborative projects have been supported over geological, biological, and cultural factors that a period of several years. may respond to global change. Some models that predict the climatic response to global change Interdisciplinary Research show greater change in the Arctic than in any The first exercise in a new mode of ARCSS other region. The predicted climatology, however, research, the Freshwater Cycle research effort, may not consider the largely unknown interannual- was developed as a thematic interdisciplinary to-centennial variability in the Arctic. The pres- approach that addressed a major part of the Arctic ence of cultural institutions in a region subject to system. This research will address the physical, possible large perturbations, however, makes it chemical, and biogeochemical character of the important that scientists understand better the Arctic freshwater system and its interactions with interactions of the global and Arctic systems. the polar ocean and subpolar seas. It addresses Therefore, the research supported in ARCSS the research planning embodied in the Study of extends beyond purely observational studies to Environmental Arctic Change (SEARCH) program, those studies that predict and analyze the conse- the Arctic/SubArctic Ocean Fluxes (ASOF) study, quences of environmental variability and global and the Arctic Community-wide Hydrological change important to wise stewardship of renew- Analysis and Monitoring Program (Arctic- able resources and the development of decision CHAMP) project. Areas of research include: and policy options for resource managers and • Observation systems that take advantage of residents. innovative technological advances and can serve as prototypes for sustained, long-term Arctic Natural Sciences efforts to document and understand variability in key freshwater, ice, and chemical tracer Arctic Natural Sciences (ANS) provides core fluxes and/or processes within the Arctic support for disciplinary research in the following land, atmosphere, and upper-ocean systems areas: glaciology, atmospheric sciences, ocean

4 sciences, earth sciences, contaminants, environ- Lake ice studies in Alaska focus on under- mental research, and biological sciences. standing contemporary processes and predicting the consequences of climate variability and Glaciology change. Ice thickness, ice type (snow ice and Glaciology research can focus on the history congelation ice), ice temperature, snow depth, and and dynamics of all naturally occurring forms of snow density are measured at the primary field snow and ice, including seasonal snow, glaciers, sites in the vicinity of Poker Flat Research Range and the Greenland ice sheet. The program also 50 km northeast of Fairbanks. In collaboration with supports mass balance modeling, glacial geology, a home-school group, a secondary site is main- and remote sensing studies of ice sheets. tained at a pond in central Fairbanks. The snow To date, the unique paleohistories preserved in depth and density data are among the inputs used Alaska’s ice fields have not been tapped and thus to force a one-dimensional thermodynamic model have not contributed to this global climate synthe- of lake ice growth and decay. The performance of sis. The sparseness of high-resolution climate the model is evaluated using ice thickness and histories from the northeastern side of the Pacific composition data, as well as the dates of freeze-up Basin has been a major obstacle to advancing our and break-up. The model simulates contemporary understanding of the rapid and recent changes processes well and is being used to investigate in the dynamical state of the Pacific region and the effects of variation in the magnitude and timing its global teleconnections. Ice cores recently of changes in air temperature and precipitation. obtained from the Bona–Churchill area in the Precipitation change has a greater effect than air Wrangell–St. Elias Mountains of southeastern temperature change on ice thickness and composi- Alaska will help fill this void by providing critical tion. The involvement of Fairbanks K-12 teachers new insight into the climate history in this region. and students in the Fairbanks research program Ongoing research is assessing whether the warm- has provided the impetus for the development of ing of the last 30 years that appears to be ampli- ALISON (Alaska Lake Ice and Snow Observatory fied at high elevations in the tropics and subtrop- Network), a science research and education pro- ics extends to northwestern North America, gram that promotes K-12 scientific inquiry and characterizing the most recent “step” change in learning in the local context with those familiar and the dynamics of the Pacific Basin climate regime abundant materials, snow and ice, and that pro- that occurred in 1976-77, exploring whether similar vides data on the variability of lake ice thickness, abrupt transitions have occurred in the past, and snow depth, and snow density around Alaska. if so, determining when, and of what magnitude, Petermann Glacier is the largest and most influ- were the changes. Ice cores were collected up to ential outlet glacier in central northern Greenland. 460 m deep, the deepest ice core to be recovered Located at 81°N, 60°W, it drains an area of 71,580 from an alpine ice field. Short cores were recov- km2, with a discharge of 12 km3 of ice per year into ered to determine the impact of drifting on the var- the Arctic Ocean. Ground-based, phase-sensitive ious chemical and physical signals preserved in radar measurements of ice thickness and thinning the ice strata and to assess the reproducibility of rates, ice velocity, strain rates, and climatological the records. A light-weight, portable drilling system variables were made near the grounding line of the designed for coring to a depth of up to 700 m was floating ice tongue of Petermann Glacier during developed for this project. The system was designed the 2002 and 2003 spring field seasons. Last year’s to be quickly switched from a dry hole electro- findings have confirmed that large channels, located mechanical drill (used to 180 m) to a thermal-alcohol several hundred meters deep at the underside of electric drill that collects cores from 180 to 460 m. the floating ice tongue, are running roughly paral- The core quality ranged from good to excellent. A lel to the flow direction. These channels were newly developed, quick-assembly geodesic dome mapped using ground-penetrating radar at 25 MHz housed all drilling and core processing activities. frequency and multi-phase radar in profiling mode The dust and calcium concentrations in the ice over half of the glacier’s width. NASA airborne cores show distinct annual variations, and the pre- laser altimeter and radar data were collected in liminary results suggest that the annually resolved both field seasons along and across the glacier record will cover more than 2500 years. This bodes for accurately assessing the surface and bottom well for the recovery of a very high-resolution topography. record of past climatic and environmental variabil- Remote sensing has shown that 95% of the ice ity from these cores. that crosses the grounding line of the Petermann

5 Glacier melts before it reaches the calving front. the hydrologic passages that were intercepted in The dominant form of this mass loss (55%) has the boreholes. been attributed to basal melting of the ice tongue, The results were surprising. Eighty percent of with the never-before-measured surface ablation boreholes hydraulically connected to a water- thought to account for about 2–3 m/yr. However, bearing passage inside the glacier. The borehole a transmitting automatic weather station on the camera revealed that instead of conduit features Petermann Glacier, installed prior to the onset of with semi-circular cross-sections, all the connec- melt during an extensive field campaign in 2002, tions were crack-like features. Water flow in the allows surface ablation to be described for the first cracks was quite slow and typically at laminar time. Although surface melting does not dominate speeds. Under such conditions it is unlikely that the mass budget of the Petermann Glacier, field the water produces sufficient heat to significantly observations lend support to the notion that it alter the geometry of the passage. So instead of may be relevant with regard to weakening and creating conduits through frictional heating, the fracturing the floating tongue. water takes advantage of existing passages The movement of glaciers and ice sheets results formed by cracks. These results profoundly from the deformation of the ice itself and sliding change our way of thinking about how water over the basal substrate. Where sliding occurs, its moves through a glacier. Naturally formed con- rate is about equal to that of flow due to internal duits (which can be observed near the margins of deformation and therefore doubles the flow speed a glacier) appear to be special features of the sub- of a glacier, all else being equal. Under some cir- surface hydraulic system, and cracks accommo- cumstances, glacial sliding can accelerate rapidly, date the bulk of the water flow. With this in mind, resulting in a surging glacier where flow speeds the results and conclusions based on the past 30 reach tens of meters per day before returning to its years of subsurface hydrological measurements “normal” flow speed. Under other circumstances will have to be rethought. Cracks exist throughout sliding may be always fast. In any case, water at the entire body of a glacier and are not limited to the base of a glacier controls, in part, the sliding the more brittle glacier surface. How these frac- speeding by reducing the friction against the sub- tures originated—through advection from surfaces strate. For temperate glaciers—those glaciers with higher on the glacier or in situ—is not clear. In any temperatures at the melting point throughout the case, that such cracks exist at all is interesting and ice mass—water at the base of a glacier comes leads us to reconsider the mechanical strength of from surface melt. Streams flowing from glaciers a glacier. This is important not only to the behav- have too great a discharge to be explained by geo- ior of alpine glaciers but also to the stability of thermal melting at the glacier bottom. Our funda- giant ice shelves around Antarctica, which can mental question is: How does the water get from catastrophically fail under warming conditions. the surface to the bottom of the glacier? Theory suggests that the water flows in naturally formed Atmospheric Sciences conduits in the ice. Frictional heating of the flow- Atmospheric sciences research focuses on ing water melts a passage into a sizeable conduit, stratospheric and tropospheric processes, climate, somewhat analogous to solution channels (caves) and meteorology. Research on past climates and in karst (limestone and dolomite). This project atmospheric gases preserved in snow and ice is empirically tested this theory. encouraged. The program also supports research In the summers of 2000–2003 scientists traveled on atmosphere–sea and atmosphere–ice interac- to Storglaciären, a small alpine glacier in Sweden tions. In upper atmosphere and space physics, and the site of long-term study by the University research interests include auroral studies, atmo- of Stockholm. Boreholes were drilled into the gla- spheric dynamics and chemistry, and magneto- cier until areas of hydraulic connection were inter- sphere–ionosphere coupling. sected. A borehole camera was used to investigate In the past few years there has been an explo- the area of intersection, a compass and ruler were sion of scientific interest in the chemical reactions used to measure the size and orientation of the that happen in sunlit snow. Rather than simply connection, and natural and artificial tracers were acting as the final resting place for pollutants that used to determine flow direction and flow speed. deposit from the air, snow turns out to be one of Pressure variations were monitored for the rest of the most photoreactive regions on earth. These the summer season. High-frequency radar profiles sunlight-driven reactions in snow release a num- of the glacier subsurface were conducted to image ber of important pollutants to the lower atmo-

6 sphere, including formaldehyde, nitrous acid, and more detail. Initial studies indicate that cyclone reactive halogens. In turn, these pollutants alter variability near the ice margin has a significant the composition and chemistry in the lower atmo- impact on the freshwater budget of the Arctic sphere. One of the major effects of snow emis- Ocean by modulating the flux of sea ice through sions is that they alter concentrations of atmo- Fram Strait. spheric radicals, highly reactive chemicals that clean the atmosphere. Snow reactions and how Ocean Sciences they change the amount of pollutants and radicals Ocean science research is concerned with in the Arctic atmosphere are being explored. expanding knowledge about the structure of the In addition to changing the composition of the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas, their physical atmosphere, these sunlight-initiated reactions also and biological interactions with the global hydro- change the make-up of the snow itself and the ice sphere, and the formation and persistence of sea that eventually forms from the snow. Understand- ice cover. ing how photochemical reactions influence ice The most important subsurface Arctic Ocean composition will help others use ice cores to transport system is an anticlockwise boundary reconstruct what the atmosphere used to be like. current, which carries Atlantic (warm, salty) waters There are five major parts of the project: mea- and Pacific (fresh, nutrient-rich) waters along the suring radicals, measuring chemicals that form continental slopes and major trans-Arctic ridges. radicals, characterizing sunlight in the snowpack, The most complex obstacle the boundary current determining the physical structure of the snow- encounters on its circum-Arctic pathway is the pack, and putting it all together to create a model Mendeleev Ridge/Chukchi Borderland. This of photochemistry in the snowpack. region, some 350 km northwest of Barrow, is the The northern North Atlantic winter atmosphere crossroads for Pacific-origin waters from the south is one of the most synoptically active areas of the and Atlantic waters carried from the west with the planet, characterized by frequent cyclone genera- boundary current. The existing data suggest that tion and intensification. One reason is that the some of the boundary current and some of the region lies downstream of the primary eastern Pacific waters are diverted out into the deep basin North American trough, which provides a favor- in this region and that over the last decade a able environment for storms. But there are impor- warming signal is propagating through the area. tant regional processes. Cyclone development is However, because of the complexity of the region especially preferred in the lee of Greenland and and the paucity of data, we have no clear under- along the sea ice margin, where there are strong standing of the processes that determine the fate horizontal temperature gradients (baroclinicity) of these waters. that extend rather deep into the atmosphere. This In a changing Arctic Ocean, both issues are seems to be fostered, in part, by very large heat highly relevant. The sea ice is protected from the fluxes from ice-free open waters just south of the warmth of the Atlantic layer by a cold, low-salinity sea ice margin, especially in the Norwegian Sea. layer originating from the Arctic shelves and from Associated deep convection mixes heat and water the Pacific, and changes in the pathways or quan- vapor upwards. tities of these waters could thin the sea ice. Simi- Over much of the Arctic, mid-tropospheric tem- larly, the course and final depth of the nutrient- peratures rarely fall below about –45°C. This mini- rich Pacific waters affect the local biological mum temperature coincides with that predicted for productivity, with implications up the food chain. moist adiabatic ascent of air over a sea surface Changes in the Arctic system over the last decades near its salinity-adjusted freezing point. A primary (the thinner ice cover and the generally warmer source region of this heating appears to be winter climate over both land and ocean) indicate the convection in the Norwegian Sea. Single-column importance of gaining a clearer understanding of model experiments simulating convective warming the general Arctic Ocean circulation, especially in of a cold air mass moving over open water and complex regions such as the Chukchi Borderland. undergoing radiative cooling as it moves again A three-year project is investigating the physi- over cold land or sea ice support the hypothesis cal and chemical oceanography of this region. that the –45°C threshold can be maintained for 10– Preliminary results show the continued advance 14 days after the air is convectively warmed. of the Atlantic temperature maximum and unex- Cyclone development processes and how they pectedly large variability in temperature structure impact the sea ice circulation are being studied in in the Atlantic core. Temperature and tracer data

7 indicate the spreading of Pacific halocline waters information on topics ranging from the nature of north across the Chukchi Plateau and Northwind Earth’s magnetic field to past Arctic climate. Ridge. Water mass analysis also supports the In a multidisciplinary study of these rocks, it hypothesis of a “Taylor Cap,” an isolated circula- was established that the major pulse of volcanism, tion, over the Chukchi plateau. Mooring data which is similar to that typical of continental flood reveal a more complex structure to the boundary basalt provinces elsewhere, occurred at approxi- current than hitherto expected. As the analysis mately 95 Ma. However, this volcanism was fol- continues, reference to historic data from the lowed by a less-voluminous episode at 83 Ma (or region should allow understanding not only of the younger). These ages rely on plume and non- Chukchi Borderland of today, but also a glimpse plume models to explain the magmatism. Paleo- of how things have changed in the last decade magnetic studies indicate that the sites of eruption at this Arctic Crossroads. in the Canadian Arctic archipelago (at approxi- Heat and salt exchanges at the ice/ocean inter- mately 71°N) were contiguous with the North face play a key role in the annual cycle of sea ice American craton, resolving debate concerning growth and ablation. Recent observations of sig- potential tectonic motions. Freshwater sediments nificant change in the extent and thickness of the overlying the volcanic rocks have been found to Arctic ice cover have focused attention on factors contain an important fossil fauna, including turtles that control the mass balance, and treatment of and champsosaurs (extinct crocodile-like verte- ice/ocean exchanges in numerical models is brates). These fossils indicate extreme polar becoming increasingly sophisticated. Direct mea- warmth during Late Cretaceous (Turonian) times. surements of turbulent heat flux under pack ice The Arctic region is of special significance for have shown that the exchange coefficient is an understanding the nature and history of the geo- order of magnitude smaller than the corresponding dynamo because of its proximity to the tangent exchange coefficient for momentum. This implies cylinder, the imaginary cylinder that is tangent to that, unlike momentum flux, heat flux at the inter- the solid inner core. Numerical models of the geo- face is rate-limited by molecular processes in thin dynamo have shown that this region is critical in sublayers adjacent to the surface. defining the nature of the field. Directional and paleointensity measurements of the Cretaceous Earth Sciences Arctic lavas to date show that the field was dipo- Research on earth sciences includes all subdis- lar, stable, and strong, suggesting that the basic ciplines of terrestrial and marine geology and geo- features of the geomagnetic field are intrinsically physics. Of greatest interest is a better under- linked. This conclusion has important implications standing of Arctic geological processes that are for our understanding of the past, present, and important for improving our ability to interpret the future geomagnetic field. geologic record of environmental change in the polar regions. Also of interest is better under- Contaminants standing and reconstruction of the plate tectonic ANS supports research in the area of persistent history of the Arctic Ocean. organic pollutant (POP) fate in the Arctic. These Large igneous provinces (LIP) are massive out- compounds are lipid soluble and can bioaccumu- pourings of mafic igneous rocks that commonly late in organisms that are ultimately harvested by cannot be related to normal plate tectonic pro- the indigenous peoples of the Arctic. These cesses. A LIP of Cretaceous age, represented by “country” foods constitute a high percentage of Alpha Ridge, is thought by many to occupy the the diet of many Native Americans, and as a con- central Arctic Ocean basin. Given the thick ice sequence high levels of POPs may pose a long- cover, remoteness, and sediment overburden, a term public health threat in the Arctic. direct study of Alpha Ridge represents one of the Much of the research conducted to date on more logistically challenging earth science sub- POPs in the Arctic have focused on monitoring, jects for the future. However, much can be learned i.e., measuring specific levels of POPs in environ- about the nature of this LIP through land-based mental compartments (air, water, soil, biota), but lit- studies because correlative volcanic rocks are pre- tle is known about POP fate in this environment. served in the stratigraphic sequences of the high Recent research supported by ANS has focused Canadian Arctic (specifically on Axel Heiberg and on the photochemical transformation of POPs in Ellesmere Islands). These sequences also repre- Arctic surface waters. Many of the lakes, rivers, sent a storehouse of geological and geophysical and nearshore marine environments contain sig-

8 nificant quantities of dissolved organic matter cataloged, and 14C-dated by the Bureau of Land (DOM), which are naturally derived and ubiqui- Management. These ancient bones, which have tous substances that are able to act as catalysts been frozen in the permafrost for thousands of (photosensitizers) in the presence of sunlight. years, are a good source of DNA for analysis of Photo-excited DOM releases a number of reactive genetic change over time. DNA from the ancient species that can in turn react with POPS and trans- muskox bones is being investigated to determine form them into other products, a process known whether patterns of genetic change over time can as indirect photolysis. Because the Arctic experi- be related to climate change. All DNA from the ences significant irradiance during the boreal sum- muskox bones more than 35,00 years old is very mer, indirect POP photolysis maybe an important similar to that of modern muskoxen, suggesting transformation pathway in waters that contain sig- that muskoxen have lacked significant genetic nificant amounts of DOM. variability for a long time. Preliminary analysis Recent studies at Toolik Lake LTER in the Alas- indicates there is some genetic discontinuity kan Arctic have shown that selective transforma- between the muskoxen more than 35,000 years old tion of POPs can occur in sunlit Arctic surface and all the more recent muskoxen. Genetic analysis waters. Hexachlorobenzene, a relatively ubiqui- of the muskox bones is ongoing to fill in gaps in tous Arctic POP, degrades readily in the presence segments of DNA among individuals and to try to of DOM and sunlight, while lindane, another com- define the genetic change that occurred after monly detected Arctic POP, does not. These stud- 35,000 years ago. NSF and BLM jointly supported ies demonstrate that in certain water bodies some this project. POPs may be transformed, while others will be On arrival in the Arctic, migrant birds must conserved and potentially accumulate. Thus, the adjust their physiology and behavior to unpredict- fate of certain POPs in the Arctic will depend on able snow cover, weather, food sources, and pred- their structure and the amount of DOM present in ator pressure. In other words, they must cope with the surface waters. Ongoing studies at Toolik Lake environmental perturbations (stress) so that they will focus on other classes of POPs, such as poly- can migrate to their tundra nesting areas and settle chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, and on territories. Breeding must begin immediately polychlorinated napththalenes (PCNs). All these when environmental conditions become favorable. substances have been detected in the Arctic and They do this partly by using microhabitats where can potentially bioaccumulate in the food chain. snow depth is low and patches of tundra melt out rapidly (especially near willows). Ground tempera- Biological Sciences tures increase dramatically within hours after Biological science research emphasizes under- exposure to sun, and invertebrate activity begins standing the adaptation of organisms; freshwater, simultaneously. Wind speeds are attenuated marine, and terrestrial biology; organismal biology; almost completely within 10 cm of the ground in ecology; microbiology; ecosystem structure and willows and tussock tundra. The combination of processes; and the consequences of ultraviolet these conditions provides an ideal refuge, espe- radiation. cially for passerine migrants in early spring. How- Muskoxen are a relict of the Ice Age. Animals ever, if conditions worsen, they can leave. There physically identical to modern muskoxen roamed are adjustments of the adrenocortical responses to the Arctic along with mammoths, horses, camels, stress because Arctic conditions in spring are and large cats. Yet muskoxen are one of the few potentially severe, at least compared with winter- large mammals that survived the end of the Pleis- ing grounds to the south. Secretion of corticoster- tocene and continue to inhabit Arctic regions. one in response to acute stress is enhanced at Modern muskoxen were close to extinction around arrival in males, accompanied by a decrease in 1900 as a result of climate fluctuations and hunt- sensitivity to negative feedback and a change in ing pressure, but they have since recovered, with responsiveness of the adrenal cortex cells to healthy native populations in Canada and Green- adrenocorticotropin. There is also an increase in land and re-established populations in Alaska and corticosterone-binding globulin levels so that the Siberia. However, these current animals have low actions of corticosterone are buffered according levels of genetic variability, which may limit their to the severity of environmental conditions. Regu- ability to adapt to future changes in their environ- lation at the level of genomic receptors, particu- ment. Numerous Pleistocene-era muskox bones larly the low-affinity type-2 receptor for corticos- have been collected from the North Slope of Alaska, terone in the brain and liver, may be important, and

9 non-genomic actions of corticosterone may play a nitrogen are less than 30% of predicted mainte- major role. In other words, the hormone–behavior nance requirements for temperate species of deer. system associated with arrival biology is highly The role of dietary nitrogen in fetal growth is not flexible. clear because reindeer fed high protein diets dur- After arrival on the tundra, migrant birds then ing winter gain maternal lean mass as well as fetal begin establishing territories and attracting mates. tissue even as fat is lost. A close association At this time, circulating levels of testosterone are between the enrichment of 15N in urinary N and markedly higher than their congenors at lower that of the diet in caribou suggests that dietary N latitudes, and adrenocortical responses to stress may be preferentially oxidized over endogenous remain high, especially in populations at the sources such as muscle. The apparent discrimina- northern edge of their range. Mating, nest build- tion between stored and dietary N is unexpected, ing, and egg laying begins quickly, and within but it may be a novel adaptation to conserve days incubation is underway. At this time the maternal protein for fetal growth. adrenocortical response to stress declines rapidly, and birds become resistant to acute stress. It is Arctic Social Sciences likely that once Arctic breeding birds commit to reproduction and are on eggs, they become The Arctic Social Sciences Program was estab- resistant to stresses such as inclement weather lished at NSF in 1990 and is starting a second because the breeding season is so short and no decade of providing support for social science second nestings are likely. Additionally, these research across the Arctic. In the last three years, birds become resistant to the effects of high corti- NSF has increased funding to the Arctic Social costerone levels typical of a stress response. Sciences Program by 30% to its current level of $3 Mechanisms underlying this modulation of the million, including research support and logistics. adrenocortical response to acute stress are under The program is unique at NSF in its support for a investigation. diverse portfolio of research projects from many Another change that occurs as the parental social science disciplines, including anthropology, phase of breeding begins is a decline in circulating sociology, political science, linguistics, traditional testosterone, including decreased sensitivity to knowledge, archaeology, and interdisciplinary this steroid hormone. Most songbirds apparently research. In addition, the Arctic Social Sciences become refractory to testosterone, possibly as a Program is unique within the Office of Polar Pro- mechanism to avoid distraction from parental care grams in its funding of stand-alone dissertation by male–male competition as seen in congenors at research projects. The program is committed to lower latitudes. This insensitivity to testosterone increasing the number of social science research- is accompanied by a decline in androgen receptor ers from underrepresented groups, particularly gene expression and reduced levels of aromatase, rural Arctic Native residents. This commitment is an enzyme that converts testosterone to an active realized by providing funds for unique education form (estradiol) in the brain. projects and workshops, supporting participation Future studies will continue to investigate the of Arctic Native peoples in science forums, and cellular and molecular bases of the behavioral administering a cooperative agreement between ecology of Arctic breeding birds. One promising NSF and the Alaska Native Science Commission new area is the regulation of departure from the (www.nativescience.org). Arctic breeding grounds, a process about which The following are highlights of the diversity of we know essentially nothing. Arctic social sciences projects supported by NSF In a study on protein conservation and the through the Office of Polar Programs in FY 03. effects of diet quality, researchers used isotope kinetics to measure changes in the body composi- Alaska Natives in Geosciences tion and metabolism of female caribou and rein- Alaska Natives in Geosciences is a project that deer in winter. broadens the participation of Alaska Natives in Caribou consuming low-energy intakes in late the geosciences at both the professional level and winter apparently recycle carbon from body fat to the community level by increasing geoscience membranes in other tissues because 13C enrich- literacy amongst the next generation of Alaska ment of red blood cells increases through winter. Native leaders. A college-level, field-intensive, A similar redistribution of body protein is proba- introductory geoscience course is designed spe- bly used to produce a fetus, even when intakes of cifically for the high school juniors and seniors

10 enrolled at the Rural Alaska Honors Institute of Dena’ina documentation using the standards (RAHI). This is followed by a community-based and software developed by The LINGUIST List as one-week field course open to RAHI graduates, as part of the E-Meld project. The E-Meld project well as other Alaska Native geoscience students. develops and implements recommendations of Both classes will introduce Alaska Native stu- digital best practice for linguistics data. Through dents to the geologic issues and concerns rele- E-Meld the DATA project will create long-lasting vant to Alaska Natives and their communities. archival formats and standardize linguistic data digitization of Dena’ina. In addition, both Native Alaska Native Science Commission and non-Native students are being trained in lin- The Alaska Native Science Commission guistic research practices, applied computational (ANSC) is funded in part through a cooperative linguistics, and linguistic analysis for the future agreement with NSF. ANSC is made up of Alaska preservation and revitalization of Dena’ina. This Native scholars and scientists who facilitate the project is not only facilitating the preservation of connections between rural Arctic communities and Dena’ina for community members but is also stan- NSF-supported research. Through workshops, dardizing the linguistics information so as to make personal contacts, meetings, and research it accessible and useful for scientific computa- projects, ANSC has assisted scientists in making tional analyses. contact with Alaska Native communities and facili- tated Native peoples’ voices in Arctic science. By Reducing Land Use Conflict in partnering in this way, scientific research can meet Arctic Wilderness Areas both research goals and the needs of Alaskan This research project is examining public policy rural communities. In addition, ANSC maintains and cultural values of stakeholders in land use an internship program for Alaska Native students policy for Arctic wilderness areas. The researcher that helps increase the exposure of students to is comparing three case studies of wilderness the many disciplines of science and engineering. areas in Finnish Lapland, Alaska, and the Yukon ANSC publishes a quarterly newsletter to inform Territories of Canada in order to understand and Alaskan communities about NSF science projects explain the variation in conflict between local and in their regions and provides a critical link non-local groups in these regions. The research between science, education, and local community will bring a comparative perspective of conflict concerns. resolution in cross-cultural as well as national contexts. In addition, it will inform the debate over Northern Science Education Program contested meanings of wilderness between indige- The Northern Science Education Program is the nous land users, land managers, and environmen- continuation of a Research Experience for Under- tal groups. graduates site that provides a unique science edu- cation for urban undergraduate minority (53% of Education the participating students are women and 33% are from underrepresented minority groups) and non- Objectives for education and outreach at NSF minority students in Iceland by working on an include the broader impacts that researchers per- early human settlement and historical landscape form as part of their projects as well as targeted project. Based on the curriculum of interdiscipli- projects aimed at improving education in science, nary science (e.g., archaeology, zooarchaeology, technology, engineering, and mathematics human osteology, marine mammal necropsy, soil (STEM). The Arctic Research and Education pro- science, geographic information systems, and cli- gram, with an FY 04 budget of $250K, supports mate change), the students define and carry out projects that bridge scientific research with educa- their own research projects under the careful guid- tion and public outreach, with emphasis on those ance of graduate student mentors and professors. that increase participation of underrepresented minorities in science. The approach of the program Dena’ina Archiving, Training, and Access is to support projects that involve each level DATA is a cooperative project between the along the education continuum from K-12 through Alaska Native Language Center at the University graduate school and the public at large. Awards of Alaska and the LINGUIST List program at East- are made as grants, supplements to existing ern Michigan University to preserve Arctic lan- awards, and co-funding to projects receiving guages. The project digitizes existing collections primary funding from other directorates.

11 The programs Teachers Experiencing Antarctica revision (2004–2008). They were presented in and the Arctic (TEA; 1997–2003) and Teachers seven major categories: and Researchers Exploring and Collaborating • Arctic Ocean and Marginal Seas; (TREC; 2004) provide field research experiences • Atmosphere and Climate; for K-12 teachers to become members of field • Land and Offshore Resources; expeditions as engaged members of the field team. • Land–Atmosphere–Water Interactions; The nearly 40 teachers representing over 20 states • Engineering and Technology; who have been part of these programs have • Social Sciences; and brought inquiry-based science to their class- • Health. rooms, colleagues, and communities. The teachers The Interagency Plan also addressed issues have networked into a learning community that related to logistics support for Arctic research and continues to be involved in polar research. new opportunities for Arctic research. The biennial High school, undergraduate, and graduate revision of the U.S. Arctic Research Plan serves as students have been supported by the program to guidance for planning by individual agencies and participate in research projects, receive mentoring, for coordinating and implementing mutually bene- and participate in workshops and conferences. ficial national and international research programs. Through these experiences and the ensuing con- NSF supports many other interagency planning nection with STEM fields, new generations of and coordinating activities. Coordination with scientists and engineers are developed who are global change programs is an integral part of Arc- familiar with Arctic research. Journalists convey tic program development and implementation. information about science to perhaps the broadest Improved communication at all levels is encour- audience through print and visual media. A project aged through newsletters and journals. providing journalists with Arctic research experi- ence in the lab and field is an important contribu- Engineering and Technology tion to ensuring that research is reported on by journalists who understand the scientific process. The Engineering, Geosciences, and Mathemati- While the scale of the program is small, its reach is cal and Physical Sciences Directorates support increased by involving a broad cross-section of research in engineering, material sciences, and society in Arctic research and through its partner- permafrost. Research has included studies of the ships with other programs at NSF. mechanical properties of ice, the hydraulic con- ductivity of frozen soils, metamorphism of dry Arctic Research Coordination snowpacks, and three-dimensional analyses of ice. NSF supported a program of polar information Research Support and Logistics and advisory services; provided support for the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee; NSF is using new resources targeted for Arctic provided funds for the Arctic Research Commis- logistics to enhance the U.S. leadership role in sion; and supported conferences, workshops, and Arctic research. The focus on logistics entails: studies to further develop and implement Arctic • Establishment, development, and mainte- research planning and policy. nance of national Environmental Observato- As required by the Arctic Research and Policy ries; Act of 1984, a comprehensive U.S. Arctic Research • Technology and instrument development; Plan was prepared by the Interagency Arctic • Expansion of marine platforms and aircraft Research Policy Committee and submitted to the support capabilities; President in 2003. The eighth revision to the U.S. • Integration of research, education, and Arctic Arctic Research Plan included two major sections. community interests; and The first of these presented the Special Focus • Further international collaboration in the sup- Interagency Research Programs: port of research. • Arctic Environmental Change; The use of the new resources is guided by the • Bering Sea Research and Assessment; and Arctic Research Commission’s report Logistics • Arctic Health Research. Recommendations for an Improved U.S. Arctic The second major section was Agency Pro- Research Capability [available from the Arctic grams, which represents the objectives of Federal Research Consortium of the United States agencies, focusing on the period covered by this (ARCUS) at http://www.arcus.org]. The general

12 recommendations of the report are: Native groups and other advisory bodies and • Ensure access to the Arctic over the entire responds to merit-reviewed proposals. year; Another major logistics issue in the Arctic is • Increase the availability and use of remote/ developing full access and capability to conduct autonomous instruments; research on all aspects of the Arctic Ocean. NSF • Protect the health and safety of people con- facilitates this by funding research use of the new ducting research in the Arctic; Coast Guard icebreaker Healy and supports • Improve communications and collaboration improved sensors for the Arctic drifting buoy pro- between Arctic people and the research com- gram, moorings, and autonomous underwater munity; and vehicles. For both marine and terrestrial research, • Seek interagency, international, and bilateral NSF works to improve basic health and safety by logistics arrangements. providing access to a pool of emergency beacons, Planning is carried out in partnership with satellite phones, and GPS receivers.

13 Department of the Interior

The Department of the Interior performs biological, physical, engineering, and social science research; conducts mapping, monitoring, and assessment programs throughout Alaska and its offshore regions; and manages department lands in Alaska. These activities are performed by services or bureaus, each with administrative and technical offices located in Alaska.

Funding (thousands) Minerals Management FY 02 FY 03 Technology Assessment/Research 400 500 Service Environmental Studies 4,866 4,273 Total 5,266 4,773 The Minerals Management Service (MMS) has the statutory responsibilities to manage the mineral resources located on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) in an environmentally sound and safe tion, as well as oil-spill response and cleanup manner and to collect, verify, and distribute mineral capabilities. It was established in the 1970s to revenues from Federal and Indian lands. ensure that industry operations on the OCS incor- In support of these responsibilities, MMS porated the use of the Best Available and Safest conducts two major programs of research that are Technologies (BAST). The program comprises relevant to activities in the Arctic. One, the Tech- two functional research activities: Operational nology Assessment and Research (TA&R) Pro- Safety and Engineering Research (OSER) and Oil gram, focuses on engineering and technology Spill Research (OSR). issues. The other, the Environmental Studies The TA&R Program has four primary objec- Program, focuses on issues related to assessing tives: and predicting potential environmental and socio- • Technical Support: TA&R provides engineer- economic impacts. ing support to MMS decision makers in eval- uating industry operational proposals and Technology Assessment and related technical issues and ensuring that Research Program these proposals comply with applicable regu- lations, rules, and operational guidelines and The MMS supports an active research program standards. to understand the engineering constraints for • Technology Assessment: Industry applica- offshore operations, especially related to the tions of technological innovations are investi- structural integrity of oil and gas facilities and gated and assessed to ensure that governing pipelines, the prevention of pollution, and the MMS regulations, rules, and operational technologies necessary to clean up an oil spill guidelines encompass the use of BAST. should one occur. In essence, the program pro- • Research Catalyst: The program promotes vides an independent assessment of the status of leadership in OSER and OSR by acting as a OCS technologies and, where deemed necessary, catalyst for industry research initiatives. investigates technology gaps and provides lead- • International Regulations: The program pro- ership in reaching solutions. The program also vides international cooperation for research facilitates a dialogue among engineers in the and development initiatives to enhance the industry, the research community, and MMS in safety of offshore oil and natural gas activi- dealing with the many complex issues associated ties and the development of appropriate regu- with offshore oil and gas operations. latory program elements worldwide. The TA&R Program supports research associ- The TA&R Program operates through con- ated with operational safety and pollution preven- tracts with universities, private firms, and govern-

14 ment laboratories to assess safety-related technol- of offshore technology, the TA&R Program will ogies and to perform necessary applied research. continue to focus its research efforts in the follow- Participation in jointly funded projects with indus- ing four areas: try, other Federal and state agencies, and interna- • Frontier areas of operations (both deep water tional regulatory organizations has become the and the Arctic), including safety issues as primary funding mechanism in view of the overlap well as the integrity of structures and pipe- of issues and challenges. Participation in joint lines; projects is the most effective and efficient means • Human and organizational factors and how to leverage available funds. they can be addressed to mitigate accidents; The TA&R Program enhanced its research • Aging offshore infrastructure, including plat- capabilities in FY 99 through the establishment of forms and pipelines; and For additional infor- a five-year cooperative research program with the • Spill mitigation measures, including cleanup mation regarding the Offshore Technology Research Center in College and containment technologies for an oil spill, TA&R Program, please Station, Texas. This cooperative agreement pro- should one occur. contact Sharon Buffington vides direct research support to MMS as well as a The TA&R Program is a contract research pro- at 703-787-1147 or forum for identifying and jointly funding research gram; that is, the research is not performed within [email protected]. projects with industry on a variety of topics. the agency but is conducted by academic institu- The TA&R Program operates Ohmsett—the tions, private industry, and government laborato- National Oil Spill Response Test Facility—in ries. Studies are performed in cooperation with the Leonardo, New Jersey. This facility provides test- offshore industry or with other agencies or gov- ing and research capabilities to MMS, other gov- ernments. This aspect of the program provides an ernment agencies, and the private sector on topics important multiplier of funding support, but proba- associated with the prevention and cleanup of oil bly of equal importance is the discourse it pro- spills. Ohmsett is the only facility in North America vides with the industry. where full-scale response equipment (containment The ability to work together to assess a partic- booms, skimmers, etc.) can be tested in a con- ular technology or the rationale for future techni- trolled environment, using real oil. (See below for cal developments helps both industry and govern- a fuller discussion of Ohmsett.) ment. Such cooperation and dialogue allow us to In the past the TA&R Program was motivated understand each other’s needs and eliminate pos- by the need to acquire basic engineering informa- sible conflicts or misunderstandings concerning tion necessary to oversee the general develop- the engineering feasibility of an operational deci- ment of offshore operations. As a direct result of sion. As a result of this dialogue, a valuable research funded by the TA&R program, regulatory exchange of information is provided between changes were initiated on: MMS and the industry. • The design and operation of diverter systems, well control procedures, and training require- Operational Safety and Engineering Research ments; Arctic offshore operations have been ham- • The need for periodic platform inspections, pered more by the lack of commercially economic methodologies for assessing the integrity of discoveries than by technology. The industry has older or damaged platforms, and the reduction tended to develop onshore resources in the Arc- of exhaust pollution offshore; and tic, with just minimal exploration and development • The development of oil pollution plans to offshore. However, recently there has been an ensure that the proper equipment, personnel, increased interest by the oil and gas industry in and procedures were available to respond to Arctic offshore resources. an offshore oil spill, should one occur. Sea ice is still the most severe environmental However, the future has provided new goals hazard posed by the Arctic relative to future off- and directions for offshore oil and gas research shore development. Such hazards include the forces initiatives. This new emphasis is a result of past that moving sea ice may exert against offshore technology developments, economic constraints structures, icing of structures resulting from freez- within the industry, and a continuing need to ing spray, gouging of the seafloor by sea ice ensure that offshore oil and gas operations can be (which could interfere with buried pipelines), and conducted in a safe manner without harm to the interference with locating or cleaning up a poten- environment. tial oil spill. Engineering data for these hazards will With a sound appreciation for the current state become increasingly important as operations

15 move from an exploration mode to a production stress based. This requires a less rigorous detailed mode and as structures are considered for deeper engineering analysis to meet acceptable pipeline water, especially within the shear zone or pack ice. safety. For offshore pipelines, however, especially A final report called Worldwide Assessment of those in deep water and in the Arctic, an exacting Industry Leak Detection Capabilities for Single site-specific analysis including loading conditions and Multiphase Pipeline summarizes the current and material mechanical properties is needed to issues for pipeline leak detection by identifying maintain the acceptable level of pipeline safety the state-of-the-art technologies used in pipeline expected. This research project will investigate leak detection, assessing the effectiveness of cur- how the use of strain-based design of pipelines rent leak detection technology, and evaluating the can better assure safe and pollution-free opera- effect of multiphase flow conditions on leak detec- tions, especially in environmentally sensitive areas. tion technologies. For offshore pipelines operating The Banff/03 Pipeline Workshop, held in Banff, in the Arctic, leak detection systems are intensely Canada, during April 14–17, 2003, was the sixth in scrutinized for their effectiveness in detecting a series of workshops that Natural Resources Can- and locating a leak. The results from this project ada (NRC) has organized to address new pipeline identify which technologies can work in an Arctic technologies for the Arctic environment. The offshore environment and how many redundant workshop reviewed the progress achieved from and complementary systems can be employed to the 2001 workshop and carried out intensive minimize leak volumes. The final report is available group discussions on such topics as risk assess- from the MMS web site for TA&R Project 409 at ment/risk management, abandonment issues, http://www.mms.gov/tarprojects. strain-based design, and in-line inspections. The The 2003 International Offshore Pipeline Work- workshop was sponsored by NRC and a number shop was held during February 26–28, 2003, in of industry participants, including the MMS. New Orleans. The workshop was hosted by the Because of the aging condition of existing pipe- MMS and the U.S. Department of Transportation lines and the progression of the industry into (DOT) Research and Special Programs Administra- deeper water and the Arctic, a need exists to be tion and sponsored by major oil and gas compa- aware of new managing techniques for pipeline nies, offshore pipeline contractors, offshore integrity. The workshop discussed such issues service companies, and other related entities. and provided a forum for the exchange of informa- Information collected and shared at this success- tion. ful event will lead to new research projects and updated and new codes and standards, define crit- Oil Spill Response Research ical technology needs to maintain the aging pipe- The MMS is the principal U.S. government line infrastructure and enter frontier areas, and agency funding offshore oil spill response provide critical feedback and background knowl- research (OSRR). Through funding provided by edge for the MMS and DOT policymakers. The MMS, scientists and engineers from worldwide workshop proceedings also provide ample items public and private sectors are working to address that can be used to address a multitude of issues outstanding gaps in information and technology for the Arctic related to design, installation, leak concerning oil spill cleanup. Credible scientific detection, inspection, and repair. The final report research and technological innovations are is available at http://www.mms.gov/tarworkshops/ considered key elements for improving oil spill pipelines.htm. response and protecting our coasts and ocean A project called “Strain-Based Design of Pipe- waters against the damage that could be caused lines” had as its objective to develop a best- by spills. practice guide for strain-based design of pipelines. The MMS research supports the bureau’s goal It was also jointly funded by MMS and the DOT of safe and environmentally sound operations by Research and Special Programs Administration to improving capabilities to detect, contain, and help fill an industry need for a complete guide on clean up open-ocean oil spills. This research pro- offshore pipeline design. The final report consti- gram complies with Title VII of the Oil Pollution tutes the first of two efforts to complete this Act of 1990 (OPA-90) and is conducted in cooper- guide, which will cover design, assessment, and ation with the Interagency Coordinating Commit- testing guidelines for designers of pipelines that tee for Oil Pollution Research, as called for in may experience high strains in service. Historically, OPA-90. Oil spill response research is one tool pipelines have been designed to codes that are that MMS uses to fulfill its regulatory responsibil-

16 in-situ burn research in the Oil Pollution Research and Technology Plan prepared under the authority of Title VII of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA- 90). The TA&R Program has assembled In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills: Resource Collection, which is a comprehensive compendium of scientific liter- ature on the role of in-situ burning as a response option for the control, removal, and mitigation of marine oil spills. All operational aspects of burning are covered in detail. The potential impacts of this Test burn with crude oil technique on the environment and on human on frazil ice. health and safety are also addressed. The 2-CD set includes a substantial percentage of the scien- ities mandated by OPA-90. Information derived tific and technical literature on research, develop- from the OSRR Program is directly integrated into ment, planning, and implementation undertaken by MMS’s offshore operations and is used in making hundreds of individuals and dozens of organiza- regulatory decisions pertaining to permit and tions. In-situ burning is not necessarily the pre- plan approvals, safety and pollution inspections, ferred oil spill response tool for all incidents but enforcement actions, and training requirements. is one that is considered by a growing number Funds for the OSRR Program are specifically of responders. appropriated from the Oil Spill Liability Trust The collection provides a wealth of information Fund. The fund receives revenues from cost in a convenient format that can be used in the recovery and civil penalties incurred from oil spills planning, response, or research environment. It and from an oil tax collected from the oil industry contains more than 350 documents with over (five cents per barrel on domestically produced or 13,000 pages and nearly an hour of video. For imported oil). As intended by OPA-90, companies those new to the subject of in-situ burning, the that produce or transport oil are required to sup- collection includes a 13-minute video developed port research and development to improve oil spill by the Alaska Department of Environmental Con- response capabilities. servation and Alaska Clean Seas. The OSRR Program has funded a variety of Publication of this in-situ burn literature collec- projects to develop and improve Arctic oil spill tion fulfills MMS’s mandate in the Oil Pollution response. The MMS research currently underway Research and Technology Plan as well as its com- focuses on three main types of cleanup technology: mittment to the Interagency Coordinating Commit- in-situ burning, chemical treating agents, and tee for Oil Pollution Research. The MMS distrib- mechanical response. utes this 2-CD collection without charge. A research project called Mid-Scale Tests to In-Situ Burning Determine the Limits to In-Situ Burning of Thin Oil In-situ burning technology includes the tech- Slicks in Broken Ice was designed to investigate niques and equipment required to ignite and sus- the minimum ignitable thickness, combustion rate, tain combustion of oil spills on the water, shore- residue amount, and effect of waves on thin oil lines, and the marshland environment. In-situ slicks burned in situ on frazil or slush ice typical burning is the most promising technique for of freeze-up and on brash ice typical of break-up. removing large quantities of oil from the surface The focus was on thin oil slicks, such as those that of the water as encountered during major and cat- could be generated by blowouts or subsea pipe- astrophic spills. It is also effective for mitigating line leaks; previous laboratory and field experiments spills on land and in coastal areas. Potential have adequately addressed the burning of thick oil For copies of In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills: impacts and benefits of developing this technol- slicks in broken ice. This project consisted of a liter- Resource Collection, ogy are high. Burning can be applied in remote ature review, small-scale burns in a chilled wave please contact areas where other response techniques cannot be tank in Ottawa, Canada, and mid-scale burns in an Joseph Mullin at used because of distance and lack of infrastruc- outdoor wave tank at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. A total 703-787-1556 or ture. In some circumstances, such as when oil is of 114 burns of 40 cm and 42 burns of 170 cm were [email protected]. mixed with or on ice, it may be the only option for completed. Results from this project will be used dealing with an oil spill. to propose “rules of thumb” for burning thin oil The MMS is designated as the lead agency for slicks in broken ice relevant to existing production

17 fields in Cook Inlet and Prudhoe Bay and to pro- demonstrated that Alaska North Slope (ANS) posed fields in Alaska, Norway, and Russia. and Hibernia crude oils could be successfully dis- persed in cold water. Four Prudhoe Bay crude oils Chemical Treating Agents and Dispersants (ANS, Northstar, Endicott, and Pt. McIntyre) and Dispersants are a specific type of oil spill one Cook Inlet crude oil (Middle Ground Shoals) chemical countermeasure that reduces oil/water were selected for testing. This project consisted interfacial tension so that oil can disperse into of small-scale dispersant experiments conducted small droplets in the water column. Dispersants in a chilled wave tank in Ottawa, Canada, and are an important tool in spill response when it is large-scale dispersant experiments conducted critical to prevent oil from reaching a sensitive at Ohmsett. A total of 64 small-scale experiments resource. Even though their use is pre-approved were conducted to develop the final test matrix for in various Area Contingency Plans, so much con- the large-scale tests. A total of 14 large-scale tests troversy surrounds dispersant use in the U.S. that were completed at the Ohmsett facility using vari- it is seldom used. Analysis of tradeoffs between ous combinations of oil type and dispersant-to-oil dispersant use and conventional mechanical ratios. recovery techniques demonstrates that, in many The chemically dispersed runs resulted in high incidents, dispersant use either in combination percentages (75 to nearly 100%) of oil dispersing with or instead of mechanical recovery could sig- into the water column, with the exception of evap- nificantly enhance protection of human health and orated Northstar and evaporated Endicott. The the environment. Potential impacts and benefits dispersant effectiveness trends identified in the of developing this technology are high. Develop- small-scale testing were mirrored in the large-scale ment areas include increasing dispersant effective- test results. The heavily evaporated Northstar and ness, reducing the environmental impacts of the evaporated Endicott crude oils were resistant to chemicals themselves, developing vessel and air- chemical dispersion in both the small-scale and craft application methodologies and equipment, Ohmsett tests. A higher percentage of the fresh conducting a program of mesoscale and field test- Endicott crude oil was dispersed in the Ohmsett ing to refine application techniques and proce- tests compared to the small-scale results (74 vs. dures, and researching the effects and effective- 20–30%). This may be due to additional mixing ness of this technology. Specific focus will be on energy present in the Ohmsett tests, in the form of dispersant use on cold water spills in the Arctic breaking waves that do not develop in the small and sub-Arctic environments. The results of this tank tests. Fresh Northstar was the only test research will facilitate the acceptance and use where no visible oil was present on the surface at of dispersants throughout the U.S. and North the end of the test. The initial Northstar crude oil America. slick was thinner (because of its lighter oil charac- A project called “Dispersant Effectiveness teristics and its tendency to spread faster) than Testing on Alaskan Crude Oils in Cold Water” the other oils, so it received a somewhat higher studied whether Corexit 9500 and Corexit 9527 dis- dispersant dosage. The lighter oil characteristics persants are effective in dispersing Alaskan crude and higher dispersant dosage may account for the oils in cold-water conditions. Dispersant effective- complete dispersion and the absence of visible oil ness experiments completed at Ohmsett in 2002 on the water surface at the end of this test.

Dispersant experiment in Ohmsett: The National Oil Spill cold water and broken ice Response Test Facility at Ohmsett. Ohmsett—The National Oil Spill Response Test Facility—is located in Leonardo, New Jersey. Ohmsett is the only facility in the world where full- scale oil spill response testing, training, and research can be conducted with oil in a marine environment under carefully controlled condi- tions. It is a vital component of MMS’s research program and plays a critical role in developing the most effective response technologies, as well as preparing responders with the most realistic train- ing available before an actual spill. The facility

18 To respond to the challenges of testing and evaluating the equipment required to respond to oil spills in ice-infested waters, MMS has upgraded the testing capabilities at Ohmsett to provide a controlled environment for cold-water testing and training (with or without ice). The facility is now able to simulate realistic broken ice conditions. These upgrades will enable the Ohmsett facility to remain open year-round, offering cold-water test- ing and training during the winter months. Recent testing activities include evaluations of oil spill Preparing Ohmsett for mechanical oil-in-ice skimmers for collecting spilled oil in broken ice, experiments. cold-water dispersant effectiveness tests, evalua- tions of viscous oil pumping equipment, basic directly supports the MMS goal of ensuring that research on the evaporation of oil and formation the best and safest oil spill detection, contain- of emulsions, cold-water oil spill response train- ment, and removal technologies are available to ing, and evaluations of fast-water oil spill protect the U.S. coastal and oceanic environ- response equipment. ments. Ohmsett is not only vital to MMS’s oil spill research program, it is a national asset where gov- Alaska Environmental ernment agencies, private industry, and academia Studies Program can conduct full-scale oil spill research and devel- opment programs. Ohmsett is also the premier As the agency responsible for managing the training site for spill response personnel from gov- OCS offshore oil and gas leasing program in ernment agencies such as the U.S. Coast Guard, Alaska, the MMS Alaska OCS Region has con- the U.S. Navy, the National Oceanic and Atmo- ducted environmental studies since 1974 to obtain spheric Administration, and the Environmental information needed to make sound leasing deci- Protection Agency. sions and to monitor the human, marine, and The heart of Ohmsett is a large outdoor con- coastal environments. In Alaska, more than $275 crete test tank that measures 203 m long by 20 m million has been spent on studies in 15 OCS plan- wide by 3.4 m deep. The tank is filled with 9.84 mil- ning areas in the Arctic, Bering Sea, and Gulf of lion liters of crystal clear salt water. There is a Alaska sub-regions. These studies cover a range wave generator at one end and a moveable beach of disciplines such as physical oceanography, at the opposite end to reduce wave reflection endangered species, living resources, fate and For questions regarding when regular waves are desired for testing. The effects, and socioeconomics. The information is the MMS Oil Spill Response Research tank is spanned by a bridge system capable of used in MMS decision making and monitoring of Program, please contact towing floating equipment at speeds up to 6.5 proposed and existing offshore oil and gas devel- Joseph Mullin at knots. The tow bridge is equipped to distribute opment in Alaska. 703-787-1556 or test oil on the surface of the water several meters A wide variety of interested stakeholders— [email protected]. ahead of the device being tested so that reproduc- environmental groups; oil and fishing industry ible thicknesses and widths of oil can be achieved workers; traditional knowledge sources; research with a minimum of wind interference. The Ohmsett contractors; scientists and government personnel facility features a fully computerized data collec- from Federal, state, and local agencies; and politi- tion system, above- and below-waterline video cal entities—help the MMS to identify environ- capability, and complete oil storage and handling mental issues and information needs. Information system. Ohmsett is the only facility in the U.S. Transfer Meetings and workshops are convened where full-scale equipment can be easily tested to bring together information from key sources. without going into the ocean. If Ohmsett were not The pooling of shared knowledge results in a syn- available, the only alternative would be at-sea thesis of information that identifies those studies testing, which is very expensive, requires permits, most needed to meet the current focus on post- and does not allow reproducible testing condi- lease and monitoring information requirements. tions. More than 95% of all performance data on Information regarding these studies can be found offshore oil spill response equipment have been in the Alaska Region’s Annual Study Profiles list gathered at Ohmsett. available at http://www.mms.gov/alaska/ess/essp/

19 SP.HTM. As final reports become available, they Covariance of Human Activities and Sea Ice in will be added to the Environmental Studies Pro- Relation to Fall Migrations of Bowhead Whales.” gram Information System (ESPIS) web site at The BWASP results indicate that fall bowhead http://mmspub.mms.gov:81/search.html. whale sightings tend to be farther offshore in Coastal Marine Institutes (CMIs) were initiated heavy ice years across the central Alaskan Beau- by MMS to take advantage of the expertise of fort Sea (142–155°W longitudes). While factors highly qualified scientifists at local levels and to other than sea ice may have localized effects on achieve cooperative research goals in key OCS site-specific distributions, broad-area distributions regions. In 2003 the MMS renewed funding of the of bowhead whales in the central Alaskan Beau- CMI at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) fort Sea apparently are related to overall sea ice to benefit from its scope and depth of scientific severity. The fall 2001 report showed a greater rel- expertise. Under a recently extended cooperative ative occurrence of feeding and/or milling behav- agreement, the MMS committed $1 million per year iors of bowhead whales in six different years near for studies to be conducted by the CMI if match- the mouth of Dease Inlet, Alaska. It showed similar ing state funds were available. The institute con- activity in four of those years near Cape Halkett, ducts research focused on environmental, social, Alaska. The analysis of covariance study was and economic studies relevant to both Federal and funded in early 2003 and will further test hypothe- state offshore oil and gas and mineral resource ses regarding the relative degree to which various management issues. The internationally renowned human activities and sea ice may explain variance UAF School of Fisheries and Ocean Science man- in observed bowhead whale distributions. ages the CMI. The Institute creates an opportu- A multi-year study, “Bowhead Whale Feeding nity for the MMS and the State of Alaska to in the Eastern Alaskan Beaufort Sea: Update of jointly accomplish research that could not other- Scientific and Traditional Information,” has been wise be carried out. In addition to 22 ongoing unique in the extent of its coordination with area studies, 8 new studies are being evaluated for whale hunters (http://www.mms.gov/alaska/ funding through the CMI in 2004. reports/BowheadWhaleFeeding/2002_012.pdf). Residents of Kaktovik assisted in the study Endangered and Protected Species design, field implementation, report review, and The bowhead whale, an endangered marine knowledge sharing needed to determine the impor- mammal of high importance to Native cultures in tance of the eastern Alaskan Beaufort Sea area to the Arctic, migrates through areas of oil and gas feeding bowheads. Other study components exploration and development, including the North- included aerial photography, behavioral observa- star offshore production site. Efforts to monitor tions, isotopic analysis of baleen and muscle tis- the fall migration of bowhead whales and related sue, stomach content analysis, and energetics environmental factors will continue through 2004 modeling. The results of the study provided under the MMS-conducted Bowhead Whale important information that was used in the envi- Aerial Survey Project (BWASP) (OCS Study MMS ronmental assessment for OCS Lease Sale 186. 2002-061 is available at http://www.mms.gov/ Beluga whales are an important species for alaska/reports/BWASP/2002_061adobe6test.pdf) Native subsistence, with more than 300 harvested and the MMS-funded study called “Analysis of annually in Alaska. The movements of beluga whales were documented using satellite telemetry Northstar, the first off- under the MMS/CMI study entitled “Satellite shore oil development in Tracking of Eastern Chukchi Sea Beluga Whales the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. in the Beaufort Sea and Arctic Ocean.” From 1998 to 2002, 23 whales were instrumented with the help of Native subsistence hunters in Kasegaluk Lagoon near the village of Point Lay. Data from this and a previous MMS-funded study suggest that female belugas may not move as far north in the Beaufort Sea as male belugas do. Belugas of all ages and both sexes were found most often in water deeper than 200 m and beyond the continen- tal shelf break. Tagged females remained within about 60 km of shore and quite near the continen-

20 tal shelf break in the Beaufort Sea. Conversely, the village of Kaktovik (in the Arctic National all instrumented males tended to travel north of Wildlife Refuge) and near a traditional whaling latitude 75oN, past the shelf break over waters camp on Cross Island (near Prudhoe Bay). exceeding 3,000 m in depth. Belugas rarely used Increasing numbers of bears have aggregated and the inshore waters within the OCS lease sale area fed on whale remains at these locations, with con- of the Beaufort Sea. current risks to the resident human populations Another MMS-supported study, “Use of Sea and to the bears. This study is expected to yield Ice Habitat by Polar Bears in the Southern Beau- data on the patterns of use of these sites by indi- fort Sea,” correlated seasonal polar bear locations vidual bears and on other bear behaviors in order for the years 1998 through 2001 with sea ice and to establish better estimates of bear mortality in bathymetry data. the event of an oil spill. The second study, Ringed seals are the primary prey of polar bears “Development of Remote Sensing Survey Tech- and a significant source of food for Natives living niques for Marine Mammals and Birds in the in the Arctic. The MMS funded two studies dur- Arctic: Development of Airborne Thermal Remote ing 2001–2003 addressing the distribution, abun- Sensing for Survey of Pacific Walrus,” provided dance, and/or behavior of the species in order to funds for the development of high-altitude thermal evaluate potential effects from OCS development. remote sensing for use in surveys of walrus. Sur- An MMS/UAF CMI project entitled “Timing and vey flights were completed near St. Lawrence Reinterpretation of Ringed Seal Surveys” began in Island in the Bering Sea during April 2003, and 2001, building on the results of a previous study: data are being analyzed. “Correction Factor for Ringed Seal Surveys in Eiders (a species of sea duck) are harvested Northern Alaska.” During these studies, 60 ringed for subsistence by Alaska Natives, who have seals have been monitored with radio transmitters. expressed concerns that the abundance of all four The proportion of seals visible during aerial sur- species living in the Alaskan Arctic may be declin- veys has been found to vary as a function of ing. From 2001 to 2003, the MMS funded five new snow conditions on the surface of fast ice. A cor- studies through the MMS/UAF CMI that address rection factor has been developed, and density issues related to the population biology of eiders estimates derived from previous surveys are being and the potential risks from offshore oil and gas re-analyzed. development. The study entitled “Importance of Harbor seals, another important subsistence the Alaska Beaufort Sea to King Eiders,” funded in species, are abundant in the Gulf of Alaska region, 2001, was designed to provide information about including Cook Inlet. In 2003 the MMS funded how king eiders make use of the OCS waters or two new studies of harbor seals through an inter- adjacent near-coastal areas. A total of 33 adult agency agreement with the National Marine Fish- eiders were implanted with satellite transmitters. eries Service, National Marine Mammal Laboratory. The investigators discovered that king eiders The first of these, “Distribution and Abundance of staged in the Beaufort Sea before migrating south- Harbor Seals in Cook Inlet: Seasonal Variability in ward to molt along the Chukotsk Peninsula and Relation to Key Life History Events,” supports Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia and in U.S. waters repeated, seasonal aircraft surveys of seals at off St. Lawrence Island and the Alaska Peninsula. haulouts. The second, “Development of Remote Three eider studies were funded in 2002. The Sensing Survey Techniques for Marine Mammals study titled “Breeding Biology and Habitat Use of and Birds in the Arctic: Assessing Variation in King and Common Eiders on the Coastal Plain of Harbor Seal Haulout Patterns,” makes use of Northern Alaska” will examine and compare the remote cameras for continuous monitoring of har- nesting timing, clutch size, reproductive success, bor seals at selected haulouts. The latter study and habitat use between a relatively undisturbed will provide insight into factors causing variation site at Teshekpuk Lake (in the National Petroleum in the observations of the aircraft surveys. Reserve–Alaska) and an area with considerable Two other studies of marine mammals were activity in the Kuparuk oil field. Another study, funded by the MMS through interagency agree- “King and Common Eider Migrations Past Point ments with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Barrow,” repeats a count of those species that has first, “Demography and Behavior of Polar Bears been conducted periodically for several decades. Feeding on Stranded Marine Mammal Carcasses,” Results of previous surveys suggested that popu- began in 2002 and focused on polar bear use of lations of king and common eiders had declined bowhead bone piles left by Native whalers near by about 50% between 1976 and 1996. Preliminary

