NOTES

CHAPTER 1

1. , On (New York: Viking, 1965),20. 2. On the introdu ction ofthe term revolution in intellectual history, see IIan Rachum , "R evolution": The Entrance of a New World into Western Political Discourse (Lanham, MD : University Press of America, 1999). 3. This assumption was shared even by those who argued that "there is no agreed definition of revolution"; see Mattei Dogan and John Higley, "Elites, Crises, and Regimes in Comparative Analysis," in Elites, Crises, and the Origins of Regimes, cds. Mattei Dogan and John Higley (Lanham, MD : Rowman and Littlefield, 1998),9. The y stated that "constitu ted political crises of the highest order," leading to a situation where "political power is up for grabs." It was implied here that the new order, although resting on the foun­ dation of the old political and social system, would nevertheless be different. 4. Arendt, On Revolution, 112; Fred Halliday, R evolution and World : The Rise and Fall ofthe Sixth Great Power(Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999); , "History and Sociological Imagining," Tocqueville R eview 15 (1994); 65 . Tilly, though skepti­ cal about patterns of revolution development, still believes one can see some general features. For him, revolution consisted ofrapid and visible depreciation ofstate power, divisions in control over the major means of coercion, formation of antiregime coalitions, and other political shifts that neither guaranteed revolution nor const ituted parts ofthe definition. Political scientists even tried to deuniversalize the Marxist theory of revolution that provided, at least in general outline, a universal pattern for revolutionary upheavals, claiming that "Marx did not try to create a general theory of the revolution rele­ vant to all kinds ofsocieties at all times." See Theda Skocpol, Social 186 NOT ES

Revolutions in the Modern World (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1994), 121. 5. Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 105. 6. Quoted in ibid. 7. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978). 8. Quoted in Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 133. 9. This was the case with political scientist Samuel Huntington. In his view, a revolution was a rapid, fundamental, violent change in the dominant values and myths of a society in its political institutions, social structure, leadership, government policies, and activities. The collapse of the old order led to the rise of a new one. A "complete revolution" implied "the creation and institutional ization of new political order into which an explosion of popular participation in national affairs is channeled." Quoted in Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 129,133. 10. JackA. Goldstone, "The SovietUnion: Revolution and Transformation," in Elites, Crises, and the Origins ofRegimes, eds. Dogan and Higley, 99 . 11. Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 279 . 12. Karl Griewank, "Emergence of the Concept of Revolution," in Revolutions in Modern European History, ed. Heinz Lubasz (New York: Macmillan, 1966),55. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid., 57. 15. Arendt, On Revolution, 13. 16. Ibid.,20. 17. Ibid., 36. 18. William Sewell, "Ideologies and Social Revolutions: Reflections on the French Case," Journal of Modern History 57 (March, 1985): 57-85, quoted in Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 192 . 19. David Bayley, Patterns of Policing: A Comparative International Analysis(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1985), 132. 20. Emile Durkheim , The Division ofLabor in Society (1893; repr., New York: Free Press, 1984). 21. Pitirim A. Sorokin, The of Revolution (1925; repr., New York: Howard Fertig, 1967). 22. Ibid ., 3. 23. Sorokin's analysis isolated three major types ofculture. See Joseph B. Ford, Michel P. Richard, and Palmer C. Talbutt, eds., Sorokin and Civilization: A Centennial Assessment (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996), 6. 24. Sorokin, Sociology ofRevolution, 3. NOTES 187

25. Ibid ., 12. 26. Jack Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 2001). 27. Sorokin, Sociology ofRevolution, 12. 28. Pitirim Sorokin, Man and Society in Calamity: The Effect of War, Revolution, Famine, Pestilence upon Human Mind, Behavior, Social Owanization, and Cultural Lift (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1963). 29 . Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 125. 30. Richard Pipes, under the Old Regime (New York: Scribner, 1974). 31. Roger Chartier, On the Edge of the Cliff History, Language, and Practice (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 19. See also Keith Michael Baker, Inventing the FrenchRevolution: Essays on French Political Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 32. Sorokin, Man and Society in Calamity, 124.