21 results of this study suggest that those popula- on Cottle Island in August 2002. This study will tions have not declined further and may have provide a completed time series of wind data to increased since 1996. The third study, “Population MMS ocean circulation modelers and researchers Structure of Common Eiders Nesting on Coastal for use in their ongoing modeling of the nearshore Barrier Islands Adjacent to Oil Facilities in the Beaufort Sea. A project web site (http://www. Beaufort Sea,” is designed to use molecular genetic resdat.com/mms) provides up-to-date project markers to examine the level of population struc- information, station locations and pictures, data turing among common eiders breeding on coastal downloading, and quarterly graphical data results. barrier islands along the Beaufort Sea coastline. This information will assist MMS in improving oil Results of this study will include a test of the dis- spill trajectory modeling and is available to the creteness of genetic stocks of common eiders general public. inhabiting the Beaufort Sea region and an analysis An MMS/UAF CMI study completed three of the risks posed to maintain those stocks by years of moorings, including the first successful potential oil spills. winter-long measurements of currents directly A study entitled “Foraging Ecology of Common under the ice in the nearshore Beaufort Sea. Three Ravens (Corvus corax) on Alaska’s Coastal Plain” upward-looking acoustic Doppler current profilers was initiated during 2003. This study is expected were moored on the sea bottom within the barrier to provide information on the predator–prey rela- islands near the Northstar and Liberty offshore tionships between ravens and waterfowl breeding development prospects, and a fourth profiler was near the developed areas of Alaska’s North Slope. added offshore of the barrier islands in the third Among the questions this study will address are year. The project collected data on water and ice whether industrial infrastructure is advantageous velocity, temperature, salinity, and water clarity to ravens, and the extent to which proximity to (transmissivity) from August 1999 to August 2002. such infrastructure increases raven depredation of Once landfast ice formed and blocked the wind, eider nests and ducklings. current speeds dropped drastically, with less than 1% of current speeds exceeding 20 centimeters per Physical Oceanography second. A new study, “Beaufort Sea Nearshore Knowledge of predominant weather patterns Currents,” will deploy three similar moorings for and wind/current dynamics in the Beaufort Sea three years, starting in 2004, over a greater length enables us to evaluate better the potential effects of coastline, extending across most of the U.S. of an oil spill and to develop precautionary oil spill Beaufort Sea coast. response strategies. A recently completed MMS/ An MMS/UAF CMI study entitled “A Now- UAF CMI study that examined the seasonal and cast/Forecast Model for the Beaufort Sea Ice– interannual variability of the Arctic Ocean and Ocean–Oil Spill System” has developed a new 3-D Beaufort Sea found that there has been a decadal coupled ice–ocean model with links to a regional cycle between wind-driven anticyclonic (ACCR) mesoscale atmospheric model. The resolution of and cyclonic circulation regimes (CCR). Higher the model is currently being increased to 1 km or Arctic atmospheric pressure, lower wind speed, less to resolve coastal barrier islands. This model and lower winter temperatures characterize the will be used by the MMS to improve oil spill risk ACCR compared with cyclonic summer winds, pre- analysis. cipitation increases over the ocean, and decreases In Cook Inlet the MMS/UAF CMI study over land during the CCR. The cyclonic summer “Water and Ice Dynamics of Cook Inlet” is using a wind produces more openings in the sea ice, combination of global positioning system (GPS)- allowing upper ocean heat accumulation. The ice equipped ARGOS drifters, satellite remote sensing, melt season lengthens, increasing freshwater con- and oceanographic modeling to enhance under- tent and leading to generally thinner ice. Anoma- standing and to improve the predictability of water lous weather patterns in recent years will receive and ice dynamics. A parallel MMS/UAF CMI additional scrutiny to determine whether a new study, “High-Resolution Numerical Modeling of pattern is emerging. Near-Surface Weather Conditions over Alaska’s The study entitled “Synthesis and Collection Cook Inlet and Shelikof Strait,” will provide a high- of Meteorological Data in the Nearshore Beaufort resolution meteorological model that can capture Sea” completed over two and half years of meteo- low-elevation wind jets known to occur in Cook rological data collection from five stations along Inlet and Shelikof Strait. This model will provide the Beaufort Sea coast. A new station was added high-resolution grid wind fields to the oceano-

22 graphic modelers, ultimately enhancing the MMS opment on the Alaskan OCS at Northstar and the environmental assessment of the potential effects anticipated Liberty prospect near Prudhoe Bay. of oil spills, which, although very unlikely, may Phase I of ANIMIDA reported the results of mea- occur after OCS development. sured changes in ambient noise, resuspension of sediments, and sediment quality. Fate and Effects Designed to provide long-term continuity One of several MMS/UAF CMI laboratory beyond what could be expected through industry- studies documented synergistic effects of weath- sponsored studies alone, ANIMIDA Phase II ered North Slope crude oil and ultraviolet light on expanded monitoring in 2000–2002 by measuring: zooplankton. Establishment of a correlation coeffi- • Partitioning of contaminants between cient between total lipid content and polycyclic dissolved and particulate water phases; aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) uptake will allow • Trace metals, hydrocarbons, persistent estimates of the PAH load of predominant plank- organic pollutants, and biomarkers in fish; ton on the basis of abundance data and their lipid • Effects on kelp in the Boulder Patch (an profile. The possibility of further distribution of area of Special Biological Concern); and PAHs into the ecosystem through zooplankton fe- • Perceived effects on Native subsistence ces is also being evaluated. Another study looks whaling. at the kinetics and mechanism of slow PAH des- The Phase II studies were reported in a special orption from sediments in the lower Cook Inlet session at SETAC in November 2003, with the final and the Beaufort Sea. This study will lead to better reports expected in January 2004. A third phase, capability for predicting the environmental fate of cANIMIDA (Continuation of ANIMIDA), is being PAH in Arctic sediments. A third and related CMI procured in 2003 and will start field work in 2004. study examines petroleum-degrading bacterial An MMS/UAF CMI study recently examined communities in Beaufort Sea sediments and will and reported on the historical changes in trace compare the current community to that existing at metals and hydrocarbons in the inner shelf sedi- the onset of coastal Beaufort Sea development in ments of the Beaufort Sea. The study used a com- the late 1970s. bination of dated sediment cores, freshly collected In the first of four modeling studies, “Revision surface sediment, 30 years of prior analytical mea- of the OCS Weathering Model, Phases II and III,” surements by the investigator, and data from prior the MMS is participating in a consortium to MMS Beaufort Sea monitoring projects. Of multi- advance the state of the art in oil weathering mod- ple metals, only vanadium and barium levels were els, including additions of Alaska-specific oils and possibly elevated in more recently collected and ice conditions and the development of an experi- analyzed sediments. The levels of vanadium and mental and observational spill database suitable barium found were still low and well below harmful for model validation. In the second and third stud- levels. The hydrocarbon analyses primarily found ies, the MMS is investigating “Alternative Oil natural compounds indicative of decayed marine Spill Occurrence Estimators for the Beaufort/Chuk- plankton and peat from onshore. No petroleum chi Sea OCS” with parallel fault-tree and statistical signal was found. The study concluded that the engineering approaches. These latter studies nearshore Beaufort Sea has remained a relatively include analyses of differences in potential spill clean environment as far as trace metals and causes in these Arctic areas versus elsewhere in hydrocarbons are concerned, despite the adjacent the U.S. OCS, primarily in the Gulf of Mexico. In petroleum-related industrial activities during the the fourth study, “Persistence of Crude Oil Spills past 30 years. A follow-up CMI study continues on Open Water,” the MMS is developing empirical the documentation of trace metals and hydro- statistical relationships among environmental and carbons in sediments across the Beaufort Sea response factors related to the persistence of from Elson Lagoon near Barrow, to Prudhoe Bay, crude oil slicks at sea. to Beaufort Lagoon in eastern Alaska. The MMS/UAF CMI study “Seabird Samples Research Monitoring as Resources for Marine Environmental Assess- A multi-disciplinary, site-specific Beaufort Sea ment” collects and curates seabird tissues in monitoring study, “Arctic Nearshore Impact Moni- cooperation with the University of Alaska Museum toring in the Development Area (ANIMIDA)” to provide further resources for contaminant and was initiated in June 1999. This study examines other scientific researchers. Loans and tissue sam- impacts associated with the first Federal oil devel- ples from this collection have already been made

23 available to scientists for contaminant and oil- selected species, including bowhead whales, spill-related studies. The MMS/UAF CMI has also ringed seals, caribou, Arctic cisco, broad white- arranged for the University of Alaska Museum to fish, Arctic char, and various waterfowl. The archive high-quality surface sediments and dated project focuses on collecting and describing con- sediment cores from the MMS study “Sediment temporary subsistence patterns while accommo- Quality in Shelikof Strait and Outermost Cook dating the addition of past and future harvest data Inlet.” to enable analyses of pattern changes over time. A greater knowledge of Arctic fishes is impor- A sample of hunters in each community will be tant to protecting subsistence and biological selected using systematic social networking meth- resources while developing offshore oil and gas ods. In addition, the project will document the resources. Very little documentation exists on the locations of harvest campsites and travel routes. actual locations of overwintering habitat of Beau- In Cook Inlet the prospect of OCS oil and gas fort Sea anadromous fish. The potential of remote development presents some potential for spatial sensing applications, such as synthetic aperture conflict with local fishing operations, especially radar, is being investigated to reduce the high cost the commercial driftnet fishery. Drift gillnet fisher- of locating and evaluating overwintering habitats. men often focus their efforts near turbulent rip Native Alaskans are concerned that a major sub- tides because salmon are known to concentrate sistence species in the Colville River, Arctic cisco, in these areas. The presence of an oil platform in has been less abundant during the last few years favorable fishing areas could pose a navigational than in preceding years. An effort to quantify hazard, with potential consequences of diminished interannual variation in their abundance and esti- access, loss of harvest resulting from premature mate which environmental factors contribute to net release, or gear entanglement. A study entitled observed variation will provide better predictions, “Mitigation of Oil Industry Operations on Driftnet which will allow adjustment to natural cycles and Fishing in Cook Inlet,” begun in 2003, intends to help avoid potential development effects on this explore and define specific ways to mitigate these important resource. potential conflicts and to analyze the significant tradeoffs of reasonable alternative proposals. Socioeconomics On Kodiak Island a new study is underway Since its formation the MMS Alaska Region to collect and analyze data on the major socio- Environmental Studies Program has been unique economic consequences of the Exxon Valdez oil in its emphasis on social and economic studies spill litigation settlement for local residents. The relating to the potential effects of offshore oil and project will investigate and document key second- gas development. Because of the distinctive ary social and economic impacts from the litigation nature of subsistence activities and sociocultural and settlement experiences that follow the primary attributes throughout rural villages and coastal impacts of the original spill event. It will also communities in Alaska, MMS social research goes attempt to formulate general recommendations well beyond conventional economic consider- pertaining to the effective management of poten- ations. tial future oil spills and related litigation settlement In response to recommendations of community procedures, even though the spill event did not leaders of Alaska’s North Slope, MMS initiated a occur under MMS jurisdiction or even within study in 2001 entitled “Quantitative Description of imaginable MMS offshore spill scenarios. Potential Impacts of OCS Activities on Bowhead To document the extent of social research in Whale Hunting and Subsistence Activities in the Alaska and the substantial information accumu- Beaufort Sea.” The study, to be completed in 2004, lated over the past 20 years, MMS initiated a book focuses on Native perceptions of the acute and project in 1998 that will enhance the accessibility cumulative effects of oil industry operations on of research products and summary findings for all bowhead whale hunting. The study will collect interested parties. When completed, the project information from residents of Nuiqsut, Kaktovik, will produce a peer-reviewed book that will explain and Barrow through survey instruments and will and synthesize the results of more than 160 MMS- consider both beneficial and detrimental potential funded studies. effects. A study entitled “North Slope Economy, 1965 Another North Slope project aims to develop to the Present” will provide detailed information and implement a GIS mapping system to describe on local government revenues and expenditures, subsistence hunting and fishing activities for including capital projects of North Slope commu-

24 nities (both prior to and after the formation of the Cook Inlet. This web site will contain a unique set North Slope Borough), as well as property tax and of tools to query and graph historical meteorologi- other categories that merit analysis. The study cal data from first-order weather stations located will: throughout Alaska. • Classify local government services by depart- ments and other major categories; Information Transfer • Describe how the revenues and expenditures An Information Update Meeting was convened have been a component and shaping force of by the MMS Alaska OCS Region in Barrow in the North Slope economy; March 2003. The MMS and officials of the North • Describe the structure of the North Slope Slope Borough scheduled this meeting in Barrow, economy, including employment, income, and Alaska, so that residents would have better their fluctuations; access to information on key MMS studies. Princi- • Describe how quantifiable, non-cash eco- pal investigators presented information on 11 on- nomic factors for households have changed going studies at the one-day event. Also, MMS from 1965 to the present in relation to the held its Ninth Information Transfer Meeting in greater availability of salaried jobs; Anchorage, Alaska, in March 2003. Principal • Describe the role of the Arctic Slope Regional investigators presented information on 37 on- Corporation, the Ukpeagvik Inupiat Corpora- going studies in the Beaufort Sea and Cook Inlet tion, and other village for-profit corporations regions. It was attended by a diverse audience in the North Slope economy; and drawn from local communities, industry, other Fed- • Describe how individual and household econ- eral agencies, and state and local governments. omies have responded to changes in the In cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife regional economy. Service, the MMS also supported a 2003 work- Some of the empirical measures will include income shop in Anchorage entitled “Polar Bear Population and changes in quality of life, such as housing Monitoring Workshop.” Management issues were and sewer and water facilities. A draft of the study identified, and recommendations for future report was submitted in 2003 and is now under research and monitoring were made by individuals review. representing a variety of organizations. In 2003 the MMS Alaska OCS Region also GIS Databases sponsored two international workshops designed The study entitled “Evaluation of Sub-Sea to produce recommendations regarding future Physical Environmental Data for the Beaufort Sea” Arctic oceanographic research needs. The MMS/ was completed in 2002. It integrates all Federal UAF CMI “Workshop on Small-Scale Sea-Ice and Beaufort Sea OCS site-specific geological and Ocean Modeling (SIOM) in the Nearshore Beau- high-resolution geophysical data results and simi- fort and Chukchi Seas” brought together interna- lar data sets into a geographical information sys- tional sea-ice modelers and researchers to develop tem (GIS) database in support of exploration and strategies to advance the state of the art in Arctic development projects. The GIS database includes ice modeling. Following recommendations from spatial and attribute data on the location of strudel this workshop, MMS and the National Aeronau- scour, ice gouge, and drain racks, in addition to tics and Space Administration signed an Inter- data on bathymetry, faulting, near-surface stratig- agency Agreement in 2003 to research “Sea-Ice raphy, seismic anomalies, boulder patch, and Modeling in Nearshore Beaufort and Chukchi Sea earthquakes. The documentation is available at in the Arctic Ocean.” The MMS Physical Ocean- http://www.mms.gov/alaska/reports/SubseaGIS/ ography of the Beaufort Sea Workshop brought evaluation_of_sub.htm. together international experts in Arctic oceanogra- An ongoing MMS/UAF/University of Alaska phy to review the state of knowledge concerning Anchorage CMI study is in the process of com- Beaufort Sea physical oceanography and to rec- pleting an updated sea ice atlas for Arctic and sub- ommend long-range goals for oceanographic Arctic Alaska marine waters. A web site (http:// research to meet MMS needs. holmes-iv.engr.uaa.alaska.edu/), which is under Reports of MMS-sponsored information trans- construction, will provide statistical and GIS out- fer meetings and MMS studies are available from put of National Ice Center and National Weather the MMS Environmental Studies Information Sys- Service sea ice data for the Alaska OCS, including tem (ESPIS) at http://mmspub.mms.gov:81/.

25 Funding (thousands) Fish and Wildlife Service FY 02 FY 03 The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) con- Migratory Birds 3,884 3,800 Fisheries 4,068 4,300 ducts research in the Arctic to help accomplish its Marine Mammals 1,768 2,255 mission to conserve and manage migratory birds, CAFF 200 200 threatened and endangered species, certain marine U.S.–Russia Environ. Agreement 150 350 mammals, and anadromous fish, as well as all biota Total 10,070 10,905 inhabiting nearly 77 million acres within 16 National Wildlife Refuges in Alaska. ments make these stocks vulnerable to fisheries as Fisheries and Ecological Services they travel to their spawning areas. Fish stocks of Alaska’s North Slope in the Arc- Fisheries tic National Wildlife Refuge have also received Fishery research in the Arctic by the FWS con- considerable attention recently. One study being tinues to focus on Yukon River salmon shared by conducted in the coastal lagoons near the village the United States and Canada in support of the of Kaktovik is designed to determine the relative U.S.–Canada Treaty. The FWS continues to abundance of Arctic cisco and Dolly Varden. develop enumeration techniques for Yukon River Catch results, length frequencies, length–weight salmon to quantify abundance, apply genetic relationships, and fish condition will be compared stock identification techniques to assess genetic to baseline data collected on these species diversity, and determine what portion of the U.S. between 1988 and 1991. A second study will use harvest is of Canadian origin. These studies also dual-frequency induction sonar to estimate the generate data needed for in-season management number of Dolly Varden that return to spawn in of Canadian-origin salmon. Research includes the Hulahula River and provide the first quantita- a mark–recapture study of fall chum salmon at tive information about population size of these Rapids/Rampart and the use of video technology fish on the North Slope. A third study focuses on to determine marked-to-unmarked ratios of fall locating the overwintering areas of Dolly Varden chum salmon and catch-per-unit-effort for chinook in the lower Canning River. These studies will pro- and fall chum salmon. To manage U.S. stocks of vide valuable information to use for conserving salmon, the FWS uses resistance board weirs to viable populations should the area be available enumerate summer chum and chinook salmon on for oil and development. the Gisasa River and summer chum, chinook, and The FWS’s Conservation Genetics Lab contin- coho salmon on the Andreafsky River. Split beam ues to study Yukon River chinook and fall chum sonar is used to count fall chum salmon on the salmon and has collected both species from a Chandalar River. The information from these moni- number of drainages in the U.S. and Canada. A toring studies is used to schedule fishery open- recent study concluded that genetic diversity of ings and ensure stock conservation on National chum salmon in the Yukon River is widely distrib- Wildlife Refuges. uted over a broad geographic area, whereas coho Although salmon are extremely important to salmon populations are small and discrete. This subsistence users and ecological productivity, the has important implications for management of importance of other species is becoming apparent. these species and suggests that the genetic diver- Whitefish are used seasonally in areas with salmon sity of coho salmon is at higher risk from habitat fisheries and are used extensively in areas with no degradation than chum salmon. salmon runs. Studies indicate that whitefish in cer- tain river systems are as abundant as salmon, and Environmental Contaminants they may be critical to food webs and nutrient The FWS and its partners have actively pur- cycling. Radiotelemetry has identified important sued scientific studies and management solutions habitats and migration corridors of inconnu concerning complex contaminants problems in the (sheefish), broad and humpback whitefish, and Arctic for several decades. International research least cisco in several National Wildlife Refuges. programs such as the Arctic Monitoring and Also, electron probe microchemistry has identified Assessment Program (AMAP) have shown several anadromous stocks and indicates that that pollutants are a circumpolar, and indeed these fish rival salmon in the distances traveled global, issue. The FWS conducted a number of during their migration. These long-distance move- contaminant-related studies during FY 2001–2003.

26 Chinook and Chum Salmon. In 2001 the FWS and misplaced eyes, are not commonly observed began collecting baseline data on contaminants in localized areas of northern and western Alaska. in chinook and chum salmon from the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers. Runs of these salmon have Marine Mammals declined in recent years, and subsistence users Pacific Walrus. Research on Pacific walruses are concerned about the presence of environmen- continues to focus on monitoring haul-outs in tal contaminants in their food. Analyses for heavy Bristol Bay, monitoring the spring subsistence metals and persistent organochlorine compounds harvest to collect information on the size and indicate that these fish have relatively low con- demographics of the harvest, and developing taminant concentrations, and the State of Alaska techniques to estimate the size and trend of the recommends unlimited subsistence consumption Pacific walrus population. of these stocks. The size and trend of the Pacific walrus popula- Spectacled and Steller’s Eiders. Environmental tion remain unknown. Several approaches are contaminants specialists are investigating lead under investigation for developing an accurate concentrations in threatened spectacled and Stell- estimate, including genetic fingerprinting in a er’s eiders and other waterfowl from Alaska. Expo- mark–recapture study. Computer simulations sure to lead in breeding areas, presumably from indicate that for a modeled walrus population of ingestion of lead shot, can contribute to popula- 300,000, even relatively large sample sizes (15,000– tion declines. Recent research compared isotopic 30,000 samples annually) produce poor population “signatures” in eider blood to known lead sources, estimates. However, incorporating age into the including samples of lead shot and various wet- mark–recapture analysis dramatically increased land sediments. Initial results indicate that shot the efficiency and precision of the estimate and is the primary source of lead for eiders with high simulated sampling rates as low as 1,500 animals. blood lead levels, while eiders with low lead levels The successful application of mark–recapture have signatures that match the sediments in their techniques to estimate the size and trend of the breeding areas. Work is ongoing to further charac- Pacific walrus population will require the ability to terize these sources and determine thresholds for determine age and gender and identify individual exposure to lead shot in eiders. Positive identifica- animals with negligible error rates, but collecting tion of shot as the lead source will contribute to representative samples from free-ranging animals ongoing FWS efforts to reduce lead shot use across a wide-ranging, dynamic habitat presents through education and enforcement. significant logistical challenges. The FWS is also evaluating remote sensing tools for use in developing a population estimate. Techniques under evaluation include high- resolution aerial photography and satellite imagery. Previous studies demonstrated the capability to detect and enumerate walruses with appropriate satellite imagery; additional work refined the technique for use in counting walruses on terrestrial haul-outs. Imagery of walruses on ice is currently under analysis. The results suggest that a walrus survey could potentially be flown Steller’s eiders. with an airborne thermal scanner from a height of Wood Frog. The wood frog is the only 3,500 m. The advantages of this technique are that amphibian that occurs across most of Alaska, a high-altitude, scanner-based survey would including areas within the Arctic. Since 2001, cover more than four times the area per survey surveys for abnormal wood frogs have been con- hour compared to traditional visual-based obser- ducted on several National Wildlife Refuges in vation methods. Also, a high-altitude, scanner- Alaska. Low numbers (<3%) of abnormal frogs based survey would produce a permanent data have been found in Arctic areas of Alaska, with record that could be re-examined, eliminate the most prevalent anomalies being missing hind observer bias in estimating numbers of animals limbs and digits. Initial sampling suggests that the in groups, minimize disturbance to walruses, and dramatic abnormalities seen in frogs in more tem- increase safety for flight crews by eliminating perate climates, such as additional appendages low-altitude flights over open ocean and pack ice.

27 Northern Sea Otter. The FWS continues to aerial surveys along the coastline and barrier focus its efforts on the stock-wide population islands of the Beaufort Sea (2000–2003). During decline of sea otters in southwestern Alaska. the first three years, there were 706 polar bear Abundance estimates for some areas have observations. The number of observations declined by as much as 93% since the surveys between the fall open-water period and freeze-up in the mid-late 1980s and early 1990s. Rates of was quite variable among years, with the greatest decline have varied from 6.7% per year at Kodiak number of observations in fall 2002 (five surveys, Island since 1989 to 17.5% per year in the Aleutian 377 observations). A greater number of bears used Islands. Sea otter population declines are similar coastal habitat during years when the pack ice among survey areas in the Aleutians, along the remained farther offshore for extended periods of Alaska Peninsula, and in the Kodiak Archipelago time. Adult females with dependent young com- in terms of severity and timing, and severe prised 45.5% of the observations. Habitats used declines of pinniped populations have occurred in by polar bears most frequently during the study the same areas. The results of broad-scale aerial were barrier islands and shore-fast ice. surveys prompted the FWS to designate the southwest sea otter population stock as a candi- Threatened and Endangered Species date species under the Endangered Species Act; Spectacled and Steller’s eiders. In 2002 and the FWS published a proposal to list this stock as 2003 the FWS continued to participate in a long- threatened under the Endangered Species Act on term study of the threatened Steller’s eider in the February 11, 2004. Site-specific surveys at repre- vicinity of Barrow in cooperation with the North sentative islands in the central and western Aleu- Slope Borough. The study focuses on document- tians in 2003 indicate that the decline is continu- ing abundance and distribution and identifying ing, with an estimated 63% decline between 2000 the primary influences on survival and reproduc- and 2003 at these sites. tion. Nesting effort and success of Steller’s eiders Polar Bear. The FWS, in cooperation with the vary tremendously from year to year. Predation is North Slope Borough, the Alaska Nanuuq Com- considered to be the main cause of Steller’s eider mission, and the Native villages of Kaktovik and nest failure near Barrow. Management strategies Nuiqsut, initiated a polar bear feeding ecology to improve nesting success may be necessary to study during September 2002. In the southern maintain the population. Research projects in sup- Beaufort Sea, polar bears tend to migrate to near- port of this objective include video monitoring of shore coastal areas during the fall to look for dens Steller’s eider nests to identify predators that are and feed on seals and whale carcasses. In recent responsible for egg loss and collaborative efforts years the number of bears using the coastal habi- with the Alaska SeaLife Center to develop artificial tat in the fall has increased. The objectives of the incubation techniques. three-year study are to determine the number, sex, Satellite telemetry was used to determine that and ages of the bears and their behavior and habi- Alaska-breeding individuals of both Steller’s and tat use at Cross and Barter Islands during the fall spectacled eiders spend part of their annual cycle open-water period. These locations were chosen (molt or pre-molt staging) in northeast Russia. because of the presence of subsistence-harvested Recognizing that effective wildlife conservation bowhead whale remains that attract numbers of efforts must reach across the border, the FWS has polar bears. The maximum number of bears seen at sponsored several projects in northeast Russia. Barter Island at one time was 51. A maximum of Aerial and boat surveys were conducted in west- seven bears were observed at one time at Cross ern Chukotka in the summer of 2002 to locate key Island. The majority of bear use at both the Barter areas being used by both species. Large numbers Island and Cross Island feeding sites was by sin- (approximately 14,000) of Steller’s eiders were gle adult bears (41% and 76%, respectively) and observed there in 2002 and 2003 during the pre- by family groups of adult females with dependent molt period. cubs (26% and 13%, respectively). At both loca- Virtually the entire Pacific population of Stell- tions, all age/sex classes of bears fed predomi- er’s eider molts and spends the winter in the near- nantly at night. During the day the majority of shore waters of southwestern Alaska. This popu- bears were inactive. The study was continued in lation is estimated at roughly 100,000 individuals 2003–2004. and appears to be declining at over 6% annually. The FWS, in cooperation with BP Exploration Currently the Alaska-breeding population includes, and LGL Research, completed four years of weekly at most, 2,500 individuals. The FWS, in coopera-

28 tion with the Corps of Engineers, has conducted drownings). Current research will help determine boat surveys of wintering eiders in a number of whether proposed streamer line performance coastal areas where development may occur that standards are appropriate for small vessels and on could impact the protected lagoons and produc- vessels using snap-on gear. Additionally the FWS tive, shallow areas that eiders depend on for their is funding Washington Sea Grant to study whether over-winter survival. integrated-weight groundlines, with their faster In 2003 a nesting biology and survival study sink rates, are effective in reducing seabird of spectacled eiders in the Chaun River Delta, bycatch by the longline fishery. Chukotka, was initiated. The long-term goal of this project is to compare the productivity and survival National Wildlife Refuges of spectacled eiders in Russia and Alaska. The FWS also sponsored a pilot subsistence harvest The National Wildlife Refuge system in Alaska survey in villages in the Yakutia and Chukotka encompasses 16 refuges and approximately 77 mil- regions in 2002 and 2003. Data from 2002 indicated lion acres. Staff of each refuge conduct a variety that hunting pressure on eiders may be greater of research, monitoring, and inventorying studies, than previously thought and that local knowledge ranging from long-term ecological monitoring to of waterfowl conservation issues, such as the more narrowly focused intensive studies of specific effects of lead shot, is very low. plant, fish, and wildlife species. Research high- Short-tailed albatross. Once numbering in the lights are included for several refuges in Alaska. millions, the short-tailed albatross was driven to the brink of extinction by feather hunters. Today, Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge fewer than 1,800 individuals exist, and they nest The bar-tailed godwit is the most abundant on only two islands in the western Pacific. Japan’s large shorebird in the East Asian–Australasian Torishima Island, home to 80% of the world popu- Flyway. Each fall, approximately 100,000 godwits lation, is an active volcano, with the albatross col- migrate from the coast of western Alaska to Aus- ony located in the caldera’s fluvial outwash plain. tralia and New Zealand. This 11,000-km flight is The short-tailed albatross is listed as endangered apparently the longest non-stop bird migration in throughout its range. Since 1990 there have been the world. Since 1999, refuge staff in collaboration five documented takes of this endangered seabird with the USGS have studied flocks of godwits in Alaska’s longline fisheries. Recently the FWS staging on the coast of the refuge to determine has undertaken, funded, and cooperated in a num- the wintering grounds, migration routes, and ber of projects aimed at understanding the birds’ racial identity of godwits staging on the Yukon– movements and threats. Kuskokwim Delta and determine the proportion of As a joint conservation initiative, the FWS and juveniles in the staging flocks in order to estimate Japanese Ministry of Environment began a satel- annual reproductive success. By reading site- lite tracking study of post-breeding short-tailed specific color-flags on the godwits’ legs, field albatrosses in 2001. Since 2001, tracks lasting crews have been able to identify godwits that between 50 and 140 days have been obtained from have wintered in northeastern and southeastern 17 albatrosses, for a total of over 6,000 at-sea loca- tions. In an effort to further define where short- tailed albatrosses are foraging, the FWS under- took a study to track adult and sub-adult birds at sea. All of these data will be used in conjunction with oceanographic data (collected via satellite remote sensing) and fishing effort and bycatch data to identify important marine habitats for the short-tailed albatross and environmental factors that affect their potential interaction with longline fishing fleets. Previous studies conducted by the Washing- ton Sea Grant Program indicated that paired streamer lines, towed behind longline fishing ves- sels, are very effective at reducing seabird attacks Bar-tailed godwit with leg bands at the Yukon Delta on bait (thus reducing potential bird hookings and National Wildlife Refuge.

29 scoters are one of the latest-nesting waterfowl species, with onset of nesting occurring between late June and early July. Nests contain an average of eight eggs and are difficult to find. They are often situated far from large water bodies in dense thickets of knee-high (or taller) dwarf birch and willow along the sides of pingos, drainages, and dry lake basins. Researchers have only found about 40 nests per year, despite several weeks of intensive searching in areas identified as having Braids at the Yukon Delta high concentrations of pairs. Black scoters are National Wildlife Refuge. sought by subsistence hunters in late May and early June on large lakes and along rivers of the Australia, as well as on the North and South refuge as they migrate to breeding areas. They are islands of New Zealand. Godwits banded on heavily harvested on the refuge, averaging about spring migration in both China and Japan have 6,000 birds per year. Ultimately the results of the also been observed in Alaska. The proportion of study will assist refuge staff with the management juveniles in the fall staging flocks has been con- and conservation of this little-known species. sistently low, never exceeding 3% since the study began and averaging considerably lower than age Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ratios among small samples of birds captured on Temperatures in northern Alaska have warmed the wintering grounds. Therefore, refuge scien- over the past 30 years. To determine whether tists, along with researchers from Australia and tundra vegetation has changed, botanists from the New Zealand, are evaluating hypotheses to refuge in northeastern Alaska examined data from explain this discrepancy. A population model to 26 plots that were sampled 5–6 times each between assess the impact of chronically low productivity 1984 and 2002. The plots represented all of the on population growth is being developed in col- major vegetation types on the coastal plain of the laboration with the USGS. The refuge plans to refuge. The investigators used point sampling to initiate a pilot study of godwit breeding biology in estimate percent cover of all plant species, mea- 2004 to begin exploring the factors contributing to sured the depth of thawed soil above the perma- the apparently low reproductive success. frost, took photographs from permanent photo About 42,000 pairs of black scoters, or 47% of points, and measured the height of willows at four the western North American breeding population, plots. They used linear mixed-effects regression nest on the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge. models to test for changes over time in plant spe- Black scoters remain the least known of all water- cies cover, willow height, and active-layer depth. fowl species. Because of a steady decline in Alas- The investigators detected small but significant ka’s breeding population, refuge staff and USGS decreases in cover of nonvascular plants (i.e., researchers initiated a multi-year study of black mosses, liverworts, and lichens) but no trend in scoter breeding ecology. The study, designed to vascular plant cover or willow height. The depth identify nesting habitat and timing, has found of thawed soil increased over the 18-year period. more scoter nests than any previous research Refuge staff plan to continue monitoring the effort. Preliminary results indicate that black permanent vegetation plots every five years to Black scoter research at develop a long-term record of changes in plant the Yukon Delta National cover and active-layer depth and will examine rela- Wildlife Refuge. tionships between observed changes and climatic conditions in the region. The Arctic coastal plain of northern Alaska pro- vides important breeding habitat for over 70 spe- cies of birds, including shorebirds, waterfowl, loons, and passerines. The coastal plain is also increasingly influenced by human activities, espe- cially oil exploration/development and growth of Native villages. Human food sources may enhance populations and alter the distributions of preda-

30 Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge Breeding scoter populations have declined over 50% in North America since 1955. The Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), the largest interior wetland basin in Alaska, supports the larg- est breeding population of white-winged scoters in Alaska. Refuge staff, in collaboration with the University of Alaska, initiated a study in 2002 to estimate nesting success, nest habitat selection, and duckling survival for white-winged scoters. They captured female scoters with mist nets prior to breeding and marked them with prong and suture radios to locate nests. They performed nest searches and extensive brood surveys. Preliminary data suggest low nesting success, high adult female mortality, and earlier nest initiation dates than previously estimated. Nesting habitat ranged from densely vegetated shrubby areas near lake- shores to sites up to 400 m inland in black spruce forest. Brood surveys showed that large numbers Vegetation sampling at the tors such as arctic foxes, common ravens, glau- of scoter arrive on the brood-rearing lakes in late Arctic National Wildlife cous gulls, and grizzly bears. Predator populations July and August. This study will provide informa- Refuge. may also be influenced by man-made structures tion essential for modeling the population dynam- that are used for nesting, denning, or surveillance. ics of this species and making sound management Increased numbers of predators in the vicinity of decisions. human developments could negatively affect the productivity of breeding birds via increased pre- dation on eggs and young. The FWS, Wildlife Conservation Society, BP Exploration (Alaska), Inc., ConocoPhillips Alaska, Inc., ExxonMobil Cor- poration, and Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences initiated a project in 2002 to investigate the effects of development on populations of nest predators and productivity of shorebirds on the coastal plain. Study sites were established across the North Slope. At each site, investigators are collecting data on nest density, nest fate (hatch vs. fail), and causes of nest failure. They are also investigating the relationship between nest survival, predator abundance, and proximity to White-winged scoter study at the Yukon Flats National human developments. Wildlife Refuge.

A rope drag being used to The Yukon Flats NWR and the USGS are col- find nests of birds on the laborating to develop a baseline earth cover coastal plain of the Arctic inventory of the Yukon Flat NWR using Landsat National Wildlife Refuge. thematic mapping (TM) imagery that meets the requirements for the National Land Cover Data- base (NLCD) 2001 project administered by the USGS. The refuge’s goal is to produce an integrated GIS database that can be used to improve natural resources planning. The field effort has focused on purchasing, classifying, field verifying, and producing high-quality, high-resolution, digital and hard copy resource-based maps. Over 800

31 ground-truthed points have been archived. A draft ased estimates of actual population size and thus map, which will include 35–40 earth cover types, of change in size since the last major survey. will be constructed in the winter of 2004. An accu- To date, most of the focus has been placed on racy assessment is scheduled for the summer of developing and testing methods to accomplish the 2004. first component. The extensive surveys use a combination of GIS methods to select plots and Migratory Bird Management double sampling to collect the bird information. Stratified sampling is used to separate the good The Migratory Bird Management Program is and less good habitat so that sampling effort can responsible for conducting research, monitoring, be concentrated in the higher-quality areas. Full and surveys of migratory bird populations implementation of the program awaits additional throughout Alaska in support of the management funding. of migratory birds. In Arctic Alaska, efforts are concentrated on sea ducks and other waterfowl International Activities that inhabit areas undergoing exploration and development by the oil and gas industry. Because of its strategic location in the North and its wealth of diverse and productive habitat, Breeding Population Surveys of Waterbirds on Alaska shares populations of wildlife with many the North Slope of Alaska other countries. To successfully achieve its con- Since 1992 the FWS has conducted systematic servation mission, the Fish and Wildlife Service aerial surveys of waterbirds on the North Slope of frequently participates in international cooperative Alaska. One of the objectives of the study is to research, management, and conservation activi- determine the breeding range and relative abun- ties. dance of the threatened spectacled eider on the North Slope. To date, significant positive growth Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program rates have been observed for Arctic terns, red- FWS contaminants data figure prominently in breasted mergansers, greater scaup, king eiders, the latest round of assessment reports published snow geese, and black brant, while a significant by the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Pro- negative growth rate was observed for red-throated gram. In particular, a long-term peregrine falcon loons. monitoring study was highlighted in recent reports on heavy metals and persistent organic Program for Regional and International pollutants. Long-term contaminants data sets are Shorebird Monitoring rare, both in the Alaskan Arctic and within the The goals of PRISM are to estimate the size of United States. The FWS also contributed Alaskan breeding populations of 74 shorebird taxa in North polar bear tissue data, which fill a significant data America; describe the distribution, abundance, gap identified in the first AMAP assessment and habitat relationships for each of these taxa; report. In addition to helping complete the circum- monitor trends in shorebird population size; moni- polar database for contaminants such as PCBs, tor shorebird numbers at stopover locations; and DDT, and mercury, the FWS cooperated with assist local managers in meeting their shorebird researchers at Michigan State University to inves- conservation goals. PRISM has four main compo- tigate some “new” compounds of concern, includ- nents: Arctic and boreal breeding surveys, temper- ing perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and bromi- ate breeding surveys, temperate non-breeding sur- nated flame retardant chemicals, both of which veys, and neotropical surveys. Arctic PRISM has have recently been identified as emerging issues three components: an extensive survey of the for Arctic wildlife. entire Arctic region of North America, using ran- dom sampling and methods that permit estimating Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna abundance (not just an index to it); annual or The Fish and Wildlife Service is the designated semi-annual surveys at 10–20 non-randomly Federal agency for participation in the Arctic selected permanent shorebird sites using either Council’s CAFF program. For the period 2002– index or density methods; and collection of check- 2004, FWS employees are chairing CAFF as well list data, using a standard protocol, at as many as its Flora Group and the Circumpolar Seabird sites and as often as possible. Taken together, Working Group. CAFF recently produced two sig- these components will provide essentially unbi- nificant products. The vegetation map of the cir-

32 cumpolar Arctic was published in 2003. CAFF also U.S.–Asia Activities published a major review of the status and conser- The FWS became a part of the Asia–Pacific vation of Arctic fauna and flora. Migratory Waterbird Committee. Under the aus- pices of the APMWC, the FWS is participating in Area V a study of the migration and wintering of four Under Area V of the U.S.–Russia Conservation Arctic-nesting subspecies of dunlin. The FWS is Agreement, the FWS continues to support scien- also participating in the South Pacific Regional tific exchanges with Russia to promote research Environment Program. Under the auspices of this and monitoring of key Arctic species and small program, the FWS participated in an expedition grants to Russian colleagues to further scientific to document the wintering range of the bristle- inquiry and conservation of species of mutual thighed curlew, as well as the ranges of several concern in Russia. shorebird species endemic to south Pacific islands.

Funding (thousands) National Park Service FY 02 FY 03 Cultural Resources 1,400 1,296 NPS Goals Natural Ecology 2,486 2,810 Inventory and Monitoring 0 3,500 The National Park Service (NPS) preserves Total 3,886 7,606 unimpaired the natural and cultural resources and values of the National Park system for the enjoy- ment, education, and inspiration of present and tage shared by Russia and the United States on future generations. The NPS cooperates with part- both sides of the Bering Strait. The Beringia pro- ners to extend the benefits of natural and cultural gram seeks local resident and international partici- resource conservation and outdoor recreation pation in preserving and understanding natural throughout the U.S. and the world. resources and protected lands as well as working The NPS’s goals for Arctic research stem from to sustain the cultural vitality of Native peoples the specific authorizing legislation that estab- in the Central Beringia region. All projects address lished Arctic parks, preserves, monuments, and Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee programs and from strategic planning and man- (IARPC) program areas of natural ecology and agement policies. An overarching goal is to ensure cultural resources. that management of units of the National Park system is enhanced through a broad program of Biological Inventory Program high-quality science and information. in Alaska’s Arctic Network The NPS’s Natural Resource programs in Alaska emphasize four priorities: preserving What is Inventory and Monitoring in the Alaska’s ecosystems, visitation and access, National Park Service? balancing preservation and consumptive uses, The NPS established the Inventory and Moni- and building a scientific foundation for park toring Program in 1992 to provide a consistent management. The natural resource Inventory and database of information about our National Parks’ Monitoring program is intended to provide con- natural resources, including species diversity, dis- sistent databases of information about natural tribution, and abundance, and to determine the resources, including species diversity, distribu- current condition of these resources and how they tion, and abundance and to determine the current change over time. Inventory and monitoring are condition of park resources and how they change two key strategies of the Natural Resource Chal- over time. The NPS’s Cultural Resource programs lenge, a multi-year funding initiative begun in FY in Alaska are focused on preserving Alaska’s 2000 to revitalize and expand the NPS’s resource cultural resources and contributing to knowledge management program. about cultural resources and human populations. For administrative purposes, parks have been The Shared Beringian Heritage Program recognizes organized nationally into 32 ecosystem-based net- and celebrates the contemporary and historic works. Alaska has four such networks: the South- exchange of biological resources and cultural heri- east, Southwest, Central, and Arctic Networks.

33 The Arctic Network (ARCN) consists of five NPS’s Approach parks: Gates of the Arctic National Park and Pre- Initial work involved compiling a bibliography serve (GAAR), Noatak National Preserve (NOAT), of research conducted within the ARCN and Kobuk Valley National Park (KOVA), Cape Krusen- developing lists of species known, or suspected, stern National Monument (CAKR), and Bering to occur within the ARCN boundaries. These lists Land Bridge National Preserve (BELA). The Arctic serve as a baseline to help direct inventory efforts Network spans much of the Brooks Range ecosys- in the field and are a starting point for data collec- tem. To the east, the network encompasses a large tion. This information is stored in a species data- expanse of mostly mountainous Arctic ecosystems base (NPSpecies) and bibliography (NatureBib). at the northern limit of treeline. To the west, the These are being updated with new information as network extends to the coast and has strong bio- the Biological Inventories progress. The current geographic affinities to the Beringian subconti- emphasis for inventory fieldwork in the ARCN is nent, the former land bridge between North America on vascular plants, montane-nesting birds, and and Asia. small mammals. NatureBib and NPSpecies will ulti- mately be made available to the public. Inventory Why Inventory? fieldwork is complete, and final products will be The Alaskan Arctic represents some of the completed in 2005. least biologically documented ecoregions in our country. Covering approximately 21 million acres, Interesting Finds the ARCN alone represents about 25% of all of the Vascular plant inventories in the ARCN during National Park Service land in the country. the 2001 and 2002 field seasons resulted in many Understandably this huge area of remote land, new plant records for each of the five parklands, which contains no publicly maintained roads, pro- including many rare species, and five species new vides a logistical challenge for systematic and rig- to Alaska or North America. In CAKR, which was orous scientific investigation. These challenges floristically understudied prior to the surveys, 305 have resulting in significant geographic and taxo- species were documented as new to the monu- nomic gaps in knowledge of species occurrence, ment. New species included the first record of distribution, and abundance. The Biological Dupoa labradorica in Alaska, and the documen- Inventory Program represents an important step tation of six other rare plants (listed as rare to criti- in filling these large gaps in knowledge. The true cally imperiled by the Alaska Natural Heritage Pro- extent of these gaps, and the success of the gram). In KOVA, 131 species were documented as Beach ridge flowers at Cape Krusenstern inventory program in beginning to fill them, is new to the park, including five new rare species National Monument, demonstrated by the large proportion of new and a second population of Saussurea triangulata, part of the vascular species and range extensions revealed through recently found to be new to North America during plant inventory. this effort. a previous survey. In BELA, 32 new species were documented for the park, including one new rare species and additional populations of Dupoa labradorica. In NOAT, 151 new species were documented for the park, including 11 new rare species. In GAAR, 168 new species were docu- mented, including 12 new rare species and Draba pauciflora and Festuca edlundiae, both new to Alaska. Range extensions (more than 150 km) within Alaska were also documented for numerous rare and widespread species. Small-mammal inventories of the ARCN during the 2001–2003 field seasons have resulted in major range extensions for several small mammals. The tiny shrew, one of the most poorly documented small mammals in North America, only recently discovered in Alaska, was found in BELA, GAAR, and CAKR, extending its range by 300 km. Major range extensions of 200–300 km were also docu- mented for the barren ground shrew, which was

34 ment practices without allowing damage to pre- serve resources. All of BELA (2.8 million acres) is included in active reindeer grazing allotments. Approximately one square This project will provide data needed for a compre- meter of late-successional lichen tundra dominated hensive, scientifically based reindeer management by Cladina stelaris, BELA plan focused on protecting sensitive lichen habi- lava beds. This area has tats. The major objectives were to assess and not been grazed in model the condition of lichen communities for hundreds of years each landscape stratum and to quantify the rela- because of natural land- tionship between condition class and grazing scape barriers. A one- intensity. During FY 2003, fieldwork consisting of acre plot is likely to have more than range assessment and non-vascular plant collec- 60 lichen species. tions was completed. Data analysis, voucher iden- tification, and overall synthesis are ongoing. A collected for the first time in BELA, CAKR, NOAT, publishable, peer-reviewed manuscript describing GAAR, and KOVA, and the pygmy shrew, which lichen community gradients and their relationship was found in CAKR. In total, 12 small mammal to major environmental variables and successional species were documented for the first time in one state is estimated to be completed in FY 2005. or more of the ARCN parks through this effort. Inventories of montane-nesting birds were Alaska Park Science Publication conducted in all of the parks except BELA during During FY 2003, 2500 copies of the first two 2001–2003. Initial examination of the survey issues of Alaska Park Science were produced and results provides documentation of 115 bird distributed. Both issues can also be viewed on- species, at least 17 of which were previously line at http://www.nps.gov/akso/AKParkScience/ undocumented in one or more of the four ARCN index.htm. The purpose of Alaska Park Science is parks surveyed. Of these, three are shorebirds to provide information about scientific investiga- considered to be of high regional and national tions within and relevant to Alaska’s National conservation concern: the bar-tailed godwit in Parks. Articles were contributed by scientists from GAAR, the pacific golden plover in NOAT, and several agencies and institutions. An editorial the surfbird in GAAR and NOAT. board recommended content, and the Alaska Natural History Association designed, edited, Looking Forward and produced the publication. As these biological inventories are completed, the Arctic Network turns to designing a program Population Ecology of Wolverines to monitor the status and long-term trends in the in Northwestern Alaska condition of the ecosystems under National Park Wolverine ecology has been studied within Service stewardship. This program will identify Noatak National Preserve and Kobuk Valley and monitor indicators of ecosystem condition, National Park, Alaska, since 1996. The project was or “vital signs,” to develop scientifically sound initiated to gather baseline population parameters information for use in management and research. for evaluating the impacts of harvest by hunting The results of the biological inventories provide and trapping. Specific project objectives include a much needed foundation for this important next step.

Other Arctic Projects Reindeer Impacts to Lichen Ecosystems Reindeer grazing was established as a Native industry on the Seward Peninsula in 1892 to help Natives overcome food shortages caused by over- hunting of marine mammals by international fleets. The enabling legislation of BELA requires the National Park Service to continue to permit rein- deer grazing according to sound range manage- Veterinarian holding anesthetized wolverine after surgery.

35 Muskoxen group survival estimation, harvest assessment, repro- of Alaska System, University of New Hampshire, exhibiting defensive ductive performance, and testing of prototype and Alaska SeaLife Center by joining the CESU. behavior, which makes satellite-transmitting radiocollars. Nine VHF radio- During early 2004, the cooperating agencies and them particularly collars, 12 VHF implants, and 9 satellite transmit- institutions met to develop a role and mission vulnerable to hunting. ters have been deployed on 17 male and 8 female statement, first-year work plan, and multi-year wolverines. Wolverines fitted with VHF radio- strategic plan. Future activities will include the collars or implants have provided over 130 loca- development of specific research, education, and tions, but distance to the study area and inclement technical assistance projects involving university weather have inhibited consistent efforts to obtain faculty, students, and cooperators. radiotelemetry locations at regular intervals. Satel- lite transmitter performance has been variable but Cape Krusenstern Muskoxen Range Use has provided accurate locations; however, trans- Muskoxen were extirpated from Alaska in the missions have been intermittent because satellite late 1800s. In 1935–1936, 27 animals from Green- signals are impeded when wolverines are presum- land were reintroduced to Nunavak Island, and ably in snow or rock caves or dens. from that stock, 70 were brought to northwest Home range and habitat use data have been Alaska in 1970 and 1977. The muskoxen popula- analyzed. Eleven animals (44%) have died because tion within the monument is an extension of the of predation, harvest, starvation, or unknown latter. Fieldwork was done in 2002, and will be causes. As expected, the harvested wolverine completed in 2004, on a study of the muskoxen sample is male biased (66% of 137 individuals). population composition and behavior in Cape Fifteen of 17 females harvested were more than Krusenstern National Monument The objective two years old. Examination of stomach contents is to determine conditions necessary to maintain from harvested wolverines indicate that caribou the NPS-mandated “natural and healthy” popula- are an important diet item. Preliminary isotope tion and to assess the feasibility of providing an analyses of liver, muscle, and femur samples from opportunity for local Eskimo hunters to harvest harvested wolverines indicate seasonal variation these muskoxen as a subsistence resource. A final in diet. report and Ph.D. dissertation are due in FY 2004.

North and West Alaska Cooperative Nutritional and Contaminant Assessment Ecosystem Studies Unit of Lynx and Snowshoe Hare The North and West Alaska Cooperative Eco- The area of the Brooks Range near Wiseman, system Studies Unit (CESU) was established in Alaska, is the location of a project investigating August 2003. This CESU, which is administered the presence of heavy metals in lynx and hare. It through the University of Alaska Fairbanks, will will also assess the nutritional status of lynx and focus on providing research, education, and tech- analyze hare forage. Post-mortem analysis will be nical assistance for Federal agencies in studies of preformed on carcasses acquired from local trap- high-latitude ecosystems. The NPS, along with the pers, and samples will be collected. Analysis will Geological Survey, Bureau of Land Management, be directed at determining if there is a link between and USDA Forest Service, demonstrated their sup- hare and lynx body condition. Lynx in the Wise- port for the proposal developed by the University man area appear to exhibit unhealthy characteris-

36 ecosystem where the populations of hare and lynx exhibit unique characteristics absent in neighbor- ing populations.

Ancient Hunters of the Western Brooks Range In 2002 NPS archaeologists from Western Arctic National Parklands, along with students and researchers from Washington State University, Brown University, University of Alaska Anchor- age, and the Russian Academy of Sciences, con- ducted test excavations at the Caribou Crossing site in northwestern interior Alaska. The site, esti- mated to date to approximately 10,000 B.P., has contributed key information to a multi-year project aimed at understanding the lifeways of the early inhabitants of eastern Beringia at the end of the last ice age. More than 150 large spear points were recovered at Caribou Crossing, more than at any other site of this age in Beringia. It seems that people were visiting this location repeatedly, Selection of spear points tics while the hare population is at its peak. Tissue perhaps on a seasonal basis over the course of from the Caribou Cross- will be examined to determine levels of heavy several years, and were harvesting animals in ing site. All but one of the metals, nutritional status, reproductive status, fairly large numbers. However, despite the site’s over 150 points found at and the presence, abundance, and significance name, there is no direct evidence for caribou hunt- the site are basal frag- of potential pathogens. The study will provide the ing, and the prey targeted at the site remains an ments like these, which would remain hafted in NPS with information regarding the park’s dynamic open question. spears after the tips were broken. The bases were discarded when re-arming spear shafts with new points. This is an activity hunters probably engaged in at these hilltop locations while watching for game.

Excavations at the Caribou Crossing site.

37 Bureau of Land Management

Mineral Assessments Funding (thousands) FY 02 FY 03 BLM Solid Minerals has completed its second Natural Ecology 2,700 2,500 year of a mineral resource assessment of the Delta O&G Minerals Research 1,000 1,100 Solid Minerals Assessments 720 580 River Mining District and has began a four-year Cultural Resources 210 160 mineral resource assessment of the Aniak Mining Pipeline Monitoring 600 600 District. Mineral assessment objectives are to Fire Control 380 380 identify the nature, extent, and development Total 5,610 5,320 potential of mineral resources; perform mining feasibility studies, using hypothetical mine models western Alaska and includes parts of the adjacent on mineral deposits that have economic potential; Anvik, Iditarod, Innoko, Marshall, and McGrath and fund geophysical investigations of areas mining districts. The area contains over 405 mineral having the potential to contain concealed mineral sites, including those located in the historic min- deposits. Bureau work includes locating, sam- ing areas of Iditarod–Flat, Nyac, Crooked Creek– pling, mapping, and evaluating historic mines, Donlin Creek, Candle Creek, Ganes Creek, Nixon prospects, and occurrences and investigating Fork, Illinois Creek, and Red Devil, to name a few. newly discovered mineralization. This assessment Placer gold has been the main commodity pro- is part of BLM’s mining district evaluation pro- duced from the area since the late 1900s. Placer gram authorized under the Alaska National Inter- platinum and mercury, as well as lode gold and est Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA), which mercury and its byproducts silver and antimony, has been ongoing since the early 1980s. have also been mined. Placer gold production The Delta Mining District study area encom- totals nearly 2.6 million ounces of gold, along with passes approximately 2.9 million acres in east- minor amounts of mercury and platinum. Lode central Alaska. BLM geologists have collected production totals nearly 197,000 ounces of gold and analyzed approximately 960 samples since and over 35,000 76-pound flasks of mercury and the beginning of the study. In addition, 264 U.S. byproduct antimony between 1902 and 1967. Geological Survey stream sediment samples have Other commodities prospected in the region been re-analyzed. Fieldwork during 2002 consisted include barite, copper, lead, molybdenum, silver, of a five-week field season, focusing on property tin, tungsten, uranium, and zinc. examinations and sample collection Fieldwork during 2003 consisted of a seven- The Aniak Mining District study area encom- week field season, focusing on property examina- passes approximately 27 million acres in south- tions and sample collection in the eastern third of the district. Bases of operation were McGrath and Minerals field assistant exposing mineralized Farewell Lake. BLM geologists collected 351 rock, bedrock at the Red Knob stream sediment, pan concentrate, soil, and placer Occurrence. samples from the Ganes Creek–Beaver Mountains and Nixon Fork areas southeast to the headwaters of Windy Fork and the Post River area. Shallow Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources The Alaska North Slope (ANS) contains enor- mous potential in the form of unconventional oil and gas (viscous oil, gas hydrates, and coalbed methane). As production of conventional oil and gas resources declines, unconventional resources take on a more important role in supplying energy needs. Large onshore viscous oil and gas hydrate deposits exist beneath the current ANS infrastruc-

38 ture. Estimates of in-place shallow gas resources through a National Fish and Wildlife Foundation on the ANS are 590 TCF (trillion cubic feet), with matching grant awarded to the Northern Field 100 TCF or more beneath the existing develop- Office, BLM was successful in developing prelimi- ment infrastructure. In-place shallow viscous oil nary weed awareness programs targeting citizens resources exceed 18 billion barrels. Research has and agency managers. BLM was able to pool focused on: resources and work across agency boundaries • Assessing known ANS unconventional oil to initiate weed inventories on public and private and gas resources, which promotes BLM lands. Through the project, BLM also developed understanding for potential unconventional a statewide weed database, housed in a central resources leasing and permitting; clearinghouse. A Plant Management Area (PMA) • Reviewing and evaluating existing best- was established by CNIPM partners in Juneau, production methods for shallow resource driven by the invasion of such plants as garlic extraction; mustard. A research needs assessment was devel- • Developing technology to encourage ANS oped and prioritized and will be published in the shallow unconventional resource develop- journal Agroborealis. ment; BLM initiated an invasive plant inventory on • Identifying shallow drilling and completion BLM-managed lands in 2002, completing a survey methods applicable on ANS; and of 20,000 acres of the Steese National Conserva- • Identifying existing, emerging, and new tech- tion Area. During 2003, an inventory was conducted nologies to enable economically viable pro- in the White Mountains National Recreation Area duction of the vast shallow ANS unconven- and in the Glennallen area (40,000 acres). tional resources, with a focus on economy of Biologists and other specialists in BLM Alaska scale, low impact, and low cost. Technologies continue to work actively with CNIPM and con- may include highly portable, lightweight rigs tribute to the education and outreach efforts, data- and simple shallow well completions, with base development, coordination with other agen- options to consider complex horizontal and cies and groups in Alaska, identification of multi-lateral well completions. research needs and procurment of funds, and development of management options and tools, Alaska Rural Energy such as a certified weed-free forage and mulch program. BLM Alaska partnered with U.S. Geological Survey, the State of Alaska, the University of Fortymile Caribou Herd Recovery Alaska Fairbanks, and the Department of Energy in evaluating the potential of exploring for and During 1994, BLM joined state and Federal developing coal bed methane (cbm) resources for agencies and concerned citizens to begin planning rural Alaska villages. These villages currently rely for the recovery of the Fortymile Caribou Herd on expensive diesel fuel for transportation, heat- (FCH). This effort was triggered by requests from ing, and electricity. In places, this fuel costs up to subsistence hunters throughout Alaska and $3.50 per gallon. This high cost deters develop- Yukon, Canada, to develop a broad management ment of other resources that would help generate plan by all agencies and organizations. The FCH income for the villages. This fuel is transported to management plan was completed in 1995, and these villages on prime fish-spawning rivers and implementation began in 1996 and was completed streams, where a spill would be a disaster. in June 2001. Results of the implementation have been monitored in 2002 and 2003. Weed Management Important to subsistence hunters throughout the ages, the FCH once occupied 220,000 square BLM joined as a lead agency with 31 other kilometers of Alaska and Yukon, and based on agencies and organizations in 2000 to form the estimates by the biologist Olas Murie in 1935, it Alaska Committee for Noxious and Invasive Plants numbered about 568,000. In 1994 the FCH occu- Management (CNIPM). In December 2001 CNIPM pied less that a quarter of its original range and published the Strategic Plan for Noxious and numbered 22,104. Years of research showed that Invasive Plants Management in Alaska. Much wolf predation was the primary factor limiting the has been accomplished by CNIPM and the partner survival of calves and thereby the growth of the agencies and organizations. During 2002 and 2003, FCH. The management plan included actions to

39 increase calf survival. Today the herd is growing The surveys provide a source of standardized because of the recovery efforts and has begun to data on populations of breeding birds throughout expand west and south into former ranges, includ- the U.S. and Canada. Breeding habitats in Alaska ing the highlands of the Steese National Conser- are largely intact and provide an opportunity to vation Area, and east into former ranges in Yukon. clarify the importance of breeding habitat versus During the winter of 2002, Fortymile caribou migration and wintering habitats for many species crossed the Yukon River in Yukon, Canada, for the of long-distance migrants. first time in 30 years. Calf/cow ratios have improved All survey data are reported to the Biological from 22 calves per 100 cows in 1994 to 38.7 calves Resources Division (BRD) of USGS. A trend analy- per 100 cows in 2002, and the herd has grown by sis statistical procedure is used to estimate the about 10% annually since implementation of the population change for every species or trend each management plan began (22,104 in 1994 to 43,373 year. in 2003). Harvest bag limits have increased, begin- Three bird banding stations were established ning in regulatory year 2001–2002, and will continue to inventory breeding landbirds in 1998 and con- to increase modestly over the next few years tinued to be run in FY 2002 and 2003. In June of based on herd growth. each year, birds were banded at the Old Woman The management plan was carefully crafted by public use cabin on the Old Woman River, a tribu- subsistence and sport hunters, wildlife enthusiasts, tary to the Unalakleet River that drains into Norton animal rights advocates, environmental advocates, Sound. An off-road breeding bird survey was also ecotourism representatives, and agency represen- established in 1998 on Old Woman Mountain to tatives from Alaska and Yukon. Implementation of supplement the banding efforts. Bird banding sta- the plan included reduced harvest, monitoring of tions were also established on the upper reaches land use within the FCH range, fertility control of of the Anvik and Bonasila Rivers, which drain into alpha wolves, and translocation of subordinate the Yukon River near the village of Anvik. The wolves. The BLM has formed a partnership with the northern waterthrush was the primary species cap- Alaska Department of Fish and Game to continue tured, followed by Swainson’s thrush, Wilson’s to monitor calf survival and population growth. warbler, and myrtle warbler. Banded birds have returned to the stations in subsequent years. Neotropical Migratory Bird Surveys These recaptures provide information on breeding site fidelity and longevity. The BLM bander con- BLM Alaska wildlife biologists continued ducted a demonstration for local children at the to participate in the Neotropical Migratory Bird Unalakleet site this summer, taking advantage of (NTMB) Conservation program during FY 2002 the project to teach about migratory birds. and 2003. The program is better known as Partners In Flight. Forest Age Profiles In an effort to monitor trends in North Ameri- can bird populations, 11 breeding bird surveys A study to gather baseline data on the fire his- and 7 off-road breeding bird surveys were con- tory of the Steese National Conservation Area and ducted annually in northern and northwestern White Mountains National Recreation Area in the Alaska. Survey routes were initiated in 1992 and Yukon–Tanana Uplands of interior Alaska was 1993. Many species detected on these routes are begun in 2001. In addition to documenting current identified by Boreal Partners in Flight, the working forest stand age profiles of this area, the study group for Canada and Alaska, as species of con- attempts to examine the relationship between servation priority. These include the olive-sided spruce stand age and lichen abundance. During flycatcher, Hammond’s flycatcher, gray-cheeked late July and early August 2001 and 2002, 225 thrush, varied thrush, Townsend’s warbler, black- randomly selected sites were visited, resulting in poll warbler, and white-winged crossbill. more than 1,100 tree samples (disks or increment Breeding bird surveys were also conducted cores). With University of Alaska Fairbanks coop- along the Unalakleet and Anvik Rivers in western erators, these samples are being dated. Also in Alaska, adapting standard protocols to a river, cooperation with UAF scientists, sediment cores rather than roadside, setting. Thirty-five species were collected from two lakes in the study area to have been recorded on the Unalakleet route and examine past changes in vegetation (pollen) and 42 on the Anvik survey since the routes were fire frequency (charcoal). Sample dating and data established in 1996. analysis continue. Congress directed in ANILCA

40 that caribou habitat was a special value to be con- and forest floor moistures. Attempts to predict sidered in the management of the Steese National changes in fire behavior indicated tradeoffs Conservation Area. Because fire can impact cari- between increased rates of spread due to higher bou habitat, this study and similar studies will average wind speed in thinned and pruned treat- provide an improved basis for caribou habitat ments versus an increase in the fire intensity management. threshold required for sustaining a crown fire.