CHAPTER 2

1. David Bayley, Patterns of Policing: A Comparative International Analysis (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1985),34. 2. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Man and Society in Calamity: The Effect ofWar, Revolution, Famine, Pestilence upon Human Mind, Behavior, Social 0wanization, and Cultural Lift (1942; repr., New York: E. P. Dutton, 1963), 131. This was the first and last attempt to ration sex and provide it along with other commodities. However, something similar introduced much later by some Bolshevik groups included rationing women. 3. Bayley, Patterns ofPolicing, 35 . 4. Ibid ., 3. 5. Ibid ., 28 . 6. Ibid ., 80 . 7. James Shapiro, "Who Is Buried in Virgil's Tomb?" New York Times BookReview, March 21,1999,11. 8. Bayley, Patterns ofPolicing, 32. 9. A recent example would be the collapse of the Taliban in Afghanistan, which led to violent crime (Peter Baker, "Disorder Replaces Taliban in Southern No Man's Land," Washington Post Online, December 11, 2001). A similar process can be seen in revo­ lutions in premodern and non-Western societies, where collapse of strong state power led to proliferation ofviolent crime. 188 NOTES

10. George Simmel, On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971),63. For many premod­ ern people, especially nomads, the job of bandits (raids in search of booty) became so inseparable from their identity that their self-defi­ nition would be freebooter; see George Vernadsky, Mongoly i Rus' (Tver: Lean/Agraf, 1997), trans. as The Mongols and Russia (New Haven, CT : YaleUniversity Press, 1953),298. Their often sedentary adversaries called them "simply 'enemies' or 'robbers.'" Andrew Robert Burn, Persia and the Greeks: The Defense of the West, c. 546-478 B.G. (London: Edward Arnold, 1970),73. The fact that the bandits' job entailed murder and rape did not bother these people, because deep restraint was exercised when deal­ ing with those to whom they were connected by blood ties or friend­ ship. Outside the circle, anything was permitted (Simmel, On Individuality and Social Forms, 262) . "For most of humanity, the tribe is the unit within which killing is considered murder, and out­ side ofwhich killing may be a proofofmanhood and bravery, a pleas­ ure and a duty," Erich Goode, Deviant Behavior (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990), 215 . The culture (it still survives in some places) saw nothing wrong in killing enemies or mere strangers for fun, as a form of entertainment. Maureen Dowd, "Go Fly a Kite, Taliban," New York Times on the Web, November 14, 200l. 11. This practice can be found in modern Africa, for example Congo, which is seemingly endlessly embroiled in ethnic strife and the most macabre atrocities ("U.N . Probes Cannibalism Report in Congo," New York Times, January 8, 2003). In the city of Drodro, 966 peo­ ple were killed in early April 2003. Hamadoun Toure, spokesman for the United Nations force in Congo, commented: "Nearly 1,000 dead-I cannot remember a time when so many were killed in such a short space oftime" ("U.N. Investigates Alleged Civilian Massacre in Congo," New York Times, April 7, 2003). Remarkable also was the nature of those who committed the murders: women and children participated in "the bloody dawn raid." 12. Jean Delumeau and Yves Lcquin, Les malheurs des temps: histoire des fleau« et descalamites en France (Paris: Larousse, 1987),27; Norbert Elias, The History of Manners: The Civilizing Process (New York: Pantheon, 1982), 192. 13. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs des temps, 39. 14. Ibid ., 45. 15. Ibid ., 68. On the invasion of barbarians, see also Fernand Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2 vols. (New York: HarperCollins, 1986-90), 2: 119. 16. Claude Gauvard, «Degrace especial": crime, etat et societeen France iT la fin du Moyen Age (Paris: Sorbonne, 1991),262-63. Until the NOTES 189