Fuels Reduction Fire Management of Landscape Recent large wildfire events have captured the The University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) is nation’s attention and caused many communities, leading an effort along with AFS, U.S. Geological homeowners, and agencies to seek methods to Survey, and several Federal and state partners to reduce wildfire risks to homes and property at the develop a computer model for landscape-level urban interface. Cleared fuel breaks or prescribed analysis of fire–human interactions, vegetation burns have been employed, but sometimes less change over time, and prediction of regional fire dramatic treatments are desirable for ecological, risk in interior Alaska’s boreal forest. The inter- aesthetic, or engineering reasons. The BLM agency Joint Fire Science Program granted fund- Alaska Fire Service (AFS) and Tanana Chiefs Con- ing of $442,000 for this project for 2002–2004. The ference, Inc. initiated a three-year Fuels Treatment goal is to build a model that will provide land man- Demonstration project in 2001, with funding from agers with thematic representations spanning the national interagency Joint Fire Science Pro- years to centuries into the future of how forest gram. This study was intended to compare degrees cover and the probability of large fire events of fuel reduction by thinning with or without prun- respond to different scenarios of fire management ing in boreal black spruce with the concomitant and climatic change. The model utilizes physical, risk reduction, visual impact, environmental effects, biological, and human thematic layers and simu- and cost/benefit ratio. lates boreal forest ecosystem dynamics that influ- Preliminary results after two years of monitor- ence wildlife, hydrology, and soil processes. UAF ing the treated and control sites have demon- field crews have been systematically sampling strated changes in live moss cover, shrub and trees to establish stand age and fire regimes seedling development, microclimate, permafrost, across interior Alaska in 2002–2003.

Student Conservation Association volunteer measuring duff moisture in a research plot that demonstrates thinning and pruning for mitiga- tion of fire hazard in boreal black spruce forest (Delta, Alaska, July 2003).

41 Fallen, shallow-rooted to develop emission rate equations for boreal for- black spruce along a est types. Because of the thick layer of moss and monitoring transect at organic material in boreal forests, large quantities Chena Lakes Prescribed of pollutants can be released by fire; this issue is Fire. Deep burning into the dry moss/duff from a only beginning to be understood, thanks to on- low-intensity surface fire going research. caused the spruce to NASA approved a proposal by the Veridian topple (July 2003). Systems Division to fund a project entitled “Remotely Monitoring Plant and Soil Fuel Mois- ture for Wildfire Danger Assessment using Satel- lite Radar Data.” The proposal will study the relationship between the Fire Weather Index and Alaska fire occurrence and soil moisture as Fire Effects Research detected by synthetic aperture radar. The USFS Pacific Northwest Research Station (PNW) is determining how weather and fuel dry- Fire Monitoring Studies ness affect the reduction in moss/duff forest floor during fire. This question is integral in targeting The BLM Alaska Fire Service and field offices revegetation with desired plant species in many have established long-term vegetation monitoring wildlife habitat improvement projects, as well as plots at several prescribed fire or fuel treatment in determining erosion potential and the extent of sites to look at vegetation changes that may smoke pollution during wildfires and prescribed impact land users and wildlife. Partners include the fires. In June 2003 the Joint Fire Science board State of Alaska, the Army Corps of Engineers, and Forest Service the Tanacross Village Corporation. An interagency researchers from the granted funding for a proposal by PNW, AFS, the Fire and Environmental National Park Service, and the U.S. Fish and Wild- Fire Effects Task Group meets regularly to exchange Research Applications life Service entitled “Forest Floor Consumption information on fire research and monitoring stud- team in Seattle and and Smoke Characterization in Boreal Forested ies and to look at means of standardizing some Missoula Fire Lab Fuelbed Types of Alaska.” Fuel consumption and data collection on certain types of studies. preparing to measure smoke emissions data were collected on active smoke emissions and duff wildfires and prescribed fires in June–August. consumption on a wildfire National Petroleum near the Arctic Circle The data will be used to develop forest floor fuel Reserve—Alaska along the Dalton consumption models (i.e. how much bare soil is Highway (June 2003). exposed by burns under various conditions) and In April 2003 the BLM, in cooperation with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, conducted a study of the effects of vibroseis (seismic explora- tion) on fish overwintering in lakes. In two trials, one or five vibroseis trucks were operated over lake ice while arctic char (from a hatchery near Anchorage) were suspended beneath the ice in traps. Two control trials, with no vibroseis trucks operating, were also run with fish placed under the ice either for a brief exposure to lake water or for the same period of time as for the fish that experi- enced vibroseis. None of the fish (108 in each of four trials) was observed to suffer any adverse effects from the experiments. All were alive and apparently healthy after removal from the lake. None had ruptured gill filaments prior to euthana- sia, and subsequent necropsy revealed no rup- tured blood vessels in their eyes and no ruptured swim bladders. Another series of vibroseis trials, conducted over wild, free-swimming broad whitefish in a nearby river, was conducted while the fish were

42 The 120,000-acre Erickson Creek fire looming over the Dalton Highway, which follows the Alaska pipeline along its track to the North Slope oil fields. This fire provided good access for research teams to study smoke emissions and fire effects in the northern boreal forest (June 2003). observed by underwater cameras. In each trial the but the overall depths were significantly greater fish were observed to swim slowly away from the when measured in 2003 than when measured in vibroseis source and then to slowly return. By the 2002. This could be caused by a warmer summer in sixth trial, little response to the vibroseis applica- 2003, or a cumulative effect of greater sunlight tion was observed. Apparently seismic exploration absorption by impacted vegetation over two using vibroseis over lake ice has no adverse summers, or both. Weather records for the two impact on overwintering fish, nor does it cause summers have not yet been investigated. displacement from preferred areas of the water- Tussock damage was significantly greater in all body on more than a temporary basis. three manipulated treatments than in the control, A study by the BLM of the effects on tundra greater in the “2002 only” treatment than in the vegetation of overlapping, multi-winter ice roads “2001 only,” and significantly less overall in the was begun in 2002 and continued in 2003. This second summer of data collection. The difference was intended as a pilot study, and the sample size between 2001 and 2002 treatments may indicate (5) was limited by the availability of overlapping that ice road construction techniques or snow ice road paths in suitable vegetation cover types. cover differed between the two years. The overall The resulting power of statistical tests was low. difference between measurements in each of the The four treatments in the study were control, ice two summers indicates that recovery is occurring road path from 2001 only, ice road path from 2002 regardless of treatment. only, and overlapping ice road paths from both The percent cover of eight vegetation types winters. The characteristics measured were the was the only measure that showed a significantly depth of thaw (late summer distance between the greater effect in the overlap treatment than in tundra surface and the permafrost layer), the pro- either single-season treatment. In a comparison of portion of tussocks that were scuffed or crushed, the ratio of live versus dead vegetation, especially and the percent cover of each of eight vegetation among shrubs and forbs, the control had the high- cover types. est ratio, the single-year treatments had an inter- No statistically significant differences in thaw mediate level, and the overlap treatment had the depth were observed among the four treatments, lowest ratio of live to dead vegetation. This

43 Vehicle effects on tundra implies that the effects of ice road construction survey team detected 56 territorial pairs of pere- in the National Petroleum are additive over multiple years. It may be benefi- grine falcons, 63 of rough-legged hawks, and 13 Reserve–Alaska, July, cial to construct ice roads over new paths each of gyrfalcons. A total of 41 nests were located for 2003. BLM is studying the year, increasing the area affected but decreasing peregrine falcons, 57 for rough-legged hawks, and effects on tundra vegetation of overlapping, the intensity of the effect per unit area. 12 for gyrfalcons. This 2003 survey was a continu- multi-winter ice roads to In 2003 the BLM continued its cooperative ation of a long-term data set documenting the determine whether it may effort with the Alaska Department of Fish and presence of cliff-nesting raptors on the Colville be beneficial to construct Game and the North Slope Borough’s Department River. Surveys were first conducted along the the roads over new paths of Wildlife Management to monitor the population Colville River in 1952. After that first survey, each year, increasing dynamics, movements, and range use of the efforts were sporadic until 1978, after which sur- the area affected but Teshekpuk Caribou Herd, which calves in the veys have been conducted yearly. This valuable decreasing the intensity of the effect per unit area. northeastern NPRA. Both traditional satellite data set has documented the decline and subse- telemetry and GPS collars have been deployed quent recovery of the peregrine falcon population to document large- and small-scale movement along the Colville River, with a low of 14 pairs patterns. The importance of this information detected in 1973 and a high of 62 pairs in 1998. increases as plans progress for the first oil devel- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has opment in the northeastern NPRA. taken the lead on conducting this survey for the A river trip was conducted along the Colville past 15 years, with some financial and personnel River in 2003 to assess the occupancy of cliff- help from BLM. In 2003 the USFWS was unable nesting raptors. Peregrine falcons, gyrfalcons, and to participate, so BLM conducted the survey with rough-legged hawks were the targeted species, the assistance of a consulting raptor biologist. although information was also collected on com- mon ravens. The trip was conducted in June and BLM-USGS July, and all suitable cliff-nesting raptor habitat Bering Glacier System Program along the Colville River, beginning just below the mouth of the Etivluk River and ending at Ocean The BLM and the U.S. Geological Survey Point, was surveyed, a distance of 347 km. The (USGS) have carried out complementary physical

44 and biological inventory and research programs the pattern of surges and retreats has created a at Bering Glacier, Alaska. The synthesis of results landscape where local climate and time since gla- from these studies, which range from glaciology cial cover have effectively decoupled. Within this to ecology, show that the Bering Glacier system relatively small region, the impact of habitat age, is very dynamic, a system that is undergoing climate, and physical properties on community profound changes. To better address the short- structure can be studied independently over a and long-term management of the Bering Glacier broad range of habitats. In the limited area around region, BLM, in cooperation with USGS, has the glacier, habitats vary from newly exposed created a public/private partnership between Fed- rocks at close to sea level to 10,000-year-old eral, state, local, academic, and non-governmental moraines at elevations above 5,000 m, and from organizations (NGOs), as well as commercial Ber- wet fens to relatively dry subalpine forests. Out- ing Glacier stakeholders. The successful operation crops and corings reveal sediments that record the of the Bering research facility, populated by the interactions of climate, sea level, and earthquake- stakeholders each summer conducting investiga- induced land movements over the past few thou- tions in geology, glaciology, paleontology, plant sand years. biology, animal biology, oceanography/water qual- BLM personnel are currently developing a new ity, remote sensing, and GIS decision support, is land use plan for the Glennallen District, which testimony to the public/private partnership. includes the Bering Glacier region. This plan is The Bering Glacier is the largest and longest referred to as the East Alaska Resource Manage- glacier in continental North America, with an area ment Plan. The current guiding document is the of approximately 5175 square kilometers and a Southcentral Management Framework Plan of length of 190 km. It is also the largest surging gla- 1980. This plan is outdated, and the only refer- cier in America, having surged at least five times ence to Bering Glacier is to “provide opportunities during the twentieth century. The last great surge for development of coal reserves in the Bering occurred in 1993–1995. Bering Glacier alone covers planning block.” A set of decisions will be made in more than 6% of the glacier-covered area of Alaska the East Alaska Resource Management Plan rela- and may contain 15–20% of Alaska’s total glacier tive to the Bering Glacier. These include vegeta- ice. The entire glacier lies within 100 km of the Gulf tion resource management, special status species of Alaska. The rapid ongoing retreat of the glacier management, state role in fish and wildlife man- and the expansion of Vitus Lake at the glacier ter- agement, recreation use, off-highway vehicle use, minus has provided opportunities for establish- land use planning, and oil, gas, coal, and mineral ment of new habitat and new flora and fauna. The management. post-surge retreat of Bering Glacier has created a In addition to the formidable task of creating dynamic landscape of reticulated and fluted sur- a new land use plan for the Bering Glacier region, faces with subtidal invertebrate fossils, lake sedi- there are three scientific reasons for research on ments, and previously overrun forests. Bering Glacier. First, because the Bering Glacier The BLM/USGS’s coordinated investigations landscape is being created by the dramatic and of the Bering Glacier system have suggested that catastrophic disintegration of a piedmont ice lobe, the site is biologically and environmentally signifi- it will likely be substantively changed as the gla- cant. Paleontological research has documented a cier continues to retreat. Second, understanding diverse assemblage of invertebrate species, pre- the interactions between the physical habitat and served forests, and ancient peats, and preliminary the biological communities in this region will help botanical studies have identified more than 350 scientists understand how glacial retreats (now vascular and non-vascular species. The forelands occurring world-wide) are likely to impact local are also known to support a highly diverse verte- biotic communities. And third, because human brate community: fresh and anadromous fishes, activities at the site are increasing because of three rare subspecies of geese, genetically distinct growing interest by commercial and recreational populations of wolf and goat, and a previously users, it is likely that there will be impacts on the undocumented harbor seal haulout. The diversity fragile ecosystems in the area. of fauna and flora in the area around the margins To address the Bering Glacier research and land of the Bering Glacier is likely due to the dynamic use issues, the BLM, in cooperation with USGS, physical habitat. In contrast to the forelands of operates the Bering Glacier field camp each sum- most retreating glaciers, in which distance from mer. The field program typically starts in early July the glacier reflects both habitat age and climate, and runs through the end of August. The camp is

45 located on the edge of Vitus Lake on a former ter- To encourage and facilitate collaboration minal moraine. The camp, complete with refueling across the various science disciplines, the BLM airstrip, kitchen and mess tent, command center, has created a web-based portal (http://quickplace. and restrooms can comfortably host 25 scientists erim.org/bering) as a repository for the field obser- at a time. The scientists and their staff sleep in vations and reports. A part of the portal is a com- tents or wooden-floor huts. prehensive geographic information system (GIS) BLM-invited investigators, representing other that includes the geological, glacier, oceano- Federal, state, academic, and non-government graphic, and water properties, as well as the organizations, address a variety of scientific and biological surveys. The BLM also conducts an observational issues, including: annual Bering Glacier workshop, where previous • Bering Glacier observations (terminus, ice findings are reported and planning for future field movement, ablation, thickness, berg calving activities occurs. rate, ice depth, and sub-glacial geology); • Vegetation studies (mapping communities Wildlife Project Work surrounding the glacier); on the Dalton Highway • Water properties of Vitus, Berg, and other Bering Glacier lakes (bathemetry, conductivity, In cooperation with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the BLM performed a herd compo- temperature, density, O2, pH, turbidity, oxida- tion–reduction potential, and total dissolved sition count of the Ray Mountains Caribou Herd. sediments); During this study three new animals were radio- • Paleontology and paleoseismology (fossil tagged in this herd, bringing the number of and plant analysis in estuarine, lake, and collared caribou in the Ray Mountains to 12. In glacial outwash areas); addition, the BLM also cooperated on a herd com- • Geology, geomorphology, and sea level position count of caribou inhabiting the Dalton studies (moraine deposits, thermokarst, Corridor in the vicinity of the Hodzana Hills south- and coastal and lake sediments); east of Bettles, Alaska, and also radio-tagged four • Seal population studies (count, behavior, of these animals. and food source); The BLM surveyed five Areas of Critical Envi- • Fish population (species, count, and size); ronmental Concern (ACEC) for important Dall • Remote sensing (mapping) of the Bering sheep habitat in 2003. Sheep use by season and Glacier area; the presence of sheep licks were noted during this • Hazard modeling and mitigation; and work. • Environmental monitoring. In FY 2003 the BLM cooperated with the Kanuti These specific investigations all aid the BLM National Wildlife Refuge and the Alaska Depart- in managing this wilderness area. ment of Fish and Game in a moose trend count in To support the ongoing Bering Glacier science the northern part of Game Management Unit 24 and observational investigations, the BLM has near and in the Dalton Highway Corridor. incorporated the use of National Technical Means BLM personnel and a volunteer conducted (NTM). NTM contributions, along with the use of three 25-mile breeding bird survey routes along civil and commercial satellite remote sensing data, the Dalton Highway in 2003. are being used to specifically support hazard and BLM personnel began a nest box monitoring risk mitigation issues at the glacier, as well as to study for raptors along the Dalton Highway in the support the environmental characterization and Brooks Range in 2002. In 2003 the BLM checked monitoring. The NTM contributions are coordi- these boxes and found five active nests of Ameri- nated through the Civil Applications Committee can kestrels and five of boreal owls. Prey remains (CAC). The lessons learned at the Bering Glacier and unhatched eggs were collected from each nest are being used by BLM and other civil agencies at for later food habits and contaminant analysis, other sites such as the Alaskan North Slope. respectively. The BLM Bering field camp is a good example The BLM funded a cooperative study with the of leveraging resources. BLM provides logistical University of Alaska Herbarium to search for rare support to invited investigators, while salaries, plants in the Toolik Lake Research Natural Area. equipment, analysis, and reporting are the respon- This project was begun in 2002, and 8000 acres sibility of the participating investigators. have been surveyed.

46 Funding (thousands) U.S. Geological Survey FY 02 FY 03 Marine Mammals 1,660 1,560 Biological Resources Discipline Migratory Birds 2,390 2,250 Fisheries Research 360 360 The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Biological Cooperative Research 330 330 Resources Discipline (BRD) conducts research in Terrestrial Ecology 1,130 1,060 the Arctic to generate information that will help Park Research 1,140 1,070 Department of the Interior agencies and other Total 7,010 6,630 partners in Alaska meet their resource manage- ment responsibilities. These responsibilities region dealing with a broad range of aquatic include conservation of migratory birds, certain resource issues. These studies range from detailed marine mammals, endangered species, anadro- ecological investigations to determination of mous fishes, and all biota inhabiting National the genetic population structure within species. Wildlife Refuges and National Parks and Pre- Current research projects in the region focus on serves. Research is designed to address the chum salmon, chinook salmon, sockeye salmon, effects of development, disturbance, hunter har- rainbow trout, and blackfish. vest, and natural environmental cycles on fish The USGS and the National Park Service share and wildlife populations. Other research will help a collaborative study of microevolution looking develop improved census and survey methods at genetic and phenotypic differences in sockeye that will better detect trends in populations. All salmon in Albert Johnson Creek and the recently research has the ultimate goal of providing infor- colonized Surprise Lake, Aniakchak National Mon- mation that will lead to better management deci- ument and Preserve, Alaska. Aniakchak caldera sions and actions to promote conservation of liv- was formed by a massive eruption 3500 years ing resources in the vast ecosystems of the Arctic. before the present (BP). The caldera filled with Fish and wildlife populations in the U.S. Arctic are water and subsequently breached the caldera wall extensively shared with Canada and Russia, and roughly 1800 BP. Additional sizable eruptions a portion of the research effort is directed toward occurred in the caldera 500 and 72 BP. Sockeye treaty and other international requirements to salmon populations in Aniakchak caldera were jointly manage shared resources. established naturally by colonization following the Most Arctic research of the BRD is conducted collapse of the caldera wall, and they perhaps from the Alaska Science Center (ASC), Anchorage, re-established following the eruptions 500 and 72 and the Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research years ago. In comparison, most other sockeye Unit at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Some salmon populations in southwest Alaska were additional research is performed by others of the established 10,000 years ago following glacial 15 national research centers or the more than 50 recession. Sockeye that spawn in Surprise Lake, cooperative research units, each of which has spe- inside the caldera, exhibit the typical lake-type life cial capabilities that may be applicable to problems history, with juvenile access to a lake for one to in Arctic research. two years of rearing before the seaward migration. Ecological research in Arctic ecosystems is The likely colonizing population at the base of the difficult, given the harsh conditions, frequently volcano exhibits a river-type life history, with no inaccessible habitats, and often wide-ranging juvenile lake access. The juveniles of this life his- movements of Arctic biota. It is also very costly. tory must rear in the less-productive river. This Since it has often been necessary to develop new study will determine if the populations have methods of obtaining information, some of the genetically diverged with respect to nuclear micro- most advanced technologies have been devel- satellite markenjrs. It will also determine if diver- oped for, or first applied to, research in the Arctic. gence in juvenile body shape has occurred, and Satellite-linked biotelemetry and heavy metal trac- if so, the role different food and foraging tactics ers are but two of many new techniques that have play in these local adaptations. been successfully applied to the problems of fish The USGS Global Change Initiative funded and wildlife conservation in the Arctic. recent research on non-linear systems and sock- eye salmon growth in the Bering Sea, 1955–2002. Fisheries Non-linear systems present a challenge to concep- Fisheries biologists from the Alaska Science tual thinking in reductionist science. When the Center are conducting several studies in the rate of change of one or more variables is a non-

47 linear function of one or more states or conditions, salmon have a distinct two-year life history, and we find evidence of unexpected thresholds hatchery production originating from northern beyond which change occurs much more rapidly Japan and wild pink salmon production from and qualitative changes in behavior that can lead streams in eastern Kamchatka are especially abun- to cyclic extremes in abundance and diversity. dant in odd-numbered years. These populations There are few biological models that cross as overlap both temporally and spatially with wild many thresholds and follow such divergent life- Alaska sockeye in the Bering Sea. Density depen- history trajectories as Pacific salmon. The dynam- dence for Alaskan sockeye in the ocean appears ics of non-linear systems is an essential part of to result from prey reduction caused by large num- understanding how and where this culturally and bers of hatchery pink salmon feeding in the Bering economically important group of fishes will be Sea in June and July before they migrate back modified by global change. to Asian coastal waters. This results in a sharp Most research on Pacific salmon has focused reduction in prey availability for Alaska sockeye on freshwater growth and marine harvest. How- salmon because of mortality and ontogenetic ver- ever, the interactions among important ecosystem tical migrations of some prey during the summer. components for Pacific salmon are not proportional Subsequently Alaskan sockeye, in years when and therefore are non-linear. The transitions salmon they overlap with hatchery pink salmon, suffer make between freshwater and marine environ- poor marine growth and lowered reproductive ments are critical times during which fish undergo potential. physical, behavioral, and morphological changes. These changes are a response to challenges asso- Migratory Birds ciated with water ion balance, food requirements, In 1999 the ASC initiated a cooperative survey diseases, parasites, predators, and the shift and research program with the U.S. Fish and Wild- between riverine and pelagic ecosystems. The life Service, Region 7 (Alaska), to examine the timing of these transitions is regulated by climate, distribution, abundance, and life histories of sea hydrology, oceanography, development rate, ducks and other marine birds in the nearshore growth, and genetics. Changes in ecosystem con- waters of the Beaufort Sea. This work was ditions, including nutrients, food distribution and designed in response to information needs identi- abundance, predators, currents, and temperature, fied by the Minerals Management Service, Alaska are important factors that interact to support Outer Continental Shelf Region. Presented here salmon at these critical stages of their life history. are the results from four field seasons of a multi- All of these non-linear factors are subject to faceted research program designed to assess the extreme shifts and discontinuities with global breeding ecology of Pacific common eiders and change. The degree that changes in ecosystem the molting ecology of long-tailed ducks along the condition in both freshwater and marine habitats Beaufort Sea coast of Alaska. The study area was are non-linear will impact the survival of salmon divided into an Industrial Area adjacent to current populations adapted to a particular schedule or oilfield development to the west of Prudhoe Bay sequence of change. and an undeveloped Control Area around Flaxman Salmon live in the ocean as pelagic fish for vari- Island. ous lengths of time and return with unique fidelity Long-tailed ducks congregate in the lagoon to their stream of origin to reproduce and create system of the Beaufort Sea for a post-breeding subsequent generations. Human-induced changes molt period from mid-July through mid-September. to both freshwater and marine environments have During this time the lagoons host 10,000–30,000 greatly complicated this relationship. The impacts flightless long-tailed ducks. The combination of of marine harvest, habitat destruction, and devel- their large numbers, limited mobility, and nutri- opment on salmon stocks have been well docu- tional demands, along with a declining population mented in the scientific literature. Hatchery pro- trend, had led to concern for this species. In 1999 duction and supplementation of salmon stocks and 2000 the ASC collected ducks through the were linear fixes for a complex system that have molt period for a study of body condition, molt not worked out as expected. Recent studies of timing, and flight parameters. The dynamics of Alaskan sockeye salmon in the Bering Sea, 1955– body composition during the molt act to minimize 2001, showed a strong negative relationship the flightless period for long-tailed ducks. These between late marine growth in sockeye and Asian ducks meet their nutritional demands by foraging hatchery releases of odd-year pink salmon. Pink during the molt period, but there is no indication

48 that they are resource limited. Body condition was two duckling carcasses collected in 2000. Disease not affected by experimental boat disturbances or and predation may be responsible for poor duck- proximity to industrial development. During 2000– ling survival. Concentrations of lead and mercury 2002 the ASC studied aspects of movement, site in blood and eggs were lower than on the Yukon– fidelity, habitat use, and foraging ecology using Kuskokwim Delta. The data do not show an effect radiotelemetry. In general, long-tailed ducks forage of industrial development on common eiders, with in the lagoons by day and roost along the barrier the possible exception of an increased risk of pre- islands at night. Movement patterns of long-tailed dation for eiders breeding near the oilfields. With ducks among years and areas were highly vari- the breeding success that the ASC documented able, with some individuals showing a great deal since 2000, this population will not persist on its of mobility. There were no apparent effects of dis- own. There are three possible scenarios for this turbance (including underwater seismic gunning) population: the population may be declining on movement, habitat use, or foraging; rather, rapidly, the population is maintained by recruit- weather (especially wind) appears to be the primary ment from other populations, or the population influence on these behaviors. is maintained by infrequent years of high recruit- To examine the role of disease and contami- ment. Regardless, there is cause for significant nants on long-tailed ducks, the ASC analyzed concern about the long-term viability of this popu- blood and cloacal samples taken from live ducks lation. and tissue samples from carcasses. Blood levels of The ASC is engaged in research on other lead were low, and there were no major differences aspects of the life history of sea ducks in Alaska. in concentrations of trace elements between the Little is known about the migration and winter Industrial and Control Areas. The ASC identified ecology of most sea ducks, which is considered a an adenovirus outbreak as the cause of poor body priority information need by the Sea Duck Joint condition and mortality of long-tailed ducks in the Venture of the North American Waterfowl Man- Control Area in 2000. The data suggest that molt- agement Plan. New and smaller satellite transmit- ing long-tailed ducks are more influenced by natu- ters that can be surgically implanted in the abdom- ral phenomena such as wind and disease than by inal cavities of sea ducks has permitted significant human disturbance. advances in understanding links between breed- There is concern for the common eider of the ing areas and staging and winter habitats. Beaufort Sea because of recent dramatic popula- The ASC used satellite telemetry to study the tion declines. Along the Arctic coast of Alaska, migration routes and wintering areas of two allo- the greatest concentration of breeding common patric breeding populations of Pacific common eiders is in the central Beaufort Sea, where they eiders in Alaska: the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta and nest almost exclusively on barrier islands. The the western Beaufort Sea coast. Only 6% (2 of 36) ASC used aerial surveys and ground-based nest of females wintered within the wintering area of monitoring to assess the breeding ecology of the other breeding population. Both breeding pop- common eiders in the study areas. Both aerial sur- ulations wintered in the closest available ice-free veys and ground-based nest searches showed a habitat, perhaps to minimize migratory distance. continued decline in nesting effort since 1999. Beaufort Sea breeding birds wintered primarily This decline parallels increasingly late break-up of in the Chukchi Sea near the Chukotka Peninsula, the sea ice between the mainland and the barrier Russia, and St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Those islands, and it may be in part due to eiders forgo- birds that were marked in nesting areas on the ing nesting because of poor conditions on the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta wintered in marine habi- breeding grounds. All of the measures of produc- tats off the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers and in tivity (nesting effort, clutch size, hatch success, Bristol Bay, Alaska. Two Beaufort Sea females win- and fledging success) were low and substantially tered in areas used by Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta below those of Pacific common eiders nesting on females, implying potential gene flow among the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta in western Alaska. breeding areas. The ASC concluded that these Predation by Arctic foxes and glaucous gulls was two populations are largely geographically iso- the greatest contributor to nest failure of common lated throughout the annual cycle, and the envi- eiders. Of 52 broods followed in 2000 and 2001, ronmental factors influencing survival and repro- none were known to survive until fledging. A duction likely differ between these groups of reovirus, similar to one responsible for a major die- birds. Thus, regardless of the potential gene flow off of common eiders in Finland, was isolated from among breeding populations, birds from these two

49 breeding areas should be managed as separate avifauna occurs in montane habitats, especially in populations. the larger parks. Recent regional and national Spectacled eiders were listed as threatened in shorebird conservation planning efforts have 1993 under authority of the Endangered Species identified certain shorebird species and habitats Act. The ASC has studied the life history of spec- as being of high conservation concern, primarily tacled eiders in Russia, on the Yukon–Kuskokwim because of documented or perceived population Delta in western Alaska, and on the North Slope of declines and/or restricted distributions. In Alaska, Alaska in an effort to identify factors that may be 14 such species have been identified. Six of them limiting their recovery. However, too little informa- nest in montane regions, including Pacific golden tion, especially away from their breeding grounds, plovers, wandering tattlers, whimbrels, bristle- existed to determine the causes of the significant thighed curlews, bar-tailed godwits, and surfbirds. population decline on the Yukon–Kuskokwim Despite the obvious importance of the Arctic Net- Delta. The ASC described characteristics of the work Parks to regional, national, and international wintering area used by spectacled eiders in the populations of montane-nesting birds, particularly Bering Sea, Alaska, and evaluated these character- shorebirds, information on species distribution istics in relation to long-term population trends. and abundance is limited or nonexistent for most Remoteness, limited daylight, and extreme weather geographic areas of the parks. The goal of this conditions precluded direct observations, so they project is to document the occurrence of 90% of derived the location of the wintering area from the species of montane-breeding birds likely to satellite telemetry, ice conditions from remotely occur in the Arctic Network of Parks. The ASC has sensed data, weather conditions from archived employed a repeatable, scientifically valid sam- data sets, and benthic communities from the litera- pling design suited to expansive areas with limited ture. Based on analyses of two indices spanning access to address three principal objectives: 1957–2002 and 1988–2002, they identified no • Collect and summarize all existing information single environmental parameter that explained the on the distribution and abundance of all avian precipitous decline in nesting populations in west- species occurring on upland habitats; ern Alaska. In general, the number of days with • Obtain geographic data layers needed to extreme sea ice in winter, extreme winds, and winds characterize elevation, slope, habitat, and in spring explained the greatest variability in measures of seasonal green-up; and annual indices. These analyses support the con- • Determine species-specific associations clusion that annual population estimates on the between distribution, abundance, and habitat breeding grounds can be negatively impacted by characteristics, particularly for species of extended periods of dense sea-ice concentration shorebirds and passerines occurring on and weather during the previous winter. Examina- upland areas during the breeding season. tion of population indices did not support the Results from the 2001 and 2002 field seasons hypothesis that changes in benthic communities revealed a total of 100 species of birds on sampled on the wintering grounds have contributed to the plots, including 53 in Cape Krusenstern, 54 in decline or inhibited the recovery of the spectacled Kobuk Valley, and 87 in Noatak. Overall, there eider breeding population in western Alaska. were 23 species of shorebirds; 13 species of The ASC and the National Park Service (NPS) potential predators of shorebird adults, eggs, or recently agreed to collaborate on a multi-year young, including 8 raptors, 3 jaegers, and 2 cor- project to inventory montane-nesting birds in vids; 35 species of passerines; 22 species of National Parks of northwest Alaska. The NPS waterfowl; 2 species of gulls; 2 species of ptarmi- administers five large land units in northwest gan; 1 species of grouse; 1 species of tern; and 1 Alaska: Cape Krusenstern National Monument, species of crane. On average the ASC detected Noatak National Preserve, Bering Land Bridge 30.4 species on Cape Krusenstern plots, 25.0 spe- National Preserve, Gates of the Arctic National cies on Kobuk Valley plots, and 26.0 species on Park and Preserve, and Kobuk Valley National Noatak plots during and between surveys. Park. Together they comprise the Arctic Network Observers were able to directly associate a bird of Parks and cover almost 81,000 square kilometers with a vegetation class for 27% of the detections (20.4 million acres), or about 5% of Alaska’s land of shorebirds and their potential predators. area. These parks host between 150 and 200 spe- Among these, 52% of bird detections were associ- cies of birds, but adequate documentation is lack- ated with mesic graminoid herbaceous vegetation ing for 20–40% of these. The poorest documented (MGH) and 13% with Dryas dwarf shrub (DDS)

50 vegetation. The remaining birds were associated Arctic regions. The USGS is responsible for con- with 20 other vegetation classes or combinations ducting research to satisfy U.S. Fish and Wildlife of classes. Habitat associations also varied by Service information needs for these two species. species. For example, whimbrels were almost The U.S. shares both species with Russia, and always associated with MGH (76%), whereas polar bears are also shared with Canada. The inter- American golden plovers were usually found national nature of the populations requires the among various classes, including MGH (38%), U.S. to coordinate research programs with both DDS (26%), and dry forb herbaceous vegetation Russia and Canada. The focus of current research (12%). relates to international actions necessary to con- The ASC classified the behavior of 79% of serve shared populations. Both species are sub- 1,423 detections of shorebirds and potential ject to legal harvests by Alaska Natives, and shorebird predators. Based on this subsample, the research seeks to develop methods for defining behavior of most shorebirds was characterized and monitoring populations to establish sustain- as courtship or breeding display (47%); standing, able population goals. Resource development in preening, or sleeping (26%); or flying or walking the Arctic habitats and their potential impacts on (14%). For potential predators, most detections populations of polar bears and Pacific walruses were of individuals flying or walking (68%), or are also topics of research interest. standing, preening, or sleeping (24%). They were Walruses.The USGS Pacific walrus research likewise able to determine the behavior for a high program focuses primarily on studies related to proportion of passerines (90% of 2,916 detections) the estimation of walrus abundance, animal diving because behavior can be inferred from vocaliza- behavior and patterns of migration, and popula- tions. Most passerines were performing courtship tion genetics. or breeding displays (81%), or flying or walking Pacific walruses occur throughout the Chukchi (14%). Very few passerines were seen feeding or and Bering Seas and are important to Native sub- engaged in maintenance or agonistic behaviors. sistence in Alaska and Russia, where thousands Waterfowl were typically seen as pairs or groups of animals are harvested each year. Reliable abun- on water bodies (24%) or flying (45%) over plots. dance estimates for walrus are currently unavail- Most detections of gulls (64%) were of birds fly- able. Estimates of the potential biological removal ing low along creeks or rivers, and most detec- (PBR) for all marine mammal species are required tions of ptarmigans (54%) were of males standing under the 1994 amendment to the U.S. Marine on prominent shrubs or rock outcroppings. Mammal Protection Act. PBR estimates require an Additional data analyses are in progress. The estimate of population size with estimable preci- ASC will use logistic regression to estimate the sion. The status of the walrus population is poorly probability of detecting a species at any location known, but there are indications that the popula- in the study area. To do so, they will construct a tion declined from its most recent peak in abun- resource selection probability function by compar- dance in the 1980s. Estimates of walrus population ing characteristics of the sample points that are trends are critical for effective management. The used or unused by each species. The presence or purpose of the USGS studies is to evaluate trends absence of the species will be the dependent vari- in the walrus population by establishing new sur- able, and habitat and topographic characteristics veys, evaluating past data collected from monitor- around the point will be used as explanatory vari- ing programs in U.S. and Russia, and investigating ables. For those variables for which information is potential genetic structuring in the walrus popula- available on a park-wide GIS, resource selection tion. probability functions will be developed by com- To estimate the total population abundance paring points used by each species with a ran- from an aerial survey, the number of animals enu- domly selected sample of points available in the merated on ice and land haulouts must be divided study area. Habitat composition at the points is by the proportion of the population hauled out, currently being summarized. and thus available for sighting, at the time of the survey. Because walruses are distributed over Marine Mammals vast areas of sea ice, an estimate of the proportion The Department of the Interior has trust respon- of time hauled out is best obtained using satellite sibility for managing three species of marine mam- telemetry data. The USGS is investigating meth- mals: polar bear, Pacific walrus, and sea otter. Polar ods to remotely affix satellite transmitters to wal- bears and Pacific walruses are apical carnivores in ruses in order to estimate an availability correction

51 factor that can be used by the U.S. Fish and Wild- age human activities so as to eliminate or reduce life Service in future aerial surveys. This method the possible impacts of those activities on polar of affixing transmitters would alleviate the need bears and their habitat. As a result, we now have for animal captures, which have been problematic. information on populations to more effectively If funding permits, 40–60 transmitters will be manage the harvest of polar bears. We also have deployed across a range of age and sex classes developed knowledge that can dramatically reduce throughout the Bering Sea. The success of this the impacts that may occur as a result of hydro- year’s efforts will dictate whether the development carbon exploration and development in the Arctic. of these methods will continue into 2005. Whereas these proximate effects of human activity Relatively few studies have investigated the can be managed, understanding and managing the population structure of the Pacific walrus. No ultimate effects of the dramatic decline in the habi- genetic studies of the Pacific walrus have utilized tat upon which polar bears depend may present microsatellite DNA, which is now commonly used much more challenging problems. The USGS polar in population genetic investigations. Comprehen- bear project will be focusing on those issues sur- sive genetic studies using microsatellite and rounding large-scale climate change for the next mitochondrial DNA might reveal distinct subpopu- several years. lations within the Pacific walrus and aid in identi- Radio-collared polar bears have been shown fying the migration patterns of animal groups. to travel from the Canadian Beaufort Sea into the Subpopulations may be uniquely adapted to given eastern Chukchi Sea of Alaska. Recognition that areas and may respond to harvest or habitat alter- these animals are shared by Canada and Alaska ations in different ways, so they may warrant spe- prompted the development of the Polar Bear Man- cial management considerations. In addition, an agement Agreement for the Southern Beaufort increased understanding of walrus distributions Sea. This agreement between the Inupiat hunters and movement patterns will help in planning and of Alaska and the Inuvialuit hunters of Canada interpreting future population studies, such as was ratified by both parties in 1988. The text of the aerial surveys. The USGS is using microsatellite agreement included provisions to protect bears in and sequence information from the hypervariable dens and females with cubs, and it mandated that portion of the control region of the walrus mito- the overall harvests from the southern Beaufort chondrial DNA to investigate potential population Sea (SBS) polar bear population would be split structuring within the geographic range of the between the two jurisdictions. It also dictated Pacific walrus. Tissue samples are derived from that the quota for each jurisdiction would be set past research cruises, subsistence hunts, and live according to the best available scientific informa- animal biopsies using crossbows. Preliminary tion and would be reviewed annually. results are expected to be completed by 2005. A principal assumption of the agreement is Measures of heavy metal concentrations along that hunters from villages between Cape Bathurst, the axis of growth in hard tissues such as teeth NWT, and Wainwright, Alaska, are harvesting can provide a history of environmental or dietary polar bears from the same SBS population. The exposure of animals to metals such as mercury, assumption that there is one group of bears in the lead, copper, zinc, strontium, and calcium. Further- SBS was based on analysis of radiotelemetry data more, if isotopic and metal profiles are known for collected between 1981 and 1988. Ensuing analyses geographic regions of the animal’s environment, of those data indicated that the concept of one measures of these profiles can provide information homogeneous group is probably not accurate. on the animal’s residency within geographic areas. The studies first reported in 1999 have been The USGS is collaborating with the Geological re-examined. This re-assessment benefits from Survey of Canada to use measures of heavy metals improved methodologies, new radio tracking data from walrus teeth to determine walrus group affili- from the eastern and southern portions of the ation and the distribution of segregated segments Beaufort Sea collected through June of 2003, and of the population. The study requires coordina- all available data from the Chukchi Sea. Previous tion with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, University research concluded there were three populations of Alaska Fairbanks, and Alaskan and Russian of polar bears in the study area. This conclusion hunters. Lab analyses have been completed on over was drawn from a variety of scientific data collected 250 teeth, and results will be published in 2005. over a period exceeding 30 years, as well as local Polar Bears.USGS polar bear studies have knowledge. Quantifiable evidence of three popula- focused for nearly two decades on ways to man- tions discrete enough to be managed separately,

52 however, has been lacking. The recent analysis our understanding of the size and trend of this corroborates the earlier suggestion that three population. Spring 2004 will mark the fourth year groups of bears occur in this area. of five years of a new capture–recapture effort Most human activities of concern for polar in the SBS. These five years (2001–2005) of more bear conservation, notably hunting and oil and consistent, uniform capture–recapture data should gas exploration and development, occur in the allow an expanded analysis that includes more very near shore zone. This is the area in which state-of-the-art capture–recapture models (e.g. the our predictive abilities are strongest. Also, it is a multi-state model) and will also mitigate bias and simple matter to convert our relative probabilities precision problems associated with modeling the of encountering a bear from each population to historic (1967–2000) data. absolute probabilities of encountering any polar Spring 2003 capture–recapture operations were bear. Hence, managers could advise recreationists based out of Prudhoe Bay, Kaktovik, and Barrow, of the likelihood of bumping into a polar bear Alaska. The goal in using multiple logistical bases when they are out on the land, and they can was to distribute the capture effort as evenly as address questions such as which areas proposed possible throughout the SBS, thereby obtaining for industrial developments will minimize the risks a representative sample of the polar bears utilizing of incidental bear encounters. They also can now this area. USGS scientists attempted to identify calculate the numbers of bears that might be and/or capture every polar bear they observed exposed to oil in the event of a spill. This is the regardless of age, sex, reproductive status, or pre- sort of information that makes risk assessments vious capture history. They encountered 118 indi- for environmental impact statements meaningful. vidual polar bears during the spring 2003 capture– Another focus of these new findings will be recapture season, 104 of which were captured. Of their application to population estimates for polar the captured individuals, 89 were located by stan- bears in the Beaufort Sea. Previous capture– dard searching techniques (not by radiotelemetry). recapture efforts illustrated how recognition of Only 21 of these bears had been captured and different populations with different capture proba- marked in a previous year, giving a recapture rate bilities could impact population size estimates. of about 24%. The remaining 15 captured individu- Knowing not only that capture probabilities differ, als were located by radiotelemetry. but what the different probabilities are, is currently One of this year’s goals was to develop a new being built into ongoing population modeling for capture–recapture model that can handle some polar bears in the Beaufort Sea. of the difficulties specific to the SBS data set and Polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea are would also be useful in other capture–recapture currently managed as a single population. An studies. In response to these issues a new model accurate assessment of the status of this popula- was developed by extending an existing model, tion is needed to maintain sustainable levels of and the model’s behavior is being investigated harvest by Native peoples, to understand the under a wide variety of conditions. Manuscripts impact of hydrocarbon development along Alas- describing the model’s performance in computer ka’s North Slope, and to monitor the effects of simulations and on real-world data sets are in long-term environmental change on the Arctic preparation. ecosystem. Unfortunately, despite over 30 years The USGS polar bear research program will ini- of capture–recapture data, conventional capture– tiate a new study in 2004 examining issues related recapture models have produced unreliable esti- to global climate change. Abundant evidence mates of the size of the SBS population. The prob- suggests that climate patterns are changing. The lematic structural features in the historic data set effects of this change may be greatest in the Arc- are sporadic capture–recapture effort and, more tic. Because of their reliance on the sea ice for all generally, small sample size. These issues, which aspects of their survival, polar bears are especially are a direct result of the financial and logistical vulnerable. How those changes will affect polar challenges of operating in the Arctic, make it bears in the Beaufort Sea is not understood. The difficult to take advantage of recent advances in new research program is a five-year study of the capture–recapture theory (for example, the robust effects of a changing sea ice environment on polar design). bear population parameters. It will examine how In recent years the USGS has taken major steps sea ice quality and condition have changed and to address the difficulties associated with estimat- will change for the period 1985–2008, and it will ing SBS polar bear abundance and has improved establish how polar bears adapt to those changes

53 spatially and will test whether there is evidence Biomonitoring Specimen Bank (NBSB) at the that spatial responses, mediated by climate National Institute of Standards and Technology change, alter polar bear condition, productivity, (NIST). and survival of young. Along with the continuation of sample banking, Studies of polar bear post-denning behavior a new emphasis of collaborative research between have been conducted in areas with high den con- AMMTAP cooperators is polar bear–ice seal ecol- centrations, including Russia’s Herald Island and ogy. This Arctic focus appropriately addresses Norway’s Kongsøya Island. In contrast, the low U.S. Department of the Interior strategic goals for density of maternal dens in Alaska usually pre- research and management of trust resources. Fur- cludes such an opportunity. During the winter of ther, it brings attention to rural concerns related to 2001-02 and 2002-03, however, several polar bear subsistence resources as well as larger-scale inter- dens occurred relatively near the Prudhoe Bay oil- national environmental concerns being addressed field. This allowed one of the first opportunities to by the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Pro- observe the post-emergence behavior of family gram. groups at den sites in Alaska. In 2003 the USGS initiated a collaborative effort The activity budgets of undisturbed animals with the North Slope Borough Department of provide a basic understanding of their behavior Wildlife, the Alaska Nanuuq Commission, and the patterns as well as a benchmark against which University of Alaska Fairbanks titled “Influence of human impacts can be evaluated. Polar bears are Diet on Biomagnification of Organochlorine Pol- especially susceptible to disturbance during the lutants in Polar Bears.” Varying concentrations of denning period. Cubs are unable to leave dens for organochlorine contamination have been found in at least two months after birth, and even after the the tissues of polar bears throughout their range. bears emerge, a disturbance may cause den aban- Many of these organic pollutants are biomagnified donment before the cubs are developed enough with each trophic transfer in the food web. to endure the rigors of life on the ice. Polar bears are one of the top carnivores in the During the winter of 2001-02 and 2002-03, polar Arctic marine ecosystem, with ringed seals likely bear maternal dens were located near the Prudhoe representing the majority of their annual diet. Bay oilfield by conventional aerial radio tracking However, polar bears also feed on bearded seals, or by forward-looking infrared (FLIR) mounted on beluga whales, and walruses, as well as scavenge aircraft. In late winter, observation blinds were on the carcasses of bowhead whales landed by established at den sites. Den emergence dates Native subsistence hunters. Stable isotopes are an were determined by fixed-wing aircraft or ground- important tool in identifying trophic relationships based observations. The mean emergence date within an ecosystem. By using two isotopes and was earlier and the mean length of stay at the den mass balance equations it is possible to estimate site shorter than den observation studies in other what proportions of three isotopically distinct prey parts of the Arctic. Weather factors were similar to items may make up the diet of the predator. To those reported in other studies during the emer- estimate prey composition the USGS used 15N and gence period. 13C values from packed blood cells collected from Bear response to human activity near den sites 43 free-ranging polar bears along Alaska’s Beau- ranged from slight to significant, underscoring a fort Sea coast in the spring of 2003. The results need for further research investigation. Determin- suggest that these polar bears may not be feeding ing what comprises disturbance events as well as on a single prey species; prey from a lower trophic measuring individual variation in bear responses level, such as scavenged bowhead whale carcasses, to disturbance can provide managers with infor- may make up as much as 33% of the diet of an mation to mitigate potential stressors. average South Beaufort Sea polar bear. Isotope data on Beaufort Sea walrus are lacking. Contaminants and Ecology Comparisons of the isotope signature of these The banking of environmental specimens under bears to existing data from Canadian subpopula- cryogenic conditions for future retrospective tions reveal significantly lower 15N values than analysis is an important part of wildlife health those reported for bears sampled in Resolute Bay and environmental monitoring programs. The goal and Lancaster Sound. This may be because bow- of the Alaska Marine Mammal Tissue Archival head whale carcasses are more available to polar Project (AMMTAP) is to collect tissue samples bears in the southern Beaufort Sea or because of from marine mammals for archival in the National the varying types of tissue analyzed.

54 Climate and Sea Ice ice. Melt duration in annual ice averaged 30.6 days Arctic sea ice is not only critical habitat for longer than perennial ice and was nearly constant polar bears, walruses, and several species of over the 23-year record. seals; it is also a significant component of the glo- Average annual melt and freeze onset dates, bal climate system. The Arctic Ocean’s ice cover and melt season duration, were significantly corre- governs heat exchange between the ocean and lated with the Arctic Oscillation (AO). The AO the atmosphere, and changes in sea ice affect index is a commonly used parameter for character- large feedback mechanisms that can amplify cli- izing alternating high- and low-pressure anomalies mate change and variability. The USGS Alaska Sci- over the Arctic. Under high-index AO conditions, ence Center recently concluded a study with the sea level pressures over the central Arctic Ocean Russia Academy of Sciences, Moscow, that inves- are substantially lower and the vorticity of the tigated spatial and temporal changes in duration gradient wind fields are more cyclonic. Following of the summer melt season over Arctic sea ice dur- high-index AO winters (January–March), spring ing 1979–2001. Because liquid and frozen water melt tends to be earlier and autumn freeze later, possess different emissivity signatures, passive leading to longer melt seasons. Northward expan- microwave satellite images were used to document sions of earlier melt and later freeze during the White sweet clover, a non- the onset dates of spring melt and autumn freeze. high-index AO period were most apparent in the native species that has Details of the study are presented in the January northern East Siberian and Chukchi Seas, where invaded hundreds of 2004 issue of the Journal of Climate. the mean annual melt duration was 2–3 weeks acres of the gravel bars of On average, melt began in the peripheral seas longer after the AO shifted to a more positive the Nenana River in during late May and early June, then advanced phase in 1989, compared to prior years. interior Alaska. This rapidly over the Arctic Ocean, reaching the pole During high-index AO winters, atmospheric infestation could spread near the end of the third week of June. Freeze low-pressure systems in the eastern Arctic estab- down the Nenana River, then down the Tanana onset at the northernmost latitudes began, on lish wind-forcing patterns that contribute to earlier River, and on down average, during the fourth week of August, reach- sea ice melt by advecting warm southerly air into the Yukon River. The ing the East Siberian and Laptev Seas in mid- the East Siberian and northern Chukchi Seas. The infestation was discovered September and the Chukchi, Barents, and Kara low-pressure systems also force cyclonic sea ice in 2003, and quick- Seas in late September. In the Arctic Ocean, melt motion anomalies that reduce ice transport into response interagency duration varied from a 75-day minimum season in the eastern Arctic and increase divergence within, control efforts are 1987 to a 103-day maximum in 1989. On average, promoting the formation of thin ice and open underway. Sweet clover is considered a severe annual ice (ice that does not survive the summer leads. A greater abundance of open water, leads, threat to riparian wild- melt season) began to melt 10.6 days earlier and and thin ice enhances heat flux from water, lands throughout Alaska. freeze 18.4 days later than perennial (multiyear) decreases surface albedo, and amplifies the sum- mer melt through positive feedbacks. Hence, both dynamic and thermodynamic processes associated with winter AO conditions can imprint signatures that persist later into the year through their influ- ences on spring melt and summer feedbacks.