nineteenth century, the fight against piracy was an essential aspect of colonial power in the non-European world. Hugh Kennedy, "Rivals to the Freedom of the Seas," Times Literary Supplement, September 4, 1998,25. 17. Simrncl, On Individuality and SocialForms, 332 . 18. Emphasis on loyalty to the ruler was found all over Eurasia, especially in societies with warrior elites. Personal loyalty to the ruler as a car­ dinal virtue was emphasized in the Mongol empire and most nomadic societies. Savitskiieven assumed that the tradition ofkilling a ruler's wives and children and burying them together stems from emphasis on absolute devotion to the leader. Petr Nikolaevich Savitskii, Kontinent Evraziia (Moscow: Agraf, 1997),345. 19. Elias, History ofManners, 195. 20. Ibid ., 193. 21 . Samuel Clark, State and Status: The Rise ofthe State and Aristocratic Power in Western Europe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995),338. 22 . Sorokin, Man and Society, 108. It was not surprising that preparation for war and full immersion in the culture ofviolence was an essential part ofelite life. Direct force to receive wealth and ensure the tlowof goods to the tribute collector was not only an attribute of medieval Europe or premodern societies but also can be seen in post-Soviet Russia, which has socioeconomic conditions strikingly similar to European feudalism. Iuliia Latynina, "Ncpravitclsrvcnnyi Zakhvat," Novaia Gazeta, March 26, 2001. 23 . Victor Davis Hanson, The Wars of the Ancient Greeks (London: Cassell, 2001),67. 24. Herodotus, The Histories (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 62 . 25 . Elias, History ofManners, 195 . 26. Clark, State and Status, 158. 27 . Elias, History ofManners, 194. 28 . Ibid., 195. 29 . This was also the case with the Mongols; see Vernadsky, Mongolsand Russia, 110 . 30. Jorge Arditi, A Genealogy of Manners: Transformations of Social Relations in France and England from the Fourteenth to the Eighteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 62 . 31. Esther Cohen, "Violence Control in Late Medieval France," Legal History Review 51 (1983): 120 . 32. Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 14. 190 NOT ES

33. For a general description of anarchy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, see Barbara W. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (New York: Ballantine, 1979). 34. Dean Keith Simonton, "Do Sorokin's Data Support His Theory: A Study of Generational Fluctuations in Philosophical Beliefs," in Sorokin and Civilization: A Centennial Assessment, eds. Joseph B. Ford, Michel P. Richard, and Palmer C. Talbutt (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996), 197. 35. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Social and Cultural Dynamics, 4 vols. (New York: Bedminster, 1962),2: 49 . 36. A similar process could be seen elsewhere. Soviet Russia in the late 1920s experienced peasant migration to the cities, which eroded the traditional safety net and system of control. Vadim Volkov, "The Concept of 'Kul'turnost,'" in Stalinism: New Directions, ed. Sheila Fitzpatrick (London: Routledge 1999),215. 37. , The Structure of Social Action: A Study in with Special Reference to a Group ofRecent European Writers (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1949),346. 38. Ibid ., 367 . 39. Sorokin, Social and Cultural Dynamics, 3: 177. 40. William Buxton, "Snakes and Ladders: Parsons and Sorokin at Harvard," in Sorokin and Civilization:A Centennial Assessment,eds. Ford, Richard, and Talbutt, 33. 41. Parsons, The Structure ofSocialAction, 375 . 42 . Ibid., 372 . 43. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Society, Culture, and Personality: Their Structure and Dynamics: A System of General Sociology (New York: Cooper Square, 1969),92.

CHAPTER 3

1. Some historians argue that population growth and extension ofland under cultivation indicated stability; see Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," Social Science History 1, no. 2 (1977); Jean Delumeau and Yves Lequin, Lesmalheurs destemps:histoiredesfleau« et des calamites en France (Paris: Larousse, 1987), 116, 150, 158. But Jacques Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape: dClinquance et criminal­ itt dans la region dJAvignon au quatorzieme siicle (Paris: Sorbonne, 1984),158, writes about "the demographic, economic, social crisis" in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. See also Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Reconstructing the Poor in Early Sixteenth Century Toulouse ," French History 7, no . 3 (1993): 277. NOTES 191