Invasive Species Alaska’s National Parks have few invasive spe- cies compared to National Parks in other states, but the rate of exotic plant invasion and spread is increasing rapidly in developed areas of Alaska. In response, the Alaska Science Center is cooperat- ing with the National Park Service (NPS) to con- duct the first comprehensive study in Alaskan NPS units for early detection and rapid eradication of invaders. They have determined location, popu- lation size, and general site conditions of exotic plants, entered data in a statewide database (http:// agdc.usgs.gov/akepic), and coordinated with NPS personnel to rapidly eradicate or control the spread of invasive plants. Starting in 2000 they

55 have worked in Denali National Park and Preserve, and soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, levels. They found no relationship between reveg- Kenai Fjords National Park and Preserve, Sitka etation methods, soil nutrient levels, and the den- National Historical Park, Wrangell–St. Elias sity and cover of exotic plants. Microclimate, how- National Park and Preserve, and Yukon–Charley ever, was an important factor, with exotic plants Rivers National Preserve and will expand to addi- concentrated in the warmest sites. Based on these tional parks in 2004. The results vary among parks. results, revegetation with a native legume/grass In Gates of the Arctic, a remote park with few visi- mix is continuing on new construction areas. The tors and no road access, they documented near- results also show that climate warming will expand pristine baseline conditions; the only non-native the range of invasive plants in Denali. plant they found was one patch of common The surveys in Alaskan National Park units dandelion. In contrast, in Denali, the park with showed that exotic plant invasion was concentrated the most visitors, easy road access, and ongoing in a few small areas, primarily the road entrances. construction disturbance, non-native plants were A second project tested methods for intensive widespread in human-disturbed areas. In 2003 early detection and rapid eradication at an inva- they discovered, in conjunction with USDA staff, sion “hot spot,” the entrance area to Denali. that dense stands of sweet clover had invaded Repeated surveys throughout the growing season undisturbed riparian areas downstream of Denali. increased the number of exotic plants detected. This is the first exotic plant to invade wildlands They detected and, in coordination with NPS, in Interior Alaska, and this population can spread eradicated four new invaders. downstream all the way down the Yukon River. They consider sweet clover a serious threat to Geology Discipline: Alaskan parks, as it has the potential to invade Petroleum Resource Potential riparian areas in every park. They are organizing of the National Petroleum an interagency team to develop a rapid response to the sweet clover invasion. Reserve in Alaska and Recent In 2002 they began two invasive plant research Exploration Activities projects in Denali. The first project addressed the “Whereas there are large seepages of petro- question of whether planting native legumes and/ leum along the Arctic Coast of Alaska and condi- or fertilization had a long-term effect on the inva- tions favorable to the occurrence of valuable sion of exotic plants. They studied cut-and-fill petroleum fields on the Arctic Coast....” President road construction disturbances that included Warren G. Harding used those words in 1923 to areas without assisted revegetation and areas describe the apparent petroleum potential of a revegetated in 1991 by seeding with native legumes tract of land on the western North Slope of Alaska, and grasses and adding slow-release fertilizer. as he issued a one-page executive order establish- Measurements on sample plots included density ing the 23-million-acre (36,000 square miles) Naval and cover of exotic plants, cover of native plants, Petroleum Reserve No. 4. During the following six decades, the U.S. Gov- ernment conducted two petroleum exploration programs in the reserve, one in the wake of World War II and the second in the wake of the 1970s oil embargo. These programs found only a handful of oil and gas fields, none of them large enough to be commercial. Management of the reserve was trans- ferred to the Department of the Interior, and the name was changed to the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska (NPRA) in 1976. Four lease sales were held in the 1980s, but only two exploration wells were drilled by industry within the NPRA Locations and relative sizes of the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska (NPRA) and boundary—one on a Federal lease and another on the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). ANWR’s 1002 Area was evaluated for Native land—and neither resulted in the develop- petroleum potential by the USGS in 1998. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) and “feeder” pipelines extending east and west of Prudhoe Bay show the extent of the ment of petroleum resources. existing petroleum infrastructure. Locations of the Alpine and Prudhoe Bay oil fields Following a 10-year hiatus in exploration and the Point Thomson gas and oil accumulation are also shown. activity, NPRA again became a focus of interest

56 2002 USGS Assessment The NPRA assessment involved nearly four years of study by a team of USGS scientists. Research was coordinated with colleagues in other Federal agencies, Alaska state agencies, and sev- eral universities. New field studies were conducted, new well and sample data were analyzed, some new geophysical data were acquired, and public technical workshops examining core samples were held. Data and interpretations from previous U.S. Government exploration programs were incorpo- rated. About one-third of the 14,000 line-miles of two-dimensional seismic data collected by the the U.S. Government between 1974 and 1981 were reprocessed and reinterpreted. Special attention was focused on understanding the more recent oil discoveries immediately east of NPRA and the potential for those productive geologic trends to extend westward beneath NPRA. All available information was integrated and used as basic input to the 2002 petroleum resource assessment. Significantly, none of the data from newer, three- National Petroleum with the 1996 announcement of the discovery of dimensional seismic surveys or new wells drilled Reserve–Alaska (NPRA; the Alpine oilfield, located just outside NPRA. in NPRA since the 1999 lease sale were available boundary shown by yel- A Federal lease sale was held in part of the north- for this study, as all those data were proprietary low line), with locations of east planning area of NPRA in 1999, and a number during the assessment. wells and the Alpine oil of exploration wells in that lease sale area were In keeping with the USGS responsibility for field. Native lands within the NPRA boundary also completed by industry during the 2000, 2001, and assessing the petroleum potential of all onshore are labeled with “N.” 2002 winter drilling seasons. Another Federal and state water areas of the U.S., the total area Northeast and northwest lease sale was held in the northeast planning considered in this assessment was extended off- planning areas are shown area in 2002, and additional exploration wells were shore to the boundary between State and Federal in blue and green, respec- drilled during the 2003 and 2004 winter drilling jurisdiction. Thus, in addition to Federal lands tively. Exploration wells seasons. of NPRA, this assessment includes resources drilled in NPRA during Several of the wells drilled following the 1999 beneath State waters offshore from NPRA and the 2000–2004 winter drilling seasons are lease sale were announced in 2001 to have beneath Native lands within the NPRA boundary. shown by yellow symbols encountered oil and gas. The operator of those The total assessment area consists of 24.2 million (“new NPRA” in legend). wells proposed in 2003 to develop the discovered acres, of which 22.5 million acres are Federal and Wells proposed for devel- oil accumulations as satellites to the Alpine oil- 1.7 million acres are non-Federal (State and Native). opment are labeled as fol- field, and that proposal is under evaluation by The methodology used in this assessment lows: L = Lookout wells; the Department of the Interior and other Federal is essentially identical to that used in the earlier S = Spark wells. The map and Alaska state agencies. The Department of USGS assessments of NPRA (1978–1980) and the base is a false-color com- posite Landsat image. the Interior during 2003 also initiated procedures Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (1987 and 1998). to make available for leasing part of the northwest Twenty-four petroleum plays were defined as the planning area and to expand the portion of the initial step of the assessment. A play is a volume northeast planning area available for leasing. of rock that contains similar geological parameters In light of the recent and proposed exploration (such as petroleum charge, reservoir, and trap) activity, it is timely to review recent estimates of that determine petroleum potential. The term oil and natural gas volumes that may occur “petroleum” is used to include crude oil, natural beneath NPRA. The USGS in 2002 released an gas, and natural gas liquids. assessment of undiscovered oil and gas resources For each play, distributions of the number in NPRA. The results of this study provide a con- and size of potential petroleum accumulations text for understanding recent exploration activity were estimated on the basis of a probabilistic in NPRA and for anticipating activity that may range of values for certain geological attributes, occur in coming years. such as reservoir thickness and porosity. These

57 distributions were restricted to potential accumu- lations larger than 50 million barrels of oil-equiva- lent (MMBOE) “in place,” so that the assessment would not be influenced by smaller accumulations that are generally noneconomic on the North Slope. The resulting distributions were subjected to a geologic risking procedure designed to weigh the likelihood that petroleum charge, reservoir, and trap conditions were sufficient to generate a 50- MMBOE in-place accumulation. In turn, a probabi- listic estimate of in-place petroleum resources was calculated on the basis of the risked distributions of size and number of potential petroleum accumu- lations in each play. A recovery factor appropriate to each play was applied to the estimates of in- place petroleum resources to calculate technically recoverable petroleum resources. Typically only 30–50% of in-place oil resources are recoverable with existing technology. Estimates for each play were aggregated to calculate total technically recoverable petroleum resources for the entire assessment area, the Federal area, and the non- Federal areas. This assessment methodology yields results that include probabilistic expressions of uncertainty. To stress the importance of this uncertainty, results reported here include 95% and 5% proba- Ages, names, and rock types present in NPRA. The colored bars on the right show bilities, in addition to mean values. The 95% prob- the stratigraphic position of the 24 petroleum plays evaluated in the 2002 assessment. ability level means that there is a 19 in 20 chance Note that the bars with a “+” symbol indicate multiple plays in different areas. Plays that the amount of petroleum present will be at indicated by bold outlines include those with the greatest oil and/or gas potential. least as large as the amount shown; the 5% proba- bility level means that there is a 1 in 20 chance that the amount of petroleum present will be at least as large as the amount shown. Volumes of petroleum associated with the 95% and 5% probabilities are considered reasonable estimates of minimum and maximum volumes that may be present, and the mean is the average or expected value. Commercial viability of undiscovered oil resources was estimated by considering costs associated with finding, developing, producing, and transporting to market (the west coast of the lower 48 states) the technically recoverable oil resources estimated to be present. The cost func- tions are calculated in constant 2001 dollars and are based on the expectation that production will repay all operating costs, including taxes and transport to market, and all investment expendi- tures and will provide an after-tax rate of return Petroleum volumes and probabilities. The curves represent categories of oil assess- of at least 12% on the investment. The economic ment. How one reads this graph is illustrated by the blue and orange lines projected to the curve for economically recoverable oil—in this example, there is a 95% chance analysis simulates exploration by assuming that larger accumulations will be discovered early (probability F95) of at least volume V1 of economically recoverable oil, and there is a 5% chance (probability F05) of at least volume V2 of economically recoverable oil. and that these accumulations may be developed

58 Expected (mean) numbers of oil and nonassociated gas accumulations estimated to exist in various size categories of technically recoverable resources according to the 2002 USGS assessment of NPRA. Each histogram bar is divided into Federal and non-Federal portions. The left sides of the histograms appear truncated because the meth- odology assesses only accumulations larger than 50 million barrels of oil-equivalent (MMBOE) in place (typically only 30–50% of in-place oil resources and 60–70% of in-place gas resources are technically recoverable). A. Expected (mean) numbers of oil accumulations, read as follows: It is estimated that the assessment area con- tains approximately ten accumulations containing between 256 and 512 million barrels of technically recoverable oil; eight of those accumulations are under Federal jurisdiction and two are non-Federal. B. Expected (mean) numbers of nonassociated gas accumulations, read as follows: It is estimated that the assessment area contains approximately fifteen accumulations containing between 768 and 1,536 billion cubic feet of technically recoverable gas; fourteen of those accumulations are under Federal jurisdiction and one is non-Federal. depending on their size and location. Any moderate size, on the order of 30–250 million bar- accumulation large enough to be developed at rels (MMBO) each, and large accumulations like a specific location will support the costs of con- Prudhoe Bay (ultimate recovery approximately 13 structing processing facilities and extending infra- BBO) are not expected to occur. This conclusion is structure into the area. Smaller accumulations then consistent with the fact that numerous exploration may become economically viable if they can be wells previously drilled in NPRA and in adjacent developed as satellites to the larger fields. Results State and Federal waters tested prospects that of the economic analysis are presented in terms were geologically similar to Prudhoe Bay, without of oil volume as a function of market price. success. Significantly NPRA is expected to con- No analysis of the commercial viability of tain many accumulations in the size range com- undiscovered gas resources has been made by monly developed on the Alaska North Slope in the USGS. Such analysis is deferred until plans recent years. Some of these recently developed for a natural gas transportation system are more accumulations have been developed as “stand- firmly developed. alone” fields, which include processing facilities to prepare the oil for transport through the TAPS, Assessment Results whereas others have been developed as “satellite” Oil. The total quantity of undiscovered, techni- fields, which do not have processing facilities and cally recoverable oil within the entire assessment must use existing processing facilities of a nearby area is estimated to be between 6.7 and 15.0 billion field. The determination of whether a newly barrels (BBO) (95% and 5% probability range), discovered accumulation will be developed as a with a mean value of 10.6 BBO. The quantity of stand-alone or satellite field, or not developed at undiscovered, technically recoverable oil beneath all, depends largely on the size of the accumula- Federal lands in NPRA (excluding State and Native tion and the distance from existing infrastructure. areas) is estimated to be between 5.9 and 13.2 BBO For comparison, announced estimates of ultimate (95% and 5% probability range), with a mean value recoveries from recently discovered fields near of 9.3 BBO. NPRA include 429 MMBO for Alpine, 70 MMBO Most oil accumulations are expected to be of for Tarn (20 miles southeast of Alpine), 50 MMBO

59 Maps of petroleum plays with histograms showing the expected (mean) numbers of undiscovered petroleum accumulations estimated to exist in various size catego- ries of technically recoverable oil resources in the four plays estimated to hold the greatest oil potential in NPRA. About 80% of the technically recoverable oil resources, on the basis of the mean estimate, are thought to occur in northern NPRA within these four plays, which are westward continuations of the geologic trends that host Alpine and nearby oil pools just east of NPRA.

for Meltwater (25 miles southeast of Alpine), 50 MMBO for Fiord (just north of Alpine), and 40 MMBO for Nanuq (just south of Alpine). Quantities of technically recoverable oil are not expected to be uniformly distributed throughout NPRA. This is illustrated by accumulation-size histograms and maps for the four plays estimated to hold the greatest oil potential in NPRA. Based on the mean estimate, about 80% of the technically recoverable oil resources are likely to occur in northern NPRA within plays that are westward continuations of the geologic trends that host Alpine, Fiord, Tarn, Meltwater, and Nanuq oil pools, just east of NPRA. The economic analysis of undiscovered resources is particularly important in an area as large as NPRA, because some of the oil resources may be far from existing infrastructure. Over a range of market prices between $25 and $35 per barrel, between 3.7 and 6.4 billion barrels of oil are estimated to be economically recoverable from the Federal part of the study area on the basis of the mean estimate of technically recoverable oil vol- umes. Gas. Significant volumes of natural gas also are estimated to occur in the NPRA. Although North Slope gas is currently noncommercial for lack of a transportation system, it is of growing interest because of recent discussions and proposals of gas pipeline construction. The total quantity of undiscovered, technically recoverable, nonassoci- USGS estimate of economically recoverable oil that may occur beneath the Federal ated gas within the entire assessment area is esti- part of NPRA. Left: Relationship of market price to the volume of oil estimated to be mated to be between 40.4 and 85.3 trillion cubic profitably recoverable. The three curves are based on estimates of technically recov- feet (TCF) (95% and 5% probability range), with a erable oil volumes at the mean (expected) value and at the 95% (F95) and 5% (F05) probabilities. Included are the costs of finding, developing, producing, and transport- mean value of 61.4 TCF. The quantity of undiscov- ing oil to market (west coast of the lower-48 states) based on a 12% after-tax return ered, technically recoverable nonassociated gas on investment, all calculated in constant 2001 dollars. The chart is read as follows: beneath Federal lands in NPRA (excluding State At a market price of $25 per barrel, there is a 95% probability of at least 1.6 billion and Native areas) is estimated to be between 39.1 barrels of economically recoverable oil and a 5% probability of at least 6.2 billion and 83.2 TCF (95% and 5% probability range), barrels, and the mean or expected value is at least 3.7 billion barrels of economically with a mean value of 59.7 TCF. recoverable oil. Right: Economically recoverable oil resources estimated to occur in the Federal parts of the NPRA at various market prices. Values for the 95% (F ) and Most gas accumulations are expected to range 95 between about 200 and 1,500 billion cubic feet 5% (F05) probabilities as well as the mean (expected) values are shown. The NPRA results are calculated in constant 2001 dollars. (BCF) each. For comparison, the gas cap at the

60 Prudhoe Bay oilfield contains more than 23,000 son encountered hydrocarbons in a rock unit BCF, the Point Thomson gas and oil accumulation characterized by poor reservoir quality. Signifi- may contain more than 6,000 BCF, and a recently cantly, all eight of these wells in which hydrocar- announced discovery in the Mackenzie River bons have been encountered targeted the rock delta of Canada (about 150 miles east of the U.S.– unit that is the main reservoir in Alpine field. Canada border) is estimated to contain 200–300 Another well, announced in 2001 to be a dry hole, BCF recoverable reserves. Quantities of technically targeted a different rock unit. No information has recoverable gas are most abundant in central and been released on the remaining nine wells. southern NPRA. ConocoPhillips Alaska, Inc., which operates the Alpine field and has drilled most of the exploration Recent Exploration and Development wells in NPRA since the 1999 lease sale, has sub- Activity in NPRA mitted to the Bureau of Land Management a pro- A total of 18 exploration wells were drilled in posal to develop NPRA discoveries as Alpine NPRA during the 2000 through 2004 winter drilling satellites. The proposed plan specifies the devel- seasons. Data from six of these wells have been opment of three production pads in NPRA. Two of released by the State of Alaska; data from the the pads are located near the Spark and Lookout other wells are not yet available because of confi- well sites, apparently indicating that those discov- dentiality restrictions. Although little information eries are large enough to be developed as satellite has been released by the companies that have fields. The third pad (Alpine West), located in the drilled the exploration wells in NPRA, announce- easternmost part of NPRA, appears to be an exten- ments by two companies indicate that at least sion of the Alpine field proper. seven wells have encountered oil or gas and con- The limited information available from the wells densate in amounts that may be commercial. One drilled in NPRA during the 2000 through 2004 drill- additional well drilled during the 2002 winter sea- ing seasons indicates that the main exploration target is the western extension of the Alpine play. The USGS 2002 assessment of undiscovered petroleum resources divided this play into two parts: the Beaufortian Upper Jurassic topset northeast play and the Beaufortian Upper Jurassic topset northwest play. These two plays were assessed to have the greatest potential for undis- covered oil across NPRA, and together these two plays extend across the entire width of both the northeast planning area and the northwest planning area. This correlation suggests that exploration during the next several years is likely to continue westward across northern NPRA. Several other plays also have the potential to become exploration objectives in NPRA. However, these plays are estimated to contain a lower total volume of oil, and the oil is inferred to occur in smaller accumulations than the Alpine-type plays. These plays are likely to become secondary explo- ration objectives if additional discoveries in the Alpine-type plays sustain continued exploration across NPRA.

Summary Anticipating the need for updated scientific Maps of petroleum plays with histograms showing the expected (mean) numbers of information to support policy decisions, the USGS undiscovered petroleum accumulations estimated to exist in various size categories of in 2002 completed a new assessment of undiscov- technically recoverable gas resources in the four plays estimated to hold the greatest gas potential in NPRA. About 60% of the technically recoverable gas resources, on ered petroleum resources in NPRA. This new the basis of the mean estimate, are thought to occur in central and southern NPRA assessment concluded that the volume of techni- within these four plays. cally recoverable, undiscovered oil beneath Federal

61 lands in NPRA ranges between 5.9 and 13.2 billion The results of the NPRA assessment should be ; barrels (95% and 5% probabilities), with a mean viewed in the context of the larger North Slope oil (expected) value of 9.3 billion barrels. Over a range and gas picture, which includes spare capacity in of market prices between $25 and $35 per barrel, the oil pipeline, multiple proposals for a gas pipe- between 3.7 and 6.4 billion barrels of oil are esti- line, and changing makeup of the group of compa- mated to be economically recoverable, on the nies exploring for oil and gas. An important factor basis of the mean estimate of technically recover- affecting the future of existing North Slope oil able oil volumes. fields and all future oilfield development is the Most of the oil is estimated to occur in the north- continued operation of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline ern third of NPRA, to be distributed among several System (TAPS). Currently TAPS transports about plays, and to occur in accumulations of moderate 1 million barrels of oil per day (bpd), about half of size. It is unlikely that a Prudhoe Bay-size accumu- peak production of 2 million bpd achieved in 1988. lation occurs in NPRA. The plays estimated to A basic, but unanswered question is the minimum contain the greatest potential for undiscovered oil throughput rate required for efficient, cost- accumulations are westward extensions of the effective operation. Multiple proposals for a natu- Alpine play, which hosts the 429-million-barrel ral gas pipeline are being considered to tap more Alpine field on the eastern border of NPRA. Infor- than 30 trillion cubic feet of gas known to occur mation released from exploration drilling in NPRA in the Prudhoe Bay and nearby accumulations. during the 2000 through 2004 winter drilling sea- An important consideration is the amount of gas sons confirms that the Alpine play is the main available beyond what is currently known. A gas objective of industry activity. pipeline would likely renew and expand explora- Estimates of technically recoverable, undiscov- tion efforts in the foothills province. With the fail- ered, nonassociated natural gas resources for the ure to find additional multi-billion-barrel oilfields, same area range between 39.1 and 83.2 trillion most of the larger, “major” oil companies have cubic feet (95% and 5% probabilities), with a mean reduced or abandoned North Slope exploration. At (expected) value of 59.7 trillion cubic feet. The the same time, smaller, “independent” companies economic viability of these natural gas resources have expanded their exploration activities. This will depend on the availability of a pipeline to shift in activity is a common pattern observed in transport the gas to market. petroleum-producing basins as they mature.

62 Department of Defense

The Department of Defense conducts military operations and maintains military facilities in the Arctic. As a consequence the DOD conducts a broad-based research program that extends from the ocean floor to the magnetosphere.

The DOD Arctic research program seeks to Funding (thousands) enhance our understanding of basic and applied FY 02 FY 03 phenomena that directly affect military activities Arctic Engineering 2,750 1,246 Permafrost/Frozen Ground 430 500 and operations. Some specific focus areas for Snow and Ice Hydrology 1,485 1,877 these research studies include but are not neces- High Latitudes Program 3,030 3,050 sarily limited to: Lower Atmosphere 100 269 • The interaction of the Arctic environment High-Freq Active Auroral Program 10,700 7,600 with military systems, facilities, other infra- Medical and Human Engineering 898 700 Total 19,393 15,242 structures, personnel, and operations; • Energy exchange and ocean–atmosphere interaction dynamics; USARIEM employs multidisciplinary teams • The structure and physics of the middle and of scientists using human, animal, tissue, cellular, upper atmosphere, and the impact of energy and mathematical models to delineate pathophysi- exchange processes on global circulation of ological mechanisms of cold injury, identify bio- the atmosphere; and medical risk factors influencing susceptibility • The impact of extreme cold on biophysical to cold injury, and provide physiologic data for phenomena and human biology, and methods developing and validating mathematical models to optimize human performance in these for predicting human cold tolerance. Additionally, extreme environments. USARIEM formulates and validates exposure The DOD Arctic Research Program is conducted guidelines and safety limits to prevent cold injury by the military services. Each service is responsi- during military training, develop strategies to safely ble for the conduct of its own, coordinated extend cold tolerance and work capabilities in cold research program to meet service-specific and joint climates, and provide biomedical support for cold research and technology objectives. An overview stress Health Hazard Assessment and MANPRINT of some of the primary activities and major accom- efforts of Army materiel/clothing developers. plishments for each service is provided in the fol- USARIEM research capabilities include state-of- lowing paragraphs. the-art technology for collecting human thermo- regulatory data in the laboratory, and nonintru- Army sive, ambulatory, real-time monitoring of warfighter physiological status during military operations in Biomedical Research cold conditions. The U.S. Army Research Institute of Environ- mental Medicine (USARIEM), located in Natick, Medical and Human Engineering Massachusetts, conducts basic and applied bio- USARIEM maintains an active research pro- logical and biophysical research to elucidate novel gram in the area of human physiological responses approaches for sustaining health and optimizing to cold. A current emphasis concerns the extent to performance of humans exposed to cold environ- which factors expected to be encountered by war- ments. USARIEM research findings provide the fighters in an Objective Force scenario affect the biomedical basis for Army doctrine to minimize ability to sustain thermoregulation, physical per- adverse effects of cold on individual military per- formance, and immune function in cold environ- sonnel, crews, and troop populations deployed ments. Studies demonstrated that multiple days of in cold climates, including Arctic regions. exertional fatigue impairs vasoconstrictor responses

63 sustain forces and equipment, and conduct a wide variety of operations in hostile Arctic environ- ments. One effort being pursued to meet this need seeks to develop new engineering analysis tools to support both peacetime and wartime civil engi- neering tasks. In cooperation with the University of Alaska, the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (USACRREL) is developing a web-accessible Alaska Engineering Design Information System (AEDIS), which is an analysis toolkit for engineers. It presents a broad array of geospatial terrestrial, oceanic, and atmo- spheric environmental data based on a geographic information system (GIS). In its current state of development, AEDIS contains permafrost distribu- tion, soil distribution, towns and roads, digital ele- vation and aspect, and other environmental and geographic data. The web site includes climate summaries for over 200 sites in Alaska that include snow depth, load information, and recurrence Screen image of the to cold and increases a soldier’s susceptibility intervals. Automated toolbox algorithms are avail- Alaska Engineering to hypothermia. These studies also showed that able for calculating mean freezing, thawing, and Design Information immune function is not degraded by the combina- heating indices. Other calculators are available for System. tion of exertional fatigue and cold, wet environ- the length of daylight and a variety of climate sta- ments. The combination of physical fatigue, sleep tistics. Mean monthly maps of precipitation and deprivation, and caloric restriction, as encoun- temperature for Alaska are included. tered on a sustained operation, increases the risk Planned improvements to AEDIS include of hypothermia. adding more geospatial environmental data and Studies also showed that moderate altitude expanding the engineering tools to enable engi- exposure (6,000 feet) impairs the shivering and neers to estimate soil bearing capacity; climate vasoconstrictor response to cold. Epidemiological trends; depths of freezing and thawing; statistics studies performed by USARIEM showed that for wind, precipitation, and snow load; and other women and African–Americans have an increased engineering parameters derived from calculations risk of cold injury. Studies demonstrated that requiring geographical and climate data. dehydration does not increase the risk of periph- While the data incorporated into AEDIS are eral cold injury. Studies were also completed to specific to Alaska, the enhanced engineering anal- evaluate the use of a cold-weather index for use in ysis tools available through this system can be the Warfighter Physiological Status Monitor pro- applied to problems of Arctic engineering in other gram. Biophysical modeling studies were also con- locations. ducted to examine heat exchange in extremities. A second effort on Arctic engineering tool Planned research on responses of humans to cold development is the application of advanced dis- exposure include the effect of exercise intensity, crete element modeling methodologies. These water depth, and water temperature on the risk of developments now allow an ice model to be com- hypothermia as well as the role of low body tem- bined with an unsteady flow model for simulating peratures on cognitive and physical performance. ice conditions in natural channels. Because the ice model also provides a means for simulating ice Arctic Engineering jams and ice interaction with structures, it can pro- The U.S. Army has peacetime responsibility for vide estimates of ice forces on river structures in developing, operating, and maintaining military a reasonable time and at low cost. and civil facilities in Arctic regions, ranging from With these tools USACRREL created powerful military test and evaluation facilities to commercial three-dimensional river ice models to simulate the energy transportation systems. During armed con- effects of ice interaction with the piers of a pro- flict the Army must be prepared to deploy forces, posed bridge on the Buckland River in Buckland,

64 Alaska. In this project for the Alaska Department tially enhancing their growth. USACRREL, in of Transportation, USACRREL investigated ice efforts funded by the NSF Arctic System Science forces on three designs for the proposed bridge Program and the NASA Land Surface Hydrology piers and the effect of the piers on passing ice. Program, has been investigating the patterns of While the results of this particular study are spe- snow distribution using end-of-winter aerial- and cific to Alaska, the analytic tools employed can be ground-based measurements in conjunction with a applied to any similar ice-choked waterway. physics-based computer model for blowing snow (SnowTran-3D). Snow–shrub interactions may Environmental Remediation in have important potential for climate feedback. Permafrost and Frozen Ground They may also play a vital role in the transition The challenging conditions and problems in of tundra regions to scrublands; such transitions the Arctic require an increased understanding of would have significant climatic and hydrologic fundamental soil phenomena such as freeze–thaw ramifications. Recent results also suggest that cycles, phase changes, and biological adapta- shrubs and snow interact in an important way to tions. These conditions make the already compli- affect the snow albedo. cated problem of environmental remediation even In an associated effort, USACRREL has exam- more difficult. USACRREL has demonstrated that ined the relationship between the SeaWinds satel- phytoremediation can be used to treat petroleum- lite scatterometer data and spring snow cover contaminated soils in Arctic conditions in situa- dynamics to monitor freeze/thaw processes in tions and locations where other options are high-latitude boreal and Arctic landscapes. severely limited. Phytoremediation capitalizes on Seasonal freeze–thaw transitions represent the the interaction between natural plants and indige- closest analog in nature to a biospheric and nous microbial communities. Secretions from the hydrologic on/off switch. Surface-level meteoro- plant’s root system stimulate the microbes to more logical conditions, ecological trace gas dynamics, rapidly degrade contaminants in the soil. Because and hydrologic activity all respond profoundly to this innovative technique requires minimal equip- freeze/thaw transitions. Advanced Very High Res- ment and energy, it is particularly well suited for olution Radiometer (AVHRR) satellite data were locations that lack significant infrastructure. employed to create a series of maps showing the percentage of snow-covered area between Snow and Ice Hydrology Anchorage and the north coast. These maps The snow distribution throughout Alaska is served as ground truth for evaluating evidence in heterogeneous, primarily because of drifting that the scatterometer data for the disappearance of redistributes the fallen snow. Shrubs trap snow, spring snow, a proxy for thaw. thereby increasing the snow depth and creating Concurrently, employing a one-dimensional warmer conditions in the underlying soil. Such mass and energy balance model called SNTHERM, snow accumulations benefit the shrubs by poten- USACRREL calculated surface energy exchange and associated snow cover dynamics for a portion A computer-generated of the boreal forest of Saskatchewan, Canada. scene showing a simulated ice cover on the The SNTHERM predictions across the modeling Buckland River near region provided regional-scale, multi-temporal Buckland, Alaska, inter- maps of snowpack properties to compare with the acting with four proposed scatterometer data. Accurately monitoring and bridge pylons (in red). modeling snow conditions and forest energy bud- gets over large areas will assist in predicting long- term changes to the boreal forest. Also, under funding provided by the NSF Arc- tic Natural Sciences Program, USACRREL is col- laborating with Dartmouth College faculty and students on a study of the mechanisms of defor- mation of pure and debris-laden ice. The project seeks to enhance understanding of the physical mechanisms that underlie the flow of large ice sheets (glaciers) and how such sheets of ice might respond to rapidly changing temperatures. The

65 program involves laboratory experiments and the 1986 and 1994 are now available from the National application of a constitutive model for ice devel- Snow and Ice Data Center. Analysis of these ice oped at USACRREL. draft data revealed rapid thinning in the western Arctic in the late 1980s. That thinning has been High Latitudes Program attributed to a major shift in the atmospheric circu- In a recently completed three-year study spon- lation in the Arctic and the resultant weakening of sored by the NSF Arctic Natural Sciences Pro- the Beaufort Gyre, the large, clockwise ocean cir- gram, USACRREL and the Geophysical Institute, culation system in the western Arctic. University of Alaska Fairbanks, examined the USACRREL has modeled Arctic sea ice and microstructural features and brine drainage net- climate on spatial scales from centimeters to thou- works in first-year sea ice. Extensive field work in sands of kilometers and on temporal scales from the Alaskan Arctic supplied new knowledge about microseconds to a century. For example, USACRREL the physical properties of first-year sea ice. Moni- performed a year-long simulation of the mass bal- toring sites in the Chukchi Sea and on Elson ance during the SHEBA year, driving the Commu- Lagoon, near Barrow, Alaska, provided continu- nity Climate System Model (CCSM), a sea ice ous records of the ice growth and thermal regime thermodynamics model, with meteorological and and opportunities to conduct detailed studies of oceanic data gathered in and around the SHEBA the microstructure and brine inclusion structure ice camp. SHEBA was the 1997–1998 experiment of sea ice on scales ranging from individual inclu- to study the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic sions to the full thickness of the ice sheet. Image- Ocean. USACRREL also has used global climate processing techniques were employed on a simulations of the 20th and 21st centuries with the comprehensive set of microstructure photos to Parallel Climate Model (PCM) from the National quantify the inclusions in three dimensions and to Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) to show study the horizontal banding features that are fre- that trends in present-day greenhouse gases pro- quently observed in sea ice and that seem to be duce a decrease of 1 million square kilometers in related to under-ice currents. the simulated area of Arctic sea ice, a decrease Recent evidence indicates that the sea ice similar to that seen in satellite data. cover of the Arctic Ocean has been thinning and In other sea ice modeling work, USACRREL is decreasing in extent. Currently the only reliable developing a high-resolution Lagrangian model of Sequence of vertical method of assessing ice thickness throughout the the ice pack on the Arctic Ocean for NASA. In this sections of sea ice Arctic Ocean is to analyze ice draft profiles col- model the ice pack is composed of discrete parcels obtained from the lected by transiting submarines. Under a project that converge to form pressure ridges and sepa- Chukchi Sea in December sponsored by the NSF, USACRREL has archived rate to form leads. Though high resolution, the 1999. The increasing and made publicly available formerly classified current model is capable of covering the entire magnification focuses on a type of narrow, very- sonar profiles of ice draft collected by U.S. Navy ocean. Simulations begin with a continuous, fro- low-porosity band often submarines under the Arctic ice cap between 1976 zen ice pack that covers the basin; wind drag then observed in sea ice. and 1994. Data from fifteen such cruises between causes the pack to move. Stress builds up in the model ice, it breaks, and fracture lines propagate through the pack. The result is an aggregate plate structure that determines paths for subsequent deformation. Because the modeled ice pack dis- plays linear kinematic features like those seen in satellite imagery of the Arctic Ocean, the conclu- sion is that large-scale wind stress, not regional topography, creates Arctic leads and ridges.

Lower Atmosphere During the third and final phase of SHEBA in 2003, USACRREL maintained a 20-m meteorologi- cal tower in the main SHEBA camp and four instru- mented remote meteorological sites at distances of 0.5–10 km. The main tower and three of the remote sites operated continuously for almost 11 months, yielding long time series of the turbulent and radi-

66 study with data collected in the central Arctic dur- ing SHEBA showed that albedos of fast ice in the coastal regime evolve significantly faster than albedos in the central pack. In particular, the evo- lution of the albedo of the lagoon ice was sensi- tive to the amount of sediment entrained in the ice during freeze-up. The observed rates of sea ice surface melting were typically at least twice as high as rates observed in the pack ice during SHEBA. This dif- ference indicates the possible role, in the coastal regime, of advective heat transfer from the tundra to the nearby sea ice. The accelerated melting in Ice physicists making ative components of the surface heat budget over the coastal Arctic that has been observed in recent mass balance diverse ice types. years could, therefore, amplify a warming signal as measurements near In addition, from 2000 through 2002, USACRREL it propagates from the land over the coastal ocean. Barrow, Alaska, and other institutions examined the seasonal evo- The role of the Arctic Ocean in the regional June 2001. lution of albedo and the snow and ice mass bal- budget of CO2 is largely unknown but is often pre- ance in the coastal region near Barrow, Alaska. sumed to be unimportant under the assumption This complex region of tundra, lake ice, and sea that sea ice impedes gaseous exchange between ice is an excellent location to examine interactions the atmosphere and the ocean. To address this among the terrestrial, ocean, ice, and atmosphere uncertainty, in the summer of 2002 USACRREL environments. The field program included tundra, collaborated with scientists from the International lake, lagoon, and sea ice study sites. Automated Arctic Research Center (IARC), Fairbanks, to make stations monitored conditions throughout the the first direct (eddy-correlation) measurements of winter, when the snow and ice are spatially uni- the turbulent flux of carbon dioxide over sea ice. form and temporal variations are relatively modest. These direct measurements were complemented Intensive field work was also performed each year with more traditional geochemical sampling that from late May through the end of June during the involved placing large and small chambers on the critical melt season when spatial variations are sea ice and monitoring the CO2 in the headspace large and interactions among the ice, ocean, and in the chambers as a function of time. The mea- atmosphere are greatly amplified. surements were all on the fast ice near Barrow. The atmospheric boundary layer during SHEBA During these June measurements the ice had was often stably stratified and frequently near begun to melt, and melt ponds eventually formed. quasi-equilibrium, a condition seldom seen in It was found that, in general, the surface was tak- the more ephemeral stable boundary layers at ing up atmospheric CO2. The melt ponds seemed lower latitudes. This data set, collected in almost to be especially active; as ponds deepened, the laboratory-like conditions, is yielding new insights partial pressure of CO2 in them decreased, presum- into the turbulent structure of the atmospheric ably as a consequence of photosynthesis. The sea boundary layer during stable stratification. For ice, however, was also a sink for CO2. Not only example, two new turbulence regimes in very sta- was photosynthesis active in the ice, but also the ble stratification have been defined. In one, the warming ice became more permeable to gases and atmosphere is still intermittently turbulent. In the permitted coupling between the atmospheric and second, an even more stably stratified case, the oceanic CO2 reservoirs. The USACRREL/IARC turbulence has been damped out by the stratifica- team has concluded that the ice-covered Arctic tion. In both regimes, though, the effects of Ekman Ocean could be an important missing link for bal- turning are obvious even within 20 m of the sur- ancing the global CO2 budget. face. Although these results were obtained over Understanding the dispersion, persistence, sea ice, they are relevant also to terrestrial surfaces fate, and environmental impact of airborne pollut- at lower latitudes, where stable stratification ants in Arctic conditions is increasingly important. occurs almost every night. USACRREL has worked with the Army Directorate The areally averaged albedo decreased and the of Public Works and the Alaska Department of spatial variability increased at all sites as the melt Environmental Conservation to develop low-cost season progressed. Comparing results from this monitoring techniques for characterizing the

67 Short, 2- to 10-day periods of data collection were incorporated into portions of submarine cruises. Navy personnel assisted the research crews with data collection. During the spring of 2003, the Navy operated an ice camp in the Beaufort Sea in support of operational testing. During this period the camp also was made available for unclassified research. ONR handled the selection of experi- ments for the unclassified camp research and funded the additional camp logistics costs.

Air Force The Air Force conducts research in upper atmo- spheric and ionospheric physics. These efforts are primarily performed by the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) Space Vehicles Directorate, Battlespace Environment Division, and by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFSOR). The goal of the research is to understand the basic physical and chemical processes and dynamics of the polar ionosphere, with the main objectives to specify, predict, and mitigate disruptions to DOD communications, navigation, and surveillance systems. To actively pursue and maintain a well- rounded program, the research includes experi- mental measurements to determine specific physi- cal processes and first-principles numerical modeling efforts, with a strong connection to ongoing theoretical research.

High-Latitude Scintillation Studies Research expanded in the past two years to characterize and quantify the occurrence and impact of ionosphere scintillation, using a variety Eddy-correlation dispersion and deposition of petroleum-aerosol- of optical and radio frequency sensing tech- measurements of the based fogs used for military training. Such aerial niques. The observations spanned a variety of fre- carbon dioxide flux and plumes behave differently in winter and summer; quencies and propagation geometries, making use other turbulence both predicting their deposition area and monitor- of signals from both low-earth-orbit satellites and quantities on the fast ing the process have environmental and homeland higher-altitude (quasi-stationary) satellites, includ- ice near Barrow, Alaska, June 2002. defense applications. ing the global positioning system (GPS) constella- tion. Observational campaigns in northern Green- Navy land and Svalbard were conducted in coordination with incoherent scatter measurements from radars The Navy conducts several research programs in Kangerlussuaq, Greenland, and Longyearbyen, for the purpose of understanding the Arctic envi- Svalbard, to observe the formation of scintillation- ronment and its interaction with Navy materiel, producing regions near the dayside cusp of the personnel, and operations. As part of these efforts, auroral zone and their subsequent evolution and the Navy provides platforms and support to other drift across the high-latitude region. agencies to conduct research in collaboration with These ionospheric disturbances can lead to or on a “non-interference” basis with the Navy. In rapid fluctuation or scintillation of satellite signals recent years (although not in the past two years), at or near the earth’s surface. This phenomenon is the Office of Naval Research (ONR) has conducted most intense at night within 20 degrees of the the Submarine Arctic Science (SCICEX) Program. earth’s magnetic equator, which occupies more than

68 one-third of the globe’s surface. Affecting radio sphere, the map helps users understand how scin- signals, scintillation seriously disrupts navigation tillation structures develop and enables operators and communication satellites signals. The Scintil- to determine practical strategies for maintaining lation Network Decision Aid (SCINDA) was devel- system performance. oped to advise operational users in real time when and where scintillation is likely to occur. High-Frequency Active Auroral These ionosphere disturbances can lead to rapid Research Program fluctuation or scintillation of satellite signals at Under the High-Frequency Active Auroral or near the earth’s surface. This phenomenon is Research Program (HAARP), jointly managed by prevalent throughout the high-latitude regions, the Air Force Research Laboratory and the Office of especially during winter. Scintillation of radio sig- Naval Research, a major facility is being developed nals can severely disrupt navigation and commu- in Gakona, Alaska, for conducting ionosphere/ nications relying on satellite links. Based on the radio science research. The facility includes a high- results of these measurements, the Air Force has power, high-frequency (HF) transmitting system developed a prototype high-latitude scintillation and a suite of radio and optical diagnostic instru- specification tool, SCINDA-P, to advise opera- ments. The present HF transmitting system includes tional users in real time when and where scintilla- a phased-array antenna, consisting of 48 elements, tion is likely to be encountered. The model, which with crossed-dipole antennas, driven individually follows the concept of SCINDA developed for by 10-kW transmitters, resulting in a maximum equatorial regions, uses measurements from radiated power of 960 kW. In November 2002, a ground-based receivers and ionosphere radars to Memorandum of Agreement was signed by the determine where scintillation-related difficulties Air Force, the Navy, and the Defense Advanced or system outages can be expected in the polar Research Projects Agency, to complete the planned regions. Ground-based receivers monitor signals HAARP Gakona facility with the addition of 132 from GPS satellites, measure the amount of scintil- antennas and associated transmitters to form a 12 lation at the GPS frequency directly or estimate it × 15 phased array with a radiated power of 3600 at other frequencies based on the strength of the kW. The facility is scheduled for completion in 2006. observed ionosphere irregularities, and then com- HAARP is located on a DOD site near Gakona, bine that information with real-time measurements Alaska, about 180 miles northeast of Anchorage. or models of the high-latitude convection pattern, Research is conducted primarily via four- to five- which indicates where the observed disturbances month-long campaigns each year, with emphasis will be traveling. The result is a map, updated on studies relating to the generation of Extremely every five minutes, showing the expected degree Low Frequency/Very Low Frequency (ELF/VLF) of system effects in a tri-color red–yellow–green waves in space via modulation of auroral currents scheme. By combining scintillation measurements with the 960-kW HF transmitter; the production of with information on the movement of the iono- geomagnetic-field-aligned irregularities and their effects on radio wave scattering; and the genera- Scintillation Network tion of optical emissions in space. Decision Aid for the A variety of experiments have been conducted Polar Regions. in conjunction with space platforms, including the CLUSTER, IMAGE, and WIND satellites, primarily to investigate the degree and manner in which ELF/VLF and HF radio waves propagate from the ground or ionosphere into deep space. Recent CLUSTER observations demonstrate that ELF/VLF signals generated in the ionosphere, by modulat- ing HAARP’s HF transmissions, can be routinely received in deep space. These results have led to the initiation of research programs to study the interactions of ELF/VLF radio waves with charged particle populations in the earth’s radiation belts and their subsequent effects, including guided (ducted) propagation and wave amplification in the magnetosphere.

69 National Aeronautics and Space Administration As part of its mission to understand and protect the home planet, the Earth Science Enterprise at NASA supports various research programs in the Arctic that emphasize space-based and airborne remote sensing studies to characterize, understand, and predict changes in the Arctic and to examine their interactions with the rest of the Earth System.

Arctic Warming Funding (thousands) FY 02 FY 03 Recent satellite thermal-infrared data have Polar Ice Interactions 4,000 4,700 provided surface temperatures from 1981 to 2001, Terrestrial Ecology 510 710 revealing large warming anomalies in the 1990s, Solid Earth Sciences 4,200 4,200 Hydrological Sciences 370 420 compared to the decade before, along with a Modeling 250 250 regional variability in the trends. These compare Arctic Ozone 6,500 7,000 favorably with coincident in-situ measurements. Clouds and Radiation 500 580 Average temperature trends were generally posi- Suborbital Sciences 2,500 2,500 tive, with sea ice warming by about a third of a Physical Oceanography 200 570 Biological Oceanography 150 150 degree Celsius per decade, Eurasia warming by Satellite Algorithms/Data Analysis 6,000 6,000 about half a degree Celsius, and northern North Data Systems 11,000 9,500 America warming by nearly a degree Celsius. Total 36,180 36,580 The trend is slightly negative but insignificant in Greenland (–0.09±0.25oC per decade), with the today. These floes survive the summer melt mainly negatives mainly at high elevations. The trends because of a strongly stratified Arctic Ocean that are also predominantly positive in spring, summer, is in part responsible for the scarcity of convec- and autumn, causing the lengthening of the melt tion in the region. Historically the Northern Hemi- season by 10–17 days per decade, while they are sphere winter sea ice cover consists of almost generally negative in winter. The longer-term in- an even contribution of seasonal and perennial situ surface temperature data show that the 20- ice cover, with the former found primarily in the year trend is eight times larger than the 100-year peripheral seas. A drastic change in this balance trend, suggesting a rapid acceleration in the warm- in favor of the former would mean an entirely dif- ing that may be associated with the recent change ferent Arctic climate system and environment. in phase of the Arctic Oscillation, which has been Analysis of satellite data from 1978 to 2002 linked to increasing greenhouse gases in the showed a decrease in perennial Arctic sea ice cover atmosphere. of nearly 10% per decade, which is consistent with the observed Arctic warming and the lengthening Sea Ice of the melt season. A sustained decline at this rate would mean the disappearance of the multiyear ice Observing and Understanding Changes cover during this century, which has been predicted For many decades, explorers have sought a by some climate models, along with potentially Northwest and Northeast Passage with a view of drastic changes in the Arctic climate system. The finding a sea route that would greatly shorten the pressing question is whether these losses will link between East and West. These efforts have so slow down, reverse, or accelerate, which is a focus far generally failed; some had horrific ends, mainly of ongoing activities. because of the dominant presence of the perennial A longer 30-year satellite record of sea ice sea ice cover, which consists mainly of multiyear extents, derived mostly from satellite microwave ice, the average thickness of which is about 3 m. radiometer observations, reveals that the Arctic These thick, multiyear ice floes are the major com- sea ice extent decreased by 0.30±0.03 × 106 km2 per ponents of the Arctic sea ice cover as we know it decade from 1972 through 2002, but by 0.36±0.05 ×

70 region centered at approximately 85oN, 135oW. At this latitude the RADARSAT wide-swath SAR coverage provides four or five sequential observa- tions every day, for ice motion retrieval, with a sampling interval at the orbital period of approxi- mately 101 minutes. The observed motions and deformation characteristics offer remarkable new insights into sea ice processes, as short-period ice motion was previously believed to be inhibited by the strength of the ice pack in the high Arctic dur- ing winter. New ice production due to the recur- rent openings and closings at these temporal scales, if ubiquitous, could be significant within the winter pack. A simple simulation of this pro- cess shows that it can account for an equivalent of 10 cm of ice thickness over six months of winter, approximately 20% of the basal ice growth of thick ice in the central Arctic (of approximately 0.5 m).

Linking Observations to Models NASA is continuing to contribute to climate Arctic temperature trends 106 km2 per decade from 1979 through 2002, research by encouraging international cooperation derived from 20 years of indicating an acceleration of 20% in the rate of and the synergistic use of models and satellite satellite data. decrease. In contrast, the Antarctic sea ice extent observations. A collaborative study involving the decreased dramatically over the period 1973–1977, NASA Goddard Institute of Space Studies and the then gradually increased. Over the full 30-year UK’s Hadley Centre is using the complementary period, the Antarctic ice extent decreased by strengths of two global circulation models to com- 0.15±0.08 × 106 km2 per decade. The trend reversal pare key drivers of Arctic climate under control is attributed to a large positive anomaly in Antarc- and anthropogenic warming scenarios. Under pre- tic sea ice extent in the early 1970s, an anomaly industrial atmospheric conditions in HadCM3, the that apparently began in the late 1960s, as observed spatial pattern of sea ice variability appears to be in early visible and infrared satellite images. determined by the atmospheric heat flux (77% of A new tool, the RADARSAT Geophysical Pro- the variance in ice concentration) and variability cessor System (RGPS), produces high-resolution in the northward transport of heat in the North estimates of sea ice motion and deformation from Atlantic Ocean (42%), the latter with a lag of time-sequential synthetic aperture radar (SAR) a year to the heat flux at 70°N, and together imagery acquired by RADARSAT. This data set accounting for 82% of the variance. Under a glo- provides observations over a spatial scale ranging bal warming scenario, the atmospheric heat flux from kilometers to thousands of kilometers (the becomes increasingly important, explaining 95% Arctic Basin). More than four years (from Novem- of the Arctic sea ice variance under 4xCO2 condi- ber 1996 on) of RADARSAT acquisitions have tions. Runs with the new NASA GISS Model E are been processed into geophysical fields of small- being used to establish whether incorporation of scale ice displacements. Although these records the full stratosphere and more sophisticated sea are not as long as their passive microwave coun- ice thermodynamics confirms this situation and terparts, they allow a detailed look at deformation provides detail on changes in key atmospheric and motion processes of sea ice on large spatial processes in a climate change scenario, as well as scales. to provide the framework for comparisons with 30 A recent investigation, using a specially years of satellite observations of the Arctic. acquired RADARSAT data set, examined the prop- erties of sub-daily ice motion of the sea ice cover. Satellite Calibration and Validation A persistent level of oscillatory sea ice motion and On May 4, 2002, the Advanced Microwave deformation was superimposed on the large-scale Scanning Radiometer (AMSR-E) developed by the wind-driven field in May 2002 (spring) and Febru- National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of ary 2003 (mid-winter) in the high Arctic over a Japan was successfully launched on NASA’s EOS

71 Aqua spacecraft. This new state-of-the-art satel- Arctic2003, the first of two coordinated Arctic lite radiometer provides a wider range of frequen- satellite/aircraft/surface campaigns, was completed cies and twice the spatial resolution than is cur- in March 2003. Seven flights were made with the rently available with the Defense Meteorological NASA Wallops P-3B aircraft, covering portions Satellite Program Special Sensor Microwave/Imager. of the Bering, Beaufort, and Chukchi Seas. Two The standard AMSR-E sea ice products include of the seven aircraft flights were coordinated with sea ice concentrations at spatial resolutions of scientists making surface measurements of snow 12.5 and 25.0 km, snow depth on sea ice at a spa- and ice properties, including sea ice temperature tial resolution of 12.5 km, and sea ice temperature and snow depth on sea ice at a study area near at a spatial resolution of 25 km. The scientific use- Barrow, Alaska, and at a Navy ice camp located in fulness of these products depends on their level the Beaufort Sea. Two additional flights were dedi- of accuracy, which will be determined through the cated to making heat and moisture flux measure- implementation of a sea ice product validation ments over the St. Lawrence Island polynya to program consisting of three elements: satellite support ongoing air–sea–ice process studies of data comparisons, coordinated satellite/aircraft/ Arctic coastal polynyas. The remaining flights surface comparisons, and a modeling and sensi- covered portions of the Bering Sea ice edge, the tivity analysis. Chukchi Sea, and Norton Sound. The Arctic2003 aircraft flights also supported ongoing air–sea–ice process studies of Arctic coastal polynyas. The prime objective of the polynya flights is to assess the accuracy to which the AMSR-E sea ice concentration algorithms can map the size of coastal polynyas and to measure the degree of low ice concentration bias, if any, resulting from the presence of thin ice. A second objective is to directly measure surface heat and moisture fluxes over coastal polynyas to evaluate the parameterizations currently used in bulk for- mulation models and to measure the falloff of these fluxes downwind as the sea ice concentra- tion and ice thickness increase.

Land Ice The Greenland Ice Sheet The primary focus of NASA’s Arctic land ice research has been on assessing and understand- ing the mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet. The NASA Wallops P-3B The main objective of the AMSR-E sea ice vali- Repeat surveys by airborne laser altimetry in the aircraft at Fairbanks dation program is to establish statistical relation- 1990s have revealed significant thinning of outlet International Airport. The ships between the sea ice parameters derived from glaciers draining the interior of the Greenland ice P-3, equipped with high- the new AMSR-E sea ice algorithms and those sheet, with thinning rates up to several meters resolution sensors, same parameters derived from other data sets per year. Of particular interest have been recent obtained validation data as part of the EOS Aqua obtained from satellite, aircraft, and surface-based changes in the Jakobhshavn ice stream, Green- AMSR-E Arctic sea ice measurements covering as many different sea ice land’s main drainage system and most active validation campaign. The conditions as possible for the purpose of provid- outlet glacier, with an annual discharge of about same platform has been ing a comprehensive measure of accuracy for each 30 km3 of ice. It is one of the few recently sur- used regularly to survey product. Other objectives are to understand the veyed glaciers to thicken between 1993 and 1998, changes in Arctic limitations of each of the AMSR-E sea ice algo- despite locally warm summers. Repeated airborne land ice elevations. rithms, including the reasons for their particular laser altimeter surveys along a 120-km profile in level of performance under different conditions, the glacier basin show slow, sporadic thickening and to suggest improvements to each of the between 1991 and 1997, suggesting a small posi- algorithms based on the results of the validation tive mass balance. However, since 1997 there has studies. been sustained thinning of several meters per

72 the observed changes are consistent with the comparatively small perturbation associated with the calving. Thereafter, it was probably sustained by thinning of the remaining ice tongue at rates of about 80 m per year. Otherwise, the force perturbation would soon have been balanced by reduction in the hydrostatic driving force for longitudinal creep as the glacier thinned, with velocities dropping to their former values. The calculated force perturbation increases to a maxi- mum about 10 km inland of the grounding line, consistent with decreasing weight forces as the glacier thins over bedrock that slopes uphill sea- wards. Farther inland, it progressively decreases, probably because marginal drag increased as the glacier accelerated. Both here and on the floating tongue, marginal ice appears to have been soft- ened by the influence of locally intense shear on ice temperature and/or fabric. More recent obser- vations show continued acceleration and thin- ning, and most of the remaining ice tongue calved away in April 2003. Thus, thinning is likely to continue. To fully appreciate the significance of these recent changes in Jakobshavn and other outlet glaciers, the magnitude of retreat and surface low- ering must be placed within the broader context of retreat since the Last Glacial Maximum and, more significantly, retreat following the temporary gla- cier advance during the Little Ice Age (LIA). The PSR-A multicolor mosaic year within 20 km of the ice front, with lower rates instrumental record of glacier observations in of a portion of the Bering of thinning farther inland. Here, weather station Greenland dates back to aerial photography con- Sea, from a NASA P-3 data from the coast and the ice sheet were used ducted by the Danes in the 1930s and 1940s. Gla- flight using the NOAA to estimate the effects on surface elevation of inter- cier histories extending farther back in time must ETL PSR-A, overlain on a annual variability in snowfall and surface melt be based on geological information retrieved from Landsat 7 ETM+ image (black and white), both rates to infer the temporal and spatial patterns of formerly glaciated regions. In particular, the LIA for 15 March 2003. The dynamic thinning. These show the glacier to have maximum stand is marked by trimlines, a sharp Landsat image is centered been close to balance before 1997, followed by a boundary between unvegetated rocks recently on a NOAA-17 AVHRR sudden transition to rapid thinning, initially con- deglaciated and vegetated surfaces at higher image (blue). A 25-km fined to lower reaches of the glacier (below about elevations. AMSR-E grid is also 500-m elevation), but progressively spreading To evaluate whether multispectral satellite shown for comparison. inland. Between 1999 and 2001, thinning predomi- images can be used to map trimlines and to distin- Polynyas are visible south of Nome, Alaska, and St. nated over the entire surveyed region up to 2000- guish different surface types, a Landsat ETM+ Lawrence Island. m elevation. If this continues, the glacier calving image of Jakobshavn Isbræ and vicinity was front, and probably its grounding line, will retreat aquired. Applying supervised classification, thir- substantially in the near future. teen surface types were identified, ranging from Observations between 1997 and 2001, showing bare ice, debris-covered ice, and open water, to a 30% velocity increase and up to 60 m of thinning different types of vegetative cover. Each surface of downstream parts of Jakobshavn Isbrae imme- type is characterized by its spectral reflectance diately following calving of about 4 km of its 15- curve. To support the interpretation of the various km floating ice tongue, suggest that acceleration surface classes, field measurements were conducted may have been initiated by the calving and that during July 2003 at three camps near the ice mar- the force perturbation associated with such weak- gin. Spectra of typical landcovers (mosses, lichen, ening is swiftly transmitted far up-glacier. Initially sand and gravel, freshly deposited sediments,

73 etc.) were measured in the spectral range from 350 sizes on surfaces of known exposure date in the to 2500 nm, thus including the six Landsat spectral town of Ilulisat. Further analysis of these data is bands. Spectra measured in the field were com- in the process, but preliminary interpretation sug- pared to spectra of the thirteen classified surfaces gests that thinning of Jakobshavn Isbræ since the to validate our interpretation of these classes. LIA occurred intermittently. Interestingly, periods While in the field, moraine mapping was con- of thinning do not correlate in a simple way with ducted with the intent to evaluate whether geo- retreat of the calving terminus. morphological landforms can be identified on To enable the interpretation of changes satellite images. Unexpectedly, at the camp on the observed by remote sensing measurements, northern margin of the ice fjord, inspection of the NASA established the Greenland Climate Network surface below the trimline revealed a succession (GC-Net), a network of 18 automatic weather sta- of lateral moraines consisting of boulders, gravel, tions (AWSs) and five smart stakes (less sophisti- and sand. These moraines were most likely formed cated AWSs with measurements at one level only) at times when the ice margin was stationary or distributed over the entire Greenland ice sheet. slowly changing, so each moraine signifies a period Four stations are located along the crest of the ice since the LIA during which the general trend sheet (at elevations ranging from 2,500 to 3,200 m) of glacier thinning was interrupted. Accurately in a north–south direction, ten stations are located mapping these moraines involved extending a pro- close to the 2,000-m contour line (1,830–2,500 m), file line from the trimline to the margin of the fjord and four stations are positioned in the ablation ice for geomorphological mapping, and surveying region (560–1,150 m). it using a global positioning system and optical The GC-Net was established in the spring of leveling to obtain accurate elevations. Also, along 1995 with the intention of monitoring climatologi- this profile, sizes of various lichen species were cal and glaciological parameters at various loca- measured in an attempt to establish a dating tions on the ice sheet for at least 10 years. The curve. To assign ages to lichens of given size, a first AWS was installed at the Swiss Camp, fol- calibration curve was derived by measuring lichen lowed by four AWSs in 1995, four in 1996, five in

Automatic weather station at Petermann Glacier (part of a joint project with the National Science Foundation described in the NSF section).

74 1997, four in 1999, one in 2002, and two in 2003. data are comparison of in-situ and satellite-derived Some were temporary, and 18 remain functioning surface parameters; operational weather forecasts; on a quasi-permanent basis. The objectives for validation of climate models; and logistic support the Greenland weather station network are to for ice camps and Thule AFB. measure daily, annual, and interannual variability in accumulation rate, surface climatology, and Canadian Ice Caps surface energy balance at selected locations on Analysis of data from airborne laser surveys the ice sheet and to measure near-surface snow has shown that, much like the Greenland ice sheet, density at the AWS locations for the assessment the Canadian ice caps appear to be losing mass in of snow densification, accumulation, and meta- their ablating margins, while at their higher eleva- morphosis. tion accumulation zones they are either thickening Currently 630 parameters are transmitted every slightly or remaining fairly constant. For most of hour, and until a site is revisited, transmitted data the ice caps in the Queen Elizabeth Islands, this are used. All the AWS sites are revisited within 2– thinning can be explained by warm temperature 3 years depending on logistics and accumulation. anomalies during the late 1990s survey period. Statistical procedures are applied to the GC-Net However, in the south, on Baffin Island, large thin- data in effort to improve data quality. These ning rates, on the order of a meter a year, do not include rejecting impossible values and using a seem to be related to any short-term temperature gradient threshold comparing the measurement anomaly but rather are more likely a result of with the next sequential hourly value. A moving ongoing mass loss associated with deglaciation sample interval scans the time series to identify since the mini-ice age several centuries ago. and reject data beyond a variance threshold for a given sample size. In some cases a spectrum of Alaskan Glaciers window sizes is employed to reject outliers caused Recent surveys of Alaskan glaciers has shown by occasional data scrambling by transmission significant wastage, estimated to be about 30% of errors. In general, the data that are rejected by the total glacier contribution to sea level rise. these filters represent a minor fraction of the data As a complement to this work, digital elevation volume. Once a station is revisited, continuous models (DEMs) of Bagley Ice Valley and Malaspina data are retrieved to replace the transmitted data. Glacier produced by 1) Intermap Technologies, An annual mean latitudinal temperature gradi- Inc. (ITI) from airborne interferometric synthetic ent of –0.78ºC per 1º of latitude was derived from aperture radar (InSAR) data acquired 4–13 Sep- the AWS data for the western slope of the ice tember 2000, 2) the German Aerospace Center sheet, while –0.82ºC per 1º of latitude was derived (DRL) from spaceborne InSAR data acquired by for the eastern slope. The mean annual lapse rate the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) along the surface slope is 0.71ºC per 100 m, with 11–22 February 2000, and 3) the U.S. Geological monthly mean lapse rates varying between 0.4ºC Survey (USGS) from aerial photographs acquired per 100 m in summer and 1.0ºC per 100 m in winter. in 1972-73, were differenced to estimate glacier The annual range of monthly mean temperatures is surface elevation changes from 1972 to 2000. Spa- between 23.5ºC and 30.3ºC for the western slope of tially non-uniform thickening, 10 ± 7 m on average, the ice sheet, with increasing ranges from south to is observed on Bagley Ice Valley (an accumulation north and with increase in elevation. The annual area), while non-uniform thinning, 47 ± 5 m on mean air temperature was found to be 2ºC higher average, is observed on the glaciers of the Mala- for the central part of Greenland for 1995–1999, spina complex (mostly an ablation area). Even compared to the standard decade 1951–1960. larger thinning is observed on the retreating tide- In addition to providing climatological and water Tyndall Glacier. These changes have resulted glaciological observations from the field, further from increased temperature and precipitation asso- applications of the GC-Net data include the ciated with climate warming and rapid tidewater study of the ice sheet melt extent, which has been retreat. increasing over the last 2.5 decades; estimates of Work on Alaskan glaciers supported by NASA the ice sheet sublimation rate; reconstruction of during 2003 included acquisition of small-aircraft long-term air temperature time series; assessment laser altimeter data on selected glaciers and ice- of surface climate; and the interpretation of fields of the St. Elias Mountains in south-central satellite-derived melt features of the ice sheet. Alaska and Yukon. Profile data were acquired Potential applications for the use of the GC-Net on seven glaciers that had not been measured

75 Fjord near the Barnes Ice Cap on Baffin Island. previously, and repeat profile data were acquired on Studies (GISS) was to investigate and develop five glaciers that had been measured previously. more realistic sea ice/upper ocean models as part The latter included the largest glacier systems in of the GISS GCM, with the ultimate purpose of continental North America; that is, Bagley Ice improving the climate change forecast in the polar Valley–Bering Glacier and the Seward–Malaspina regions. Investigations focused on the model Glacier systems, which have areas, including all sensitivity to cavitating fluid and viscous–plastic tributaries, of about 5,200 and 5,000 km2, respec- dynamics; the oceanic mixing characteristics; and tively. Repeat profile data were also acquired, and the viscosity diffusion models. the position of the terminus was measured on The primary improvement came from including Hubbard Glacier, which has been advancing and the resistance to shear stress in the viscous– threatening to block the entrance to Russell Fjord. plastic dynamics: comparison to satellite data indi- Ice dams caused by the advance of Hubbard Gla- cates much more realistic sea ice concentrations, cier have temporarily blocked this fjord entrance thickness, and export through the Fram Strait. twice, in 1986 and 2002. If an ice dam forms that Reduced oceanic isopycnal mixing leads to reduced is strong enough to “hold,” the economy of the and thinner ice throughout the Arctic, while the nearby community of Yakutat may be threatened viscosity diffusion produces expanded and thicker by redirection of the drainage of the fresh water sea ice in the Arctic, both due primarily to their that now discharges into the Gulf of Alaska via the effect on North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) pro- fjord mouth. An additional study of Alaskan gla- duction and associated heat transport. On the ciers has included detailed investigations into the basis of these runs, composite experiments with mechanisms that control surging behavior. the best combination of parameterizations were generated, which, besides affecting the sea ice, Arctic Climate Modeling had influences of up to 4°C on atmospheric tem- peratures in the Arctic. Climate change experi- The goal of some of the more recent modeling ments are underway to assess the polar region efforts at NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space response with this new model.