2. R. J. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron: The Reign ofFrancis I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 356 . On the decline oflaborers' wages, see also Robin W. Winks, Crane Brinton, John B. Christopher, and Robert Wolff, A History of Civilization: Prehistory to the Present (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996),233. 3. Bronislaw Geremek, The MaJ;gins of Society in Late Medieval Paris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987),242-43. 4. Norbert Elias, The History ofManners, The Civilizing Process, vol. I (New York: Pantheon, 1982), 195 . 5. Claude Gauvard, "Degrace especial": crime, etat et societe en France a laftn du Moyen Age (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1991),935; Nicole Gonthier, La chdtiment du crime au Moyen Age XIIe-XVIe (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 1998),205. 6. Claude Gauvard, "Fear of Crime in Late Medieval France," in Medieval Crime and Social Control, eds. Barbara A. Hanawalt and David Wallace (Minneapolis : Press, 1999), 1. See also Gauvard, «Degrace especial,"162, 220. 7. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs; 195 . 8. Barbara A. Hanawalt and David Wallace, eds., Introduction to Medieval Crime and Social Control, xi. On the war and crime see also Gauvard, «Degrace especial"550. 9. Karen Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to State Centralization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994),9. 10. Bloodshed was easy in Europe at the time. Sec Robert Muchembled, "Anthropologie de la violence dans la France moderne (XVe-XVIIIe siecle)," Revue de Synthise I (January-March 1987): 37. 11. George Simmel, On Individuality and SocialForms:SelectedWritings (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971),81. 12. Xuezhi Guo, The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Prospective (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002),134. 13. At the beginning ofthe modern era there was a strong streak ofano­ mization in the fabric of French society. Asocial drives endangered society's very existence. "Durkheim had clearly shown empirically that beyond a certain point the extension of anomie is dangerous to physical life itself." Talcott Parsons, The Structure ofSocial Action:A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of Recent European Writers (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1949), 392. 14. Elias, The History ofManners, xvi, IS. IS. John Bellamy, Crime and Public Order in England in the Later Middle Ages (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973),66. 16. Cohen, "Violence Control in Late Medieval France," 121. 17. Ibid .," 120 . 192 NOT ES

18. The situation is similar in parts ofthe contemporary world that have experienced the collapse ofauthority and culture. 19. Gauvard, "De grace especial," 533 ; Mon ique Bourin and Bernard Chevalier, "Le comp ortement criminel dans lcs pays de la loire moyenne, d'apres les lcttres de remission (vers 1380-vers 1450 )," Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de tJOuest 88 (1981): 254.

20 . Gauvard, -t»grace especial, JJ 1. 21 . Simon Pepper, "Up Close and Personal," Times Literary Supplement, October 26,2001,36. 22 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 25 . 23 . Ibid ., 66, 68. 24. Cohen, "Violence Control," 118. 25. Gauvard, «De g race especial," 166 (on homicide, see also p. 529 ); Chiffolcau, Lesjustices du pape, 162 . 26 . Chiffoleau, Lesj ustices du pape, 156; Nicole Gonthier, "Delinquantes ou victimes: les femmes dans la societe lyonnaise," Revue Historique 271 (1984): 30-31. 27 . Chiffoleau, Les justicesdu pape, 152; Nicole Gonthier, Dilinquance, justice et societe dans le lyonnais medieval: de la fin du XIIIe siecle au debut du XVIe siecle(Paris: Editions Argum ents, 1993 ),324. 28. Stanley 1. Greenspan and Serena Wieder with Robin Simons, The Child with Special N eeds (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1998), 29 . 29 . Cohen, "Violence Control," 119. 30. Chiffoleau, Lesjusticesdu pape, 147 . 31. Gonthier, Delinquance, 72 . 32. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 10. 33. Ibid., 1. 34. Ibid . 35. Ibid., 3. 36. Ibid ., 6. 37. Ibid ., 5. 38. Ibid ., 12. 39. Walter B. Miller, "Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency," in Social Deviance, ed. Erich Goode (: Allyn and Bacon, 1996),105. 40 . Ibid., 106. 41. See, for example, Zavtra, February 19,2002. 42 . Gauvard, «Degrace especial," 268. 43 . Ibid ., 270-71. 44. Gonthier, Delinquance, 171. 45. Samuel Clark, State and Status: The Rise ofthe State and Aristocratic Power in Western Europe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995 ),342. 46 . Simmel, On Individuality and Social Forms, 201 -2. NOT ES 193

47. According to some historians, the banditry could not have spread without the he!p ofthe nobility. Barkey (Bandits and Bureaucrats,S) notes : "Fernand Braude! writes, 'Behind banditry, that terre strial piracy, appeared the continual aid of lords,' an indication that the nobility was attempting to disrupt state-making through such inno­ vative means." 48 . Jean Gallet, "En Bretagne, seigneurie et pouvoir militaire du XVIe au XVIIIe siecle," Revue Historique desArmees 1 (1985): 8. 49. Gauvard, «Degrace especial," 534. 50. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron, 359. 51. Ibid ., 42 . 52. S. H . Cuttler, The Law of Treason and Treason Trials in Later Medieval France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 33. 53. Gauvard, «Degrace especial," 538 . 54. Ibid., 554 . 55. Ibid ., 201. 56. Fernand Braudcl, The Identity of France, 2 vols. (New York: HarperColiins, 1986-1990),2: 160. 57. Gauvard, «Deg race especial," 197 . 58. Geremek, The Mar;ginsofSociety, 130. 59. Ibid ., 246. 60. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 124. 61. Maurice Berthe , Famines et epidemies dans lescampagnes navarraises alafin du Moyen Age (Paris: S.F.I.E .D, 1984), 1: 260, 263 . 62. Gerernck, The Mar;gins ofSociety, 127. 63. Yves Berce, History ofPeasant Revolts: The Social Origins ofRebellion in Early Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990),283. 64. Braude!, The Identity ofFrance, vol. 2, p. 100. 65. Jeffrey Richards, Sex, Dissidenceand Damnation: Minority Groups in the Middle Ages (London: Routledge, 1991), 17. 66. Berce, History ofPeasant Revolts, 100. 67. Gauvard , «Degrace especial," 253-54. 68. Cuttler, The Law ofTreason, 147; Gallet, "En Bretagne," 5-6. 69. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 42 . 70. Ibid., 49 . 71. Ibid ., 46 . 72. Ibid ., 6, 48. 73. Cuttler, The Law ofTreason, 163. 74. Berce, History ofPeasant Revolts, 100,282. 75 . Francois Neveux, "Les marginaux et Ie clerge dans la ville et Ie diocese de Bayeux aux XIVe ct XVe siecles," Cahier des Annales de Normandie 13 (1981): 35-36. 194 NOTES

76. Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2: 161. 77. Ibid ., 160 . 78. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 10. 79. G. W. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," in Medieval and Middle Eastern Studies in Honor ofAziz Suryal Atiya, cd. Sami A. Hanna (Leiden : E. J. Brill, 1972 ), 83. 80 . Gonthier, Delinquance, 170 . 81. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 82. 82 . Elias, The History ofManners, 1: 63. 83. Gonthier, Delinquances, 178 . 84 . Geremek, The Mat;gins ofSociety, 246 . 85. Elias, The History ofManners, 1: 63-64. 86. Ibid ., 177. 87 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Agincourt, Battle of." 88 . Personal gain side by side with high moral standards was in no way limited to the West. In Imperial China an essential characteristic ofa Mandarin bureaucrat was not just knowledge but high moral caliber. Still, what today's West would regard as corruption was seen as essential for a Mandarin bureaucrat to supplement his salary. Paul C. Hickey, "Fcc-Taking, Salary Reform, and the Structure of State Power in Late Qing China, 1909-1911," Modern China 17, no. 3 (1991). 89. The same connection can be found in post-Soviet Russia, which some scholars assert has traits of feudalism. Boris Berezovskii, for example, received wealth from direct connections with Yeltsin. In some cases he behaved exactly as a feudal baron ; he did not formally control the enterprise but worked through his management, who were like vassals from whom he collected a form of tribute. Robert Cottrell, "Mr. Bigsky: Review of Paul Klebnikov," Godfather ofthe Kremlin: Boris Berezovsky and the Looting of Russia (New York: Harcourt, 2000) and Chr ystia Freeland, Sale ofthe Century: Russia's Wild Ride from to Capitalism (New York: Crown, 2000)," New York Review ofBooks, October 19, 2000. 90 . The tradition of giving females to rulers for sex goes back to Herodotus, The Histories (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 1998 ), 310 . 91. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 8. 92 . Ibid ., 23. 93. Post-Soviet Russia law-enforcement agencies collected tribute (Novaia Gazete, July 5, 2001). 94 . Ibid ., 193 . 95 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Cloak and Sword Drama." NOTES 195