76 balloon flights, a number of smaller balloon pack- ages, and ground-based instruments. The NASA DC-8 arrived in Kiruna, Sweden, slightly north of the Arctic Circle, on January 9, 2003. A total of 11 science flights were conducted in Kiruna, and the DC-8 returned to NASA Dryden on February 6, 2003. Ozone loss in the polar stratosphere is directly caused by catalytic chlorine and bromine reac- tions. The high levels of reactive chlorine occur because of reactions of reservoir chlorine species on the surfaces of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). PSCs were observed by the NASA DC-8 lidar systems on the flights of January 9, 12, and 14 and February 4, 2003 at altitudes between 65,000 and 80,000 feet. During the winter of 2002–2003, the polar vor- Polar stratospheric Atmospheric Chemistry tex was cold and had moved southward toward clouds, as seen from the Europe, exposing the air to sunlight. Normally NASA DC-8 over The SAGE III Ozone Loss and Validation Exper- ozone values in the core of the vortex near 20 km southern Sweden on iment (SOLVE II) was a measurement campaign would be approximately 3 parts per million. How- January 14, 2003. designed to examine the processes controlling ever, because of the high levels of reactive chlo- ozone levels at mid- to high latitudes and acquire rine, ozone steadily decreased over the course of correlative data needed for the validation of the the month. During early February, though, these Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) values are near 1,500 ppbv, showing the very large III satellite measurements. SAGE-III is a NASA ozone losses inside the polar vortex. instrument aboard a Russian Meteor-3 satellite These initial results are only qualitative and will platform. SAGE-III is primarily used to measure require further processing and quantitative analy- high-latitude ozone loss. sis. These SOLVE II results will be directly used to The SOLVE II mission was primarily conducted quantify ozone loss in the vortex. The ozone val- during January 2003. Measurements were made in ues and ozone loss will then be compared to the the Arctic high-latitude region during winter using SAGE III ozone values to validate our global the NASA DC-8 aircraft, as well as two heavy-lift observations of ozone.

Ozone values observed on the flight from Kiruna, Sweden, to California on February 6, 2003. The x- axis of the figure shows the time, while the y-axis shows altitude. The polar vortex was situated over Kiruna (left side of the figure), such that the low ozone values at 20 km on the left are inside the polar vortex. Typically values of ozone inside the vortex in January would be near values of 3000 ppbv (the aqua color).

77 Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA performs research in the high-latitude regions of the planet in connection with its environmental assessment, monitoring, and prediction responsibilities. Research programs focus on scientific questions that address the Arctic environment and its relation to the global environment.

Office of Oceanic and Funding (thousands) FY 02 FY 03 Atmospheric Research Atmos Trace Constituents 800 300 Fisheries Assess/Manage 18,900 18,900 Arctic Research Office Marine Mammal Assessment 12,675 6,675 The Arctic Research Office was formed in FY Ocean Assessment 15 10 2000 to administer the Arctic Research Initiative Stratospheric Ozone 250 200 and to build a NOAA program focused on Arctic Data Management 357 331 science issues of national importance. For this Remote Sensing 388 273 Aircraft/Vessels 2,053 550 purpose, the “Arctic” is defined loosely as the Weather Research 0 25 northern hemisphere land area underlain by per- Western Arctic/Bering Sea Ecosys 7,507 2,050 manent or discontinuous permafrost, and ocean Barrow Observatory 1,350 650 areas subject to permanent or annual sea ice cover. Ocean Exploration 808 250 Consideration of watersheds and airsheds that Tsunami Warning/Env. Obs 250 250 Arctic Research Initiative 1,650 2,000 flow to the Arctic can extend the geographic Ocean Observations/Arctic Fluxes 360 360 boundaries significantly, as can consideration of Arctic Climate Research (SEARCH) 0 2,000 the impacts of Arctic processes on hemispheric CIFAR 0 350 weather and climate. In FY 2003, newly appropriated Total 47,363 35,174 funds became available to initiate a NOAA contri- bution to the interagency Study of Environmental • Collaborative, international program of Arctic Arctic Change (SEARCH). exploration; Under the overall guidance of the NOAA Stra- • Bering Sea Ecosystem Study; tegic Plan, the ARO has formulated more specific • Atmospheric and Cryospheric Change in goals that relate to its specific mission: the Arctic; • Characterize poorly known high-latitude • Arctic/Sub-Arctic Ocean Fluxes; marine habitats and understand and model • Arctic System Reanalysis; factors controlling the populations of key • Arctic Climate Impact Assessment; marine species in the Arctic and sub-Arctic; • Environmental Sources, Fate, and Impact • Monitor ecosystem indicators of climate of Mercury and Persistent Organic Pollutants change; in the Arctic; • Understand ecosystem impacts of critical • Assessment of Environmental and Economic contaminants and human uses in the Arctic; Impacts of Oil and Gas in the Arctic; and and • Development of updated AMAP Strategic • Understand the causes and impacts of atmo- Plan. spheric, oceanic, and climate variability and To date NOAA has funded the following change in the Arctic. SEARCH programs. Several projects are planned over the next few Retrospective Analysis of Arctic Clouds and years to address these goals and contribute to the Radiation from Surface and Satellite Measure- SEARCH Science Plan. These projects are: ments. Recent studies have shown that Northern • Retrospective Analysis of Ocean Climate and Hemisphere sea ice extent and thickness have Populations of Key Living Marine Resources; been decreasing, while land surface air tempera-

78 ture has increased markedly over the last 30 years. the success of SEARCH. First, information on Arctic climate change has also been noted in the existing environmental monitoring in the Arctic horizontal flux of precipitable water snowfall and will be compiled, and selected data sets will be in vegetation. While these studies indicate that analyzed for their usefulness in providing informa- the Arctic has been warming, it is not clear how tion on trend detection. The analysis is expected other aspects of the climate system have forced to yield information about the locations, time the change. In particular, how do changes in sur- scales, and variables most likely to allow climate face and cloud properties interact and affect the trends in the Arctic to be detected. Second, the surface radiation budget; that is, what is the combined information about current and optimal cloud–radiation feedback? monitoring will help suggest strategic locations Answers to these questions will only come for atmospheric observing stations. The ability to through an analysis of multi-decadal data sets. build off or utilize existing measurements programs Surface-based meteorological and radiation data and infrastructure will be considered in developing have been collected at various locations across recommendations for possible locations. Third, the Arctic for many years, with some observations coordination and linkages will be developed dating back to the 1920s. However, surface sta- between national and international polar programs tions are sparse, and many are scaling back opera- and observing networks. This coordination will tions. Satellite meteorological data sets that now assist in maximizing the SEARCH measurement span two decades provide a pan-Arctic perspec- program goals. tive. While the measurement principles are very Atmospheric Observatory. At present, the only different, both types of observations offer the continuous measurements of Arctic surface radia- potential to detect and monitor climate change. tion, clouds, aerosols, and chemistry sufficient for For example, long-term measurements from meteo- detailed evaluation of interactive climate change rological stations have shown that the surface processes in the lower atmosphere (0–15 km) are temperature of the Arctic land areas has been made in Barrow, Alaska. The Barrow facilities increasing over the past few decades. These include the National Weather Service (with trends have been verified by satellite data for the records from the 1920s), the NOAA/CMDL Base- past 20 years, and trends in satellite-derived cloud line Observatory (in operation since 1972), and the amount and the cloud radiative effect have recently DOE ARM North Slope of Alaska (NSA) site (in been reported. Similar trends found at surface sta- operation since 1998). It is the intention of the tions corroborate the satellite findings. Atmospheric Observatory Element of the NOAA/ Nevertheless, there is still much that can be SEARCH program to mirror the Barrow atmospheric learned from the historical surface and satellite measurements, first in northeastern Canada and at data sets. Cloud and radiation fields need to be some later date in central Siberia. examined in more detail, other geophysical param- The Canadian and Siberian regions have been eters should be examined, similarities and differ- selected based on the principal hypothesis of the ences in surface and satellite-derived measure- SEARCH program that Arctic climate change is ments need to be assessed, and regional trends related to the Arctic Oscillation (AO). There have must be explained. Furthermore, the interactions been observations of large-scale co-variability between parameters, such as the ice/snow albedo between a number of climatic variables (surface and cloud radiation feedbacks, are poorly under- temperature, hydrological balances, cloud cover, stood. The objective of this element is to evaluate winds) with the primary modes of the Arctic Oscil- the degree to which historical and ongoing mea- lation. Analyses suggest that one of the most sig- surements can be used to answer SEARCH sci- nificant AO-related trends over the last 50 years is ence questions and to aid in evaluating optimum warming in eastern Siberia and cooling in the locations for an expansion of the Arctic observing northeastern Canada–western Greenland region. network. The task is to perform a retrospective The Barrow site appears to be in a region of lower analysis of coincident surface measurements and variability with respect to the AO, so additional satellite-derived quantities, comparing one to the measurements in the regions where AO-related other and assessing the spatial and temporal vari- variability is expected to be the most pronounced ability in each parameter. are desirable. A coordinated set of intensive atmo- Atmospheric Observatory Site Selection Build- spheric measurements in Alaska, northeastern ing National and International Linkages. This Canada, and Siberia will not only provide impor- element contains three main objectives critical to tant observational records on regional variations

79 within the Arctic but will also provide key data disciplines and data types to form a complete sets for validating satellite measurements and observation set of Arctic change; and improving model parameterizations. • Present data are vastly underutilized in under- Correction of Systematic Errors in TOVS Radi- standing Arctic change. ances. The TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder The proposed work will address these conclu- (TOVS) instrument has flown on NOAA polar- sions by assessing what data are relevant to orbiting satellites since 1979 and has collected one SEARCH reanalysis and change detection activi- of the longest and most complete satellite data ties, collecting these data from a wide variety of records in existence. It was originally designed sources, and facilitating the SEARCH research to serve the weather forecasting community by community’s access to the data. The work will be providing temperature and moisture profiles in carried out in cooperation with Jim Overland, regions of the earth that have few conventional PMEL, as a contribution to the NOAA SEARCH meteorological stations. The TOVS data can also Arctic Change Detection and Reanalysis efforts. be used to retrieve cloud properties (coverage, There are many existing observational data sets cloud-top height, optical depth, and phase) and that may be useful to SEARCH but that are under- surface properties (skin temperature, surface type, utilized for reasons that may include: and drag coefficient). While this instrument was • They cover only a limited length in time or intended for operational applications, many spatial extent; researchers have demonstrated its tremendous • They have unknown accuracy and limited or potential for studying a wide range of climate no information about observing methods; applications as well, particularly in regions with • They are not an ongoing record; poor coverage of conventional measurements, • They are inaccessible or costly to acquire; or such as the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas. • The research community is unaware that they A problem arises in using TOVS data for cli- exist. mate applications, however, as the radiances were In addition to observational data sets, there are not adequately calibrated for long-term accuracy. data streams that are underutilized. For example, Consequently, substantial systematic errors from only about 10% of the Russian national station various sources greatly reduce the potential value network data are internationally exchanged over of TOVS observations for monitoring and under- the GTS system and included in quality-controlled standing climate change. The proposed work will data sets available from U.S. national data centers. attempt to identify, quantify, and mitigate these These underutilized data sources are not opti- errors, with the ultimate goal of producing a 20- mal because of the effort required to use them, but year (or more) record of TOVS radiances and at the same time they can be vitally important to retrieved products that are as error-free as practi- reanalysis and change detection efforts. For exam- cable, given available resources. Many of the ple, the planned Arctic reanalysis will assimilate known errors should be regionally and seasonally precipitation data in order to improve how the independent, but some may be peculiar to or exac- model treats moisture. Yet precipitation measure- erbated by Arctic conditions. Thus, while the ments are especially problematic in the Arctic, efforts will be global, the focus will be primarily there are a number of data sets with differing char- Arctic. The expected product of this investigation acteristics, and a data stream for ongoing mea- will be a data set of tremendous value for geo- surements has not been identified. Permafrost physical retrievals with sufficient accuracy to extent, borehole temperature, and active layer identify changes since 1979, as well as for direct depth are sensitive indicators of climate change assimilation by numerical atmospheric models. and therefore good candidates for climate indices. Observations for SEARCH: Data Integration These observations reside in a number of institu- for Arctic Reanalysis and Change Detection. tions around the world, and here the challenge will Unaami, the changes in the Arctic that are the sub- be to obtain and combine data sets into useful ject of the SEARCH program, became apparent Arctic-wide products. to researchers in the context of long-term and Arctic Change Detection. A major task outlined pan-Arctic observations. In November 2001 the in the SEARCH Science Plan is to determine how SEARCH Workshop on Large-Scale Atmosphere/ current and retrospective observations can be Cryosphere Observations reached two related best used and enhanced to understand and antici- conclusions: pate the course of the ongoing changes in the • There is no cohesion among various Arctic Arctic. This project will address the highest prior-

80 ity identified in the SEARCH Implementation Plan, consistent fields (subject to changes in observing specifically, to understand the key characteristics system input) of Arctic upper-air and surface of the multivariate change in the Arctic in space, winds, humidities, and temperatures for studies of time, and persistence. circulation variability, for budget studies, and for There is a need for high knowledge return on the driving of sea ice and ocean models. Second, existing and future data and for the capability to the atmospheric component of the reanalysis supply this information to nonspecialists and would provide fields for which direct observations interdisciplinary researchers. This is a challenging are sparse or problematic (such as precipitation, task. It seeks to include operational weather and evapotranspiration, radiation, and clouds) at higher climate data rather than relying on a focused exper- spatial and temporal resolution, and with greater imental design such as SHEBA. It is multidisci- reliability, than from existing reanalyses. Third, the plinary, and its goal is knowledge extraction, a task system-oriented approach required for a reanaly- beyond the development of data archives, or even sis would provide a community focus, involving at data accessibility. The development of an Arctic least the Arctic terrestrial, sea ice, and atmospheric Change Detection protocol is a necessary communities. Fourth, the reanalysis would lever- SEARCH startup activity. age upon, and provide a synthesis of, Arctic field While many SEARCH activities seek to docu- programs (SHEBA, LAII/ATLAS, ARM), capitaliz- menting Arctic climate processes, this project ing on prior investments by bringing field results will assume a larger role of providing the global to bear on the parameterizations used in large- change and broader communities with a clear scale models. Finally, the groundwork for an Arctic understanding of the complex changes that are regional reanalysis can now be performed by capi- occurring in the Arctic. Communicating climate talizing upon ongoing efforts such as ERA-40 and change information is a difficult process. NOAA’s NCEP’s North American Regional Reanalysis new role as a leader of the U.S. Climate Program (NARR), as well as recently compiled Polar Path- makes this function all the more necessary, as finder products from satellites. The coincidence of NOAA has an explicit responsibility for communi- this groundwork and the spin-up of SEARCH pro- cating scientifically validated Arctic status and vides a unique window of opportunity for an Arc- change information. tic reanalysis. However, in addressing the viability There is some recent help in this process. The of an Arctic system reanalysis, the recent work- field of data mining has now been extended to shop report notes that preliminary activities need knowledge discovery, which recognizes the impor- to be undertaken now if SEARCH is to capitalize tant step of consolidating information into knowl- on this window of opportunity. For example, the edge and communicating the results. Certain reprocessing of the TOVS radiances will likely guidelines for communicating climate change require several years. In addition, the momentum detection and ecological indicators to decision provided by ERA-40 and NCEP’s NARR can be makers and the public are being articulated. Of harnessed for SEARCH only if the Arctic output particular importance is the issue of uncertainty. from these efforts is evaluated by the Arctic com- Methods for the rational use of environmental munity, allowing for the implementation of parame- indices is also developing rapidly. terizations tailored to Arctic conditions. The A broad review of recent changes in the Arctic enhancement of ERA-40’s Arctic performance has been accomplished. Of importance now is to resulted from several years of such evaluation reduce this information to a set of several key indi- (and associated enhancements) of ERA-15 by a cators of Arctic change and to relate the magni- core of Arctic investigators. tude, location, and causes of current changes (the Monitoring Ice Thickness in the Western Arc- previous 30 years) to extremes in earlier historical tic Ocean. Recent studies indicate that the sea ice and proxy records. cover is undergoing significant climate-induced Initiation of an Arctic Reanalysis Activity in changes, affecting both its extent and thickness. SEARCH. At the SEARCH Workshop on Large- For instance, satellite-derived estimates of maxi- Scale Atmosphere/Cryosphere Interactions (in mum ice extent suggest a net reduction between Seattle, WA, in November 2001), the presentations 1978 and 1996, at an average rate of –3% per and discussions provided several reasons why decade. A recent report indicates an even more a compelling case could be made for an Arctic rapid reduction in the perennial sea ice cover: reanalysis. First, the reanalysis would produce –9% per decade. Data on the ice thickness, long time series of temporally and dynamically derived from submarine-based upward-looking

81 sonar, also suggest a net thinning of the sea ice drifting buoys. In the eastern sector of the Arctic, cover since 1958. NOAA is continuing to monitor the focus of the proposal “Monitoring the Eur- these changes to improve the fundamental under- asian Basin of the Arctic Ocean,” the instrumenta- standing of the role of the sea ice cover in the glo- tion would be limited to the drifting buoys, which bal climate system and to take advantage of the only need support during the deployment phase. sensitivity of the sea ice cover as an early indica- Recently, it has been revealed that the Russians tor of the magnitude and impact of climate change. plan to establish a permanent, manned ice camp The extent of the sea ice cover is effectively within the eastern sector of the Arctic, which will monitored from satellite platforms using passive be available to the scientific community at large as microwave imagery. Monitoring changes in the ice an operational platform. If this resource becomes thickness is more problematic. As with ice extent, a reality, it may be possible to extend the deploy- the ideal platform for monitoring ice thickness is a ment range of the moored ULS. satellite because it provides a full-basin perspec- Instrumentation within the large-scale observ- tive. However, to date, no technique has been ade- ing network will be located to complement existing quately developed to obtain satellite-based mea- measurement sites and activities and to take surements of ice thickness. Until satellite imagery advantage of historical data records. Specifically, can be used to monitor ice thickness, we must rely it will augment the data currently being collected on measurements made from submarines, aircraft, at the North Pole Environmental Observatory seafloor moorings, and drifting buoys. As deter- (NPEO, http://psc.apl.washington.edu/northpole/), mined at the recent SEARCH Workshop on Large- by the International Arctic Buoy Program (IABP, Scale Atmospheric/Cryospheric Observations, this http://iabp.apl.washington.edu/), and from SCICEX is most effectively done through a coordinated cruises. Specific site locations will be determined effort to establish a large-scale sea ice observing using models of ice motion, which incorporate system. It is also necessary to disseminate the recorded observations. Data from the observation data collected from the various components of sites will be combined with data from other sources this system to the scientific community in a timely to produce annual reports on the state of the sea and consistent fashion. Once available, the data ice cover, including both its extent and thickness. can be used to gain insight on the relationship A contextual setting for current data will be estab- between the characteristics of the sea ice cover lished by summarizing earlier western Arctic and climatic forcing. Specific emphasis should be observations of sea ice mass balance over an placed on efforts to work in tandem with those annual cycle, beginning in 1957. The availability of developing satellite-based assets designed to data in the Russian literature, which is likely to measure ice thickness. Data from the ice-based cover the eastern Arctic, will also be investigated. observing system can play a central role in assur- Monitoring the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic ing an optimal approach for obtaining accurate Ocean. NOAA has funded a network of automatic satellite-based measurements. Together, these data buoys to monitor synoptic-scale fields of sea platforms can provide an effective means of level pressure, surface air temperature, and ice assessing the state of the sea ice cover over the motion throughout the Arctic Ocean as recom- entire Arctic basin. mended by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences The primary objective of this proposal and the in 1974. Based on the Academy’s recommendation, related proposal “Monitoring the Eurasian Basin the Arctic Ocean Buoy Program was established of the Arctic Ocean” is to establish and maintain a by the Polar Science Center (PSC), Applied Phys- large-scale sea ice thickness observing system. ics Laboratory (APL), University of Washington, The establishment of two distinct elements recog- in 1978 to support the Global Weather Experiment. nizes the different logistical challenges in the Operations began in early 1979, and the program western and eastern sectors of the Arctic region. continued through 1990 under funding from vari- This proposal focuses specifically on measure- ous agencies. In 1991 the International Arctic ments within the western sector of the Arctic. This Buoy Program (IABP) succeeded the Arctic Ocean sector of the Arctic is currently more accessible Buoy Program, but the basic objective remains— and therefore makes it feasible to conduct a pro- to maintain a network of drifting buoys on the gram involving instrumentation that must be main- Arctic Ocean to provide meteorological and tained after deployment. Within the western sector oceanographic data for real-time operational of the Arctic, this proposal seeks to initiate an requirements and research purposes, including array of moored upward-looking sonar (ULS) and support to the World Climate Research Programme

82 and the World Weather Watch Programme. tions, buoys within the IABP network can play an Dramatic changes in Arctic climate have been important role in monitoring changes in ice thick- noted during the past two decades. Observations ness by enhancing their measurement system. from the IABP have played a significant role in the Oceanic Observations of Climate Change in detection of this change over the Arctic Ocean. the Arctic–Subpolar Zone. This is a new, multi- For example, IABP data have shown that sea level year project to observe water masses and fluxes of pressure has decreased, surface air temperature water, salt, heat, ice, and tracers between the Arc- has increased, and the circulation of sea ice and tic Ocean and the sub-Arctic seas. The goal is to the ocean have changed so as to flow less clock- provide understanding of the changing state of wise. In addition to studies of Arctic climate and the Arctic and anticipate its future. The logistic climate change, observations from the IABP are issues are severe and require innovative observa- also used for validating satellites, for forcing, for tional platforms as proposed here. The project will validation and assimilation into numerical climate utilize sea-gliders and ice-hardened moorings to models, and for forecasting weather and ice condi- provide the physical data. A retrospective analysis tions. of existing tracer data will provide context for the The continued success of the IABP, and our new data. ability to monitor many aspects of Arctic climate Ecosystem Change in the Northern Bering change, depend on maintaining and further devel- Sea. This project investigates the hypothesis that oping the buoy network. The buoys drift with the recent anomalous spring and summer productivity sea ice and have finite life spans, so a tremendous on the Northern Bering Sea shelf relates to decadal- amount of resources are required to purchase and scale atmospheric/sea ice/oceanographic pro- deploy buoys to maintain the buoy network. In cesses, reflecting regime-induced climate changes the past the IABP was able to seed the buoy net- in the western Arctic. Recent work shows that work in the Beaufort Sea, and the large, clockwise there are hot spots of biological productivity gyre circulation would carry the buoys out to southwest of Saint Lawrence Island and that this cover the Arctic Ocean. However, given the productivity has been decreasing over the past changes in circulation, the Beaufort Gyre has decade. The Bering Sea is shifting to an earlier shrunk, and maintaining the buoy network in the spring transition, based on ice melt and changes Eurasian Arctic has been more difficult. For exam- in atmospheric circulation patterns. Since changes ple, the latest map of buoys on the Arctic Ocean in the north Pacific Ocean show little long-term shows that only 6 of the 26 buoys in the network trend while the trend in Arctic Oscillation appears are monitoring the Eurasian Basin. to be a clearly increasing climate signal, the north- Monitoring the Eurasian Basin is important, as ern Bering Sea is an important location to monitor this is the center of many of the changes in Arctic for ecosystem changes. The recent studies dem- climate. For example, the decrease in sea level onstrate the timeliness for increased focus on the pressure, the warming in surface air temperature, ecosystem of the northern Bering Sea. Such a pro- and the thinning of Arctic sea ice are most signifi- gram would include the following tasks: cant in this area. One could ask, did the increase in • A retrospective analysis of all northern Bering surface air temperature act to thin sea ice, or did Sea data to put future changes into context the thinner sea ice allow more heat to flux from the and to provide an objective measure for ocean to warm the atmosphere? It has been hypothe- change detection; sized that the dynamic thinning of sea ice driven • Establishment of a northwest Bering Sea bio- by the changes in atmospheric circulation causes physical oceanographic mooring to document the increasing trends in surface air temperature. ongoing changes, similar to the successful Enhanced buoys will be placed in the Eurasian multiyear FOCI mooring, M2, on the south- Basin of the Arctic Ocean in 2004 to monitor the east Bering Sea shelf; and thickness of sea ice. Establishing a record of • Process studies of the northern biological hot climate-induced changes in the thickness of the spots, primarily funded by non-NOAA sources. sea ice cover is essential to understanding the role of the sea ice cover in the global climate system Ice Dynamics and Oceanography and to using the sea ice cover as an early indicator NOAA supports a program to carry out obser- of climate change in the polar regions. As explained vations and modeling of the freshwater dynamics in the recent report on the SEARCH Workshop on connecting the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. Con- Large-Scale Atmosphere/Cryosphere Observa- centrated activity occurs where the Arctic and

83 Atlantic meet and interact. Increasing amounts of Arctic climate and oceanic change and the declin- fresh water have been pouring out of the Arctic ing Steller’s sea lion population. The areas of and, in combination with intensified winds, have interest include the impacts of climate change on altered the circulation of the Atlantic. Improved the Bering Sea ecosystem over the past 500 years, observations of water masses and fluxes of water, retrospective studies of climate impacts on Alas- salt, ice, and tracers between the Arctic and the kan Steller’s sea lions, the nature of North Pacific Atlantic will help us understand this changing regime shifts and their impacts on Steller’s sea state and anticipate its future. An investigator at lions, ocean climate variability as a potential influ- the University of Washington is studying obser- ence on Steller’s sea lion populations, north Pacific vational and modeling methods relevant to the climate variability and Steller’s sea lion ecology, intense flows linking the Arctic and Atlantic interannual variability of biophysical linkages Oceans. He is examining the feasibility of an between the basin and shelf in the Bering Sea, and affordable but adequate long-term measurement climate-driven bottom-up processes and killer program in the Canadian Archipelago and Davis whale abundance as factors in Steller’s sea lion Strait, the Labrador Sea, and the Labrador conti- population trends in the Aleutian Islands. The nental shelf. National Marine Mammal Laboratory’s Alaska NOAA is continuing to study the variability of Regional Office and Protected Resources Manage- thermohaline circulation and freshwater storage ment Division are responsible for research on the in the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean and its mar- management of 22 species of marine mammals that ginal seas are key areas for understanding the commonly occur in Alaska, including the Steller’s Arctic climate system and its change through time. sea lion. Changes in the freshwater balance would influ- NOAA’s Resource Assessment and Conserva- ence the extent of sea ice cover; changes in sur- tion Engineering Division and Resource Ecology face albedo, energy balance, temperature, and the and Fisheries Management Division are promoting salinity of water masses; and biological processes a full-scale program to provide information on the in the Arctic. run characteristics of Yukon River Chinook salmon. Over 1,100 fish will be radio-tagged near the river Ocean and Coastal Ecosystems mouth and tracked to upriver spawning areas to and Living Resources provide information on stock composition and NOAA has undertaken several programs focus- timing, nation of origin, migration patterns, and ing on ocean ecosystems, including analyses in the location of previously undocumented spawn- the Bering Sea region to study climate variability ing areas. and its impacts on ecosystems and a study of the NOAA’s Pacific Marine Environmental Labora- trophic pathways on the Chukchi–Beaufort shelf. tory (PMEL) conducts fisheries oceanography Microalgae grow on the undersurface of sea ice and ecosystem studies in the Bering Sea and the as well as within the sea ice matrix and are a well- western Gulf of Alaska. Fisheries–Oceanography known feature of Arctic ecosystems. They con- Coordinated Investigations (FOCI) is a coopera- tribute a poorly known proportion of the total pri- tive program among PMEL, NMFS’s Alaska Fish- mary production in Arctic seas, and recent studies eries Science Center, NOS’s Coastal Ocean Pro- suggest that ice algal primary productivity has gram, and the University of Alaska. FOCI’s goals been greatly underestimated. Ice algae are impor- are to increase understanding of the Alaskan tant to microbial food webs and the dissolved and marine ecosystem, to document the role of walleye particulate carbon and nitrogen pools of the Arctic pollock in the ecosystem, to determine factors that Ocean. Novel techniques are being used to quan- affect pollock survival, and to develop and test titatively trace carbon fixed by ice algae and water annual indices of pre-recruit pollock abundance. column phytoplankton through pelagic and FOCI is also investigating decadal variability and benthic food webs using conservative fatty acid climate change of the North Pacific and western signatures. The results of this work will help us Arctic, particularly in light of the declining Stell- understand trophic dependencies and carbon er’s sea lion population. budgets in Arctic food webs and predict the effects of environmental change caused by global Underwater Research warming and further reductions in sea ice. In 2002 NOAA funded the development of an NOAA’s Arctic Research Office has supported ROV, the Global Explorer, to investigate under- projects to examine possible connections between ice life, the water column, and the seafloor of the

84 deep Canada Basin and the Northwind Ridge. This the main shifts in the AO are seen in mid-winter, program, called Arctic 2002, was a collaboration while many of the surface changes are seen in between NOAA’s Ocean Exploration Office and spring and summer. A second issue is whether the Arctic Research Office, the Canadian Department reductions in sea ice and snow cover in the west- of Fisheries and Oceans, JAMSTEC, and insti- ern Arctic actually have an impact on the atmo- tutes in China. The objectives were to take cen- sphere. The goal of this project is to determine the suses of marine life in unexplored regions of the impact of the AO on low-level wind and tempera- Arctic. Baseline transects are needed to be able to ture fields in spring in the Arctic and to evaluate quantify changes in the ecosystems over space the magnitude of feedback from sea ice and snow and time. anomalies to the atmosphere in spring and summer. As a follow-up to this mission, NOAA’s Ocean Exploration Office and the Arctic Research Office Glaciology and Hydrology supported a multibeam mapping expedition to the NOAA has supported a program to study the Chukchi Cap and the Northwind Ridge on the hydrologic response of Siberian major rivers to USCGC Healy during the summer of 2003. During climate change and variation. Arctic rivers are an this expedition, scientists from NOAA, the Univer- important component in global ocean and climate sity of New Hampshire, and other partners discov- systems, and recent studies have shown remark- ered and mapped a new complex underwater sea- able changes in hydrologic regimes of the major mount (larger than Mount Rainier) lying at the rivers in Siberia over the past several decades. northernmost end of the Chukchi Plateau. The sci- This project, at the University of Alaska Fair- entists mapped 1,530 nautical miles of the 2,500-m banks, is a comprehensive assessment of change depth contour of the continental slope north of and variability in Siberian river systems and their Alaska as they accomplished the U.S.’s first Law connections to surface climate and atmospheric of the Sea ocean mapping surveys in the Arctic circulation. Ocean. Before the expedition, existing charts of the Arctic seafloor showed only a small knoll Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory where the seamount was discovered. The team The Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Labo- also discovered water depths of more than 4,000 ratory (CMDL) conducts sustained observations meters, depths not previously measured anywhere and research related to source and sink strengths, in the Amerasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean. The trends and global distributions of atmospheric expedition also added important information about constituents that are capable of forcing climate ice age glaciation and past climates. Randomly change through modification of the atmospheric oriented seafloor scours, mapped at depths of radiative environment, those constituents that 300–400 m, provide evidence of large icebergs may cause depletion of the global ozone layer, and scraping the seafloor. In addition, large pock- those that affect baseline air quality. CMDL accom- marks discovered on the Chukchi Plateau seafloor plishes this mission primarily through long-term sediments are indicative of active venting of gas measurements of key atmospheric species at 65 from the seafloor. The expedition also obtained sites spanning the globe, including five well- oceanographic data that will improve knowledge instrumented and manned Atmospheric Baseline of the water masses and circulation in the Arctic. Observatories at Barrow, Alaska; Trinidad Head, California; Mauna Loa, Hawaii; American Samoa; Climate and Weather and South Pole. NOAA is supporting a program to study the In the Arctic, CMDL measurements include car- recent changes in sea ice and snow cover and bon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrous their impact on the Arctic Oscillation (AO). oxide, surface and stratospheric ozone, haloge- Changes are occurring in the Arctic that appear to nated compounds including chlorofluorocarbon have begun in the late 1960s and increased in the (CFC) replacements, hydrocarbons, sulfur gases, 1990s. These include tropospheric warming, aerosols, solar and terrestrial UV, and broadband reduction in ice extent, and increased variability in and infrared radiation. In addition, field campaigns snow cover. Ecological impacts of these changes in key regions, utilizing an array of platforms are already being noted. Much scientific interest including aircraft, balloons, ocean vessels, and has focused on the AO, which represents an Arctic- towers, complement the long-term measurements. wide increase in upper atmosphere winds and The CMDL data are used to assess climate forc- decrease in sea level pressure. A paradox is that ing, ozone depletion, and baseline air quality; to

85 develop and test diagnostic and predictive mod- February 2003, CMDL scientists participated in els; and to keep the public, policy makers, and sci- the NASA SAGE III Ozone Loss and Validation entists abreast of the current state of our chemical Experiment (SOLVE-II), a high-altitude airborne and radiative atmosphere. research campaign with deployments out of CMDL Arctic Baseline Atmospheric Observa- NASA Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards tory Operations. CMDL has operated the Atmo- Air Force Base, California, and Kiruna, Sweden. spheric Baseline Observatory at Barrow, Alaska, During SOLVE-II the CMDL PAN (peroxyacetylni- (BRW) for 30 years. In addition to the 24 core trate) and Trace Hydrohalocompounds Experiment atmospheric baseline measurement projects, BRW (PANTHER) instrument, along with 13 other supports 20 cooperative research projects, with instruments onboard the NASA DC-8 platform, the majority coming from universities or agencies sampled air from the midlatitudes across the Arctic in Alaska. As part of the Barrow Arctic Science vortex edge and into the vortex core region. In Consortium (BASC) facilities upgrade, CMDL is in January the northern vortex broke into two lobes the design phase of a new observatory building at and then rejoined, thereby trapping midlatitude air the present BRW site. Construction is set to begin inside the vortex. The subsequent mixing of this in late 2004. air, coupled with the production of numerous polar At Summit, Greenland, a National Science stratospheric clouds (PSCs), allowed the mission Foundation research site, CMDL initiated year- scientists to conduct a suite of unique measure- round carbon-cycle air flask sampling and in-situ ments leading to a highly successful mission. A surface ozone and black carbon measurements in major goal of calibration and validation compari- the spring of 2003. CMDL collects weekly pairs of sons between the aircraft instrumentation and discrete samples from a 65-site global network that remote NASA SAGE III satellite measurements includes Arctic or near-Arctic sites at Barrow, Cold was achieved. Bay, and Shemya, Alaska; Ocean Station “M”; Observations of Stratospheric Water Vapor Heimaey, Iceland; Alert, Canada; Pallas, Finland; During SOLVE II. During the winter of 2002–2003, and Ny Alesund, Spitzbergen, in addition to the balloon profile measurements were carried out in sampling at Summit, Greenland. Vertical profiles of Sweden, Finland, and Norway using the CMDL a large suite of trace gases are obtained over cryogenic, chilled-mirror hygrometer to measure Poker Flats, Alaska, on a biweekly basis, with an water vapor in the stratosphere up to altitudes of aircraft flying profiles to 8,000 m above sea level. approximately 25 km. During this campaign, signif- Boreal Forest Fire Impact on Global Tropo- icant dehydration was not noted in the profiles, spheric Chemistry. Continued studies by CMDL unlike several previous campaigns in which there and the University on Maryland on the transport was some dehydration of the stratosphere in the and atmospheric effects of effluents from the 1998 Arctic vortex. This lack of dehydration in the and 2000–2003 fires in Siberia show that the Arctic stratosphere is in contrast to the Antarctic, effects of these fires are sensitive to their timing where extensive polar stratospheric cloud forma- and location. While the 2003 boreal fires burned a tion and subsequent dehydration takes place on greater area than any previous year on record, the a large scale. hemispheric increase in CO was much smaller than Surface Ozone Observations in the Arctic. that observed during 1998. The early-season fires Sites operated by CMDL make surface ozone of 2003 may have produced large amounts of CO, observations in three distinct regimes within the but seasonally high levels of photochemically Arctic. Barrow represents an Arctic Ocean envi- derived OH efficiently removed the CO from the ronment with seasonal ice cover. Summit, Green- troposphere. In contrast, the late-season fires in land, is a high-altitude site on the permanent ice 1998 occurred when OH production was decreas- cap, while Westman Islands, Iceland, is represen- ing towards its seasonal minimum, leaving less OH tative of a high-latitude site on the permanently to react with the fire-produced CO. Several labora- ice-free North Atlantic. At Barrow in the spring, tories are using CMDL data in global chemical- there are numerous episodes of ozone depletion transport models to better understand the factors that may persist for several days and often com- that link forest fires with their broader impact on pletely remove ozone from the lower atmospheric the global atmosphere. boundary layer. At Summit and Westman Islands, Measurements of Ozone-Depleting and on the other hand, events of this type are not Climate-Forcing Gases in the Arctic Troposphere seen. This demonstrates that both the ocean envi- and Stratosphere. From January 2002 through ronment and sea ice formation are critical ingredi-

86 ents in the ozone-depletion process. Halogen feedback induced by dust and aerosols. On the compounds (primarily those containing bromine) other hand, should the dust contain high concen- processed on the Arctic ice pack, in the presence trations of carbonaceous particles that directly of increasing spring sunlight, are the primary cata- absorb sunlight, additional atmospheric heating lysts for ozone loss in what appears to be a natu- could occur. More data and model simulations will ral process. be required before we fully understand the climatic Study of Environmental Arctic Change. Begin- impacts of these polar aerosols. ning in FY 2003, CMDL became involved in two Enhancing the Network of Arctic Climate elements of SEARCH funded through the Arctic Monitoring Observatories. While SEARCH is Research Office: Retrospective Analysis of Arctic addressing several complex issues related to cli- Clouds and Radiation from Surface and Satellite mate change in the northern high latitudes, improv- Measurements, and Expansion of the Arctic Net- ing Arctic observational records is fundamental work of Climate Monitoring Observatories. The to the entire program. In collaboration with the following summarizes the CMDL involvement in NOAA Environmental Technology Laboratory SEARCH. (ETL), CMDL is taking a lead in efforts to expand Trends in Sea Ice Extent and Snow Cover in or enhance the sparse network of observing sta- the Western Arctic. The spring snowmelt date has tions now in existence. The combined facilities at been monitored at BRW for many years. Since BRW and the adjacent Atmospheric Radiation 1940 the spring melt at BRW has advanced by Measurement (ARM) Program site represent the about 10 days (±4.8 days). Most of the advance state of the art in climate monitoring, especially for occurred after 1976, when a major regime shift studies of cloud and aerosol effects on the surface occurred. radiation balance. One goal of SEARCH is to Incursions and Impact of Asian Dust Over establish BRW-like observatories at other strategic Northern Alaska. Using an assimilation of data Arctic locations to better characterize the Arctic collected at BRW, the direct effects of atmospheric climate system and to produce long-term data aerosols on the surface radiation budget in the records that will help us understand the processes Arctic are being monitored. In the past the focus and feedbacks that drive the Arctic climate sys- has been on Arctic Haze, which is air pollution tem. A component of this activity is to enhance transported from Eurasia to BRW each spring. atmospheric and radiation monitoring in the Cana- Spectral aerosol optical depth measurements are dian Arctic at Alert and Eureka at sites operated used to differentiate dust from haze; dust contains by the Meteorological Services Canada and possi- much larger particles and is often of higher optical bly at two Siberian sites in conjunction with the depth. Because polar atmospheres are generally Russian Academy of Sciences and Roshydromet. very clean, even small increases in aerosol con- Trace Gas Emissions Measured along the centrations can perturb the radiometric structure Trans-Siberian Railway. To study the trace gas of the atmosphere and thus the surface energy emissions of a large sector of both Europe and balance. Asia, a consortium of Russian, German, and U.S. During the spring of 2002, massive dust storms scientists have instrumented a Russian railway in the Gobi Desert region of Mongolia lofted dust car with a wide range of atmospheric measurement into the atmosphere, where it was transported instrumentation, coupled the observatory carriage eastward in a broad plume that reached and to regularly scheduled passenger trains, and con- crossed the continental U.S. Some of this dust ducted 17,000-km traverses from Moscow to Kha- was also blown over northern Alaska, passing barovsk and back. These 13-day Trans-Siberian over BRW. CMDL measurements show that when Observations Into the Chemistry of the Atmo- Asian dust is present in the Arctic atmosphere, sphere (TROICA) missions have been conducted the surface tends to cool but to a lesser extent seven times since 1995. In the summer of 2001, than at lower latitudes that are free of snow. Even CMDL Boulder scientists were the project leads though these Arctic dust events are episodic and on the program, as they were in early 2004 on a occur mainly in late winter through spring, their mid-winter journey during which temperatures as effect is not insignificant when they are present. low as –40°C were encountered. This railway Should the Arctic atmosphere become more turbid platform is ideal for atmospheric measurements in the future, projections of enhanced warming in because the railway is electrified between Mos- the the Arctic due to greenhouse gases could be cow and Khabarovsk, minimizing the potential episodically negated because of this negative contamination of measurements by the train itself.

87 During the 2001 summer expedition (TROICA-7), with a final scientific conference in Reykjavik, Ice- emissions of six man-made, ozone-depleting sub- land, on 9–12 November 2004, at which time the stances were measured for the first time ever in ACIA documents will be released. Siberia. TROICA-8 occurred in the winter, when Russian–American Long-Term Census of the the emissions of biologically produced gases Arctic. In 2003, NOAA and the Russian Academy (such as carbon dioxide) and biomass burning of Sciences signed a Memorandum of Under- gases from forest fires (such as carbon monoxide) standing for World Ocean and Polar Regions are at a minimum. Studies. Also in 2003 both Russia and the U.S. Russia ended production of the chlorofluoro- requested proposals from investigators for partici- carbons (CFCs, used as refrigerants), chlorinated pation in the first joint U.S.–Russia research cruise solvents (methyl chloroform, CH3CCl3, and carbon to the Bering and Chukchi Seas, including sam- tetrachloride, CCl4), and halons (used as fire extin- pling and instrument deployment in both U.S. and guishing agents) at the end of 2000 as a result of Russian territorial waters. This is the first activity the Montreal Protocol, but emissions persist from under the Russian–American Long-term Census banks of these chemicals (in existing refrigerators, of the Arctic (RUSALCA), a joint project of NOAA air conditioners, etc.). One goal of this program is and the Russian Academy of Science. The cruise to measure the reduction of the ozone-depleting objectives are to support the U.S. interagency substances between 2001 and 2004. Measure- Study of Environmental Arctic Change (SEARCH) ments on board the carriage include oxides of program (http://psc.apl.washington.edu/search/) nitrogen (NOx), ozone, aerosols, radon-222, CO, and the NOAA Ocean Exploration Program (http:// CH4, CO2, and meteorological parameters, includ- www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/). These seas and ing vertical temperature profiles. the life within are thought to be particularly sensi- Measurements on the TROICA missions are tive to global climate change because they are supported by NOAA (Arctic Research, CMDL, centers where steep thermohaline and nutrient OAR) programs, NASA (Atmospheric Chemistry gradients in the ocean coincide with steep thermal Modeling and Analysis; Radiation Sciences; and gradients in the atmosphere. The Bering Strait acts Upper Atmospheric Research) programs, the Max as the only Pacific gateway into and out of the Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz, Germany, Arctic Ocean and as such is critical for the flux of and the Russian Railway Institute. heat between the Arctic and the rest of the world. Monitoring the flux of fresh and salt water and Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research at the establishing benchmark information about the University of Alaska Fairbanks distribution and migration patterns of the life in Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. The Arctic these seas are also critical before the emplacement Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) is an activity of a climate monitoring network in this region. of the Arctic Council to assess the impacts of cli- In November 2003 a workshop on the RUSALCA mate and UV radiation changes in the Arctic. An expedition mission was held in Moscow to define ACIA Secretariat, supported by the U.S. through the main research topics and regions. In February NSF and NOAA, is located at the University of 2004, after panelists met in Russia and the U.S., Alaska Fairbanks and is responsible for the con- nine programs were funded. The primary study duct of the assessment. In 2002–2003 the 200 area will be the northern Bering Sea (north of international authors of the assessment wrote 60°N) and the Chukchi Sea (Wrangel Island to several successively improved versions of the Point Barrow and north toward the Chukchi Pla- assessment in 17 chapters, and after internal teau to the extent that ice conditions permit). The review an extensive external review of the assess- cruise is expected to occur in the summer of 2004 ment by about 200 international experts took on a Russian ice-strengthened (not icebreaking) place. Final revisions are now occurring, respond- research ship (the Khromov). The ship will depart ing to and taking the numerous reviewer com- from Vladivostok and make two or three port stops ments into account. The length of the final docu- in Alaska before returning to Russia. The cruise ment is expected to be about 1,500 printed pages length will be about 45 days, with intensive activi- and deals with impacts on the environment, on ties in the primary study area during the middle 20 economic sectors, and on people’s lives. A sum- days or so. Underway activities can be carried out mary “Overview” report of about 80–100 pages during the entire 45 days. has also been produced for a more general reader- Participants will include individuals from the ship. The four-year ACIA project will conclude following organizations: the University of Alaska

88 Fairbanks, the Smithsonian Institution, the Univer- including Science and Marine Biology. sity of Tennessee, the University of Texas, the In 2002 the West Coast and Polar Regions University of Washington, the Woods Hole Undersea Research Center supported develop- Oceanographic Institution, NOAA Fisheries, ment of a next-generation version of this equip- NOAA’s Arctic Research Office, NOAA’s Ocean ment. Modifications include digital video record- Exploration Office, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- ing to a mini-hard drive, the use of on-the-fly vice, the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and MPEG video compression, incorporation of GPS Engineering Laboratory, the Shirshov Institution for geolocation at the surface, extended data of Oceanology (Moscow), VNIIOkeangeologia (St. recording for up to 14 days, and a 50% reduction Petersburg), the Zoological Institute (St. Peters- in size. The system records pressure, swim speed, burg), the Institute of Microbiology (Moscow), compass bearing, ambient temperature, dissolved the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (St. oxygen, ambient light, and tilt, pitch, and roll. The Petersburg), the Pacific Oceanographical Institute digital video/audio uses near-infrared LEDs and a (Vladivostok), Roshydromet (Vladivostok), the low-light-sensitive, black and white camera. The Russian Federation Navy, and ECOSEA (group equipment is powered by rechargable lithium bat- alliance). Funding is provided by NOAA and the teries connected to solar panels. One factor that Russian Academy of Sciences limited the use of the first-generation equipment to Weddell seals was the size and weight of the pack- NOAA’s Undersea Research Program age. A 50% reduction in size now permits the new NOAA’s Undersea Research Program (NURP) equipment to be used on smaller marine mammals. has the responsibility to establish programs for Tests have been conducted with Stellar’s sea lions the assessment, protection, development, and uti- at the Alaska SeaLife Center in Seward, Alaska. lization of U.S. underwater resources. In meeting This technology will yield new insight into the this responsibility, NURP has established six activities and habitat of these Arctic marine mam- regional centers for support of in-situ research mals at sea. and technological development. The West Coast and Polar Regions Undersea Research Center Alaska Fisheries Science Center serves the Arctic and Antarctic regions, as well as the entire west coast of the U.S. In FY 2002 the National Marine Mammal Laboratory center supported development of next-generation The National Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska equipment for studying the activities of marine Regional Office, and the Protected Resources mammals. Management Division are responsible for research Although there have been significant advances on and management of 22 species of marine mam- in miniaturized video technology and virtual-reality mals that commonly occur in Alaska, including data assessment, their use in the study of large five endangered cetacean species (bowhead, fin, marine animals has lagged considerably behind humpback, North Pacific right, and sperm whales), the applications for ROVs and other submersible one pinniped species (Steller’s sea lion) that is platforms. There is great potential for using marine threatened in one portion of its range and endan- mammals as “biological autonomous underwater gered in another, and two depleted species (Cook vehicles” to study their behavior and the ocean Inlet beluga whale and northern fur seal). Field environment. research by the NMML staff on marine mammals The first generation of video/data recorders off central and northern Alaska focused on two designed to be mounted on marine mammals was pinniped and six cetacean species during 2002 and developed under a 1998 NURP grant. It has been 2003: Steller’s sea lions, harbor seals, Cook Inlet deployed on Weddell seals during NSF-sponsored beluga whales, killer whales, and large cetaceans research at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. The use (fin, blue, humpback, and North Pacific right of this equipment has provided new insights into whales) in the Bering Sea. the behavior of both the seals themselves (while Steller’s Sea Lions. NOAA/Fisheries is the under water) and the behavior of their prey— lead agency responsible for the management and several species of pelagic fishes. Both the seals recovery of the endangered western and threat- and the fish are difficult to study by any other ened eastern populations of Steller’s sea lions. method because of the logistics of observing their The western population has declined by more activity under the Antarctic ice. The scientific than 80% in the last two decades, but it may have results have been reported in several journals, stabilized over much of its range during the last

89 two years. Conversely the eastern population the abundance of this relatively small and isolated appears to be recovering from severely reduced population each year since 1994. Analyses of levels in the early part of this century and has sighting data from aerial surveys indicated that exhibited consistent growth over the past three the abundance of Cook Inlet beluga whales has decades. Factors hypothesized for the dramatic declined by nearly 50% between 1994 and 1998. decline in the western population include reduced Distribution and abundance estimates from annual prey availability leading to nutritional stress, poor aerial surveys in 2002 and 2003 indicated that the juvenile survival, and decreased reproduction; population was stable but low in number. In 2002, disease; pollution; predation by killer whales; inci- research efforts were directed toward catching dental mortality in groundfish fisheries; and legal whales and outfitting them with radio and satellite and illegal shooting. The Steller’s sea lion research tags to determine seasonal movement patterns program at NMML conducts scientific research on and correction factors for aerial surveys. A Cook each of the potential factors that could have con- Inlet beluga habitat model is in development tributed to the decline of the western population. based on satellite tracking data and fatty acids The core research program includes vessel and analyses of blubber samples used to determine aerial surveys to quantify abundance, molecular and diet and contaminant burdens. genetic studies to elucidate stock structure, assess- Killer Whale Surveys: Kenai Fjords to the ment of predator–prey dynamics and foraging dis- Central Aleutians. To investigate the potential tributions to determine foraging ecology, and indi- role of killer whales in the decline of the western vidual identification and tracking to provide the population of Steller’s sea lions, a vessel-based foundation of mortality and life history studies. survey for killer whales extending from the Kenai Alaska Harbor Seals. In recent decades, Alaska Fjords to the central Aleutian Islands was initiated harbor seals have declined dramatically in some in 2001. The DART (Distribution and Abundance regions, while their numbers have increased in of Residents and Transients) surveys are designed other regions. The primary objectives of NMML’s to estimate the abundance of killer whales by research on this species are to obtain data on the ecotype. Three killer whale ecotypes have been abundance of the species throughout Alaska and identified in Alaskan waters thus far: the piscivo- to collect information on haulout patterns that can rous (or resident) ecotype; the mammal-eating be used to better interpret abundance information. (transient) ecotype; and the offshore ecotype, In 2002 and 2003 the NMML produced peer- which apparently preys mostly on fish. Biopsy reviewed papers describing the abundance of har- samples are taken whenever possible to provide bor seals in the Gulf of Alaska and the stability of data for molecular genetic, prey isotopic and fatty harbor seal haulout patterns. In addition, research acid, and contaminant analyses. When conditions was undertaken to determine the response of har- permit, photographs and biopsies of sperm, fin, bor seals to cruise ships and the genetic related- humpback, and Baird’s beaked whales were also ness of harbor seals via molecular genetic tech- taken. These data augment sighting and biopsy niques. Obtaining information on Alaska harbor sampling conducted in collaboration with the seals is critical, as they are an important compo- AFSC/RACE groundfish surveys. nent of the Alaska Native subsistence harvest. A Large Cetaceans in the Southeast Bering Sea comanagement agreement, signed by the Alaska and Northern Gulf of Alaska. NMML researchers Native Harbor Seal Commission and NMFS, has were able to determine the abundance and distri- charged the Harbor Seal Comanagement Commit- bution of large cetaceans (primarily fin and hump- tee to prepare an annual action plan for this cultur- back whales) in the southeast Bering Sea and Gulf ally important species. of Alaska because of new collaborations and the Cook Inlet Beluga Whales. Research on the application of new technologies. A line-transect Cook Inlet beluga whale stock has been conducted survey was conducted in 2002 in association with annually since 1993. This stock was designated as an AFSC/RACE groundfish stock assessment depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act survey. These data provide a synoptic sample of in 2000. Scientists from NMML, in cooperation large whale distribution and relative abundance with the Alaska Beluga Whale Committee, the in the southeast Bering Sea and northern Gulf of Cook Inlet Marine Mammal Council, the Alaska Alaska and are being used to update marine mam- Native Marine Mammal Native Hunters Commit- mal stock assessment reports. In addition, cooper- tee, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, and ative research with Scripps Institute of Oceanog- NMFS’s Alaska Regional Office, have estimated raphy and NOAA’s Pacific Marine Environmental

90 Laboratory (PMEL) has focused on using passive processes, develop computer models to simulate acoustic recorders to record calls from large interactions and dynamics of population change, whales in the southeast Bering Sea and northern and conduct or collaborate in extramural studies to Gulf of Alaska. These passive recorders remotely improve sampling methods and survey designs. document the occurrence of calling North Pacific Pacific Salmon: Bering Sea and Western right whales and other baleen whale species Alaska. Pacific salmon runs to rivers emptying in during seasons in which conducting fieldwork is the Bering Sea have been inconsistent and at impractical due to short days or inclement weather. times very weak. Low returns of chinook and Information collected using passive acoustics will chum salmon to the Yukon River, Kuskokwim provide important insights into the seasonal distri- River, and Norton Sound area (called the AYK butions of large cetaceans and the relationships region) of Alaska prompted the State of Alaska to between large cetaceans and their environment. restrict commercial and subsistence fisheries dur- ing 2000 and declare the region a disaster area. Resource Assessment and Conservation The weak AYK salmon returns follow several Engineering Division and Resource Ecology years of low sockeye salmon returns to Bristol and Fisheries Management Divisions Bay, which was declared a disaster region during Marine Fisheries Assessment. The Alaska Fish- 1998 by both the State of Alaska and the U.S. eries Science Center (AFSC) of NMFS continued Department of Commerce. The cause of these its long-standing commitment to assessment stud- disastrous returns is not fully understood but may ies of U.S. living marine resources in the Bering be related to changes in the marine environment. Sea, Aleutian Islands, and Gulf of Alaska during To provide critical information on the marine ecol- 2002 and 2003. This effort included fishery- ogy of Pacific salmon, scientists from the AFSC’s independent resource surveys, collection of data Ocean Carrying Capacity (OCC) program conduct from commercial fisheries through fisheries fall (August–October) surveys on juvenile salmon observers, collection of recreational and commer- in the eastern Bering Sea shelf. The surveys are cial harvest statistics, and basic population biology extensive, covering eastern Bering Sea shelf and ecological research. The scientific information waters from the Alaska Peninsula to Kotzebue generated by these activities supports Federal Sound. The research is conducted as part of a fishery conservation and management responsibil- larger Bering Sea salmon ecology study conducted ities in the 200-mile U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. by the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commis- During 2002 and 2003, living marine resource sion’s Bering–Aleutian Salmon International Sur- populations in western U.S. Arctic waters were vey (BASIS) program. The goal of the OCC/BASIS sampled at sea aboard NOAA ships, chartered salmon research is to understand the mechanisms fishing vessels, and cooperating foreign research underlying the effects of environment on the dis- vessels. Significant area-extensive survey efforts tribution, migration, and growth of juvenile salmon were conducted in the eastern Bering Sea, the on the eastern Bering Sea shelf. The primary Aleutian Islands, and the Gulf of Alaska. The prin- objectives of the survey are 1) to determine the cipal survey methods included bottom trawls for extent of offshore migrations of juvenile salmon demersal fish and crabs; hydroacoustic and mid- from rivers draining into the eastern Bering Sea; water trawls for semipelagic fish; and special- 2) to describe the physical environment of the epi- purpose nets for eggs, larvae, and juvenile fish pelagic waters along the eastern and northeastern and shellfish. Trawl and acoustic surveys were Bering Sea shelf occupied by juvenile salmon; and used to estimate biomass and define community 3) to collect biological information of other ecolog- structure, and biological collections were taken to ically important species. examine variability in growth, mortality, and stock Pacific salmon return to spawning areas in the recruitment. Yukon River basin is of particular concern, as they Recruitment indices and processes that gen- support important commercial and subsistence erate variations in abundance are being studied fisheries in both the U.S. and Canada. These to improve prediction through the Fisheries– returns have been the focus of numerous harvest Oceanography Coordinated Investigations (FOCI) allocation disputes between the two countries, program. FOCI is a cooperative program between and returns have declined severely in recent the AFSC and PMEL. To increase the accuracy and years. A drainage-wide radio-tagging study was precision of these assessments, AFSC scientists initiated in 2000 by the AFSC’s Stock Identifica- conduct biological research to define recruitment tion and Assessment Program and the Alaska