96 . Gerernek, The Mar;gins ofSociety, 147, 150, 154. Students were not the only literate ones who could easily be criminals; among them could be poets such as Villon (128). 97 . This would not be at odds with post-Soviet Russia, where under Yeltsin bandits became absolutely legitimate and were regarded as the "new violent entrepreneurs." Georgi Derluguian, The Invisible First: Russia's Criminal Predators against Markets and Themselves, Program on New Approaches to Russian Security, Police Memo Series 77 (October 1999),48. 98. Gerernek, The Mar;gins ofSociety, 157. 99 . Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 124 . 100. Ibid ., 120, 140-41; Neveux, "u s marginaux," 24. 101. Neveux, "us marginaux," 27-29; for highway robberies see Gonthier, Dilinquance, 164. 102 . Neveux, "Les marginaux," 27 . 103. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 154 . 104 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 47 . 105. Similarly, in the wake of the destruction of the USSR, criminals looked for a powerful sponsor or sponsored various businesses them ­ selves. See Vladimir Shlapentokh, "Early Feudalism : The Best Parallel for Contemporary Russia," Europe-Asia Studies 48 (May 1996): 393-413. 106 . Victor Davis Hanson, The Wars of the Ancient Greeks (London: Cassell, 2001),64. 107. EncyclopediaBritannica Online, "Anabasis." 108 . Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2: 162. 109. Machiavelli, The Prince (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988),43. llO. Geremek, The Mar;gins ofSociety, 127. 111. Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2: 162 . 112 . Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats,S. 113 . Ibid ., 176. 114 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 6. 115 . Robert June, Poverty and Deviance in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 188 . 116 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 42. 117. Gerernek, The Mar;ginsofSociety, 126 . ll8. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Louis X," http://search.eb.com/ article-9049063. ll9. John Casparis, "The Swiss Mercenary System: Labour Emigration from the Semiperiphery," Review 4 (Spring 1982): 623 . 120 . Ibid ., 624. 121. Ibid. , 593 . 196 NOTES

122. Ibid., 623; see also Benoit Garnot, Crime et justice aux XVIle et XVIlle siecles (Paris: Imago, 2000), 79. 123. "Who Are the 'Mercenaries'?" Time, December 22,1961. 124. The war in Iraq is a good example. In southern Iraq, soon after the invasion, villagers started to "complain of roving bands of armed men who steal tractors, hijack tru cks, loot factories, and terrorize local residents with ncar-impunity"; see Keith B. Richburg, "Bandits Hindering British Peacekeeping Progress," Washington Post, March 28,2003, and "Iraqis Loot Basra as British Take Control," New YOrk Times,April 7, 2003. The situation is common in modern Africa; see, for example, "Gangs Loot Central African Rep. Capital," New York Times, March 18,2003. 125. Casparis, "The Swiss Mercenary System ," 623 . 126. Jean Boca, La j ustice criminelle de l'echevinage d'Abbeville au moyen­ age, 1184-1516 (Lille: L. Dancl, 1930), 60; Chiffolcau, Les justices du pape, 167. 127. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 141; on banditry see p. 117. 128. Neveux, "Les margineu x," 34-35. 129. Gauvard, «De grace especial," 212. 130. It was employed, for example, by peasants during Iacquerie to tor­ ture captured nobles. For example, one "knight was tied to a spit and roasted before the eyes of his wife and children , who were then offered the flesh to eat." Stuart Flexner and Doris F1exner, The Pessimist's Guide to H istory (New York: Quill, 2000), 49. 131. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment," 73. 132. Geremek, The Marqins ofSociety, 115. 133. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment," 73. 134. Ibid., 73-74. 135. Pierre Van der Vorst, A l'enseigne de la braconne: le parfait petit bra­ connier, braconnages, braques, braconneux et braconniers, bier et aujourd'hui (Bruxelles: Editions de l' Universite de Bruxclles, 1982), 229 . 136. Berce, History of Peasant Revolts, 100. 137. Gcrcmck, The Ma1;!Jins ofSociety, 126. 138. Chiffoleau, Les justicesdu pape, 158. 139. Geremek, The Ma1;!Jins ofSociety, 205 . 140. Neveux, "Les marginaux," 35. 141. Benoit Garnot, "La perception des delinquants en France du XIVeau XIXe siecle," Revue Historique 296 , no . 2 (1996): 362. 142. Bellamy, Cr ime and Public Order, 76 . 143. Gauvard, «Deg race especial," 499 . 144. Ibid ., 487 . NOTES 197