91 Department of Fish and Game to provide informa- supports the NIC. Real-time global, regional, and tion on the run characteristics of Yukon River chi- tactical-scale ice guidance products are generated nook salmon. Returning adults were tagged in the in support of mission planning, safety of naviga- lower river and tracked as they moved upriver to tion, and climate research. Routine products spawning areas. Work in 2000–2001 developed include satellite-derived sea ice analyses of cur- baseline information on the behavior and move- rent ice conditions and forecasts depicting future ment patterns. Large-scale, basin-wide tagging changes to the sea ice pack. Ice analyses are dis- studies in 2002 and 2003 provided information on tributed in JPEG format and as geographic infor- the stock composition and timing of U.S. and mation system (GIS)-compatible files via the NIC Canadian returns, movement patterns, and the web page (http://www.natice.noaa.gov). Metadata location of undocumented spawning areas. These that detail the data sources integrated into routine data have also been used to evaluate information ice analysis products are available on the NIC web from other assessment programs within the basin page. As part of the Environmental Working and to refine genetic stock identification base- Group, NIC released the High-Resolution Arctic lines. An additional year of the basin-wide tagging Sea Ice Climatology in 2000, which encompassed study is planned for data collected during the late historical data from 1972 to 1994. Work is nearing 1990s. Analyses include that of a remnant popula- completion on extending the archive through 2003. tion of the endangered North Pacific right whale During 2002–2003 the NIC Science and Applied on the southeastern Bering Sea shelf. NWFSC sci- Technology Department expanded to include a entists contributed input to the Science Steering new visiting scientist, a post-doctoral fellow, and Committee of NSF’s Ocean–Atmosphere–Ice increased support staff. The main goals of the Interactions program. The importance of sea ice as department include: critical habitat for polar marine mammals and birds • Improving the efficiency of data processing is also being studied in collaborative efforts by and analysis through the development of NOAA scientists and other U.S. and Canadian automated data fusion techniques; researchers. • Automating the analysis and classification of A paper detailing the analyses of 77 killer whale data; biopsy blubber samples for selected organochlo- • Improving operational ice forecasting models; rine compounds and lipid content has been pub- • Optimizing Special Sensor Microwave/Imager lished. The paper reported that concentrations of (SSM/I) algorithms for operational sea ice chlorinated biphenyls and DDT were relatively analysis; and high compared to other marine mammal species • Developing new ice products by applying that occur in Alaska. Furthermore, biological new techniques and incorporating data from factors such as age, sex, reproductive status, and new sensors. birth order were found to be important influences The NIC science team evaluated the existing in the accumulation of organochlorine compounds suite of sea ice concentration algorithms for the in killer whales. A manuscript describing lipid and SSM/I and modified the operational sea ice algo- organochlorine contaminant profiles in gray rithm. A passive microwave algorithm was devel- whales was also published. oped using a principal components combination of SSM/I brightness temperatures and NIC- National Environmental Satellite, provided local ice conditions from visible and Data, and Information Service infrared data to provide improved global sea ice concentrations. Another accomplishment was the National Ice Center implementation of an algorithm to track ice motion The National Ice Center (NIC) is a cooperative, using 85-GHz SSM/I. SSM/I and ice model prod- interagency organization responsible for provid- ucts are available in near-real-time on the NIC ing Arctic, Antarctic, and Great Lakes ice informa- experimental products web page (http://science. tion to U.S. and allied armed forces, U.S. govern- natice.noaa.gov). They have also recently com- ment agencies, and various segments of private pleted the development of a new scatterometer ice industry. Manpower and fiscal resources for the edge algorithm. NIC are provided by the U.S. Navy, NOAA/ The ORA is exploring the application of Cryo- NESDIS, and the U.S. Coast Guard. The Office of sat altimetry data for estimating sea ice draft. Research and Applications (ORA) is the NESDIS Launch is expected in 2005. Other groups within research organization that, among other things, ORA are exploring the application of cloud-tracked

92 winds and TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder nsidc.org) was chartered by NOAA/NESDIS in (TOVS) data for improved Arctic wind products. 1982 to provide a focus for cryospheric data man- Currently ORA cloud-tracked winds are being agement activities. NSIDC is operated under an assimilated into the European Centre for Medium agreement between NOAA and the University Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) forecast of Colorado’s Cooperative Institute for Research models. ORA is also continuing the Alaska in Environmental Sciences and is affiliated with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) demonstration the NESDIS National Geophysical Data Center (AKDEMO), which provides experimental high- (NGDC), Boulder. NSIDC is home to the NSF- resolution (1-km) SAR-derived winds and vessel funded Arctic System Sciences Data Center and positions for open water areas in the Bering Sea Antarctic Glaciological Data Center. The Frozen and other Arctic seas (http://www.orbit.nesdis. Ground Data Center (FGDC) at NSIDC is supported noaa.gov/sod/mecb/sar). Recent studies show by the International Arctic Research Center, Uni- that these winds are accurate to better than 2 m/s. versity of Alaska Fairbanks. Over 80% of NSIDC’s The experimental wind product is useful for under- funding comes from NASA for operating a Distrib- standing gap winds, barrier jets, and wind shad- uted Active Archive Center for Earth System owing by islands such as the Aleutians. Such Enterprise data sets. These include Geoscience knowledge can be beneficial to the safety of Laser Altimetry System (GLAS), Advanced Micro- coastal transporation. AKDEMO SAR imagery wave Scanning Radiometer–Earth Observing and vessel positions are being evaluated in Alaska System (AMSR-E), and Moderate Resolution in an effort to provide improved guidance to fish- Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) products, ing vessels operating near the ice edge. In addi- as well as “heritage” data sets such as the nearly tion, SAR imagery is being evaluated for use in 30-year record of sea ice concentration from satel- monitoring river ice breakup in the larger Alaskan lite passive microwave data. rivers such as the Yukon and Koskokwim. More than 113 new data sets were made avail- NIC manages the U.S. Interagency Arctic Buoy able through NSIDC’s online catalog in 2002 and Program (USIABP), which provides an important 2003. These included detailed maps of permafrost source of surface meteorological data and ice drift and soils from Russia and China, published in information in the Arctic. Since its inception in cooperation with the International Permafrost 1991, the mission of the USIABP has been to Association. Available in a variety of formats, establish and maintain a network of 40 evenly including GIS-compatible files, these products spaced meteorological buoys on the drifting Arc- contribute to a unified international depiction tic ice pack. NIC achieves this goal through coor- of frozen ground important for monitoring and dinated deployments and international coopera- hydrological studies. tion by participants in the International Arctic Frozen soils and snow were the focus of the Buoy Program (IABP). During 2002–2003, nearly NASA/NOAA Cold Land Processes Field Experi- 95% of all Arctic drifting meteorological buoys ment (CLPx), which took place in Colorado in 2002 reported data in real time over the Global Telecom- and 2003. NSIDC data managers went into the field munications System. Real-time buoy data are used to work directly with researchers studying cold to initialize operational weather and ice forecast land processes over a wide range of conditions models. All buoy data are quality controlled within and spatial scales. NSIDC AMSR and MODIS six months of receipt and then assembled into a snow cover products are being used with CLPx historical (1979–2003) database, which is archived data to address the question of how uncertainties by the Polar Science Center of the University of in remote sensing observations constrain data Washington (http://iabp.apl.washington.edu) and assimilation and prediction. the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). While new satellite sensors offer improvements These data have been useful in initializing global in accuracy and resolution, NSIDC continues to circulation models and in climate change research. archive and publish historical data records that Buoy data are also used to generate a three-hour provide the long view needed to assess climate spatially and temporally interpolated data set of change. Because glacier extent fluctuates in surface pressure and temperature. response to climate changes, historical glacier photos can be used to determine changes in National Snow and Ice Data Center glacier terminus location and to estimate changes The National Snow and Ice Data Center and in mass balance. The Glacier Photograph Collec- World Data Center for Glaciology, Boulder, (http:// tion database now provides over 1000 images of

93 glaciers on-line. Photographs, dating from 1883, instrument types were new additions to WOD01 were scanned through a joint National Geophysi- for the Arctic and did not exist in the 1998 version. cal Data Center/NSIDC project funded by NOAA’s Data continue to be added to the database on a Climate Database Modernization Project. daily basis, and there are now 485,088 profiles in In-house scientific expertise helps NSIDC the Arctic seas and oceans. The exchange of data improve the quality of research data sets and is facilitated under the auspices of the Intergov- respond quickly to inquiries on snow and ice top- ernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) Glo- ics from the general public. The record minimum bal Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Arctic ice extent in September 2002 drew wide- (GODAR) project and the World Ocean Database spread media attention and was monitored at (WOD) project. These efforts are supported by NSIDC using the Sea Ice Index (http://nsidc.org/ NOAA’s Office of Global Programs (OGP) and data/seaice_index/), an easy-to-use source of NOAA’s Environmental Science, Data, and Infor- information on sea ice trends and anomalies. Ice mation Management (ESDIM) program. extent in September 2003 was similarly low, about Data exchange and collaborative activities have 14% below the long-term (1978–2000) mean, and is been particularly fruitful with the Russian Federa- the most recent evidence of a downward trend in tion for many years. In FY 2002, Zooplankton of Arctic sea ice in the three decades since passive the Arctic Seas 2002 was released on CD-ROM. microwave monitoring began. In a paper published This product was prepared jointly by the NODC/ in Geophysical Research Letters, NSIDC research- OCL-WDC Oceanography, Silver Spring, Mary- ers attributed the record 2002 extent to an unusu- land, and the Zoological Institute, Russian Acade- ally warm summer over much of the Arctic Ocean, my of Sciences. It includes physical and biological combined with stormy conditions that helped data for the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, extend- break up the ice. ing from the Barents Sea to the northwest Pacific. On an international level, NSIDC is involved Samples were taken during 25 scientific cruises Further information about in setting directions for Climate and Cryosphere between 1903 and 1956. and access to the World (CliC), a World Climate Research Programme core In FY 2003, a three-year ESDIM grant was Ocean Database and the project established to coordinate research on the awarded to OCL to further its collaboration with products associated with role of the cryosphere in the global climate sys- Russian colleagues to develop an oceanographic the International Ocean tem. NSIDC Director Roger Barry is seeking to database of the Arctic seas (Barents, Kara, Laptev, and Atlas Information establish a U.S. CliC committee in partnership White, East Siberian, and Chukchi) for use in Series can be found at http://www.nodc.noaa. with NOAA, NASA, and NSF. studying the Arctic climatic system. Two products gov/OC5/indprod.html. have been prepared thus far, both of which are The point of contact for National Oceanographic Data Center available online. The product History of the Arctic the Ocean Climate Labo- NODC and the co-located World Data Center Exploration 2003: Cruise Reports, Data, released ratory, the World Data for Oceanography (WDC Oceanography) in Silver in October 2003, was prepared jointly with the P.P. Center for Oceanography, Spring, Maryland, continues to have an active Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian and the World Ocean data exchange program and engages in collabora- Academy of Sciences. It represents data collected Database is Sydney Levitus, U.S. Department tive joint projects with many Arctic countries, aca- from 1870 to 1940 at 3,936 stations from 62 cruises of Commerce, National demic institutions, other Federal agencies, and in the eastern Arctic seas as well as the Arctic Oceanic and Atmospheric international organizations. In March 2002, NODC/ Ocean. The second product, 36-Year Time Series Administration/Ocean Ocean Climate Laboratory (OCL) released the (1936–1998) of Zooplankton, Temperature, and Climate Laboratory, 1315 World Ocean Database 2001 (WOD01), which Salinity in the White Sea, released in November East-West Highway contains 479,562 profiles in the Arctic region 2003, was prepared jointly with the White Sea Bio- (E/OC5), Silver Spring, (60°–90°N) representing data of physical, chemi- logical Station (WSBS) of the Zoological Institute. MD 20910; 301-713- 3290, ext. 194. For the cal, and biological variables dating back to 1827. This product presents an analysis of zooplankton Arctic databases, the These profiles reflect data obtained from bottle, data from the WSBS for the period 1963–1998 points of contact are low-resolution CTD, and plankton instruments (2,436 plankton samples), as well as temperature Renee Tatusko or Igor (Ocean Station Data); high-resolution conductivity– and salinity observations at different depths for Smolyar, U.S. Department temperature–depth instruments (CTD); mechanical the period 1961–1999 (938 stations). In addition to of Commerce, bathythermographs (MBT); expendable bathy- being available online, this product is also avail- NOAA/OCL, thermographs (XBT); surface-only instruments able in manuscript form along with a CD-ROM of 1315 East-West Highway (E/OC5), (bucket, thermosalinograph) (SUR); subsurface all the data. Another product is in progress and is Silver Spring, MD 20910; drifting floats (PFL); and surface drifting buoys expected to be released sometime in the spring or 301-713-3295, ext. 206. with thermister chains (DRB). These last three summer of 2004. This product, Climatic Atlas of

94 the Arctic Seas 2003: Part 1, Database of the with the Russian Research Institute for Hydrome- Barents, Kara, Laptev, and White Seas, is being teorological Information and the Institute for Glo- prepared jointly with the Murmansk Marine Bio- bal Climate and Ecology. logical Institute (MMBI), Russian Academy of Sci- ences. This atlas is expected to contain data from National Ocean Service about 400,000 oceanographic stations from 1810 to 2002. There will be more than 20,000 plankton sam- From 1996 to 2002 the Coastal Ocean Program ples, including 260 collected during cruises of within the National Ocean Service supported the nuclear icebreakers in regions previously inacces- Southeast Bering Sea Carrying Capacity (SEBSCC) sible for studies during the winter. The atlas will program, with a total of $5.5 million. The goals of also include data from about 100 benthos samples SEBSCC were to increase understanding of the collected along the Kola Meridian between 1921 southeastern Bering Sea ecosystem, to document and 1922 and in 1977. All of these data are or will the role of juvenile walleye pollock and factors be incorporated into the World Ocean Database that affect their survival, and to develop and test and made available online. annual indices of pre-recruit (age-1) pollock abun- The NOAA Central Library, located in Silver dance. Four central scientific issues focused the Spring, Maryland, is the largest oceanic and atmo- research efforts: 1) How does climate variability spheric sciences library in the Western Hemi- influence the Bering Sea ecosystem? 2) What sphere and has extensive holdings related to Arc- limits population growth on the Bering Sea shelf? tic exploration and Arctic science. The library’s 3) How do oceanographic conditions on the shelf on-line catalog has over 1,800 entries related to influence biological distributions? and 4) What Arctic activities and another 1,000 entries related influences primary and secondary production to the oceanography and fisheries of Arctic mar- regimes? These questions were addressed ginal seas. The library’s on-site collection is sup- through collaborative research by NOAA scien- plemented by 1,200 historical documents that can tists at the Pacific Marine Environmental Lab and Further information about and access to the NOAA be found through the library’s traditional card cat- the Alaska Fisheries Science Center and academic Library can be found at alog. Through NOAA Library services, access can researchers at the University of Alaska, the Uni- http://www.lib.noaa.gov/. be gained to literally the full range of publications versity of California, and the University of Wash- The point of contact for that are dedicated specifically to Arctic issues and ington. The research effort included moored the NOAA Library is science or have information relevant to Arctic observations, process field cruises, modeling, Janice Beattie, U.S. issues. The library has also imaged thousands of retrospective studies, and syntheses. Department of Com- pages of Arctic climate data for regions of Alaska, In 2002, synthesis of SEBSCC results were pub- merce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- Canada, Norway, and Russia that are available on- lished in two special journal issues with wide dis- istration, NOAA Central line through the NOAA Library Climate Imaging tribution to the oceanographic community. A spe- Library, 1315 East–West Project. The library assists data rescue and recov- cial issue of Progress in Oceanography (vol. 55, Highway (E/OC4), ery efforts of Arctic researchers, and its collec- no. 1–2, 2002) entitled “Variability in the Bering Second Floor, Silver tions and services are particularly relevant to Sea Ecosystem” published 16 papers resulting Spring, MD 20910; those studying climate issues and living resource from a session discussing the Bering Sea from 301-713-2607, ext. 139. issues. As an adjunct to textural material, the 1991 to 2001 at the 10th annual meeting of the library also manages the NOAA Photo Library, North Pacific Marine Science organization. A spe- which has over 600 on-line public domain images cial issue of Deep Sea Research II (vol. 49, no. 26, related to Arctic themes. 2002) on the ecology of the southeastern Bering Sea presented results of SEBSCC and an NSF- National Climatic Data Center sponsored Inner Front program. Both of these NCDC updates and maintains a 120-year-long programs were at work in the Bering Sea between mean monthly temperature time series zonally 1995 and 2000. This was a time of great variability averaged over the Arctic. This work is done in col- in the Bering Sea. An extremely warm year occurred laboration with the Russian State Hydrological in 1997, coincident with the first recorded observa- Institute. Long-term daily precipitation time series tion of coccolithophore blooms on the Bering Sea for the former Soviet Union have been rescued shelf. Jellyfish increased in abundance, whereas and homogenized. These data are available from salmon, shearwaters, northern fur seals, and Stell- NCDC and are being used in Arctic studies, er’s sea lions declined. The collection of 21 papers including the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. in this volume present the current understanding This work was done by NCDC in collaboration of relationships between atmospheric forcing,

95 ocean circulation, phytoplankton growth, zoo- succeeded in recovering and deploying various plankton dynamics, pollock abundances, and sea- moorings that collect oceanographic and fisheries- bird diets. A new hypothesis about controlling related data for the Fisheries–Oceanography factors on Bering Sea production and energy Coordinated Investigations (FOCI) program. The transfer was put forward by SEBSCC investigators. ship also accomplished a cruise that examined the community structure and transport of fish larvae Office of Marine and and plankton on the continental shelf, slope, and Aviation Operations deep water areas of the southeastern Bering Sea and Unimak Pass. NOAA ship Miller Freeman conducted In FY 2003 the Miller Freeman continued to approximately 100 and 40 operating days in the recover and deploy moorings in support of the Bering Sea during FY 2002 and FY 2003, respec- FOCI program, as well as taking biological and tively. physical ocean property samples at and near the In FY 2002 the Freeman participated in a num- mooring locations. Ongoing EIT surveys near ber of cruises that focused on echo integration- Bogoslof Island and ichthyoplankton studies in trawl (EIT) surveys of walleye pollock in the east- the southeastern Bering Sea near Unimak Pass ern Bering Sea near Bogoslof Island. The vessel were also accomplished.

96 Department of Agriculture

The Department of Agriculture supports and conducts research to improve the understanding, use, and management of natural resources at high latitudes. Research is directed toward solving problems in agriculture, forestry, and the environment and improving technology for enhancing the economic well-being and quality of life for Alaskans.

Agricultural Research Service Funding (thousands) FY 02 FY 03 The research activities of the Agricultural Forest Service–Global Change 729 653 Research Service (ARS) are focused on 22 multi- Natural Res Cons Svc–Soil Survey 560 360 disciplinary and cross-cutting National Program Ag Res Service–Global Change 2,000 2,000 Total 3,289 3,013 Areas of high priority designed to develop a knowledge base to promote timely responses to technical agricultural problems of broad scope and In addition, there are accessions that are high lati- national interest. Programs in the Arctic or adja- tude or altitude in nature that are difficult to grow cent northern regions are limited in scope. They at low-latitude sites where the summer days are are, however, providing critical information neces- much shorter and warmer than in Palmer, Alaska. sary to solve issues in such diverse areas as pres- The long days during the growing season on the ervation of plant germplasm, integrated pest man- Palmer site may also reduce the time necessary for agement for grasshoppers, and biodiversity of seed production of accessions from other National pathogens and parasites in northern ruminants. Plant Germplasm System sites (for example, cauli- This research addresses the sustainability of flower produces seed in the first year instead of renewable natural resources in the Arctic and has the expected second year for a biennial). Plant dis- implications for managing plants and animals else- eases, both indigenous and introduced, in Alaska where. are poorly understood; comprehensive plant disease surveys in crop, exotic, and native plant Plant Germplasm Research species are negligible, especially for plant viruses. The primary mission of the National Arctic Plan Viral diseases can have a significant impact on the Germplasm Resources Unit (NAPGRU) is the acqui- short-season crops as well as the growth of native sition, propagation, storage, and distribution of species. plant germplasm for all presently existing agricul- Arctic germplasm preservation will be improved tural crops and nonagricultural species in Arctic, by the ability to detect and understand the biology sub-Arctic, and alpine regions of the world. of viruses in native plant species living in natural NAPGRU also serves as a grow-out site for both environments. The study of diseased twisted-stalk seed and clonal samples for some of the cooler- in Denali State Park and near Skwentna revealed season accessions from other plant germplasm two different viruses, which were partially charac- repositories. The mission also includes research of terized from the plants with either single or multi- diseases affecting the germplasm increases and/or ple infections from each site. The significance of preservation of Arctic crop and native species. this study is the added biological knowledge of To date, there has been no systematic effort plant pathogens in native plants and, in this spe- on the part of any U.S. agency to preserve high- cific case, the unexpected high number of infected latitude or high-elevation plant germplasm. There plants in two isolated natural habitats. is no way of knowing what possible medical, com- Little is known about pathogens and the man- mercial, or other research benefits are to be gained agement of wetland plants in the Arctic. Barley from the preservation and study of some of these yellow dwarf virus was identified for the first time unique and environmentally isolated plant species. in the Palmer area using molecular tools. Germplasm

97 increase plots were established to regenerate Very little information is available regarding the depleted or endangered seed supplies with local effect of grasshopper damage on cultivated crops, wetland accessions and those transferred from the and no information is available on the interactions state of Washington, Switzerland, and the Chinese between insect damage and other biotic and abiotic Himalayas; this is the first time an Arctic germ- factors in small-grain crops. Field experiments plasm repository has been established for Arctic, were conducted to evaluate the effect of grass- sub-Arctic, alpine, and sub-alpine plant taxa in the hopper feeding and weed competition on barley U.S. This will have considerable impact on restora- and oats. This information is essential for the tion and site rehabilitation efforts in the future. development of economic thresholds for manage- ment of grasshoppers in cultivated crops. Currently, Grasshopper Pests there is no reliable means of sampling grasshop- Grasshoppers are economically important pests pers with dense crop canopies, making it difficult in rangeland and crop agro-ecosystems through- to study the invasion of crops by grasshoppers. out western North America, including parts of Further field tests of windowpane/pan traps were Alaska. Efforts to develop a local agricultural conducted to examine the efficiency of the traps industry in the Delta Junction area of Alaska in relation to grasshopper population density, spe- based on hay, grain, and livestock are hampered cies composition, and vegetation type. A spatially by periodic outbreaks of grasshoppers. The mix of extensive survey of grasshopper populations in state and private lands, as well as environmentally the Delta Junction area was repeated to assess the sensitive and agricultural areas, restricts the influence of habitat attributes on the distribution options for controlling grasshoppers. The ability of grasshopper populations. to predict outbreaks and the development of new cultural and biological tactics will be a major step Parasites of Wild Ruminants toward resolving grasshopper problems in Alaska. Parasitic worms of large food animals cause Additionally, much of the information generated in production losses to farmers and ultimately result Alaska will also be directly relevant to grasshopper in higher prices to consumers. The economic population management in other areas of North impact of parasites is significant, leading to America. During years of high grasshopper densi- additional production costs of 2 billion dollars ties, severe losses may be inflicted on barley annually. Slower weight gain, death of young ani- crops; in 1990, crop losses were estimated at 50%. mals, higher feed costs, costs of drugs to remove There are many hurdles to be overcome by the parasites, and contamination of pastures all con- fledgling row-crop industry in Delta Junction, such tribute to substantial losses for producers. Scien- as access to markets, cultivar selection, and weed tific research aimed at reducing the diverse impacts control, in addition to the normal challenges of of parasitic worms is hampered by difficulties in farming, such as vagaries of weather and low mar- identifying and classifying economically important ket prices. At this stage of development, farming helminths, especially the forms of the parasites operations may not be as resilient as in more estab- that are found in the environment or in the waste lished farming areas. Therefore, it is important to products of the host. Parasites found in wild rumi- the success of the Delta agriculture project that nants in Arctic regions are important in our under- farmers have the tools to avoid preventable losses. standing of parasite host ranges, their impacts on Predicting grasshopper outbreaks requires a wild animals, co-evolution with their hosts, and thorough understanding of the parameters affect- potential reservoirs in wild populations. ing grasshopper growth and reproduction. At the ARS research provides basic information on Subarctic Agricultural Research Unit on the cam- structural and molecular characteristics, particularly pus of the University of Alaska Fairbanks, growth documentation of variation, useful for assessing and respiration rates of eggs, nymphs, and adults parasite biodiversity. Accurate determination of were measured at several temperature regimes. the species causing the losses and construction These data were used to refine phenological mod- of classifications to predict the appropriate control els of pest species of grasshoppers. This informa- measures for new, emerging, or invasive patho- tion from high-latitude populations will lead to gens depends on a comparative approach inte- more robust models of grasshopper development, grating morphological and molecular data. Such which will be used to predict outbreaks and will be baseline information is used by scientists to included in an individual-based model of grass- understand patterns of parasite biodiversity and hopper populations used for research purposes. distribution requisite for documenting invasive

98 and emergent pathogens, to determine the impor- nity level. Synoptic baselines to monitor change tance of reservoir hosts such as wildlife, to develop or stability in terrestrial systems in the Arctic are specific diagnostic tools, and to evaluate biologi- important contributions from these studies. The cal or chemical control agents. BCP and RGAP are works in progress and serve With the curation of the U.S. National Parasite to show our continued need for the most basic of Collection, one of the largest specimen-based information about the distribution and host asso- research collections in the world, ARS also pro- ciations of parasites and pathogens. vides a resource for reference specimens and information to support parasitology and animal Forest Service health nationwide and globally. Predictive classifi- cations of related parasites provide information The USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest useful for recognizing and controlling imported, Research Station (PNW) is responsible for boreal invasive, or emerging pathogens that threaten forest research in Alaska through the Boreal Ecol- farm animals or contaminate our food or water. ogy Cooperative Research Unit (BECRU) located Accurate systematics is the foundation for under- on the campus at the University of Alaska Fair- standing the distribution and impact of parasites, banks. The research activity of BECRU is, in part, emerging and invasive pathogens, local versus a commitment to the NSF-sponsored Long-Term introduced species, and the interface between Ecological Research (LTER) conducted at the agricultural and natural ecosystems. Bonanza Creek Experimental Forest (BCEF). The Biodiversity knowledge in Arctic and northern BCEF-LTER seeks to understand the Alaskan systems serves both theoretical and real-world boreal forest as an integrated regional system in issues. Current research programs serve as models which climate, disturbance regime, and ecological for research, such as that under the Beringian processes are interactive components, with the Coevolution Project (BSP), to reveal evolutionary, objective to document the controls over these biogeographic, and ecological structure and the interactions and their ecological consequences. history of biotas. It is apparent that these systems Research focuses on four major disturbance can serve as important historical analogs for types—fire, flooding, forest harvest, and beetle understanding contemporary global change. Addi- outbreaks—and is organized around three major tionally, we can apply parasite biodiversity data themes: in the context of real-world issues such as those • Forest dynamics; considered under the Research Group for Arctic • The changing boreal carbon cycle; and Parasitology (RGAP), including animal health, • Landscape controls over a changing emerging pathogens, impacts to keystone species disturbance regime. such as caribou, and potential impacts of global These themes operate at different scales and have change driven by both climatological or anthropo- key societal relevance but require improved under- genic forces. The cross cuts between basic knowl- standing of the basic scientific processes. edge and the application of biodiversity informa- Forest dynamics research focuses on the inter- tion indicate the degree to which the BCP and actions between population/community processes, RGAP are complementary programs with a strong disturbance regime, and ecosystem dynamics. interface. They serve as model systems for pro- Study of the changing boreal carbon cycle focuses grams in biodiversity assessment. Taxonomy and on ecosystem processes. These changes hinge on systematics integrating comparative morphology, interactions with the hydrologic cycle and other molecular systematics, and phylogeographic element cycles. Carbon balance depends on spa- approaches are requisite. We need robust theoreti- tial and temporal variation in climate and distur- cal frameworks for studies of cospeciation, histori- bance regime and on population and community cal biogeography, and historical ecology. Contem- processes associated with succession. Landscape porary surveys and inventories continue to serve controls over changing disturbance regime focus as the basis for demonstrating distribution and on landscape and regional processes such as dis- host association and how these are linked through turbance spread. These landscape processes are relationships to landscape ecology, pathogen dis- a logical consequence of changes in population, tribution, and disease. Ecosystem approaches that community, and ecosystem processes occurring shift the focus from a single host species to a at the stand scale. broader context are clearly necessary to identify In 2003, scientists at the Boreal Ecology Coop- the role of parasites and pathogens at the commu- erative Research Unit, USDA Forest Service in

99 soil and air temperatures along climatic gradients within a subsample of black spruce communities and stand age data for 75 black spruce sites. These results are aiding scientists in understand- ing the potential differences in ecosystem drivers between the different black spruce communities. In particular, these findings are important in the context of the carbon cycle in black spruce forests and the key roles of vegetation, permafrost, and the fire cycle. PNW is continuing to develop a conceptual model of the role of fire in black spruce communi- ties. This model is unique in that it addresses the interactions between vegetation, permafrost, and abiotic factors, not as processes, but as relation- ships. The principal idea is that fire “weakens” these relationships, and by understanding how, we can predict landscape patterns in black spruce communities in the interior of Alaska. Natural Resources Conservation Service Air and soil temperatures Fairbanks, Alaska, created a Landsat classification from 20 black spruce of spruce stands in Interior Alaska based on a The Natural Resources Conservation Service sites. These data will aid combination of soil conditions and vegetation. In (NRCS) cooperates with and provides assistance in relating temperature this classification, sites were grouped into the cat- to private, Alaska Native, state, and Federal land- gradients to the structure egories wet/cold, dry/warm, and intermediate. This owners. NRCS field office personnel and other and function of black cooperating agencies in Alaska work together to spruce communities. classification, although in its early phases, has helped in examining the complex role of distur- provide technical resource planning and applica- bance, particularly fire, in black spruce communi- tion assistance to landowners, users, and plan- ties. ners. Coordinated resource management plans, In collaboration with scientists from the allotment management plans, or interim plans are Bonanza Creek LTER, these data were analyzed developed. Engineering assistance is provided to and presented at the recent Long-Term Ecological individual landowners and managers and to Alaska Research Symposium. Data presented included Native villages, both to assist in sound resource management and to assist in overcoming natural threats including flooding and accelerated coastal and stream erosion. Soil data are collected, with maps and interpretations prepared for private, Alaska Native, and government lands in Alaska. The NRCS provides assistance to all landowners with USDA Farm Bill programs. NRCS also cooper- ates with the University of Alaska Fairbanks and the Pacific Northwest Forest Research Station with research on permafrost soils and wetland soils. The research activities of the NRCS are done in cooperation with several universities (the Uni- versity of Alaska Fairbanks, the University of Wisconsin, the University of Delaware, and the Conceptual model of the University of Cincinnati). The major joint project role of fire in changing the vegetation, hydrology, is monitoring soil temperature and moisture, along and climate of black with several above-ground parameters, to study spruce communities. changes to the active layer and other possible

100 changes that may be taking place as the level of field manual for wetlands covered by the Clean atmospheric greenhouse gases increases, creating Water Act. Several of the sites are now connected possible global warming. Sites have been estab- to a USDA telemetry network so that the analyzed lished along the Dalton Highway in the area of data are readily available to the public via the Barrow and other locations in Alaska. Similar sites World Wide Web. have been established in the Himalayas and in Research also continued in cooperation with Antarctica. At each of the sites the soils are sam- the NSF-funded university group to look at car- pled and completely characterized (chemical, min- bon storage near Barrow, Alaska. The major part eralogical, and physical properties are measured). of the NRCS activity is to develop better ways The soil moisture data are being reviewed to see to determine the thickness of frozen peat layers. if there is any warming and if the thickness of the Much of the peat is in the permafrost zone, and if active layer is changing. Early data suggest that there is global climate change and an increase in the active layer thickness is increasing, which may the thickness of the active layer, more of the car- suggest warming. Longer-term monitoring will be bon may be thawed. This carbon may then be needed to see if this trend continues. oxidized by microbes, resulting in more carbon Soil climate monitoring stations were main- dioxide or methane emissions. The problem with tained and/or upgraded throughout the state. determining the thickness of the peat is the diffi- Sites are now established on the North Slope, in culty of sampling the frozen material. Cores are western Alaska, and along the populated road/rail taken when the active layer is frozen so that cor- corridor extending from Fairbanks to Homer. The ing equipment can be moved about the tundra. data collected at all soil climate monitoring sites in Ground-penetrating radar is used to develop pat- Alaska are also being incorporated into USDA’s terns that show the depth and thickness of the overall national study on global climate change. peat and other soil layers so that large areas can Wetland soil study sites have also been estab- be surveyed. Fieldwork is difficult when using lished in southeast Alaska. Data from these sites ground-penetrating radar equipment in the harsh will be used to help develop an Alaska-specific environment, and field calibration is a challenge.

Scientists sampling soil along the Dalton Highway for characterization.

101 Soil temperature records for Barrow, Alaska, for a 10-year period.

The techniques are being refined so that this can Yukon–Kuskokwim River basins, the western be done on the North Slope. Kenai Peninsula, and interior Alaska. Fieldwork Approximately one million additional acres of was completed on public lands at Denali National land in Alaska were covered by new soil surveys Park and Fort Greely Army installation, with pre- in the last year. The projects are in both perma- liminary products available in 2004. The soil sur- frost and non-permafrost areas. Current projects veys often represent the only comprehensive include private and Alaska Native lands in the baseline resource data in some of the more remote areas of Alaska. Requests for surveys are increas- ing and are driven by resource development, as well as health and safety issues, especially on Alaska Native lands and in villages. Issues related to climate change, including the impacts of forest pest infestations, warming permafrost, and coastal storms, are also driving the increased requests for Data collection using survey data. Soil temperature and moisture stud- ground-penetrating radar. ies, comprehensive laboratory analyses, and vege- The plastic bag is to tation surveys are being conducted as part of the exclude the bright ambient light and allow the soil surveys. Survey products are being released operator to see to the public as GIS datasets and through the the readout. World Wide Web.

102 Department of Energy

The Department of Energy has responsibility for providing for the long-term energy security of the United States. DOE’s Arctic and sub-Arctic activities support the DOE mission through studies of energy production, relevant atmospheric/environmental measurements and modeling, and radioactivity.

The Arctic and sub-Arctic activities of the Funding (thousands) Department of Energy (DOE) include support for FY 02 FY 03 Amchitka Island Project 1,340 400 projects in three diverse areas: Arctic Energy Office 3,000 5,500 • Energy production and power generation; Arctic Methane Hydrates 3,250 3,720 • Atmospheric/environmental measurements Atmospheric Radiation and modeling related to climate change; and Measurement Program 3,200 3,200 Geothermal Activities in Alaska 0 100 • Measurement, modeling, and mitigation of Global Meas of Radionuclides and radioactivity. JCCEM/Arctic Transport Studies 160 150 Assessment of the recoverability and production Nat Institute for Global Env Change 100 200 of methane hydrates and related free-gas accumu- Neighborhood Environmental Watch 40 40 Wind/Renewable Activities lations is an important part of these activities. in the Arctic 1,240 1,500 DOE researchers also collaborate with other Fed- Total 12,330 14,810 eral and state agencies in the development of energy sources that provide affordable and reli- able electric power for rural Alaskan villages. part of a program to differentiate between an There are compelling scientific reasons to study earthquake and a nuclear detonation. The follow- climatic change at high latitudes, as well as else- ing two tests were part of the weapons effects where. Through its Atmospheric Radiation Mea- program. surement (ARM) Program, DOE investigates cloud In 2002 the DOE’s National Nuclear Security and radiative processes at the North Slope of Administration’s (NNSA) Nevada Site Office pre- Alaska/Adjacent Arctic Ocean site (NSA/AAO), pared and submitted a Closure Report to the Alaska near Barrow. The resulting data are used to refine Department of Environmental Conservation for the atmospheric models critical to the understanding surface remediation work completed in 2001, which of potential climate change. The DOE continues to consisted of placing engineered covers on numer- have an interest in understanding radiological ous drilling mud pits on the island. The report issues in the Arctic in general and Alaska in partic- included a risk assessment for material existing ular. Examples include projects that measure and on the surface from past spills. model the transport of anthropogenic and natural In 2003 the DOE completed computer modeling radionuclides in the atmosphere, soil, and aquatic of the subsurface environment for evaluating systems. The following is a list of projects and groundwater flow and associated contaminant programs that are wholly or partly focused on the transport from each underground test area. In Arctic. addition, the potential for release of radionuclides into the marine environment from each test loca- Amchitka Island Project tion was evaluated, and an associated human health risk assessment report was released. Amchitka Island is located about 1,340 miles southwest of Anchorage, near the western end of Arctic Energy Office the Aleutian Islands. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, the predecessor to DOE, conducted The Arctic Energy Office (AEO) was estab- three underground nuclear tests on the island in lished by PL 106-398 to support research that is the late 1960s and early 1970s. The first test was appropriate for regions “where permafrost is

103 present or located nearby.” Specifically the office Resources’ Northern Region Land Section is is to sponsor research in two broad categories: investigating the potential for a new standard for • Fossil energy, by promoting research, devel- tundra travel that will allow exploration activity, opment, and deployment of enhanced oil including seismic and exploration drilling activity, recovery, drilling technologies, transportation to be permissible for an increased period of time. systems, gas hydrates, conventional and The objective is to increase the exploration win- unconventional gas, etc., and dow to at least 130 days per season. In recent • Remote power, by promoting research, devel- years the number of days in which the North opment, and deployment of small hydro- Slope is “open” for exploration has been just over electric facilities, wind, geothermal, fuel cells, 100. Finally the office is collaborationg with the and other alternative energy technologies. North Slope oil producers to identify novel gas To ensure that the most urgent research needs treatment options that, if proven, could lead to are being addressed, the AEO collaborates with significant reductions in the capital and operating state and Federal agencies, the energy industry costs associated with delivering North Slope natu- (oil, natural gas, coal, and power generation), the ral gas to the lower-48 states. environmental community, and the general public. In addition to addressing oil and gas research The majority of AEO-funded projects are selected needs, the Arctic Energy Office sponsors research by two industry panels, one for each category aimed at providing reliable and affordable power listed above, and are coordinated through the to remote villages. There are over 200 small Alas- University of Alaska Fairbanks under a five-year kan villages not serviced by an electric distribu- cooperative agreement that began in FY 2001. tion grid system. While many villages are clus- Access to Federal and state lands is a critical tered along rivers or the coastline, they have very factor for future exploration and development of little infrastructure and no connection to the road oil and gas in Alaska. Ice roads are the preferred system. Those located on rivers may be served by method for providing access to drilling sites on barges during the summer. Most are served by air the North Slope. Water to build these roads is transport year-round. The lack of transportation pumped from tundra ponds, which has resulted in options complicates the economics of power gen- controversy because there is little precipitation on eration. Most of these villages have diesel genera- the North Slope and little water flow except during tors and small distribution systems. The cost of the snowmelt in the spring. One project sponsored power in these villages runs from $0.20 up to as by the AEO examines the amount of water that can much as $0.80 per kilowatt-hour. The cost is heavily be safely pumped from tundra ponds and lakes. subsidized by the state government, but that sub- Similarly an AEO-sponsored research project being sidy is due to be reduced and phased out. conducted by the Alaska Department of Natural Many of the remote sites have potential for improving the efficiency of their diesel generators and for developing non-diesel energy resources. Why Focus on Alaska? Villages located on or near the major rivers may benefit from run-of-the-river hydropower systems. • Alaska contains 22% of the total U.S. oil reserves (7.1 billion barrels) Coastal locations have consistent and strong and 19% of the total U.S. natural gas reserves (36 trillion cubic feet— winds and strong tides that could be harnessed. tcf). Some locations have the potential for shallow nat- • Alaska produces 19% of the total U.S. oil production (0.963 million ural gas, coal bed methane, or gas hydrates. Still barrels per day). others have identified coal beds in the region, but With regard to undiscovered resources: most of these are not defined or developed. • The USGS mean estimate for the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska Following is a partial list of AEO-sponsored (NPRA) is 10.6 billion barrels of oil. The NPRA is partially open for projects: exploration, and some discoveries have been announced. • Tundra travel model for the North Slope of • The USGS mean estimate for the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Alaska; (ANWR) is 10.4 billion barrels. • Physical, biological, and chemical implications • The USGS and MMS estimates for undiscovered technically recover- of mid-winter pumping of tundra ponds (http:// able oil for onshore and offshore Alaska total almost 100 billion bar- www.uaf.edu/water/projects/NorthSlope/ rels of oil and natural gas liquids. lake_recharge/index.html); • The USGS estimate for technically recoverable natural gas for the • Injection of carbon dioxide for recovery of entire North Slope region is 61.4 tcf. methane from gas hydrates;

104 mates that roughly 45 tcf of methane is stored in the form of hydrate beneath the North Slope per- mafrost. The USGS and DOE are working with industry partners to sample wells of opportunity and run well logs through the permafrost to the base of the gas hydrate stability zone. Wells have been sam- pled and logged in the Tarn and Milne Point units with Phillips (now ConocoPhillips) and BP Explo- ration–Alaska. Mud log and temperature data were correlated with gas sample analyses to iden- tify the gas-hydrate-bearing formations at these locations. Observations from these wells provide data points for improving future hydrate resource estimates for the North Slope. Additional well sam- pling is anticipated in the NPRA, farther west. BP is in the second year of a project to evaluate the hydrate potential of the Milne Point unit. The University of Alaska Fairbanks is developing a Tracked vehicle of the type • Rural Alaska coalbed methane: application detailed reservoir model of the depositional envi- used for many years for of new technologies to explore and produce ronment and reservoir parameters from well logs. tundra access in winter. energy; The reservoir model will be integrated with the Vehicles with very • South central Alaska natural gas supply geological structure model being developed from wide tires called study; the shallow, 3,500-foot-depth, three-dimensional rollagons are also used for this purpose. • Low-rank coal grinding performance vs. boiler seismic data by the University of Arizona to iden- performance; tify fault control and seismic attributes related to • Characterization and alteration of wettability permafrost, gas hydrate, and free gas distribution states of Alaskan reservoirs to improve oil across the Milne Point study area. Results to date recovery efficiency; indicate there is a complex geometry of fault blocks • Transportation issues in the delivery of gas- that controls sediment and the distribution of gas to-liquids products from Alaska North Slope in the shallow section. Discussions will be initiated to market; in the third quarter of FY 2004 to develop the Phase • Solid oxide fuel cell system for remote power 2 well plan. generation; Maurer Technology is in the second and final • Diesel-fueled solid oxide fuel cell system for year of a project with Anadarko Petroleum Corpo- remote power generation; ration to evaluate and test technologies for drill- • Village power systems performance monitor- ing, coring, seismic imaging, and sampling the ing; hydrate stability zone in the area between the • Effects of village power quality on fuel con- sumption and operating expenses; • Galena electric power situation options analy- sis; and • Development of tilt-up, guyed, tower, and foundation system for wind turbines.

Arctic Methane Hydrates The DOE is involved in several projects aimed at evaluating the methane hydrate resource on the North Slope of Alaska and in the Canadian Arctic. The primary objective of the effort is to character- ize, quantify, and determine the resource potential of the gas hydrate and associated free gas in the Aerial view of Anadarko’s Arctic Platform, set up and region. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) esti- fully operational at Hot Ice #1.

105 Kuparuk River and Tarn units on the North Slope of cost and logistics. Three Cloud and Radiation of Alaska. On February 7, 2004, the Hot Ice #1 well Testbed (CART) sites now exist, each with facili- reached its total depth of 2,300 feet, approximately ties at more than one location. The first site, in the 300 feet below the hydrate stability zone. Although southern Great Plains of the U.S. north of Oklahoma significant gas shows did occur in the hydrate City, began operations during 1992. The Tropical stability zone, no confirmed hydrate was encoun- Western Pacific (TWP) site began phased opera- tered. The project team is currently conducting a tions in 1996. The third CART site, the North thorough post-drilling analysis of the core, log, Slope of Alaska and Adjacent Arctic Ocean (NSA/ and vertical seismic profile data to understand the AAO), was dedicated in July 1997. The Barrow drilling results. The project demonstrated a facility ramped up operations over the following number of innovative technologies, including year. Subsequently an outlying facility was estab- Anadarko’s Arctic Drilling Platform, a mobile core lished at Atqasuk, 100 km inland from Barrow. analysis laboratory, and a new application of a Routine data acquisition at the NSA/ AAO site continuous coring rig. offshore began in October 1997 as part of the DOE was also involved in the Mallik Program, Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic (SHEBA) experi- an international consortium that drilled a hydrate ment primarily sponsored by the National Science research well on Richard’s Island, in the Macken- Foundation and the Office of Naval Research zie Delta, Northwest Territories, Canada, in the (ONR). SHEBA involved a research ice camp winter of 2001–2002. The other partners included deployed around an icebreaker frozen in and drift- the Geological Survey of Canada, Japan National ing with the Arctic ice pack for a year. ARM pro- Oil Company, Geoforschungs Zentrum Potsdam, vided radiometric and cloud characterization data USGS, India Ministry of Petroleum and Natural using its instrumentation deployed aboard the ice- Gas, BP-ChevronTexaco-Burlington Joint Venture breaker. SHEBA concluded in October 1998. Group, and the International Scientific Drilling The CART sites originally had a planned life of vProgram. In addition to numerous geological and ten years. The rationale for their long duration is geophysical analyses to map the concentration that virtually all process-focused meteorological and extent of the hydrate, the program partners and climatological efforts to date have been based ran two production tests that both produced gas on short-term field efforts (a few weeks to a few from hydrates. months). During these brief periods the quantity of data that can be acquired is inadequate to pro- Atmospheric Radiation vide the statistical accuracy and precision required. Measurement Program With all of its potential economic and other soci- etal impacts, global climate change is nevertheless The ARM Program, DOE’s principal climate the result of small radiative effects—a difference change research effort, seeks to resolve scientific of a few watts per square meter in the energy uncertainties about global climate change with a balance out of an average energy flow of several specific focus on improving the performance of hundred. To improve our ability to predict climate general circulation models (GCMs) used for cli- change, the physical effects that must be mea- mate research and prediction. The ARM program sured and accurately modeled are small. This focuses on one critical feature of the GCMs: the requires statistics drawn from large numbers of transport of solar and thermal radiation (sunlight measured situations, not just a few. and radiant heat) through the earth’s atmosphere Other agencies have been monitoring climate to and from the earth’s surface. Within this area for decades. Why aren’t these efforts adequate for the greatest uncertainties are associated with ARM purposes? Monitoring efforts focus on mea- clouds: their formation, quantitative description, suring a few important climate-related parameters, behavior, and optical characteristics as influenced not the full range of parameters needed for the by atmospheric and underlying surface condi- process studies that will improve the GCMs. The tions. ARM program fills the critical gap between field ARM created a number of long-term, highly campaigns and other agency measurements. For instrumented climate research sites in carefully the NSA/AAO CART site, the central facility is selected locations around the world. The site loca- adjacent to NOAA’s high-latitude climate monitor- tions were selected primarily on the basis of what ing facility near Barrow. The only National Weather needs to be learned about clouds and radiation to Service station on the North Slope of Alaska is improve the models, but secondarily on the basis also located at Barrow, further enriching the data

106 • Behavior of surface radiative characteristics; • Direct and indirect aerosol radiative effects; and • Development and testing of satellite remote sensing algorithms. Since the ARM/CART sites were first estab- lished, they have hosted many projects and researchers from other DOE programs and from other agency programs that find the data-rich environment of the CART sites convenient and cost effective for conducting their own related research. Consequently in June 2003 the three ARM/CART sites taken together were declared to be a DOE National User Facility known as the ARM Climate Research Facility (ACRF). ACRF is not limited to a predetermined life. It is planned that ACRF will continue as long as it is needed. What has now become ACRF NSA/AAO con- ducted the following Intensive Operating Periods (IOPs) in recent years (IOPs are the mechanism Low-level aerial view environment. ARM has taken advantage of exist- through which additional site activities are autho- of the ARM Climate ing facilities and has greatly augmented the instru- rized): Research Facility (ACRF) mentation to provide the data needed for climate • FIRE (First ISCCP [International Satellite Barrow site. See process research. Cloud Climatology Program] Regional Experi- http://www.arm.gov for A generic, fully developed CART site includes ment, in collaboration with NASA, 1998); a description of the instrumentation. facilities spread over a large area. The central facil- • Single Column Model (in collaboration with ity at Barrow has the largest concentration of instru- Aerosonde Inc. and the Australian Bureau mentation. It relies heavily on upward-looking of Meteorology, 1999); remote sensors (radars, lidars, and radiometers • MM Wave Arctic Winter Radiometric Mea- of several kinds) to determine the characteristics surements (in collaboration with NOAA and of the clouds, winds, and atmosphere as a whole NASA, 1999); above the site on a continuous basis. The inland • Second International Pyrgeometer and Abso- facility at Atqasuk has a subset of the instrumen- lute Sky Scanning Radiometer Comparison (in tation deployed at Barrow. A temporary facility at collaboration with the World Radiation Cen- Oliktok Point to the east of Barrow is planned for ter, 2000); field campaigns that use instrumented tethered • Russian Ice Station Comparison (in collabora- balloons, which cannot be accommodated at Barrow tion with the International Arctic Research because of FAA constraints. In addition to ground- Center, since 2001); based instrumentation for characterizing the atmo- • Digicora Radiosonde Installation and Testing sphere and the earth’s surface, it is necessary to (an internal ARM program, 2002); depend heavily on data from polar-orbiting satel- • Radiosonde Intercomparison (in collaboration lites and to make occasional instrumented aircraft with the National Weather Service, since flights to measure conditions aloft. 2002); The NSA/AAO site provides data about cloud • ADEOS (Advanced Earth Observing System) and radiative processes at high latitudes and, by Validation (in collaboration with the Japanese extension, about cold and dry regions of the atmo- Space Agency, 2003); For more information, sphere in general. These data will be used to refine • Aerosonde Robotic Aircraft Development (in visit the ARM NSA/AAO models and parameterizations for high-latitude collaboration with the National Science Foun- web page at http:// www.arm.gov/sites/ regions and for the upper atmosphere. More spe- dation, with more than a half dozen deploy- nsa.stm. cifically the issues of principal interest as they ments since 2000); apply to cold regions are as follows: • AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder) satel- • Atmospheric radiative transfer; lite remote sensor validation ( in collaboration • Ice and mixed-phase cloud formation, evolu- with NASA, with annual several-month inter- tion, and dissipation; comparisons since 2002); and

107 • Boundary Layer Cloud Experiment (an internal medium- and high-level waste from Mayak was ARM program, 2003). then discharged into Lake Karachay, inside the In addition, another five IOPs are either ongoing complex. This area in Russia, which lies near the or planned at the NSA/AAO. edge of the West Siberian Plain and Basin, is now one of the most severely contaminated environ- Geothermal Energy Activities ments in the world. Furthermore, it is possible that in Alaska the surface water and groundwater in that region are hydraulically connected to an extensive sys- The Geothermal Technologies Program has ini- tem of rivers, lakes, and swamps that might dis- tiated a Geopowering the West program in Alaska. charge to the western Siberian oil and gas fields Activities are underway to develop a Geothermal and eventually to the Arctic Ocean. Working Group there. DOE funded the Alaska DOE’s Office of Environmental Management Division of Energy to support this effort and to International Collaboration Projects, through Flor- sponsor a mission for approximately 15 Alaskans ida State University’s Institute for International to travel to Nevada, tour producing geothermal Cooperative Environmental Research, sponsored sites, and talk to developers, regulators, and oth- subsurface contaminant transport studies at the ers about geothermal development. This is a kick- Mayak, Krasnoyarsk, and Tomsk sites in Russia. off activity. This work was performed under the auspices of the former Joint Coordinating Committee for Envi- Global Measurements of ronmental Restoration and Waste Management Radionuclides in the Atmosphere (JCCEM) between the Office of Environmental Management (DOE-EM) and the Ministry of and Precipitation Atomic Energy (MINATOM) for the Russian Fed- The objectives of this program are to character- eration. The main types of investigations conducted ize, quantify, and model the environmental path- in 2002–2003 and their results are reported below. ways of natural and anthropogenic radionuclides Investigations at the Mayak site included deposited on the earth’s surface and to evaluate hydrogeological, geochemical, geophysical, and their environmental and human health impacts on radiometric characterization, as well as three- regional and global scales. A component of this dimensional modeling of the migration of the program is the operation of a high-quality global groundwater plume containing radionuclides (90Sr, radioactivity sampling network by what had been 137Cs, 238U, and 239Pu) and a nitrate. These inves- DOE’s Environmental Measurements Laboratory tigations also included the evaluation of sorption (now part of the Department of Homeland Securi- effects on contaminant transport. Based on the ty), which includes stations in the Arctic and sub- results of geological and hydrological field inves- Arctic (Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Norway). tigations at Mayak, an extensive computer model Through the global network, DOE continues to be of the Mayak site was developed that included the poised to react quickly to any new introduction of surrounding land areas, the surface water bodies, atmospheric radioactivity. and the geological formations underlying the site. This numerical model has been adapted to the U.S.–Russia Contaminant– Hanford site. Although the geologic and hydro- Transport Studies logic conditions at the Hanford site are somewhat different, the application of this model at Hanford The nuclear waste storage facilities in Russia, will be used in the development of a comprehen- where plutonium was produced in large quantities sive plan for addressing the potential environmen- during the Cold War, now pose threats to the envi- tal threats to the Columbia River Basin region. The ronment. Nuclear wastes were often stored in shal- development of a transient modeling scheme will low soils and surface water impoundments at permit improved characterization of the horizontal these facilities. One of these sites is at the Mayak and vertical migration of radioactive plumes at the Production Facility, Ozersk, in the Chelyabinsk Mayak and Hanford sites. region of the southern Urals, Russia, where from Russian scientists have developed a local 1949 to 1951, medium- and high-level radioactive three-dimensional hydrodynamic and contaminant waste was discharged directly into the Techa River transport model for radioactive contamination in system, which flows via the Ob River into the Kara Lake Karachay groundwater. Using inverse model- Sea. When this discharging ceased in 1951, the ing, these scientists determined the migration

108 The point of contact for parameters for 90Sr and 137Cs in groundwater. The conducted by the University of Oregon and the the Amchitka Island, study of the historical evolution of contamination University of Alaska, is examining potential effects Alaska, Project is Monica in water-bearing rocks (the solid phase of the Lake of warming on plant parasites in the understory of Sanchez, U.S. Department Karachay plume) included an evaluation of boreal forests. Any changes in plant parasites of Energy, Environmental Restoration Division, groundwater contamination by radionuclides caused by global warming could have effects, Nevada Operations leaching from the solid phase. The results of negative as well as positive, on basic plant growth Office, Las Vegas, NV; extensive modeling studies allowed the scientists and the goods and services supplied to humans 702-295-0160. to better understand the field-scale migration of by Alaskan forests. The point of contact for radionuclides in ground water from a former sur- the Arctic Energy Office is face nuclear waste repository at Lake Karachay Brent Sheets, National Neighborhood Environmental towards the Mishelyak River. Energy Technology Labo- Watch Network: NEWNET ratory, P.O. Box 750172, Based on geologic, hydrogeologic, and hydro- 539 Duckering Building/ logic characterization data, these Russian scien- NEWNET is a network of environmental moni- UAF Campus, Fairbanks, tists developed a transient, three-dimensional toring stations and data storage and data process- AK 99775-0172, regional hydrodynamic model, containing the ing systems, with public access to the data through 907-452-2559; deep-well injection areas and the recharge and dis- the Internet. This allows interested members of the [email protected]. charge areas for subsurface water at the Siberian public to have constant access to the stations so The point of contact for Chemical Combine near Tomsk. The study also they can observe the results at any time. DOE’s Methane Hydrate Program is Brad Tomer, included an evaluation of the effectiveness of NEWNET was started in 1993 with stations in U.S. Department of monitoring and remediating deep ground water Nevada, California, Utah, and New Mexico. It is Energy, National Energy near deep injection wells. based on concepts developed by DOE for the Technology Laboratory, U.S. researchers involved in the program are Community Monitoring Program at the Nevada Morgantown, WV 26507; from the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, the Test Site Nuclear Testing Facility. These concepts 304 285-4692. Savannah River Laboratory, the Environmental date back to the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power The point of contact for Measurements Laboratory, and the Lawrence Ber- Reactor accident in the late 1970s. Five stations the ARM program is Dr. Wanda R. Ferrell, keley National Laboratory. Russian scientists are are located in Alaska: in Barrow, Fairbanks, Kotze- Atmospheric Radiation from Hydrospetzgeologiya, the Mayak Production bue, Nome, and Seward. A station manager from Measurement Program Association, the Siberian Chemical Combine, the each community is trained in station maintenance Manager, Climate Change Institute of Industrial Technologies, and the Insti- and has access to researchers and support organi- Research Division, SC- tute of Physics and Power Engineering. zations that can provide technical assistance if 74, U.S. Department of The results of these projects can be used to needed. Station managers serve as liaisons to their Energy, 1000 Indepen- support the remediation programs at Hanford, communities and can help citizens understand dence Ave., SW, Washing- ton, DC 20585; Savannah River, Rocky Flats, and other DOE sites measurements. 301-903-0043, and to calibrate and validate conceptual and Stations can vary in configuration. Most [email protected]. numerical models developed by DOE scientists. NEWNET stations have sensors for monitoring The point of contact for wind speed and direction, ambient air temperature, the NIGEC program is National Institute for Global barometric pressure, relative humidity, and ioniz- Dr. Jeff Amthor, NIGEC ing gamma radiation. Some stations have tipping Program Manager, Environmental Change bucket rain gauges, and others have additional Climate Change Research Division, SC-74, U.S. Through the DOE National Institute for Global radiation sensors. Other types of sensors are Department of Energy, Environmental Change, headquartered at the being investigated for air quality measurements. 1000 Independence Ave., Davis campus of the University of California, uni- The Alaska stations are being set up in collabo- SW, Washington, DC versity scientists can apply for research support ration with the Alaska Department of Environmen- 20585; 301-903-2507, to study ecological effects of climatic change in tal Conservation (ADEC) and the University of [email protected]. Alaska (and other states). In FY 2003, two univer- Alaska Fairbanks. The project is funded by DOE. The point of contact for sity projects were funded in Alaska. One, con- This effort will strengthen collaborations between the Geothermal Program is Roy Mink, Office of ducted by Columbia University, is examining the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), ADEC, Energy Efficiency and response of Pacific Northwest and Alaskan forests and DOE in studying the environment in Alaska. Renewable Energy (EE- to recent multiple environmental changes, includ- It will promote an understanding of radiological 14), U.S. Department of ing climatic changes. The question to be answered issues in Alaska and provide continuous monitor- Energy, Washington, DC is whether environmental changes, which have ing of radiation levels. More information on 20585; 202-586-5340; been relatively large and rapid in sub-Arctic NEWNET, including readings from NEWNET sta- [email protected]. regions, is having a discernable effect on the tions, can be found on the web at http:/newnet. growth and health of forest trees. The second, lanl.gov/.

109 For the Global Measure- Wind and Renewable effort by the city to obtain additional energy ments of Radionuclides in Activities in the Arctic sources and to reduce dependencies on fossil the Atmosphere and fuels. Projections for the electrical demands of the Precipitation projects, the The Department of Energy has been support- city demonstrate that Unalaska will be unable to points of contact are Matthew Monetti and ing wind power projects in Alaska for several meet its energy demand in approximately five Fabien Raccah, U.S. years through various local and state organiza- years. Department of Homeland tions. These projects are aimed at providing lower- Security, Environmental cost energy alternatives to rural Alaskan commu- TDX Corporation (St. Paul Island) Measurements Laboratory nities. These include projects through the DOE’s TDX is using its DOE grant funds to proceed (EML), Environmental Tribal Energy and Wind Programs. In addition, with detailed engineering analysis and to pur- Sciences Division, 201 other renewable energy studies are underway. chase and install measurement equipment needed Varick Street, NY, NY 10014; 212-620-3525 and National Wind Technology Center personnel pro- to evaluate the expansion of the TDX-owned 212-620-3379. vide expert technical support to these projects by wind/diesel cogeneration power station on Saint The point of contact for supplying anemometers, evaluating the wind Paul Island, Alaska. In addition, TDX will begin the Joint Coordinating resources, conducting wind workshops, and acquisition of specific plant equipment in prepara- Committee for Environ- sponsoring local representatives to attend techni- tion for expansion, including expansion of the mental Management: cal workshops. A list of the ongoing relevant existing hot water loop, cooling system modifica- Contaminant Transport Arctic/sub-Arctic projects is given below. tions, and acquisition of a second wind turbine Studies Project is Kurt Gerdes, DOE, Office of gear box. This expansion will enable TDX to Environmental Manage- Kotzebue Electric Association become Alaska’s largest wind–diesel power plant. ment, International The objectives of this project for the Kotzebue The goal of this study is to develop a master plan Programs Manager, Electric Association (KEA) are: for interconnection with the City of St. Paul diesel 301-903-7289, • To test and verify wind generation technology generation plant and to provide electricity for the [email protected]. applications in wind/diesel hybrid systems entire island. The point of contact for and to provide system performance/cost data; the NEWNET Program is Mike McNaughton, M.S. • To maximize the reduction in consumption of Yukon–Kuskokwim Health Corporation J978, Los Alamos diesel fuel by KEA through the use of wind The Yukon–Kuskokwim Health Corporation National Laboratory, Los power generation; (YKHC) is conducting a feasibility study for Alamos, NM 87545; • To develop a cold-weather wind turbine test installation of small-scale wind turbines to serve 505-667-6130. site that will be available to DOE and the U.S. YKHC facilities. Energy cost savings resulting The points of contact for wind industry to develop advanced turbine from this project will allow the YKHC to direct the Department of Energy designs; more money toward its core mission of providing Wind Activities in Alaska are Dennis Lin, Office of • To provide educational outreach activities for quality health care to the Alaska Native communi- Wind and Hydropower the general public in Alaska and for operators ties in the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta region. Technologies (EE-2B), who will be trained to operate the hybrid Office of Energy Efficiency wind/diesel power plants; and Native Village of Venetie and Renewable Energy, • To provide a basis for the evaluation of wind The Native Village of Venetie Tribal Govern- U.S. Department of power system applications in the numerous ment is conducting a feasibility study for power- Energy, Washington, DC diesel power plants serving remote, non-grid- ing an entire village during the season of the mid- 20585; 202-586-7285; and Thomas Sacco, Office connected Alaska villages. night sun using renewable solar energy. The of Weatherization and system will allow the diesel generators to be Intergovernmental pro- City of Unalaska turned off for most of the summer, yielding great rams (EE-2K), Office of The City of Unalaska is utilizing the DOE funds economic, environmental, and social benefits. The Energy Efficiency and to evaluate future wind power installations and system would operate year round. While there Renewable Energy, U.S. other combinations of wind plus diesel, biogas, would be no solar energy input during the long Department of Energy, hydro, or other cogeneration fuel sources. The night of December and January when the sun Washington, DC 20585; 202-586-0759. city is conducting studies to determine wind does not rise above the horizon, the system’s resources; evaluate and characterize sites; gather energy storage component would continue to data on physical installation of turbines; and provide benefits by saving fuel by allowing more develop a better understanding of other design steady generator operation and by providing considerations. This project is part of a larger back-up power during generator outages.

110 Department of Health and Human Services

The Department of Health and Human Services supports and conducts Arctic health research through the National Institutes of Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Funding (thousands) National Institutes of Health FY 02 FY 03 National Institutes of Health 21,292 32,776 The National Institutes of Health is an agency Health Resources Services Admin. 500 0 of the Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Dis. Control/Prevent. 4,400 4,400 Comprising 27 institutes and centers, the NIH is Total 26,192 37,176 headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland, and has satellite facilities elsewhere in Maryland and in inception of the project, the National Eye Institute, North Carolina, Montana, and Arizona. The NIH’s the National Institute for Deafness and Communi- mission is to uncover new knowledge that will cation Disorders, and the National Heart, Lung, lead to better health for everyone. NIH supports and Blood Institute have joined the collaboration. research on Arctic-related health issues through The NIA continues to fund the Resource Cen- grants and contracts to non-Federal scientists and ter for Minority Aging Research, titled the Native through the projects carried out by scientists in Elder Research Center (NERC), supported by a NIH laboratories and clinics. $2.5 million, five-year grant from the National Institute on Aging and the National Institute for National Institute on Aging Nursing Research, located within the Division of American Indian and Alaska Native Programs of The NIA funded a major new initiative in FY the Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, 2001 under the U.S. Arctic Research Plan. The NIA University of Colorado Health Sciences Center in and the Icelandic Heart Association are collaborat- Denver. The center coordinates a research career ing on the Age, Gene/Environment Susceptibility development program targeted at American Indian (AGES) Study: “The Reykjavik Healthy Aging (AI) and Alaska Native (AN) investigators, focus- Study for the New Millennium.” This study was ing on aging, health, and culture. Denise Dillard, initiated by the NIA to examine genetic suscepti- a new Native investigator in the center, works for bility and gene–environment interaction as these the Southcentral Foundation, an Alaska Native contribute to phenotypes common in old age. The 503C nonprofit extension of the Cook Inlet Region, clinical examination center at the Icelandic Heart Inc., which is examining the relationships among Association near Reykjavik opened on September depression, health status/functioning, service use, 1, 2002. Over the following four years, 8,000 partic- and medication patterns. The center augments ipants from the earlier Reykjavik Study (1967– partnerships with AI/AN communities to ensure 1996) will be examined in the clinic, with another access to systems of care in aging research. 1500 examined in a home examination. The study Engaging the University of Alaska in aging has four major focus areas: neurocognitive condi- research and enhancing research capabilities tions, cardiovascular health, musculoskeletal con- consistent with the goals of the Alaska Geriatric ditions, and body composition and metabolic dis- Education Center (AKGEC) were the main goals ease. An examination of 9,500 surviving members of a September 2003 Regional Meeting on Aging of the Reykjavik Study will define phenotypes for Research. NIA staff conducted workshops in candidate gene studies and will also be used as Anchorage and Fairbanks, Alaska. Developed end-points of the cardiovascular risk factors. By with input from the NIA Work Group on Minority September 2003 approximately 2,000 men and Aging and the Task Force on Minority Aging women had been examined in the clinic. Since the Research, a subcommittee of the National

111 Advisory Council on Aging, the Regional Meeting all ages to eliminate or reduce Hib colonization. format provides a framework for engaging under- The researchers hope to determine what treatment represented groups and populations in strategic most effectively eliminates the Hib reservoir from activities designed to strengthen research on a village. Several treatment regimes are being com- diseases and conditions of aging and optimize the pared, including the comparison of treatment with NIA’s research portfolio. the Hib conjugate vaccine with and without the antibiotic rifampin to that of treatment with rifampin National Institute on Alcohol alone (the standard treatment). Preliminary results Abuse and Alcoholism indicate that mass vaccination with Hib conjugate vaccine is possible and may decrease the burden Alcoholism is one of the most important public of Hib colonization and overall disease in commu- health problems among Alaska Natives in the Arc- nities where Hib disease is persistent. tic region. While Alaska Natives comprise about 20% of the population, approximately 50% of indi- Hepatitis C viduals admitted for alcohol treatment in the Hepatitis C (HCV) is a blood-borne, liver- region are Alaska Natives. The NIAAA goal is to targeting viral infection and is an important cause identify the causes and consequences of alcohol of morbidity and mortality in this country. Approx- consumption and to develop and validate effec- imately 80% of the people infected with HCV will tive treatment and prevention strategies for develop chronic hepatitis, and all are at higher risk adverse health and behavioral consequences of for cirrhosis and a type of liver cancer, hepatocel- drinking. The institute supported two projects in lular carcinoma. NIAID continued to support stud- the Arctic region in FY 2002–03, one to test the ies of the relationships between hepatitis C virus efficacy of pharmacological adjuncts in current replication, evolution, and disease progression in alcoholism treatment of Alaska Natives, the other Alaska Natives. To date, over 900 HCV-positive to test a theoretical model of pathways that facili- patients have been enrolled in the study. Blood tate recovery from alcohol abuse. and liver specimens are being collected to examine levels of and variation in HCV virus and to com- National Institute of Allergy pare these with disease progression. This well- and Infectious Disease defined Alaskan Native population may lead to many key answers regarding the natural history The NIAID conducts and supports scientific of hepatitis C. research on infectious and immunologic diseases. The institute’s basic and applied research pro- Histocompatibility and Immune Recognition motes the development of vaccines, diagnostic In FY 2002 and FY 2003, NIAID, in conjunction tests, and drug therapies to prevent and control with several other NIH institutes and centers and these diseases. the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation Inter- national, continued its support of the International Haemophilus influenzae type b Histocompatibility Working Group, a network of Before the introduction of a vaccine against more than 200 laboratories in over 70 countries Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) in the late that collect and share data on genes of the human 1980s, an estimated 16,000–25,000 children in the leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex. Researchers U.S. annually showed signs of invasive bacterial analyzed HLA genes in Alaskan Yup’ ik Eskimos to infection by Hib. Today, with use of a conjugate determine the different types of histocompatibility vaccine developed with support from NIAID, Hib genes and their frequency in that population. infection has been reduced by 99% in the U.S. Interestingly there is evidence that the Hib vac- Organ Donation cine decreases the rate of carriage of Hib among NIAID continued its support of an education vaccinated children, therefore decreasing the outreach program at the University of Washington chance that unvaccinated children will be exposed. Hope Heart Institute aimed at increasing organ In FY 2002 and FY 2003, NIAID continued its sup- donation and transplantation among Alaska port of a three-year pilot intervention trial in three Natives. The Hope Heart Institute developed an Alaska Native villages with high numbers of asymp- educational video on organ donation and trans- tomatic carriers of Hib. The goal is to determine if plantation that was culturally sensitive and specific Hib conjugate vaccine can be given to persons of to Alaska Natives.

112 National Cancer Institute Patterns of Cancer Care Among Native Americans The Role of EBV in the Etiology of Limited information is available about contem- Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma porary cancer care among Native American popu- The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill is lations. Data have been combined from several determining the role of the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) sources, including SEER and the Indian Health in the etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), Service (IHS), augmented by abstracting data from an epithelial malignancy that develops with high medical records in a sample of cancer patients. incidence in southern China, in northern Africa, The first project focused on the linkage of SEER and among Eskimos. The viral genes that are and IHS data files to evaluate the completeness expressed in NPC include the latent membrane and quality of data elements. A current effort proteins LMP1 and 2 and a new family of mRNAs, involves gathering data on patterns of care for transcribed through the BamHI A fragment. Gluta- American Indians and Alaska Natives living in thionein transferase fusion proteins will be syn- South Dakota. In 2003, three personnel were thesized to produce monospecific antisera to iden- trained in cancer registration for South Dakota tify the proteins in transfected cell lines and in tribes, attending the “Principles of Oncology” NPC tumor tissues. The proteins will be tested for course at NCI. interactions with cellular proteins and for transac- tivation of the LMP1 promoter. Native Cancer Information Resource Center and Learning Exchange Reports from the Alaska Native Tumor Registry C.I.R.C.L.E. has been in operation as a national The Alaska Native Tumor Registry (ANTR) was clearinghouse for cancer education materials spe- initiated in 1974 in collaboration with NCI and the cific to American Indian and Alaska Native com- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pro- munities since 1998. The center has become the cedures and policies were those of the NCI Sur- educational arm for the American Indian/Alaska veillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Native Leadership Initiative on Cancer, funded as Program. The registry became a member of the a cooperative agreement. The center has the most SEER Program in 1999 as a supplemental registry, up-to-date bibliography in the nation on cancer increasing SEER’s coverage of minority popula- affecting American Indians and Alaska Natives. tions. ANTR has completed two recent reports, “Cancer in Alaska Natives 1969–1998, 30 Year Conference Support for American Report” and “Alaska Native Cancer Update, 1987– Indians and Alaska Natives 1999,” distributed statewide to medical providers, In 2003, NCI assisted C.I.R.C.L.E. in funding tribal health board members, and key tribal person- • The Second Annual Northern Plains Regional nel. In addition, ANTR has worked with the New Indian Cancer Conference, hosted by the Mexico Tumor Registry to complete a comparison Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community of cancer rates between Alaska Natives and in Prior Lake, Minnesota; southwest American Indians. • The annual meeting of the Native WEB (Women Enjoying the Benefit); and New Studies Undertaken by • The semi-annual meeting of the Network for Northwest Portland Tribal Registry Cancer Control Research among American Over the last ten years, health care delivery for Indian and Alaska Native Populations, in northwest American Indians and Alaska Natives Rochester, Minnesota. (AI/AN) has evolved from a centralized system maintained by the Indian Health Service (IHS) to a National Institute on Drug Abuse diverse and complex environment. The Northwest Tribal Registry Project was developed in January NIDA supports over 85% of the world’s research 1999 by the Northwest Tribal Epidemiology Center, on behavioral, psychological, biological, medical, located at the Northwest Portland Area Indian Health and sociological aspects of drug abuse and addic- Board (NPAIHB) in Portland, Oregon. The existing tion. Since 1994, NIDA has been funding a series disease registry has linked with state data to ascer- of grants to the University of Alaska Anchorage tain the incidence and prevalence of diseases such (UAA) dealing with the spread of substance as cancer among northwest AI/AN. A critical differ- abuse, related mental health problems, and HIV/ ence with previous studies is the longitudinal focus. AIDS and other infectious diseases (such as

113 STDs, hepatitis B and C, and tuberculosis). Out Seattle, for research projects that will impact on of this has come a large, five-year project with the children in the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta of south- University of New Mexico (UNM), the first sys- western Alaska. Objectives include the prevention tematic study of rural health care for stigmatized and control of dental caries. Alaska Native chil- illnesses. Researchers are defining the unique dren are disproportionately affected by early health issues in rural and frontier populations, childhood caries, compared to all U.S. children. including the ethics of health care (such as the The cultural practice of pre-mastication of solid ability to maintain confidentiality in small commu- food for infant feeding amplifies the transmission nities); psychosocial issues of rural life; the of oral secretions from adult to child. The preven- effects of stigma in small, scattered populations; tion of early S. mutans acquisition and subse- and the unique barriers to care. NIDA supports quent caries in infants and toddlers requires drug-abuse-related health issues in Alaska Native efforts starting at birth. A community-based, ran- women, such as unsafe sexual practices and how domized clinical trial will determine if the serial use they affect the transmission of diseases such of chlorhexidine and xylitol in mothers will reduce as AIDS and hepatitis B and C. NIDA-funded the vertical transmission of cariogenic bacteria researchers at UAA have been developing a model between Alaska Native mothers and infants. This to predict and identify subgroups of women and novel preventative intervention could have an their risk behaviors relative to the use of drugs impact on the prevalence of caries. Also, through and condoms. the University of Washington Northwest/Alaska The NIDA-supported extramural research initia- Center, NIDCR supports development of a web- tives at the UAA have also benefited from UAA’s based tool (EthnoDent) that focuses on reducing Telemedicine Project, which helps transmit impor- cultural barriers between providers and multicul- tant clinical and disease and drug use prevention tural patients (including Native American/Alaska information across Alaska in a series of “research Natives) in the area of children’s oral health. at a distance” projects. These projects use desk- top video teleconferencing and narrowband tech- National Institute of nology. Environmental Health Sciences NIDA is also involved in Arctic research efforts in Russia, which has one of the fastest growing The NIEHS is funding studies investigating the AIDS epidemics in the world; drug abuse is the perinatal effects of peri- and postnatal exposure primary transmission mode. The immune deficien- to endocrine disruptors, including several organo- cies caused by the HIV viruses have led to an chlorine pollutants and methylmercury in the explosion of opportunistic infections and drug- Faroe Islands. Stored maternal serum from week 34 resistant tuberculosis. NIDA will continue to play of pregnancy and neonatal serum will be used to a leadership role in conducting related research evaluate the endocrine status. Data on growth and and research training on treating and preventing development from annual examinations up to age these diseases with the Russian scientists and 5.5 years are available and will be supplemented other NIH institutes that are funding projects in by examinations at ages 7 and 9 years, when the region. NIDA has participated since 1992 in advanced testing will be applied to assess sexually the annual International Conference on AIDS, dimorphic behaviors, domain-related neurobehav- Cancer, and Related Problems, sponsored by the ioral function, serum hormone concentrations, and Russian Ministry of Science, the Russian Biomedi- developmental markers of early puberty develop- cal Center, St. Petersburg State University, and the ment. The study assessing the effects of methyl- NIH Fogarty International Center. In January 2003, mercury showed mild deficits associated with pre- NIDA was involved in a special meeting at St. natal exposures that were previously thought to Petersburg State University to establish the first be safe. school of public health in the former Soviet Union. The effects of environmental contaminants and infant development are being investigated at National Institute of Dental Nunavik, Canada. The traditional diet of the Inuit and Craniofacial Research from Nunavik includes ringed seal and beluga whale meat and blubber and other marine food. The NIDCR provides support to the North- Since these species may contain high concentra- west/Alaska Center to Reduce Oral Health Dispari- tions of environmental contaminants, the Inuit ties, located at the University of Washington in Cohort Study was initiated to investigate pre-

114 and postnatal developmental outcomes resulting periods when asthma medication was administered from exposure to these substances. Inuit women to the schoolchildren. reported eating large amounts of fish, beluga, and The Dietary Benefits and Risks in Alaskan Vil- seal meat and fat during their pregnancies. Fish lages project addresses dietary questions raised and seal meat consumption was associated with by Native people living in Atka, St. Paul, and other increased mercury exposure as measured in hair Aleut villages dependent on traditional foods col- samples. Traditional food intake during pregnancy lected from the Bering Sea and islands where they was unrelated to PCB body burden because it is live. The project aims are to: more of a function of lifetime consumption and • Develop, utilize, and evaluate a model that exposure. Many women increased their consump- requires greater community responsibility, tion of these foods because of pregnancy-related involvement, guidance, and participation changes in food preferences and their belief that with researchers and government; these foods were beneficial for the women and • Document the diets of two Alaskan villages, their fetuses. Studies will determine whether the including the types, quantities, and methods children experience any learning disabilities asso- of preparation, for the purpose of guiding ciated with the diets of their mothers during preg- contaminant research; nancy. • Collect preliminary data on nutritional value, The Environmental Justice and Health for Saint as well as levels of persistent organics, radio- Lawrence Island project is intended to serve as a nuclides, and heavy metals in subsistence model of the most effective way to exchange infor- foods for tracking of contaminant trends; mation among remote or isolated Alaska Native • Provide a balanced assessment of both the maritime communities, healthcare providers, and risks associated with environmental contami- scientists concerning environmental justice and nants and the nutritional, cultural, and physi- health. The primary objective is to establish self- cal benefits of a traditional diet; and sufficiency in Alaska Native communities, within • Develop, utilize, and evaluate a model for existing healthcare systems, to minimize exposure combining a variety of village-specific data to environmental contaminants. An advisory com- streams including diet, epidemiological mittee, a research team, healthcare providers, and effects, and contaminant levels. members of the affected community will collabo- Accomplishments in the first two years of this rate to set up communication among the collabo- project include a dietary survey in the community rating groups, create a sampling program to test of St. Paul, creation of Village Advisory Groups in for environmental contaminants, establish a com- St. Paul and Atka, two films (Alaska Native Diet: munity health assessment program, and use the Introduction to Dietary Benefits and Risks in emerging data to implement an environmental jus- Alaskan Villages and Alaska Native Diet: The tice and health training program. Elevated levels of Importance of a Traditional Diet), the beginnings PCBs were reported in soil, air, berries, greens, of a risk assessment model process, and many water from the Suqi River, and sediment samples at community educational outreach activities. The the Saint Lawrence Island Northeast Cape military next phase of this project is to sample selected site. All of the people tested had elevated levels traditional foods from both St. Paul and Atka. The of PCBs. Village Advisory Group in St. Paul has met several The Geographic Modeling of Traffic and Asthma times recently and has decided to sample halibut Rates study is examining the factors associated for nutrients and contaminants. Atka is in the pro- with the incidence of asthma in young school chil- cess of identifying and choosing the laboratories dren in Anchorage, Alaska. The purpose of the that will do the analysis for contaminants and study is to evaluate individual risk factors and nutrients. environmental proximity to traffic with the inci- dence of asthma in kindergarten and first-grade National Institute of General children in 12 neighborhood schools. The use of Medical Sciences asthma medication among elementary schoolchil- dren was associated with particulate pollution in a The NIGMS, through a partnership with the locale where PM10 consisted primarily of coarse- Indian Health Service, is supporting several fraction material derived from road sanding and projects by the Alaska Native Tribal Health Con- re-entrained volcanic ash. All models showed pos- sortium through a four-year grant. One applied itive and significant coefficients for PM10 during study investigates the degree of concordance of

115 diagnoses of the effects of myringotomy via contexts of this population. One of the research telemedicine versus live diagnosis. This study is projects is focused on understanding the dissemi- important because of the challenges of delivering nation of mental health practices and policies in care to rural Alaska. Another study examines the American Indian and Alaska Native communities, prevalence of disabilities. For rural, subsistence, and it began with a rural mental health program. or working class families, disabilities can have pro- Extensive work was completed on developing an found effects. Two projects deal with nutrition. appropriate data collection instrument containing One is on the Alaska Native diet and an assess- a set of specific and detailed questions. The ment of the nutrition of subsistence foods. Another detailed instrument was tested with a focus group is a study of maternal nutrition during pregnancy of people familiar with the state of human services among Alaska Natives. Three studies, funded in in small, rural Alaska communities, as well as part by co-funding from NIAID, examine infec- respected academics familiar with conducting tious diseases. Chronic hepatitis B is examined to ethnographic research in Native communities. determine prevalence and serotype, which may aid Three documents were eventually created: a very in understanding modes of communication of the general set of introductory questions, in both disease. The rates of re-infection with Helico- adult and adolescent versions, designed to make bacter pylori after treatment is being examined, respondents familiar with the direction of the inter- since infection rates are as high among Alaska view, a main tool consisting of 21 broad questions Natives as anywhere in the developing world. that allow the respondents to describe the dissem- Pneumococcal disease prevention is another high ination process in their own words within the priority because of the alarming incidence of otitis framework of the three theories, and a detailed set media in Native populations. of questions that will be used by the researchers to aid in their analysis of the information from National Institute of Mental Health interviews. Data collection will begin using tele- phone interviews. Mental and behavioral health in rural and fron- tier Alaska is tied to the emotional, physical, spiri- Health Survey of Two-Spirited Native Americans tual, family, social, and cultural well-being and This study at the University of Washington’s health of individual Alaska Natives, their families, Department of Psychology focuses on Native and the communities where they live. Among the American gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender leading causes of death for Alaska Natives are sui- individuals (referred to as two-spirits), a drastically cide, accidental injury, alcohol-related deaths, and understudied and underserved group at risk for homicide. multiple health and mental health problems. There The behavioral health-related issues of alcohol, are no national, quantitative, representative stud- drug and inhalant abuse/addiction, depression, ies of this population on any topic. Investigators tobacco usage, violence, accidental and intentional will conduct structured survey interviews with 400 injury, and lifestyle contribute to all of these lead- individuals to test a theoretical model of stress ing causes of death. Unfortunately, very little and coping in this population. The investigators mental health and behavioral research is being plan to: conducted in Alaska. • Establish preliminary prevalence rates of trauma and health outcomes (HIV sexual risk American Indian and Alaska behaviors, alcohol and other drug use, and Native Mental Health Research mental health indicators); NIMH continues to support the National Cen- • Test the direct associations between trauma ter for American Indian and Alaska Native Mental and health outcomes; Health Research, at the University of Colorado • Determine how cultural and spiritual coping Health Sciences Center, which provides an impor- factors moderate the effect of trauma on tant resource for the American Indian and Alaska health outcomes; and Native communities. Its mission is to promote the • Examine the mediating role of substance use health and well-being of American Indians and on the trauma–HIV sexual risk behavior and Alaska Natives by pursuing research, training, trauma–mental health relationships. continuing education, technical assistance, and The last approach is to conduct a qualitative information dissemination within a biopsychoso- study involving 12 focus groups and 60 key infor- cial framework that recognizes the unique cultural mant interviews to identify emergent themes

116 regarding stressors and coping strategies specific for Infectious Disease (NCID), the National Center to two spirits. This study is one of the first exam- for Environmental Health (NCEH), the National ining stress-coping processes among two-spirit Institutes of Occupational Safety and Health populations and is the only AI/AN two-spirit HIV (NIOSH), and the Agency for Toxic Substances risk and mental health study in the country. and Disease Registry (ATSDR). These programs represent an excellent example of interagency Alaskan Basic Neuroscience Program cooperation and collaboration with the State of The NIMH, along with the National Institute Alaska Division of Public Health, the Alaska of Neurological Diseases and Stroke (NINDS) and Native Medical Center, the Alaska Native Tribal the National Center for Research Resources, con- Health Consortium, the Indian Health Service (IHS), tinues to co-fund the Alaskan Basic Neuroscience the Alaska Area Native Health Service (AANHS), Program at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. local and regional Native health corporations, uni- This program is part of the Specialized Neuro- versities, and other state and local agencies and science Research Program (SNRP) at Minority organizations. Institutions initiative of NINDS. The purpose of the SNRP initiative is to establish and enhance National Center for competitive research programs in basic neuro- Infectious Diseases science at minority institutions. The research projects examine themes of interest to Alaskan The Arctic Investigations Program (AIP), located peoples, including circadian rhythms, hibernation in Anchorage, Alaska, is one of three U.S. field mechanisms, and neural development and repair. stations operated by the National Center for Infec- The program conducts outreach activities to Alas- tious Diseases or the Centers for Disease Control kan Natives with the goal of increasing diversity and Prevention. The mission of AIP is prevention in the university’s undergraduate and graduate of infectious diseases among residents of the Arc- programs, especially in the area of neuroscience tic and sub-Arctic, focusing on diseases of high and behavior. incidence and concern among the indigenous populations of these regions, as well as recently Technical Assistance to emerging and re-emerging disease problems, espe- University of Alaska Researchers cially via partnerships with other organizations. To gain firsthand knowledge of the challenges faculty members face in conducting biomedical Emerging Infectious Diseases research in Alaska research institutions, a team of Infectious diseases are a continuing menace to government mental health scientists and research- all peoples of the globe, regardless of age, gender, ers met with research staff from the University of lifestyle, ethnic background, and socioeconomic Alaska at Anchorage and Fairbanks in 2002. This status. They cause suffering and death, curb sus- outreach effort resulted in UAF submitting a grant tainable economic development, and impose an proposal to MARC (Minority Access to Research enormous financial burden on all societies. Arctic Careers), a grant program of the National Institute populations have long endured the debilitating of General Medical Sciences, one of the NIH insti- effects of both endemic and epidemic infectious tutes. Technical assistance is also being provided diseases, the effects of which have impacted both as needed to various investigators developing social and economic development in circumpolar research programs in mental health research, regions of the globe. Global surveillance is a criti- including a group of researchers developing a cal component of prevention and control of infec- proposal to study psychiatric co-morbidity among tious diseases. Alaskans. International Circumpolar Surveillance Initiative Centers for Disease The International Circumpolar Surveillance (ICS) Control and Prevention project, established in 1999, aims to create an infectious disease surveillance network of hospital Arctic research programs of the Centers for and public health laboratories and authorities Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are focused throughout the Arctic states. ICS was approved on improving public health in Arctic communities. as an Arctic Council Sustainable Development Programs are conducted by the National Center Working Group project at the ministerial meeting

117 in Barrow, Alaska, in October 2000. ICS allows for the control of chronic diseases caused by infec- the sharing of uniform laboratory and epidemio- tious diseases, and the prevention of infectious logical data on infectious diseases and assists in disease through vaccine use. the formulation of control strategies. From 1999 to 2002, isolates of Streptococcus Antimicrobial Resistance pneumoniae recovered from patients with inva- In recent years, antimicrobial resistance has sive disease were collected in Alaska, northern emerged in a number of pathogens causing dis- Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and Finland ease among residents of the U.S. Arctic, thus limit- and were sent to one of three reference labs for ing treatment options for those seeking medical testing. A total of 5,283 cases of invasive pneumo- care. Problem pathogens include Streptococcus coccal disease were reported from Alaska (449), pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Helico- northern Canada (165), Greenland (26), Iceland bacter pylori, and Staphylococcus aureus. (142), Norway (2643), and Finland (1858). Rates of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus invasive pneumococcal disease in aboriginals in (MRSA) infections have been a common problem Alaska and northern Canada were 43 and 45 cases in hospitals in the U.S. for more than two decades. per 100,000 persons, respectively. Rates among In the past five years in the U.S., MRSA soft tis- children less than two years old and persons two sue infections have become a problem among per- years of age or older were 39–154 and 11–25 cases sons without known exposure to health care set- per 100,000 persons, respectively. Invasive pneu- tings in certain populations. In Alaska, outbreaks mococcal disease can be prevented through the of furuncles (boils) associated with Staphylococ- use of vaccines. Continued surveillance is needed cus aureus have long been a problem, especially to determine the impact of vaccination programs in rural villages. In 1996 the first documented out- in circumpolar countries. Surveillance of invasive break of MRSA furunculosis in Alaska was reported diseases caused by Haemophilus influenza, in one rural village. An investigation showed that Neissera meningitidis, and Groups A and B strep- the risk of infection was higher among those who tococcus was undertaken by ICS in Alaska and used a home sauna. In 2000 a marked increase in northern Canada (2000–2003) and Greenland boils associated with MRSA infection was reported (2002–2003). Initial findings indicate that aborigi- from a regional hospital in rural Alaska. An investi- nals in Alaska and northern Canada have higher gation revealed that 80% of all S. aureus infec- rates of invasive bacterial diseases caused by tions were due to MRSA and that 77% of MRSA Haemophilus influenza, Neissera meningitidis, infections were community acquired (that is, and Groups A and B streptococcus than the non- among persons without significant health care aboriginal population. In spite of vaccine programs exposure in the prior year). The response to this for children, cases of invasive disease caused by outbreak included revising treatment guidelines Haemophilus influenzae type b continue to occur for the use of antibiotics and developing guide- among children under two years of age in Alaska. lines for proper cleaning of home saunas. The prevention and control of certain high- High rates of Helicobacter pylori infection priority emerging infectious disease issues have have been documented in Alaska Natives. Helico- been targeted by CDC, including: bacter pylori causes stomach ulcers and gastritis • Antimicrobial resistance; in about 10% of persons infected and has been • Food and waterborne diseases; associated with iron-deficiency anemia and gastric • Vector-borne and zoonotic diseases; cancer. A retrospective seroprevalence study per- • Diseases transmitted through blood transfu- formed in 1999 demonstrated that among Alaska sions or blood products; Native 0–4 years of age and Alaska Native adults • Chronic disease caused by infectious agents; less than 20 years of age, 32% and 86% had anti- • Vaccine development and use; body Helicobacter pylori, respectively. A study • People with impaired host defenses; performed in 1996 confirmed that 60–98% of Alaska • Diseases of pregnant women and newborns; Natives tested using the C13 urea breath test had and active infections. Seropositivity was age dependent. • Diseases of travelers, immigrants, and Treatment commonly includes a 14-day course refugees. with a proton pump inhibitor plus two antibiotics. The AIP focuses its prevention research activi- An early study had found that two years fol- ties on antimicrobial resistance among pathogens lowing successful treatment of infection with Heli- of concern, the prevention of food-borne diseases, cobacter pylori, 55% of Alaska Native patients

118 were re-infected. Further studies have shown that Chronic Diseases caused by Infectious Agents 30% of Helicobacter pylori isolates cultured from Hypochromic microcytic anemia has long been gastric biopsies from Alaska Native patients seek- found to be common among Alaskan Natives ing medical care were resistant to clarthomycin, despite a diet rich in bioavailable iron. In the 1990s and 66% were resistant to metronidazole, two anti- it was found that fecal blood loss may be a major biotics commonly used to treat Helicobacter pylori contributing factor to iron deficiency anemia in infection. Ongoing studies on Helicobacter pylori Alaska Natives and that hemorrhagic gastritis was infection are focusing on three groups: urban associated with Helicobacter pylori infection. A Alaska Natives, rural Alaska Natives, and urban large population-based serosurvey has shown non-Natives following successful treatment of that the seroprevalence of Helicobacter pylori in infection. An evaluation of laboratory methods Alaska Natives is 75%. The rate increased with used to diagnose Helicobacter pylori infection is age. By 14 years of age 78% of children were also being undertaken. found to have evidence of infection. Iron deficiency was found in 20% of males and 36% of females. A Food-borne and Waterborne Diseases significant association between iron deficiency Alaska has the highest rates of food-borne bot- and seropositivity for Helicobacter pylori was ulism in the U.S. Nearly 30% of all U.S. cases since found in those persons less that 20 years of age. 1973 occurred in Alaska, and almost all of these Iron deficiency anemia remains common among cases were among Alaska Natives. The majority of Alaska Native preschool children. In one village these cases have been associated with consump- surveyed in 1999, 38% of the 123 children between tion of fermented foods prepared from fish or one and five years of age were iron deficient, and marine mammals. A high index of suspicion by 17% were anemic. Serologic evidence of Helico- health care providers, early diagnosis, and rapid bacter pylori infection was found in 41% of these antitoxin treatment has markedly reduced the fatal- children, and there was a strong statistical associ- ity rates of food-borne botulism from 31% during ation between Helicobacter pylori seropositivity 1950–1959 to no deaths among 80 cases since and both anemia and iron deficiency. In 2002 the 1994 in Alaska. In 1998 a collaborative effort State of Alaska Division of Public Health, together between the Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation with the CDC’s Arctic Investigations Program, ini- and the CDC’s Arctic Investigations Program tiated a randomized controlled trial of antibiotic designed a community-based botulism prevention therapy for Helicobacter pylori infection to treat strategy that included the production of an educa- iron deficiency among children in rural Alaska. tional video and a web site titled “A Helping Eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection using Hand: Keeping your Family Safe from Botulism” antibiotics should result in a greater resolution of (http://www.phppo.cdc.gov/phtn/botulism/default/ iron deficiency in children than iron therapy alone. default.asp). Alaska Native children experience very high Food-borne botulism is not unique to the U.S. rates of lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI). Arctic. High rates of botulism have been noted The most common cause of LRTI hospitalization among the Canadian Inuit population as well. in infancy is respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Observers in other countries have pointed to the In 1993–1996, Alaska Native children from the increased use of plastic bags and buckets to fer- Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta region experienced an ment foods as a possible cause for the increased RSV hospitalization rate (156 per 1,000 infants ) rates of botulism since the 1960s. This is plausi- five times higher than the U.S rates. Severe RSV ble; Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic bacte- infection in infancy can result in higher rates of rium and would be expected to thrive in the oxygen- recurrent wheezing in childhood. Between 1999 and poor environment of sealed plastic bags or 2002 the Arctic Investigations Program, together buckets. Experiments performed by CDC in 1999 with the Yukon–Kuskokwim Health Corporation, showed that Clostridium botulinum toxin produc- evaluated RSV-hospitalized children and their non- tion was greatest when fish head fermentations hospitalized control subjects approximately five were carried out in sealed plastic buckets, com- years after hospitalization. Children who were pared to traditional methods such as placing fish hospitalized with RSV infection had higher rates heads into a grass-lined hole in the ground. Thus, of wheezing, LRTIs, and asthma diagnoses more traditional fermentation practices, although during the first four years of life. The association not risk free, may be safer for persons who choose decreased with age and was no longer significant to consume traditional fermented foods. by five years of age. However, hospitalization for

119 RSV infection was associated with increased res- in the rest of the country, cases continue to occur piratory symptoms, including chronic productive among fully and partially vaccinated Alaska cough at five years of age. Native children at a rate of 15 cases per 100,000 (1996–1997), ten times the rates found in children Vaccine Use and Development in other parts of the U.S. However, by 2002, rates Rates of invasive pneumococcal infection (bac- in Alaska Native children had declined to 6 cases teremia and meningitis caused by Streptococcus per 100,000. pneumoniae) for Alaska Natives are the highest in the U.S. and are approximately five times higher National Center for than for non-Natives living in Alaska. The disease Environmental Health is most common in the very young and the elderly (73 cases per 100,000 Natives at least 55 years old). The National Center for Environmental Health’s Fatalities from pneumococcal infection are highest Division of Environmental Hazards and Health in the elderly (greater than 15%). Once fully sus- Effects will continue a study of human exposure to ceptible to antibiotics, Streptococcus pneumoniae environmental pollutants in the Arctic. Maternal has acquired resistance to commonly used antibi- and umbilical cord blood samples from Alaska otics. In Alaska 13% of isolates recovered from Natives are being evaluated for persistent organic patients with invasive disease in 2000 were found pollutants, nonpersistent pesticides, and trace to be fully resistant to penicillin. A 23-valent pneu- metals, as well as for various nutritional markers. mococcal polysaccharide vaccine has been licensed This study is underway in Barrow and Bethel for use in adults in the U.S. since 1983. The overall and in communities in the Aleutian and Pribilof effectiveness against invasive pneumococcal dis- Islands. Additional sites will be added as the ease among immuno-competent persons of at least study progresses. 65 years of age is 75%; however, the efficacy may A study of environmental contaminants as co- decrease with increasing age. A new 7-valent factors in breast cancer in Alaska Natives is near- pneumococcal conjugate vaccine was licensed ing completion. Two hundred study subjects were in 2000 for preventing pneumococcal disease in enrolled, and analysis of their biological samples infants and young children. In 2000, rates of inva- has begun. A unique aspect of this study is the sive pneumococcal disease in Alaskan children analysis of serum collected from the women over less than two years of age was 36 cases per time and stored in the CDC/AIP serum bank. By 100,000. In 2002, following vaccine introduction, analyzing stored serum collected many years ago, rates of invasive pneumococcal disease in Alas- researchers will be able to model exposure to orga- kan children less than two years old fell to 13 cases nochlorines over time. per 100,000. In addition the percentage of pneumo- A protocol for assessing arsenic exposure and coccal isolates fully resistant to penicillin fell from associated health effects in rural Alaska communi- 13% in 2000 to 2.6% in 2002, demonstrating the ties is in development. The study will evaluate potential of this vaccine to reduce infections current and long-term human exposure to inorganic caused by pneumococci that are resistant to anti- arsenic among Alaskans by measuring arsenite biotics. and arsenate in urine and in hair or toenails. The Haemophilus influenzae type b was the most health conditions of study participants will also be common cause of bacterial meningitis in pre- assessed. This study will be conducted in collabo- school-age children prior to the development and ration with ANHB and the State of Alaska’s Divi- widespread use of protein conjugate vaccines. sion of Public Health. Routine immunization of all Alaska Native infants with a Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate National Institute for vaccine began in 1991 and reduced the incidence Occupational Safety and Health of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b infec- tion more than ten-fold by 1993. The effectiveness Occupational Injury Prevention of these vaccines are largely due to the induction NIOSH identified Alaska as having the highest of a circulating antibody and the interruption of risk of traumatic occupational fatalities compared oropharyngeal carriage, leading to the protection to all states in the U.S. To address the unique of susceptible children through herd immunity. hazards and work environments facing employees Despite the success of Haemophilus influenzae and employers in Alaska, NIOSH established a type b conjugate vaccines in preventing disease field station in Anchorage in 1991.

120 The Alaska Field Station (AFS) of NIOSH • Occupational injury deaths in the commercial implemented a comprehensive surveillance system fishing industry declined by 59%, from 34 to for occupational injuries, the Alaska Occupational 14 per year. Injury Surveillance System (AOISS). AOISS • Occupational deaths from aviation-related obtains risk factor information and permits quanti- crashes showed a 39% decline, from 23 to 14 tative epidemiologic analyses for sound public per year. health and prevention. The database contains Trauma registries are a unique source of injury more than 800 fatality records, as well as for data, including information on demographics, geog- over 4,000 nonfatal injury records via the Alaska raphy, disability, medical cost, payment sources, Trauma Registry (ATR). cause of injury, discharge diagnosis, and injury NIOSH has collaborated with the Alaska severity. The ATR has proven to be a useful infor- Department of Health and Human Services, the mation source for monitoring non-fatal work- Alaska Department of Labor, the U.S. Coast Guard, related injuries in Alaska. All 23 hospitals in Alaska the National Transportation Safety Board, the report to the ATR, making it a population-based Federal Aviation Administration, the U.S. Occupa- data source from which injury rates can be calcu- tional Safety and Health Administration, industry lated. Analyses of the trend data and identification and labor organizations, communications media, of hazardous processes have led to injury preven- health care providers, universities and community tion strategies specifically targeted to high-risk colleges, and other public and private individuals areas. The objectives of this work include using and organizations. Since establishing the field sta- information from the ATR to: tion, Alaska has experienced a significant decline • Reduce the morbidity resulting from work- in all work-related deaths, including deaths in the related injuries in Alaska by providing data high-risk industries of commercial fishing and air for developing appropriate prevention strate- transportation. The trends in occupational fatali- gies; ties for the periods 1990–1992 compared to 2000– • Facilitate state, Federal, and international 2002 illustrate the following: work-related injury comparisons; • Overall, the number of work-related deaths in • Improve awareness of nonfatal work-related Alaska declined 40%, from an average of 83 injury as a significant health problem; fatalities per year to 50 fatalities per year. The • Assist in evaluating work-related injury pre- total of 34 deaths in 2002 was the lowest vention strategies; and work-related mortality in Alaska since data • Facilitate research for the prevention of non- have been collected. fatal work-related injuries.

An aviation accident Aviation Initiative investigator at a remote In FY 2000, Congress funded a Federal initia- crash scene in Alaska. tive to reduce aviation-related injuries and fatali- ties: the Alaska Aviation Safety Initiative. The ini- tiative, begun in October 1999, is led by NIOSH with three other Federal agencies: the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), and the National Weather Service (NWS). The purpose is to reduce the number of aircraft crashes and deaths, to promote aviation safety in Alaska, and to evaluate safety interventions. The initiative’s methods and objectives are to: • Gather and analyze injury and fatality data to identify risk factors; • Bring together aviation industry working groups to characterize the problems; • Develop aviation safety information for pilots, companies, and the flying public; • Evaluate the effectiveness of and changes in flight safety interventions; and

121 Commercial aviation crashes are one of the leading causes of death to workers in Alaska.

Reduced visibility is a frequent hazard in Alaska’s flight environment. • Evaluate progress and suggest additional improvements. during 1990–1999 (410 per 100,000, compared to NIOSH contracted with the University of Alaska 150 per 100,000 for loggers and 125 per 100,000 for Anchorage’s Institute of Social and Economic fishermen), there has been a downward trend in Research (ISER) to design and administer two occupational aircraft crashes and fatalities over statewide aviation safety surveys during 2001– the 12-year period of 1991–2002. Between 1990– 2002, one of air carrier managers and one of active 1992 and 2000–2002, deaths from aviation-related commercial pilots. Both surveys addressed pilot crashes showed a 39% decline, from 23 to 14 per and company demographics, pilot flight hours year. This secular trend is also supported using (total hours, aircraft type, and instrument hours), broader intervals. Thus, progress is being made Alaska flying experience, attitudes about safety, toward the overall goal of reducing occupational flying practices, and other salient risk factors. aircraft crash fatalities in Alaska by at least 50% The purpose was to collect information on pilot by the end of 2009 (comparing 1990–1999 to 2000– and company practices and attitudes in order to 2009). design policy options that would reduce aviation fatalities. Return rates for the operator and pilot Commercial Fishing surveys were approximately 81% and 75%, respec- The commercial fishing industry is a major con- tively. tributor to the high numbers of fatal and hospital- Although occupational aviation fatalities con- ized nonfatal injuries in Alaska. Data from AOISS The busy fishing port in tinue to be a problem, with Alaska commercial show 285 work-related fatalities in the Alaskan Sitka, Alaska. pilots having the highest occupational fatality rate commercial fishing industry from 1990 through 2002. Commercial fishing deaths in 2000–2002 decreased 59% from 1990–1992. Many of the fatal- ities were vessel-related, caused by either a vessel capsizing or sinking (36%). Interventions to date, including the implementation of the Commercial Fishing Industry Vessel Safety Act, have been successful in reducing fatalities due to vessel- related events. Nonfatal injury data have shown that of the 648 hospitalized nonfatal injuries, 32% were machinery-related. Many of the machinery injuries occurred in the Bering Sea crab fishery while working around crab pots and crab pot launchers. Several interventions have been identified to modify the equipment and environment to improve deck safety, including machine guarding, machin- ery placement, and increased visibility. From this first phase, a deck safety publication and demon-

122 Commercial fishermen with commercial fishing research scientists and haul crabs from the injury prevention program workers; the Circumpo- northern waters lar Health networks; and the World Health Organi- off Alaska. zation’s International Safe Communities Program. AFS co-sponsored the Second International Fish- ing Safety and Health Workshop (IFISH II) in Sitka, Alaska, in September 2003. The conference was attended by 135 participants from 16 coun- tries, including Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Austra- lia, Chile, Indonesia, Sweden, Norway, Canada, and New Zealand. The AFS also participated in the Twelfth Inter- national Congress on Circumpolar Health, in Nuuk, Greenland, in September 2003. In addition to co-chairing the Injury and Occupational Safety and Health Working Groups, AFS staff presented three scientific papers, one on hypothermia and cold-water drowning, one on the prevention of worker deaths in Alaska, and one on deaths of scientific fieldworkers in Alaska. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry’s Alaska Traditional Diet Project (ATDP) stration deck model have been produced. The is a pilot project to assist consumers of Alaskan second phase is underway, with evaluation of the traditional foods in making informed dietary deci- purse seining, long-lining, troll, gillnet, small crab, sions to prevent potential adverse health out- and dive fisheries. comes from environmental contamination. The project, managed by the Alaska Native Health International and Circumpolar Collaboration, Board, is a collaborative endeavor with the State Commercial fishermen in Alaska work in one of the Conferences, and Workshops of Alaska, other Federal agencies, Native villages most hazardous environ- Through its Alaska Field Station, NIOSH has and corporations, and Native organizations. ments in North America. continued its international research in partnership The ATDP has identified and characterized regional traditional diets, including beneficial nutrient information. Using a comprehensive and comparable dietary survey, data are available for 13 villages representing several regions in Alaska. The ATDP is now conducting sampling and analy- sis for contaminants in traditional foods at two villages (a subset of the 13 survey participants). This project will assist in the development of a response to environmental contaminant issues in Alaska. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Inhalant Abuse Program The Tundra Swan Inhalant Program, funded by SAMHSA’s Center for Substance Abuse Treat- ment (CSAT), is the only residential inhalant abuse treatment program in the nation. Statewide

123 outreach from its office in Anchorage enhances supported jointly by SAMHSA’s Center for Sub- accessibility to the entire state, while the Tundra stance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) and CSAT, is to Swan Center provides residential treatment in improve the practice of identifying, preventing, Bethel. The statewide program trains providers and treating FAS/ARBD. It is a five-year, $5.8 mil- regarding aftercare programs for youth returning lion program that provides prevention activities to their home communities following residential for public school students and families and the inhalant treatment. The project has established general public. Interventions include family plan- close links with the Canadian substance abuse ning, alcohol treatment, and other services for treatment system and its inhalant abuse experts. women of childbearing age; screening and diagno- sis for all children in state custody; and develop- Cooperative Agreements for the Comprehensive ment of a centralized FAS/ARBD Information and Community Mental Health Services for Children Evaluation Center. and Their Families Program Under this program, SAMHSA’s Center for National FAS/ARBD Center for Excellence Mental Health Services (CMHS) provides grants Supported by CSAP and funded at $3.8 million for state and tribal governments to develop sys- a year for five years (through FY 2004), the Center tems of care for children with serious emotional for Excellence coordinates activities to ensure that disturbance, along with their families. Current advances in both science and practice are synthe- grantees for these six-year grants are the Yukon– sized and efficiently disseminated to the field. Kuskokwim Delta and the Fairbanks Native Asso- Among the center’s activities are: ciation. Over 80 isolated villages are represented. • Studying adaptations of innovative clinical The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) interventions and service delivery improve- participates in an advisory committee for the ment strategies for children and adults with cross-site evaluation of the grant program. fetal alcohol syndrome or alcohol-related birth defects and their families; Circles of Care Program • Identifying communities that have exemplary Supported by CMHS, this program provides comprehensive systems of care for such indi- grants for tribes and urban Indian communities to viduals so that they can provide technical plan, design, and assess culturally specific mental assistance to other communities attempting health service system models for American Indian to set up similar systems of care; and Alaska Native children and their families. • Providing technical assistance to communi- Among current grantees are the Tlingit and Haida ties that do not have comprehensive systems Tribes of southeast Alaska. Each of the three-year of care for such individuals and their families; grants (approximately $350,000 per year) includes and a cross-site evaluation provided through an Inter- • Developing innovative techniques for pre- Agency Agreement (IAA) with NIMH. An IAA venting alcohol use by women in childbearing with the Indian Health Service (IHS) provides for years. on-site technical assistance. Health Resources and Targeted Capacity Expansion Program Services Administration A CSAT Targeted Capacity Expansion grant to the Norton Sound Health Corporation ($749,083) Telehealth is the use of telecommunications serves Alaska Native young adults and adoles- and information technologies to share health- cents with co-occurring SA/MH disorders. This related information, provide clinical care, deliver project is enhancing treatment capacity by making health profession and patient education, and sup- resources available to treat young adults and ado- port consumer health education outreach, public lescents (ages 12–24) dually diagnosed as mental health, and health-care-related services at a dis- or emotionally ill and substance impaired in 15 tance. The Health Resources and Services Admin- remote villages of the Bering Straits region. istration (HRSA) established the Office for the Advancement of Telehealth (OAT) to promote the Alaska Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/ use of telehealth for underserved populations. In Alcohol-Related Birth Defects Program 2001–2003 the office administered three telehealth Alaska has a relatively high incidence of FAS/ grants in Alaska with the goal of delivering clinical ARBD births. The overall goal of this program, services to remote areas in the state. The Eastern

124 Aleutian Tribes Telemedicine Program serves 12 health care organizations, tertiary health care cen- sites encompassing 6,985 square miles of land, with ters, and the State of Alaska. The initial focus is a population of 2,800, spread over 8,029 square improving access to health care services for Fed- miles of Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Clinical eral beneficiaries. The network includes 248 sites services initially focus on seven areas: dermatology; and is estimated to serve a population of 265,000, ear, nose, and throat; mental health; radiology; or 42% of the population. By September 2003 the nutritional consultations; and obstetrics and gyne- program had conducted 9,494 cases, largely related cology. Recently they have added specialized ser- to primary care; audiology; ear, nose, and throat; vices in diabetes and cardiovascular care, injury dermatology; and cardiology. Preliminary evalua- prevention, and emergency medical care. The net- tion indicates that the AFHCAN system prevented work can also support two-way videoconferencing. travel 34% of the time, caused travel 8% of the Most recently they have added formal health aide time, and had no effect 59% of the time. A valida- training over the video and telepharmacy services. tion study determined if post-surgical follow-up of The project provides access to Internet library ear patients via store-and-forward telemedicine sites and closely coordinates with the Alaska Fed- was as effective as an in-person exam. The simple eral Health Care Access Network (AFHCAN). conclusion is that store-and-forward telemedicine, AFHCAN is a 43-member organization with rep- with images taken by community health aides, is resentation from Federal agencies, tribal health as good as an in-person exam for patients receiv- organizations, rural health care facilities, public ing pressure equalizing (ear) tubes.

125 Smithsonian Institution

The Smithsonian has been engaged in Arctic research for more than 150 years, almost from the beginning of its operation as the main national research and museum institution. Today, most of the Smithsonian Arctic activities are conducted by the Arctic Studies Center at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, with its prime focus on northern cultures, communities, and environments.

Since their first ventures in northern Alaska Funding (thousands) and Canada in the mid-1800s, Smithsonian scien- FY 02 FY 03 Anthropology 400 400 tists have produced an outstanding array of Arctic Biology 50 50 research publications; they also amassed unique Total 450 450 national collections of northern natural and cultural specimens. Today, individual Smithsonian scien- tists maintain their strong interest in many fields knowledge repatriation; website development; and of northern natural sciences. The institution’s cooperative community research are the trademark current Arctic activities are being carried primarily features of the Smithsonian approach. Under a via the Arctic Studies Center (ASC) of the Smith- cooperative agreement with the Anchorage Museum sonian National Museum of Natural History of History and Art, the Smithsonian also operates (NMNH). The ASC’s main focus is on cultural its Alaskan regional office in Anchorage (since heritage and collection studies, exhibits, and 1995). The ASC Alaskan office provides research, educational and public programs that are devel- education, and training opportunities; it advances oped in partnership with local indigenous commu- the Smithsonian vision and its strong public focus nities across the Arctic. to local researchers, residents of Anchorage, and Established in 1988, the ASC is the only active rural Alaskan communities. and long-term Federal program that has a special The level of the Smithsonian internal funding mission in Arctic cultural research, education, and for its Arctic-focused research remains fairly outreach. Over 15 years of its history, ASC’s sci- steady over the last several years at an annual level entists, fellows, and associates have conducted of $0.4–0.5 million. That covers four staff posi- studies throughout the entire circumpolar zone; tions at the Arctic Studies Center in Washington it is also the only national research body that has and Anchorage and a small operational budget. international capabilities and a solid network of Substantial additional funds are generated each scholarly partners across the Arctic region. year through grants and institutional and inter- With its stated mission in “the increase and agency partnerships in order to support various dissemination of knowledge,” the Smithsonian, Smithsonian northern initiatives. and the Arctic Studies Center in particular, pro- motes its signature blend of research, collections Research and development, and public programs. Today, such a Collection-Based Activities blend includes several new components driven by new technologies and growing public interest in Each year Smithsonian scholars are engaged in the cultures and heritage of northern people. Trav- several research, collection, and documentation eling exhibits reaching out to the most distant projects across the Arctic region. Major initiatives northern communities; internships and fellow- by the Smithsonian staff, fellows, and associates ships for local knowledge experts, artists, and cul- are featured in the annual issues of the Arctic tural activists; museum and educational training Studies Center Newsletter (published since 1991), programs; heritage documentation; cultural and with its current print run of over 1,500 copies. The

126 trips in a scheduled series of seven have brought to the Smithsonian local teams from Barrow, the Aleutian Islands, the Nome–St. Lawrence Island area, and the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta region.

Looking Both Ways: Heritage and Identity of the Alutiiq People This award-winning traveling exhibit was pro- duced in 2001 by the Smithsonian, in collaboration with the Alutiiq Museum in Kodiak and Alaskan Native communities from the Kodiak–Cook Inlet region. The exhibit is based on the collections of Smithsonian naturalist William J. Fisher, who con- ducted research in southern Alaska on behalf of the Smithsonian in the 1880s. The exhibit inspired great interest in local communities; it offered to many Native Alaskans their first chance to recon- nect with their cultural legacy and traditions repressed for generations. Aleutian elders work newsletter is a valuable source of information to In 2002 and 2003 the exhibit traveled from its with objects from their northern scholars (both in the U.S. and worldwide), original opening venue at the Alutiiq Museum area in the Smithsonian policy makers, northern residents, and community in Kodiak to Homer, Anchorage, and Juneau. In collection. institutions on the wide range of Smithsonian December 2003 it arrived at the Smithsonian NMNH activities. The projects described below offer a in Washington, where it will be on display through few illustrations of the breadth of the Smithsonian 2004. approach and its special focus on collaboration with other agencies and northern communities. Watching Ice and Weather Our Way: Environment Observation on St. Lawrence Island Alaska Collections Project There is extensive interest across the science The Alaska Collections Project (ACP), now in community in the ways indigenous Arctic resi- its fourth year, is a product of a partnership of two dents observe climate, sea ice, and weather and Smithsonian museums—the National Museum of how this knowledge is used in their daily lives and Natural History (NMNH) and the National Museum subsistence activities. There is also growing pres- of the American Indian (NMAI)—and local Alas- sure on polar researchers to incorporate data and kan communities. The purpose of the ACP is to observations from northern residents into the cur- bring Native elders and cultural experts from sev- rent models of global climate warming. To enhance eral Alaskan communities on research trips to the such a transition, the Smithsonian, the Marine Smithsonian museums to explore and document Mammal Commission, and the Yupik communities ethnographic collections from their respective areas. of Savoonga and Gambell on St. Lawrence Island, The project allows members of the Alaskan rural Alaska, undertook a joint project on ice and communities to get their first-hand knowledge of weather observation off St. Lawrence Island “the local cultural resources held in the national collec- Yupik way” (2000–2003). tions; it also offers a basic orientation in museum This collaborative effort to document Yupik policies, collection management, research, and knowledge and observation practices was named conservation. In addition, the elders are selecting “Watching Ice and Weather Our Way.” It emerged objects that will be loaned for display and studies as an outcome of a special workshop, Impacts of at the ASC regional office in Anchorage and used Changes in Sea Ice and Other Environmental for traveling exhibits in Alaska. Parameters in the Arctic, organized by the Marine The research will eventually yield a major exhi- Mammal Commission in Girdwood, Alaska, in 2000. bition in Anchorage, several traveling exhibits for Two former workshop participants from St. Alaskan communities, a Smithsonian web site, Lawrence Island, Conrad Oozeva from Gambell publications, and detailed information to be incor- and George Noongwook from Savoonga, agreed porated into the Department of Anthropology’s to organize sea ice and weather observations in collections records. During 2001–2003, five ACP their respective communities by local monitors to

127 be recorded in Yupik language. Several months of culture and heritage. The project is supported observations produced an unprecedented set of through funding provided by the Smithsonian, the data, including dozens of pages of records that are Robert S. Peabody Museum at Phillips Academy, full of Native terms, detailed explanations of ice the International Grenfell Association, the New- patterns, references to shifts in ice and weather foundland and Labrador School Boards Associa- regimes, migrations of marine mammals, and local tion, and Inuit Pathways. The very generous sup- hunting activities. Local Yupik participants gener- port of the Inuit Pathways is critical, as it covers ated almost 200 pencil drawings and photographs local Inuit student salaries and transportation. to illustrate various local terms for ice and weather conditions. The ASC, the Savoonga Whaling Cap- Jesup-2: Cultures and Nations tains Association, and Marine Mammal Commis- of the Greater Bering Sea Region sion published the materials of the project as a In October 1992 the Smithsonian inaugurated bilingual volume, Watching Ice and Weather Our a multi-year research and publication program Way/Sikumengllu Eslamengllu Esghapalleghput, focused on Native cultures of the Bering Sea– in 2004. North Pacific region. The program was called Jesup-2 to commemorate the centennial anniver- Labrador Community Archaeology Project sary of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition (JNPE) This long-term research and educational initia- of 1897–1902 and its legacy. The Jesup-2 program, tive has been undertaken jointly (since 1999) by now in its second decade, has created a thriving the ASC; the Canadian Labrador community of network of partnership among research and museum Makkovik, including its local historical society, institutions, and individual scholars in the U.S., community museum, and high school; and Brown Canada, Russia, Japan, and other countries. Two University in Providence, Rhode Island. For the collections of papers have been published during past two years the project has focused on a mid- 2002 and 2003, as the volumes in the newly 18th century Labrador Inuit village site at Adlavik launched Smithsonian series Contributions to Harbour. This project integrates methods of Circumpolar Anthropology; many new projects archaeological research (such as surveys and have been initiated. Yupik skin boat sails off excavations), high-school curriculum develop- In October 2002, another Jesup-2 international the whaling camp at ment, and local heritage training in site preserva- symposium was held in Sapporo, Japan. Titled Pugughileq, St. Lawrence tion, archaeological fieldwork, and museum “The Raven’s Arch,” it was focused primarily Island. Alaska. This development. It is aimed at documenting cultural on the Asian side of the North Pacific. Several picture is one of many changes in early colonial Inuit communities in Japanese agencies and institutions offered their dozen taken by Chester central Labrador, with a special emphasis on support for the meeting. The proceedings of the Noongwook, a Yupik boat captain and a developing local knowledge, increasing potential symposium will be published in both English and participant in the sea ice employment opportunities in heritage preservation Japanese, as parallel volumes. The Raven’s Arch observation project. and tourism, and fostering pride in Labrador Inuit symposium was accompanied by several public events, including public lectures, an exhibit of several dozen historical photographs from the Jesup Expedition collections, and meetings with Japanese and Ainu museum curators. A new Jesup web site was launched in 2002 produced by the American Museum of Natural History in New York. It features all recent Jesup-2 publications and several collaborative efforts, such as the ongoing study of the Jesup Expedi- tion Siberian collections and other records stored at the American Museum of Natural History, at the Smithsonian, and in Russia.

Gateways: Quebec Lower North Shore Survey For the past three years (2001–2003), the ASC has been conducting archaeological studies along the Quebec Lower North Shore (LNS) under its survey and excavation effort titled “The St.

128 sion of the Arctic world, northern Mongolia may have played an important role in Ice Age ecology, the peopling of the New World, and the history of ancient Beringian ecosystems. For over three years the Smithsonian interdisci- plinary team has pursued studies in archaeology, climate history, lichen ecology, and the ethnology of the local reindeer-herding Tsaatan (Dukha) peo- ple. It seeks to understand the origins of northern Mongolian cultures and their relationships with A camp of Tsaatan other peoples of China, Mongolia, and Siberia. (Dukha) reindeer herders in the mountainous region Special emphasis is placed on its connections to of northern Mongolia. more distant cultures, including Scythians and Eskimos. The research is being conducted by Lawrence Gateways Project.” The project is aimed Smithsonian scholars in partnership with the Uni- at documenting various local prehistoric cultures versity of Pittsburgh, the National Museum of starting from 8,000 years ago. It also explores the Mongolian History, and the Mongolian Academy impact of colonial trade and culture contacts on of Sciences. local indigenous residents, when European sail- In 2002 and 2003 research in the Tsaatan moun- ors, primarily the Basques and the French, became tainous camps was focused on the herders’ adap- established in the region around the year 1600. tations to changing conditions in their summer The surveys are authorized by the Quebéc Minis- and winter pastures in the forest and tundra try of Culture and Communications and funded by regions. Smithsonian scientists worked with Tsaa- the Smithsonian and private donors. tan elders, recording their knowledge of reindeer Surveys to date have produced evidence of ecology and folk taxonomies for the lichen the ani- nearly 50 new sites dating from circa 7,000 years mals feed on. Theories abound arguing that the ago to the present. These surveys offer insight reindeer-herding system of the Arctic tundra resi- into prehistoric maritime adaptations, seasonal dents was a mere cultural offshoot of the ancient and decadal fluctuations in marine ecosystems, mountainous taiga pattern still practiced by the resource scarcity, and settlement pattern variabil- Tsaatan. Periodic rapid climate change may have ity along Quebec’s LNS. played a role in herders’ migrations from the Sibe- The project’s second major accomplishment rian mountainous areas. This is to be investigated was the documentation of the 16th–17th century by an analysis of several lake sediment cores, col- European stations operated primarily by the lected from the nearby alpine lakes, that document Basque whalers, seal hunters, and later fishermen. the Holocene climate history of this border area The new sites on the Quebéc LNS offer informa- between Siberian forest and Inner Asia steppe tion on changing Basque economy, environmental landscapes. conditions, and contacts with Native groups for fishing, trapping, and trade, which are likely to Interagency Collaboration: have become important concerns for Basque Relationships and Partnerships activities at this time. Such studies will help docu- ment the long history of European–Native rela- Since its creation in 1988 the ASC has repre- tions in the St. Lawrence “gateway” region. sented the Smithsonian at various boards and in many Federal interagency programs and initiatives The “Deer Stone” Project: that deal with the polar region. Through the ASC, Smithsonian Research in Northern Mongolia the Smithsonian keeps its permanent seat on the In 2001 the ASC launched a new interdiscipli- Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee nary research initiative in northern Mongolia’s (IARPC), the Arctic Research Commission (ARC), Muron–Darkhat region. Although located far the Arctic Policy Group (APG), and others. ASC below the Arctic Circle, at the southernmost con- staff members and associates represent the Smith- fines of the Siberian Sayan Mountains, the region sonian, and Arctic social sciences in general, at features some of the most typical Arctic complexes the Polar Research Board of the National Acade- as well as the southernmost indigenous reindeer- mies, the Science Advisory Committee of the NSF herding communities in Eurasia. A virtual exten- Office of Polar Programs, and other science policy

129 teams. Overall the center has a prominent role in During its first years the SEARCH initiative formulating national policy in Arctic research; it (announced in 1998) was regarded mainly as an takes seriously its advisorship to government and ocean–atmosphere modeling enterprise. After international bodies. 2000, SEARCH gradually evolved into a much The Smithsonian has developed partnerships broader venture supported by the Interagency with many Federal agencies, such as NASA, Working Group (IWG) made up of representatives NOAA, NSF, DOI (National Park Service), USDA, of nine participating governmental agencies, such and others. For many decades, interagency part- as NSF, NOAA, DOI, EPA, NASA, and the Smith- nership were pivotal in expanding resources and sonian. logistical support to Smithsonian scientists work- The Smithsonian contribution to SEARCH is ing in the polar regions; it also allowed the institu- focused primarily on promoting the initiative’s tion to advance high-quality research, public and human component. From the science perspective, educational programs, and management of the Smithsonian scholars contribute expertise in using national collections. Recently these ties have been paleo-environmental and archaeological records to strengthened through new cooperative projects, decipher former environmental and resource fluc- research, and public initiatives. tuations across the polar regions. Such studies provide valuable time depth to current models of Study of Environmental Arctic Change Arctic climate oscillations, which are based mainly The Smithsonian, and the ASC in particular, has on instrumental data of the last century. an established record of involvement in studies of At the institutional level, Smithsonian offers Arctic climate and environmental change. Over the to SEARCH an ideal venue to present its agenda last two decades, Smithsonian teams have partici- to the policy and decision makers, the media, the pated in several interdisciplinary projects across general public, and Arctic residents. In 2001, ASC the North. Smithsonian researchers have been scientists suggested that a Smithsonian-based involved with issues of today’s Arctic environ- exhibit would be the best way to introduce the ment, its ongoing change, and its impact on north- SEARCH initiative to the broader public by using ern people. The Smithsonian is also spearheading the existing NMNH educational and exhibit pro- several outreach initiatives that are focused on the gram Forces of Change (started in 2000). The general public, indigenous communities, and Smithsonian Forces of Change exhibit initiative northern residents. features the dynamics of global change and exam- Since 2001 the Smithsonian has participated in ines the connections among the physical, biologi- the Study of Environmental Arctic Change cal, and cultural forces that shape our world. The (SEARCH), an interdisciplinary and interagency core of this program is a 6,000-square-foot exhibit initiative that addresses the origins and mecha- space at the NMNH, which will be used over sev- nism of today’s rapid shifts in Arctic environment. eral years for a series of thematically and regionally The evidence of change in the current Arctic cli- focused exhibits. Each of these exhibits will feature mate and biota is extensive and mounting, but various “faces” of ongoing global change. The social scientists have been rather late, and usually first in the series, Listening to the Prairie: Farm- junior, partners to such research, which is driven ing in Nature’s Image, was successfully launched primarily by physical and environmental science. in November 2000, in partnership with the U.S. It has been a common knowledge that northern Department of Agriculture’s Sustainable Agricul- residents should be included as critical “subjects” ture and Research Education Program. The second to any interdisciplinary survey of global climate Forces of Change exhibit, El-Niño’s Powerful change. However, it was not until recently that Reach, was launched in 2002. More ventures are scientists also realized that Arctic people are the in the making, including the new exhibit on Arctic first and usually the most dedicated observers environmental change, The Arctic: A Friend Act- of change in their regions. From their side, Arctic ing Strangely, which will be the Smithsonian con- people are also eager to cooperate with scientists tribution to SEARCH. The preparatory and pro- and to have their observations documented and duction work was started in the summer of 2003, transmitted to the management agencies and policy with the support from the NOAA Arctic Research makers. This is a critical junction, a new Arctic sci- Office; the opening of the exhibit at the Smithso- ence frontier that will guide the course of scholarly nian’s National Museum of Natural History is due studies, outreach and educational efforts, and pub- in the spring of 2005. It will be followed by several lic support for northern research for years to come. public events, lectures, and outreach activities.

130 U.S. Research Station in Barrow, Alaska, operated during the First International Polar Year, 1881–1883.

The Smithsonian also made two other contribu- 125 years after the first International Polar Year tions to the SEARCH initiative. In 2002 a new vol- of 1882–1883. All previous IPY ventures provided ume, titled The Earth Is Faster Now: Indigenous major opportunities to enhance polar research. Observations of Arctic Environmental Change, They promoted international cooperation among was published by the Arctic Research Consortium polar scientists and national research institutions; of the U.S. (ARCUS) in collaboration with the they also served as major vehicles to capture the ASC. The volume is a collection of ten papers fea- public’s imagination and to convey the crucial role turing various recent projects involved in docu- that the polar areas play in the functioning of the menting indigenous knowledge of environmental earth as the planetary ecosystem. change in Alaska and the Canadian Arctic. In February 2003 the International Council for Another Smithsonian contribution to SEARCH Science (ICSU) formed an International Polar Year was a special panel on Arctic environmental Planning Group (IPY-PG), and in August 2003 the change organized at the annual meeting of the National Research Council of the U.S. National American Association for the Advancement of Academies created the U.S. Planning Committee Sciences (AAAS) in Seattle in February 2004. The on the IPY. Igor Krupnik, Smithsonian Arctic eth- panel, titled Unaami: A New Model for Arctic nologist, and Richard Glenn, from the Arctic Slope Environmental Change, was the first concerted Regional Corporation in Barrow, Alaska, are serv- effort to present the spirit and some results of the ing on the U.S. committee to represent the inter- SEARCH initiative to a primarily non-science audi- ests of social scientists and northern indigenous ence of media people and policy planners. residents, respectively. Both constituencies have great stakes in this major international effort. International Polar Year 2007–2008 Unlike the previous IPY ventures, which were Planning is underway for a new large interna- primarily (if not exclusively) focused on the geo- tional program in polar research called the Interna- physical and natural sciences, the IPY 2007–2008 tional Polar Year 2007–2008 (IPY). The IPY initiative is planned as a truly interdisciplinary program. of 2007–2008 will be the fourth similar effort under- The new vision is to incorporate polar residents taken by the international polar science community, and social scientists into all its activities, so that

131 many cultural, social, health, and environmental The important partners in the joint effort are the issues critical to polar communities and social/ lower Cook Inlet Native villages of Nanwalek, Port human scientists are featured prominently on the Graham, and Seldovia; the Pratt Museum in Homer; new IPY agenda. and scientists from the Anchorage and Fairbanks In anticipating major planning and research faculties of the University of Alaska. The project activities for the new IPY initiative, Smithsonian has a very strong focus on education, student scientists have already established their informal training, and community outreach. IPY planning team. The Smithsonian is sure to Native residents of Nanwalek, Port Graham, and play an important role in the new IPY 2007–2008 Seldovia are knowledgeable about the outer Kenai effort. To explore the opportunities, the ASC is coast and its history. Vivid stories of traditional joining forces with the International Arctic Social life and travels on the outer coast have been Science Association (IASSA), the Barrow Arctic passed down to current generations, and interest Science Consortium (BASC), and other interested in revisiting the area and working with scientists agencies. The first IPY-focused panel, International to study it is strong. Oral traditions, combined Polar Year 2007–2008: Opportunities for Northern with traditional knowledge about subsistence Communities and Social Science, was organized resources and the outer coast environment, are by the ASC scholars at the Fifth International invaluable for interpreting archaeological sites Congress of Arctic Social Sciences in Fairbanks that range from 100 to 1,000 years old. in May 2004. Another important initiative conducted jointly by the ASC and the NPS Alaskan office is the Smithsonian–NPS Partnership study of northern ethnographic landscapes. The National Park Service (NPS), and particu- Under this joint project, scientists, park managers, larly its Alaska Regional Office in Anchorage, has and Native researchers from Alaska, Canada, been a proven partner to the Smithsonian Arctic Russia, Norway, and Iceland share results of their programs. Recently the NPS, through its Ocean current research, as well as the expertise of their Alaska Science and Learning Center (OASLC) pro- respective national and regional bodies in working gram, has provided research grants to the ASC with northern indigenous communities to protect Anchorage office for its Archaeology and Oral northern landscapes and to support cultural Traditions on the Outer Kenai Coast, Alaska effort. knowledge associated with past and present use The project, started in 2000, is investigating the of the northern land, coastal, and sea areas. The archaeology and oral history of a little-known results of the collective study are presented in the region of southern Alaska—the spectacular, glaci- volume Northern Ethnographic Landscapes: ated Pacific coastline of the Kenai Peninsula. The Perspectives from Circumpolar Nations to be study area is within Kenai Fjords National Park. published jointly by the ASC and NPS in 2004.

132 Environmental Protection Agency The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Arctic research program is designed to protect the health of Arctic residents and safeguard the Arctic environment.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Funding (thousands) (EPA) Arctic-related work is designed to protect FY 02 FY 03 the health of Arctic residents and safeguard the Research and Development 200 377 Arctic environment. EPA research in the Arctic is Regional Activities 100 100 International Activities 100 100 focused on the source, transport, fate, and effects Total 400 577 of contaminants in the environment; risks and benefits of subsistence foods; global climate change; and UV-B radiation. An emerging EPA under the direction of the Arctic Council, a high- effort to develop an Arctic strategy will help the level, eight-nation, international forum implement- agency coordinate activities and target resources ing the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy. more effectively. EPA Arctic priorities are: AMAP’s mission is to assess environmental con- • Research and development; tamination in the Arctic. The first AMAP assess- • Regional implementation; and ment was published in 1998. An important and • International activities. comprehensive document, the assessment high- Within this framework, EPA research continues to lighted potential risks to the Arctic from contami- focus on three primary objectives: nants. However, U.S. data were missing from the • Improve basic knowledge about Arctic stres- first assessment. As AMAP Phase II began, in sors and effects; 1998, the U.S. was requested to serve as the lead • Understand and reduce risk to Arctic resi- country for the assessment of heavy metals. In dents and the Arctic environment; and March 1999 the EPA Office of Research and Devel- • Implement innovative technologies to solve opment (ORD) agreed to fulfill this role. environmental problems. Initial efforts defined the scope and features These primary objectives are being addressed of the heavy metals assessment, completed at the through a variety of research and management international workshop Heavy Metals in the Arctic efforts. The following discussion provides a brief held in Anchorage, Alaska, during September summary of EPA-sponsored research projects, 1999. In 2000, EPA funded scientists to identify each highlighted under a particular objective, and assemble research results from 1996 to the although individual projects may address more present and earlier work not represented in the than one objective. AMAP Phase I assessment. In June 2001, EPA sponsored another international workshop, Arctic Stressors and Effects Trends and Effects of Heavy Metals in the Arctic, in McLean, Virginia, where new research results EPA has increased the understanding and were reported in preparation for writing the awareness among regional, national, and interna- assessment. Since then, multiple drafts of the tional partners concerning the risks associated assessment have been generated and submitted to with contaminants in the U.S. Arctic. Activities the international scientific community for review include leading international efforts to assess and comments. heavy metals in the Arctic, investigating mercury In July 2002, a semi-final draft was submitted to deposition, and partnering on enhancing educa- the AMAP Secretariat to support the publication tion about Arctic contaminants. of the primary report to the Arctic Council Minis- ters and the larger international public. This docu- Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme ment, Arctic Pollution 2002, provides summarizes Phase II Assessment: Heavy Metals the results, conclusions, and recommendations of AMAP is one of five working groups operating all five AMAP Phase II assessments, including

133 human health, heavy metals, persistent organic where X is a halide), and fine-particle-bound pollutants, radioactivity, and changing transport mercury (HgP)]; pathways. • Obtain snow samples for subsequent chemi- In October 2002, Arctic Pollution 2002 was cal analysis; and first distributed at the Second AMAP Symposium • Obtain air quality data and meteorological on Contaminants in the Arctic, held in Rovaniemi, measurements. Finland. At this meeting, EPA staff, serving on These measurement campaigns were designed behalf of the U.S. as lead country and as chair for to obtain information on the factors that lead to the international heavy metals assessment team of mercury depletion events (MDEs) to better under- 23 scientists, presented the technical results of the stand and model the impact of MDEs on the half- heavy metals assessment and served on the U.S. life of mercury in the atmosphere and the potential delegation to the Arctic Council for the ministerial bioavailability of mercury transformation prod- meeting in Inari, Finland, convened immediately ucts. The instrumentation and methods developed after. by EPA to speciate mercury are being used by To finalize the scientific document, a formal atmospheric scientists in the U.S., Canada, Nor- external peer review was planned and executed by way, Italy, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, and EPA. Ten experts, not previously engaged in the study results are being published in the scientific process, reviewed the document in its entirety, literature. and two additional scientists reviewed specific chapters. Comments were incorporated into the UV Monitoring draft and submitted to the AMAP Secretariat in EPA, in collaboration with the National Park July 2003 for formal editing and final publication. Service, continues to maintain a network of ground-based UV monitoring instruments at 14 Mercury and Arctic Sunrise national parks and 7 urban locations in the U.S. One of the key findings in the AMAP Phase II One of these PRIMENet (Park Research and Inten- heavy metals report is the transformation of mer- sive Monitoring of Ecosystems Network) sites is cury in the Arctic at polar sunrise. EPA has been in Denali National Park, Alaska. While below the instrumental in investigating the nature and geo- Arctic Circle, the site offers useful data for north- graphical extent of the phenomenon termed “Arc- ern regions in comparison with other areas. tic sunrise,” where atmospheric elemental gaseous U.S. Federal agencies continue to coordinate mercury levels have been shown to drop drasti- their efforts to operate a network of ground-based cally during the Arctic spring, when sunlight UV monitoring instruments in response to a U.S. returns to the region. The majority of atmospheric Global Climate Research Program plan published mercury is present in elemental form, but reactive in 1995. Participating agencies are EPA, USDA, gaseous mercury has much higher wet and dry NOAA, NSF, the Smithsonian Institution, NASA, deposition rates. Thus, speciation of mercury is of and DOE. particular interest in the Arctic because of the sun- The USGCRP FY 2000 document Our Changing rise phenomenon and the greater local impact of Planet calls for the need to understand changes reactive forms. in UV fluxes and how these changes affect human Since 2000, EPA scientists have designed and health and the productivity of ecosystems. implemented a series of mercury speciation stud- Through PRIMENet, data from Denali National ies. Successful work first completed in Barrow, Park and other UV monitoring sites provide a Alaska, led to implementation of partnership stud- valuable basis for primary research and assess- ies during 2002 and 2003 at the Italian South Pole ments of the consequences of climate change. Atmospheric TerraNova Science Research Base and at the Norwegian Polar Research Base at Ny Understanding and Reducing Risk Alesund. EPA scientists trained collaborators and helped design and install specialized instrumenta- EPA and others have broadened the risk tion at all three polar monitoring sites. The primary assessment approach to effectively bring together objectives of monitoring studies conducted during scientific research and management strategies to polar sunrise were threefold: enhance risk reduction. In the Arctic this specifi- • Measure and speciate the various forms of cally targets reducing risk to humans potentially mercury in air and snow [elemental mercury exposed to contaminants in traditional foods, as (HgO), reactive gas phase mercury (HgX2, well addressing the profound changes occurring

134 in the Arctic and Bering Sea region from the com- Reducing Atmospheric Mercury bined effects of many stressors. EPA is focusing Releases from Arctic States resources and time in the Arctic to integrate The Arctic Council agreed to act to reduce ecosystem-level risk assessment with human exposures to a number of priority pollutants in health and cultural risk. the Arctic region. To accomplish this, the Arctic Council Action Plan (ACAP) Mercury Project was Benefits and Risks of a Traditional Diet initiated in 2002. The project is being led by the EPA ORD is working with Native, academic, Denmark Environmental Protection Agency, all state, and other Federal agencies on evaluating eight Arctic nations are participating, and four, both the nutritional benefits and the potential including the U.S., are providing funding. The health risks of contaminants in wild-caught food. EPA is coordinating U.S. involvement. Through a grant to the Aleutian/Pribilof Islands The project objective is “to contribute to a Association (APIA) from the National Institute of reduction of mercury releases from the Arctic Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), scientists countries; partly by contributing to the develop- are working with two Native communities, St. Paul ment of a common regional framework for an and Atka, to identify preferred food consumption, action plan or strategy for the reduction of mercury the proportion of wild and store-bought foods emissions, and partly by evaluating and selecting consumed, and the levels of contaminants in one or a few specific point sources for implemen- foods, as well as the values and benefits of col- tation of release reduction measures. The reduc- lecting and consuming traditional foods. EPA was tion of mercury releases…should serve as a dem- instrumental in assembling the research team and onstration of existing possibilities, giving facilitating the research design during 2000 and inspiration to other measures in the region.” 2001. During 2002 and 2003, EPA played a key role Initial work in 2003 centered on developing a in facilitating the development of community detailed inventory questionnaire that addressed goals, generating hypotheses, and linking assess- releases, usage, and disposal and was completed ment goals and conceptual model development to by each country. In August 2003, EPA provided data collection activities. the U.S. response using the questionnaire. All data are publically available, and most are from Heavy Metals and Persistent U.S. inventories, for example, the latest (1999) Organic Pollutants in Traditional Foods National Emissions Inventory for air emissions Increasing concern by Native people in Alaska and the 2001 Toxics Release Inventory for solid about the levels of pollutants in traditional foods waste disposal and water discharges. It is expected led EPA (Region 10, ORD) to provide funding to that in late 2004, Denmark will make available a the Sea Otter and Sea Lion Commission, a Native- Regional Inventory Report reflecting information based scientific organization, to assess the levels submitted by the various countries. About the of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants same time, it is expected that Denmark will make (POPs) in seagull eggs used for subsistence. The available a detailed Russian Inventory Report, commission used funding to train local people to which was developed by a Russian Federation collect and transport eggs and prepare specimens team of scientists with the assistance of the ACAP and to support lab analysis. Collections were project. Now the ACAP project is considering can- completed during 2000 and 2001. The results, pub- didate control demonstrations in the Russian Fed- lished in 2003, were encouraging for local commu- eration that can provide new scientific information nities since levels of POPs and heavy metals were and inspiration for all Arctic countries. low. Reducing PCBs in Russia Implementing Technologies The Russian Federation depends on PCBs and PCB-containing equipment, and it has not accepted Introducing and implementing innovative tech- the Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants nologies and management opportunities has been (POPs) of the Convention on Long-Range Trans- a cornerstone within EPA. In the Arctic, EPA con- boundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) because of its tinues to focus on reducing contaminants reach- inability to phase out PCB use. To assist Russia in ing the Arctic through long-range transport and phasing out PCB use, EPA proposed a multilateral building capacity within the U.S. Arctic to reduce technology transfer and demonstration project potential environmental impacts. under the auspices of the Arctic Council Action

135 Plan (ACAP). The objective of this multilateral ing has enabled the pursuit of low-tech alterna- cooperative pilot program is to protect the Arctic tives for pollution prevention, specifically in the ecosystems and indigenous U.S. populations by areas of waste oil recycling and the use of anti- assisting the Russian Federation in: freeze washers and can crushers. Practical imple- • Developing an inventory, or source term, for mentation of management alternatives based on this PCBs in the Russian Federation; research has had a direct impact on the ability of • Ceasing the use of PCBs; Alaskan villages to protect watersheds and extend • Developing and constructing or retrofitting the life of rural Alaskan landfills. EPA is continuing facilities for the production and use of PCB to document emerging management strategies and alternatives; technologies that are reducing local environmental • Providing safe disposal and destruction of pollution and improving quality of life. PCBs and PCB-contaminated equipment and material; and Arctic Strategy Development • Remediating PCB sites that have the greatest potential to impact the Arctic. EPA continues to recognize the importance of The project has been implemented in three rapid changes occurring in the Arctic that are sig- phases. Phase I, implemented during 1997–1999, nificantly impacting humans and the environment. organized the effort and developed an inventory Contaminants, climate change, and resource of PCBs in Russia. During Phase II, feasibility development are contributing factors changing studies were conducted to identify effective col- terrestrial and marine ecosystems and threatening lection, storage, destruction, and remediation the health and abundance of subsistence and techniques, as well as to identify alternative commercially harvested foods. dielectric fluids and technologies to convert and EPA Region 10 initiated an effort in FY 2003 to retrofit facilities so that they produce and use PCB develop a strategy for agency work in the Arctic. alternatives. Phase III, begun in mid-2002, is based A series of meetings were held with key staff and on a pilot project that implemented the use of managers within EPA who are engaged in Arctic- alternative dielectric fluids. The destruction of related work. The purpose was to gain insights PCBs in active use in Russia has begun. about priorities and develop a better understand- ing of current activities, as well as the staff and General Assistance Program Grants offices supporting them. Conversations with Alaska EPA Region 10 continues to support capacity tribes and Native organizations also occurred dur- building for Federally recognized tribes in Washing- ing FY 2003 and will continue in FY 2004. Input ton, Oregon, Idaho, and Alaska for managing com- obtained from these discussions will be used to munity-based environmental protection programs. shape the emerging strategy. The total General Assistance Program (GAP) A draft EPA Region 10 Arctic strategy will be investment, while not represented in the research released in FY 2004 for agency review. The draft budget, represents an annual investment of over will propose EPA’s role in the Arctic and serve as a $21 million for Region 10 across the four states, guide or framework for wider agency discussion with approximately $17.5 million going to Alaska on developing EPA infrastructure and interest in Tribes. the Arctic consistent with the agency’s mission. Access by Alaska Native villages to GAP funds The strategy is likely to include key research rec- has resulted in research to develop sustainable ommendations (such as sources, transport path- technologies amenable to the Arctic bush that ways, and impacts of contaminants) and identify assist in achieving local environmental goals. Fund- opportunities to mitigate risk.

136 Department of Transportation

The Department of Transportation’s Arctic and cold weather programs cover transportation issues in the air, on land, and at sea and are conducted by the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Highway Administration, and the Maritime Administration.

Federal Aviation Federal Highway Administration Administration The FAA’s Capstone Program is an urgent ini- The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) tiative to improve commercial flight safety in west- coordinates a number of activities aimed at ern Alaska. It is a joint industry and FAA Alaskan improving safety, mobility, productivity, environ- Region effort to improve aviation safety and effi- mental quality, and national security on the ciency by putting cost-effective, new-technology nation’s highways with respect to weather threats. avionics equipment into aircraft and providing the It includes research to advance the state of the art supporting ground infrastructure. concerning road weather management tools, as The demonstration areas are non-radar environ- well as documentation and promotion of the best ments where most of the air carrier operations practices. have been limited to visual flight rules. Capstone The Road Weather Management Program has is equipping aircraft used by commercial operators documented the best practices of maintenance in the area with a government-furnished avionics managers, traffic managers, and emergency man- package that uses a global positioning system agers in response to various weather threats. In (GPS). In addition to the avionics suites, Capstone May 2003, FHWA released Version 2.0 of the Best is deploying equipment for weather observation, Practices for Road Weather Management CD- data link communications, surveillance, and flight ROM. This resource contains 30 case studies of information services. systems in 21 states that improve roadway opera- Capstone has also increased the number of air- tions in adverse weather, a listing of over 200 pub- ports served by an instrument approach and now lications related to road weather management, and enables radar-like instrument flight rule (IFR) air an overview of environmental sensor technolo- traffic control services. A significant number of gies, as well as online resources. Each case study mid-air collisions, controlled flight into terrain, has six sections, including a general description and weather-related accidents can be avoided with of the system, system components, operational new technologies incorporated into the Capstone procedures, resulting transportation outcomes, avionics package. implementation issues, and contact information The University of Alaska Anchorage is con- and references. ducting training for Capstone participants and is One example of successful road weather man- performing an in-depth safety study and assess- agement was when the maintenance division of For more information ment of the Capstone program. the Montana’s Department of Transportation (DOT) on Capstone, visit http:// Phase II of Capstone will move to southeast used mobile anti-icing and de-icing strategies to www.alaska.faa.gov/ capstone or call James Alaska, a more environmentally challenging proactively respond to winter storms. When per- Call at 907-271-3771. area of the state. As with Phase I in the Yukon– formance was compared to a maintenance division Kuskokwim Delta, Capstone plans to equip that used reactive treatment after storms, it was aircraft used by commercial operators and deploy found that average labor, materials, and equipment a ground system that will support a usable IFR costs for the proactive division were 37% lower. infrastructure and improve communications. Additionally the level of service was higher on

137 road sections treated by the proactive division, stration will be used to enhance the prototype resulting in safety and mobility improvements. prior to a second demonstration planned from The Maintenance Decision Support System December 2003 to March 2004. Version 2.0 of the (MDSS) project is a multi-year effort to develop MDSS software will be released in the fall of 2003. and field test decision support components for Such products support the FHWA deployment winter maintenance managers. The MDSS was strategy, which consists of the private sector designed by a consortium of national laboratories, building end-to-end products based on the core based on requirements articulated by maintenance MDSS functionality. These products will be pro- managers, to help the managers improve the level cured by public agencies such as state DOTs, of service on roadways during winter weather and enabling both the private and public sectors to to minimize road treatment costs by optimizing the benefit from millions of dollars of high-risk use of labor, materials, and equipment. This data research. Additional information on management tool has advanced weather and road the MDSS project can be condition prediction capabilities, including air and found at http:// Maritime Administration www.rap.ucar.edu/ pavement temperatures, precipitation start and projects/rdwx_mdss. stop times, precipitation types, and accumulation MARAD is the advocate for commercial ship- amounts. These predictions are fused with cus- building in the Federal government, and it pro- tomized maintenance managers’ rules of practice vides expertise and support services to other Fed- to generate route-specific treatment recommenda- eral agencies in this technical area. In 2003 the tions, such as strategy, timing, and material appli- NSF signed a Memorandum of Agreement with cation rates. MARAD for the conduct of a number of technical From February to April 2003 the MDSS proto- studies related to a new-generation polar research type was demonstrated and evaluated in three vessel. Prior to this, however, two workshops were Iowa DOT maintenance garages. The main display held to determine the scientific and operational of the demonstration prototype includes predicted requirements for the vessel for possible opera- weather and road conditions, a weather parameter tions in the first half of the 21st century in the Ant- selection menu, a map of roads and weather alerts, arctic. Those requirements are being translated and forecast animation controls. into a set of technical criteria to assess the size Lessons learned from the preliminary demon- and characteristics of the vessel.

138 Department of Homeland Security

DHS supports Arctic research through the U.S. Coast Guard, which operates polar icebreakers as national polar research assets for Arctic oceanographic expeditions of both government and nongovernment researchers.

Funding (thousands) U.S. Coast Guard FY 02 FY 03 Arctic Science/Logistics Support 59,730 37,834 Icebreakers Extramural Science Support 30 30 Total 59,760 37,864 The Coast Guard supports Arctic research through its operation of three polar icebreakers, USCGC Polar Sea and USCGC Polar Star, which these vessels. Laboratories and living areas were serve as high-latitude research platforms in both expanded to allow up to 32 scientists and techni- the Arctic and Antarctic, and the new polar ice- cians to embark on scientific cruises. Upgraded breaker USCGC Healy, which started Arctic sci- oceanographic winches, new cargo and science ence cruises in 2001. Support of Arctic research gear handling systems, expanded lab spaces, new by the U.S. Coast Guard dates back to the 1880s, oceanographic instrumentation, and new commu- when voyages on revenue cutters were made by nications and satellite data acquisition systems scientists, including the renowned naturalist John significantly improved the research capabilities of Muir on the Revenue Cutter Corwin in 1881 and the Polar-class vessels. others on the Revenue Cutter Bear commanded Since 2001, severe Antarctic ice conditions by Captain Michael Healy in the 1880s and 1890s. have critically reduced the service life of the Polar Arctic research aboard Coast Guard icebreakers Sea and Polar Star. The condition of Polar Star intensified in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when and Polar Sea will pose a challenge to the Coast the prospect of increased oil and gas exploration Guard and stakeholders in the U.S. polar research in the Alaskan Arctic required ecological baseline program. surveys in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. The Coast Guard icebreakers Northwind, Burton USCGC Healy Island, and Glacier supported these cruises. To meet the expanding needs of the future, the In the 1980s these vessels were decommissioned Coast Guard commissioned a new research plat- as the Polar-class icebreakers joined the fleet. form designed primarily for Arctic science, though capable of work in the Antarctic as well. The new Polar-Class Icebreakers vessel, USCGC Healy, was built by Avondale The two Polar-class icebreakers were designed Industries in New Orleans, Louisiana. Healy is 420 to carry out a range of missions in the Arctic, ft long, has a beam of 82 ft, and displaces 16,000 including escorting non-icebreaking vessels long tons. The maximum speed is 17 knots, with through the ice, resupplying military and research a range of 16,000 nautical miles at 12.5 knots. bases, and supporting scientific operations. In Healy’s primary mission is to function as a world- recent years the role of the Polar-class vessels in class high-latitude research platform. Healy is able research has expanded as more complex projects to conduct scientific operations during all seasons and larger science teams placed added require- in the Arctic, including wintering over for planned ments on these ships. This led to a major upgrade missions. of their capabilities in 1987 through the Polar Sci- The scientific support capabilities of Healy ence Upgrade Project, a five-year program to substantially surpass those provided by the Polar- enhance the scientific support capabilities of class icebreakers. The ship is able to accommodate

139 35 scientists on a routine basis and provide surge three rams. Healy transited the Northwest Passage accommodations for up to 50. Over 5,000 square in July and arrived at Seattle on 9 August. The feet of science lab and support space is provided, ship was commissioned on 21 August 2000. including a main science lab, a wet science lab, a During the first science cruises in 2001, Healy biological and chemical analysis lab, an electron- conducted successful cruises in the eastern Arctic ics lab, a meteorology lab, and a photography lab. Ocean, including the North Pole. In addition Healy has five hydraulically operated cranes, two oceanographic winches, and a double- Arctic Research Cruises drum core/trawl winch. It also provides over 4,000 square feet of open deck space and 20,000 cubic The Coast Guard’s major Arctic research efforts feet of scientific storage space in three cargo supported during the past two years were the Arc- holds. Installed bathymetric and oceanographic tic West Cruises aboard Polar Star and Healy in instrumentation includes a bottom profiling sys- 2002, and the Arctic East and West Cruises aboard tem, a Seabeam bottom mapping sonar system, an Healy in 2003. XBT data acquisition unit, and an acoustic Dop- pler current profiler. Lab spaces are equipped with USCGC Polar Star 2002 After returning from Operation Deep Freeze 2002 on 14 April and following shipyard and dock- side repairs, Polar Star departed on July 9 for the Arctic West Summer 2002 (AWS-02) mission for the multi-year Western Arctic Shelf–Basin Interac- tions (SBI) project. These studies, funded by the National Science Foundation and the Office of Naval Research, were aimed at understanding the flux of carbon and water properties (nutrients, tem- perature, and salinity) from the surrounding conti- nental shelf into the Arctic Ocean basins and their relation to climate dynamics. Polar Star’s effort was conducted in two phases. SBI 2002 Mooring Cruise. The first 30-day phase of AWS-02 began 15 July with the science party, led by Dr. Thomas Weingartner of the Uni- versity of Alaska, embarking from Dutch Harbor USCGC Healy enters the a science data network providing 120 dual fiber- and then transiting to the northern edge of the ice for the first time, optic-connected Ethernet ports throughout the Chukchi Sea to study physical oceanography. April 2000. science spaces for real-time data transfer between During the cruise, 13 moorings were deployed for data processors, workstations, and printers. In measuring oceanographic parameters for a period addition there is a dedicated Inmarsat-B with high- of one year. Data were also collected from 80 casts speed data transmission and e-mail capabilities for using conductivity, temperature, and density scientists. (CTD) sensors and the rosette water sampler at After delivery on 9 November 1999 by Litton- different depths. In addition, 36 expendable Avondale Industries, Healy underwent a period probes (XCTDs) were launched. Institutions par- of fitting-out availability and propulsion system ticipating in Phase One included the University of repairs. The ship departed New Orleans on 26 Jan- Alaska Fairbanks, the Woods Hole Oceanographic uary 2000 to conduct machinery, hull, and science Institute, the University of Washington, and the suite testing. Initial warm-water trials were com- Scripps Institute of Oceanography. pleted in March. Ice trials were conducted from SBI 2002 Chuckchi Borderlands Cruise. The April to June in Baffin Bay in the eastern Arctic. Phase Two science party, led by Chief Scientist Dr. Healy performed well, with icebreaking perfor- Rebecca Woodgate of the University of Washing- mance exceeding design requirements of 3.0 knots ton, embarked from Barrow, Alaska, on 19 August through 4.5 ft of ice. The maximum thickness of for a five-week cruise that extended Phase One unbroken level ice encountered was 5.5 ft, which studies farther north and west into the Beaufort Healy transited at a continuous speed of 2.6 Sea. Water column samples were analyzed for knots. Ice ridges of 45 ft were broken through in chemical tracers, including radioisotopes and

140 chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs) to calculate the stations near Point Barrow, and the Barrow Can- contribution to the Arctic Ocean from Arctic rivers yon transect. and Pacific water masses and how these might be Physical, biogeochemical, and biological mea- changing in response to climate dynamics. Gail surements were made using a variety of sampling Grimes, a high school science teacher participating devices. Subsamples from four CTD/rosette casts in the Teachers Exploring Antarctica and the Arctic were used for primary production, chlorophyll (TEA) project, was on the cruise. Her postings are content, nutrients, particulate carbon, inorganic online at http://psc.apl.washington.edu/HLD/CBL/ carbon, biomarkers, microzooplankton, and radio- Teacher/Webcode/index.html. isotopes. Various nets were used to collect zoo- Phase Two ended with the collection of 126 plankton for both population and experimental CTD and water-sampling profiles and 40 XBTs. purposes. Benthic grabs and cores were used to The mission also successfully deployed and collect benthic fauna and sediment samples for recovered all of a series of current meter moorings population, community structure, food web, and along the northern edge of the Chukchi Sea. The metabolism studies. Scientists were lowered to the current meter data were used to document the ice to collect ice cores and make in-situ measure- transport of Pacific waters and continental shelf ments of the ice. Shipboard marine mammal sur- materials into the Central Arctic Basin. The institu- veys from the bridge were made by the U.S. Fish tions participating in Phase II included the Univer- and Wildlife Service. Helicopter operations were sity of Alaska Fairbanks, the University of Wash- used for ice reconnaissance and for observing and ington, the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, the photographing marine mammals. Lamont–Dougherty Earth Observatory, and Lake The institutions participating included the Stevens High School, Lake Stevens, Washington. University of Tennessee, the University of Miami, Old Dominion University, Oregon State University, USCGC Healy 2002 the University of Alaska Fairbanks, the Lamont– On 27 April Healy sailed for the five-month Dougherty Earth Observatory, the University of AWS 2002 mission to support two multidisci- Rhode Island, the Scripps Institution of Oceanog- plinary projects: the Western Arctic Shelf–Basin raphy, the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, the Interactions (SBI) project and the Marine Climate Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans, the and Relative Sea Level Across Central Beringia University of Texas, the University of Colorado, project. Each project consisted of two phases, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. separated in time. General summaries of each of During the Healy SBI summer 2002 cruise the phases are provided below, with links to more (17 July–23 August), led by Dr. Lee Cooper of specific information. the University of Tennessee, 15 interdisciplinary Western Arctic Shelf–Basin Interactions (SBI). research projects participated, ranging from The SBI project is a multiyear, interdisciplinary hydrographic measurements to biological studies program to investigate the impact of global of various tropic levels. Forty-five stations were change on physical, biological, and geochemical occupied for hydrographic and biological sam- processes over the Chukchi and Beaufort Sea pling using the same systems described above shelf basin regions in the western Arctic Ocean. for the Healy SBI spring 2002 cruise. Betty The SBI project is jointly sponsored by the Carvellas, a high school teacher participating in National Science Foundation and the Office of the TEA project, was aboard. Her web site may Naval Research and consists of 14 ongoing be found at http://tea. rice.edu/ tea_carvellas research projects. More information is available frontpage.html. at the SBI website (http://sbi.utk.edu). The institutions participating included the During the Healy SBI spring 2002 cruise (5 May– University of Tennessee; the University of Miami; 14 June), led by Dr. Jackie Grebmeier of the Univer- Old Dominion University; Oregon State University; sity of Tennessee, 12 interdisciplinary research the University of Rhode Island; the Scripps Insti- projects participated, ranging from hydrographic tution of Oceanography; the Bedford Institute of measurements to biological studies of various Oceanography; the Canadian Department of Fish- trophic levels. Thirty-nine stations were occupied eries and Oceans; the University of Colorado; in the northern Bering Sea (test station), the Chuk- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; Essex chi Sea shelf (Herald Valley transect), the Chukchi High School in Essex, Vermont; Bigelow Labora- outer shelf to Arctic Basin lines (West Hanna tory; the University of Washington; ESRI; the Shoal and East Hanna Shoal transect lines), University of South Carolina; Bermuda Biological

141 Station; the National Science Foundation; CBS USCGC Healy 2003 News; the Associated Press; and USA Today. On 13 June, Healy sailed toward the Panama Marine Climate and Relative Sea Level Canal for a five-month mission circumnavigating Across Central Beringia. Research for this the North American continent and conducting project was led by Chief Scientist Dr. Lloyd science operations in Baffin Bay, as well as north Keigwin of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute of Alaska. Science operations on Healy during and colleagues Neal Driscoll of the Scripps Insti- AEWS 2003 included the Nares Strait Expedition, tution of Oceanography and Julie Brigham-Grette Northwest Passage Transit, Chukchi Cap Map- of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. ping, and SBI Mooring Cruise. The study, which focused on the relationship Nares Strait Expedition. The five-year Cana- between the seafloor and the Bering Land Bridge dian Archipelago Throughflow Study (CATS) is a that had connected Alaska and Russia, was the contribution to the U.S. Global Change Program. first coring program on the new icebreaker Further information about the CATS project may Healy. Additional measurements were made be found at http://newark.cms.udel.edu/~cats. The with hull-mounted and towed sonar arrays and summer expedition to Nares Strait between north- with the CTD device. Further information may ern Greenland and Ellesmere Islands contributed be found at http://www.geo.umass.edu/beringia/ to the first-ever simultaneous tracking of the major index.html. freshwater fluxes out of the Arctic Ocean. The During the first phase, which departed Nome freshwater flux from the Arctic into the North on 16 June and returned on 6 July, measurements Atlantic constitutes a key process that impacts were made in three areas of the northern Bering the thermohaline ocean circulation and thus global Sea: the Navarin Pervents Canyon, the Bowers climate. In conjunction with concurrent European Ridge, and Briston/Bering Canyons. To assess studies east of Greenland, the Nares Strait Expedi- potential coring sites, high-resolution maps of the tion tested the hypothesis that the freshwater seafloor bathymetry and sub-bottom were made fluxes through the Canadian Archipelago are with Healy’s multi-beam sonar and with a towed similar in size to those through the Fram Strait chirp sonar. At each coring station, samples of between Greenland and Norway. seafloor sediments were taken in the following During this interdisciplinary cruise, led by order: a gravity core, then if conditions allowed, Chief Scientist Dr. Kelly Falkner of Oregon State a multi-core, and finally a jumbo piston core (JPC). University and co-chief scientist Dr. Humfrey Mel- During the mission, data were obtained during 18 ling of the Canadian Department of Fisheries and chirp sonar tows, 14 CDTs, 24 gravity cores, 14 Oceans’ Institute of Ocean Sciences, the main multi-cores, and 9 JPCs, including one 80 ft long, activities were deploying the Nares Strait pressure- a Healy record. The institutions involved in this measuring array, conducting hydrographic sur- phase include Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- veys of northern Baffin Bay and Nares Strait, tute, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the recovering bottom-dwelling clams, coring into bot- University of Massachusetts Amherst, Princeton tom sediments of Baffin Bay and Nares Strait, and University, the University of Kentucky, West conducting ADCP surveys to produce current Washington University, and the University of velocity surveys of Nares Strait. Eighteen moor- Delaware. ings were installed during deployment of the During the second phase, which departed Nares Strait array, which records the pressure field Nome on 26 August and arrived in Barrow on 16 that forces the fluxes of seawater through the September, operations were identical except a strait. The array will be recovered in the spring of fourth bottom sampling device, the vibracore, 2005. Coast Guard divers were used in the installa- was added. During the mission, 3 gravity cores, tion of the pressure-measuring array moorings as 3 multi-cores, 23 JPCs, and 11 vibracores were well as the collection of bottom-dwelling clams. taken. Institutions involved in this project include Data from 79 casts of the CTD/rosette package Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, the Scripps were used to produce detailed hydrographic sec- Institution of Oceanography, the University of tions in northern Baffin Bay, Smith Sound, south- Massachusetts Amherst, Princeton University, the ern Kennedy Channel, and Robeson Channel. University of Kentucky, West Washington Uni- Additional casts were made in the heretofore versity, the University of Delaware, the University unsampled Peterman Glacier Fiord and the Hall of Alaska Fairbanks, Old Dominion University, and Basin. Four piston cores were taken in the area off the New York Times. Bylot Island, and one gravity core was taken in

142 Hall Basin. Two high school teachers, Gerhard by Chief Scientist Dr. Larry Mayer of the University Behrens and Robert McCarthy, were aboard. Their of New Hampshire, was to map the seafloor north web sites may be found at http://newark.cms.udel. of Alaska for use in future EEZ claims. Under Arti- edu/~cats/healy_2003/update/gerhardindex.html cle 76 of the U.N. Convention on the Law of the and http://newark.cms.udel.edu/~cats/healy_2003/ Sea, a country may claim rights to the seafloor update/bobindex.html. beyond the normal EEZ limit. Key pieces of evi- The institutions included Oregon State Univer- dence to support a claim are the locations of the sity; the Institute of Ocean Sciences of the Cana- 2,500-meter depth contour and the foot of the con- dian Department of Fisheries and Oceans; Adams tinental slope. Although the U.S. has not ratified the Elementary School of Corvallis, Oregon; Governor convention, it is gathering data to support future Mifflin High School of Reading, Pennsylvania; the claims. While the U.S. has made significant progress University of Delaware; the University of Hawaii; in temperate zones, this is the first Law of the Sea Environment Canada; the University of Victoria; bottom mapping survey in the Arctic Ocean. the Bedford Institute of Oceanography; the Uni- During the multibeam sonar survey of the con- versity of Rhode Island; New York University; and tinental slope north of Alaska, 1,530 nautical miles the Canadian Ice Service, as well as a freelance of the 2,500-meter-depth contour were mapped, journalist and a representative from the Grise Fiord and a new seamount, subsequently named Healy Inuit village Seamount, was discovered. In addition, the cruise Northwest Passage Transit. During the 19–30 observed water depths greater than 4,000 meters, August transit from Thule, Greenland, to Barrow, depths not previously measured in the Amerasian Alaska, Healy sailed the Northwest Passage by Basin. Before this Healy cruise, charts of the Arc- way of Prince of Wales Strait. A Ship of Opportu- tic bottom showed only a small knoll where scien- nity (SOO) underway data collection effort was tists discovered the seamount, which abruptly coordinated by David Forcucci, Healy’s Science rises more than 3,000 meters from the ocean floor Liaison. During the transit Chief Scientist Dale to approximately 925 meters of depth. During this Chayes of Lamont–Dougherty Earth Observatory cruise, it was demonstrated that an icebreaker’s of Columbia University and David Monahan of multibeam sonar could successfully map the sea- the Canadian Hydrographic Office and the Univer- floor while the icebreaker is breaking ice. sity of New Brunswick collected underway data The cruise also added important information including multibeam bathymetry. Collection of about ice age glaciation and past climates. Ran- ADCP data and thermosalinographic data were domly oriented seafloor scours, mapped at depths supported by the U.S. Coast Guard. Expendable of 300–400 meters, gave evidence of large icebergs probe (XCTD) launches were coordinated by Dr. scraping the seafloor. Parallel flutes, or grooves Kathy Crane of NOAA’s Arctic Research Office mapped at greater depths, provided clues to the and Dr. Eddy Carmack of the Institute of Ocean motion of huge ice sheets creeping across what is Sciences of the Canadian Department of Fisheries today the continental shelf. A sediment core from and Oceans. Marine mammal and seabird observa- the continental slope will be studied for insights tions were made by Marc Weber of the U.S. Fish into past periods of climate variability. Addition- and Wildlife Service and Stephanie Burkhart of the ally, temperature and salinity data at stations U.S. Coast Guard. spread across the survey area were collected to Institutions involved in this effort included the study water masses and circulation. Further infor- Canadian Hydrographic Office, the University of mation is available at http://www.noaanews.noaa. New Brunswick, the Institute of Ocean Sciences of gov/stories2003/s2137.htm and http://www.ccom- the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans, jhc.unh.edu/healy/index.htm. the Lamont–Dougherty Earth Observatory of Scientists were from the University of New Columbia University, NOAA’s National Marine Hampshire, the Lamont–Dougherty Earth Obser- Fishery Service, NOAA’s Arctic Research Office, vatory of Columbia University, NOAA’s Arctic the National Ice Center, the Canadian Ice Service, Research Office, NOAA’s Office of Exploration, the U.S. Navy Arctic Submarine Laboratory, Mis- the Naval Research Laboratory, the U.S. Navy sissippi State University, Brookhaven National Arctic Submarine Laboratory, the University of Laboratory, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Stockholm, the Geological Survey of Denmark and U.S. Coast Guard, and the University of Delaware. Greenland, and the Danish Hydrographic Agency. Chukchi Cap Mapping Cruise. The purpose of SBI 2003 Mooring Cruise. During the period the next phase of AEWS 2003, a ten-day cruise led 11 September to 18 October, Chief Scientist Dr.

143 Rebecca Woodgate of the University of Washing- of iceberg drift models, including one recently ton led a cruise in support of the SBI project. developed by CIS. Although this research After recovering moorings that had been on the occurred south of the Arctic Circle, it has direct ocean floor since the 2002 deployment by Polar relevance to high-latitude navigation and is an Star, scientists transferred data from the array’s integral part of the Coast Guard’s Marine Science sensors and then redeployed the moorings. Program. Sonobuoys were deployed for recording sounds The iceberg-detection effort is part of the from whales. The cruise also conducted CTD, Global Monitoring for Environment and Security ADCP, and multibeam surveys; net tows; and (GMES) program, which is co-led by the European remote determination of plankton concentration Space Agency (ESA) and the European Commis- using a video plankton recorder (VPR). During the sion (EC). IIP is participating as an end user in the cruise there were 14 mooring recoveries and 15 program called Northern View: Earth Observation mooring deployments. Extensive data were collected for Northern Monitoring, which is led by C-CORE, during 321 CTD casts, 34 VPR casts, 11 net tows, a research and development corporation located in 63 XBTs, 70 sonobuoys, and 35 days of ADCP St. John’s, Newfoundland. Under the program, and multibeam surveys. C-CORE provides IIP the location of icebergs The institutions included the University of obtained from the analysis of images by the syn- Alaska Fairbanks, the Woods Hole Oceanographic thetic aperture radar on two satellites, Canada’s Institute, the University of Washington, the RADARSAT-1 and ESA’s ENVISAT. During 2003, Scripps Institute of Oceanography, the University IIP compared the satellite observations with of Maryland, Brookhaven National Laboratory, observations from other sources, including IIP’s Earth and Space Research, the University of Dela- aerial reconnaissance. This program will continue ware, the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, throughout the 2004 iceberg season. Louisiana State University, NOAA, and the Uni- The second program is a joint IIP and CIS effort versity of New Hampshire. to evaluate the accuracy of the operational iceberg drift model used by the two organizations and a International Ice Patrol new model created by CIS. In 2003, IIP deployed a satellite-tracked transponder onto a fragment of an The Coast Guard International Ice Patrol (IIP), ice island and tracked its movement for 14 days. located in Groton, Connecticut, participated in two The movement of the ice island fragment was com- research programs, one an iceberg-detection pared with model predictions. In 2004, additional study using satellite-borne radar systems and the ice beacons will be deployed by aircraft onto ice- other a cooperative research program with the bergs, and their observed movement will be com- Canadian Ice Service (CIS) to test the accuracy pared to the model predictions.

144 Department of State

The Department of State continues to be involved in multilateral and bilateral activities related to environmental protection, sustainable development, and scientific research in the Arctic.

In the international arena, U.S. policy in the ported important initiatives on environmental pro- Arctic focuses on environmental protection and tection and sustainable development. The U.S. sustainable development. In 1991 the United continues to pursue these goals and remains a States, along with Canada, Denmark, Finland, Ice- leader on the Council. In 2002 the U.S. assumed land, Norway, the Russian Federation, and Swe- the chair of CAFF and in 2003 the chair of the Arc- den, became signatories to the Arctic Environmen- tic Council Action Plan to Eliminate Pollution in tal Protection Strategy (AEPS), a high-level forum the Arctic (ACAP). Finland chaired the Council in designed to identify priorities for regional cooper- 2000–2002, and Iceland assumed the chair for ation with regard to environmental protection in 2002–2004. Russia has indicated its willingness to the Arctic. Organizations representing the Arctic chair the Council for 2004–2006. indigenous communities were admitted as Perma- The State Department has provided financial nent Participants to the AEPS. support for many recent Council initiatives. The In 1996 the eight Arctic countries signed a Department contributed to an ACAP activity to declaration establishing the Arctic Council and reduce dioxins and furans. The ACAP, approved expanding its mandate to deal with issues of sus- at the 2000 ministerial meeting in Barrow, Alaska, tainable development. The Council now includes outlines actions to address some of the pollution four environmental working groups: threats in the Arctic identified during the first • Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program AMAP assessments, such as PCBs, pesticides, (AMAP); and mercury. The State Department provided • Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna funds to support U.S. authors’ contributions to (CAFF); the Arctic Human Development Report, a compre- • Emergency Prevention, Preparedness, and hensive and scientifically based overview and Response (EPPR); and assessment of human conditions in the entire cir- • Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment cumpolar region written for the nonspecialist. The (PAME). State Department contributed to developing and A fifth subsidiary body, the Sustainable Develop- implementing integrated ecosystem management ment Working Group (SDWG), was established at strategies in the Russian Arctic, and it supported the Arctic Council’s Ministerial meeting in Iqaluit, the Arctic Council’s work at the New York prepara- Canada, in 1998. The Council’s six Permanent Par- tory meeting and the 2002 World Summit on Sus- ticipants represent indigenous Arctic residents; tainable Development. The Department helped four count Native communities in Alaska among fund the participation of indigenous residents of their members. The Permanent Participants sit at Alaska in the Arctic Council, contributing to the the Arctic Council table and are a source of tradi- Indigenous Peoples Secretariat and supporting tional knowledge for many council studies. indigenous Alaskan delegates’ travel to Arctic The U.S. served as the second chair of the Arc- Council meetings and an all-Alaska delegation to tic Council in 1998–2000. The State Department’s the Taking Wing conference on gender equality in Office of Oceans Affairs, which represents the the Arctic. U.S. on the Council, housed the Council’s secre- Another Arctic Council initiative backed by the tariat during the U.S. chairmanship. During this U.S. is the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment time, the State Department improved the flow of (ACIA). With NOAA and NSF funding, this com- communication among Council members and sup- prehensive effort, which has the support of all

145 Council members, will evaluate and synthesize project of the Arctic Council over the last two knowledge on climate change, climate variability, fiscal years. and increased ultraviolet radiation and their con- As coordinator of U.S. international policy con- sequences on the Arctic environment. The final cerning the Arctic, the Department of State wel- reports are expected in November 2004. comes input from individuals and agencies with In the area of sustainable development, the an interest in participating in the work of the Arc- U.S. focuses on human health in the Arctic. The tic Council or contributing to the knowledge base State Department, along with the State of Alaska, that underlies the Council’s working groups. Inter- is coordinating Council members’ activities in the ested parties are encouraged to visit the Arctic area of telemedicine. The State Department sup- Council web site at http://www.arctic-council.org. ports the project led by the Centers for Disease The web site lists current and future activities of Control and Prevention on emerging infectious the Council, as well as the names and addresses diseases in the Arctic. The State Department also of individuals and secretariats related to specific provided funding to Alaska for the ecotourism aspects of the Council’s work.

146 Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee Staff The following individuals are the principal staff representatives for the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee. Additional staff support is provided by the Federal agencies for specific activities through working groups, as necessary.

Richard Cline James Devine U.S. Forest Service U.S. Geological Survey Department of Agriculture Department of Interior Washington, DC 20090 Reston, Virginia 22092 dcline/[email protected] [email protected] John Calder Waleed Abdalati National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Aeronautics and Space Administration Department of Commerce Washington, DC 20546 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 [email protected] [email protected] Charles E. Myers John Stubstad National Science Foundation Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Arlington, Virginia 22230 Science and Technology [email protected] Arlington, VA 22209 Igor Krupnik [email protected] Smithsonian Institution Wanda Ferrell Washington, DC 20560 Department of Energy [email protected] Washington, DC 20545 Sarah K. Brandel [email protected] Department of State Suzanne K.M. Marcy Washington, DC 20520 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [email protected] Anchorage, AK 99513 Richard Voelker [email protected] Maritime Administration Philip S. Chen, Jr. Department of Transportation National Institutes of Health Washington, DC 20590 Department of Health and Human Services [email protected] Bethesda, Maryland 20892 [email protected] Thomas Wojahn U.S. Coast Guard Department of Homeland Security Washington, DC 20593 [email protected]

147 Illustration Pages 17, 18, 19, and 20: Minerals Management Service. Pages 27, 30 (top and bottom), and 31 (top, middle, and bottom): Fish and Wildlife Service. Page 29: Ron Opsahl, Fish and Wildlife Service. Page 34: Credits Carolyn Parker, National Park Service. Page 35 (bottom): Fredrik Dalerum, National Park Service. Page 35 (top): Peter Neitlich, National Park Service. Page 36: Claudia Ihl, National Park Service. Page 37 (top and bottom): National Park Service. Pages 38, 42 (bottom), 43, and 44: Bureau of Land Management. Page 41: Randi Jandt. Page 42 (top): Jennifer Hrobak. Page 55: Roseann Densmore, U.S. Geological Survey. Pages 56, 57, 58 (top and bottom), 59, 60 (top and bottom), and 61: U.S. Geological Survey. Pages 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, and 69: Department of Defense. Pages 71 and 73: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Page 72: D. Cavalieri. Page 74: K. Steffen. Page 76: J. Yungel. Page 77 (top): Paul A. Newman. Page 77 (bottom): AROTAL lidar team. Pages 100 (top and bottom), 101, and 102 (top and bottom): Department of Agriculture. Page 105 (top): Alaska Department of Natural Resources. Page 105 (bottom): Anadarko Petroleum Corporation. Page 107: Department of Energy. Page 121: George Kobelnyk, National Transpor- tation Safety Board. Page 122 (top left): Brad Husberg, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Page 122 (top right): Hon Kinzie. Page 122 (bottom): Brad Husberg, National Institute for Occu- pational Safety and Health. Page 123 (top): Jensen Maritime Consultants. Page 123 (bottom): Alaska Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Pages 127 and 129: Smithsonian Institution. Page 128: Chester Noongwook. Page 131: U.S. National Archives. Page 140: U.S. Coast Guard.

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