145. Marylce Reynolds, From Gangs to Gangsters: How American Sociology Ot;ganized Crime, 1918-1994 (Guilderland, NY: Harrow and Heston, 1995),53. 146. Gcrernek, The Mat;gins of Society, 126; Reynolds, From Gangs to Gangsters, 53. 147. Bercc, History ofPeasant Revolts, 282. 148. Ibid., 283 . 149 . Encyclopedia Brittanica Online, "Iacqucric." 150. Pitirim Sorokin, The SociologyofRevolution (1925; repro New York: H. Fertig 1967), 158. 151. Chiffolcau, Lesjustices du pape, 118 . 152. Geremek, The Mat;gins ofSociety, 126, 197. 153. Ibid., 265; on Jewish pogroms, see also Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 103 . 154. Berthe, Famines, 266. 155. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 481. 156. Simmel, On Individuality and Social Forms, 153 . 157. Jutre, Poverty and Deviance, 149, 151. The correlation between sub­ sistence crisis and crime was not alwaysevident; a rise in prices some­ times corresponded with a decline in crime. 158. Ibid., 190. 159. This universal connection between uprooted people and crime can be seen among refugees. See, for example, Peter Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugeesin Russia during mwld War I (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999),29. 160. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 30. 161. Ibid ., 14. 162. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 79. 163. Bernard Schnapper, "La repression du vagabondage et sa significa­ tion historique du XIVe au XVIIIe siecle," Revue Historique de Droit Francais et Etranger 63 (1985): 145; Francois Martineau, Pripons, gueux et loubards: une histoire de la delinquance en France de 1750 a nos jours (Paris: J. C. Lattes, 1986), 42; Andre Abbiateci, Crimes et criminalite en France sous l'Ancien Regime, I7e-18e siecles(Paris: A. Colin, 1971). 164. David Mayall, "Egyptians and Vagabonds : Representations of the Gypsy in Early Modern Official and Rogue Literature," Immigrants and Minorities 16 (1997): 59-60. 165. Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief in Sixteenth­ Century Toulouse," Historical Reflections 17 (1991): 277; on the spread ofmigration see also Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 159. 166. Geremek, The Marqins ofSociety, 29. 167. Ibid., 38. 168. Cohen, "Violence Control," 120. 198 NOTES

169. Iutte, Poverty and Deviance, 165 . 170. Casparis, "The Swiss Mercenary System," 623 . On migration in the late Middle Ages/early modern era, see Gauvard ((Degrace especial,') 543; Schnapper, "La repression," 147. 171. Angus Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford : Blackwell,1993),95. 172. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 205. 173. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 6. This information about England could be applied to France. 174. Ibid., 75. 175. [utte, Poverty and Deviance, 181-82. 176. Ibid., 180. 177. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 8. 178. Ibid ., 6. 179. Ibid ., 7. 180. Mary Elizabeth Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," in TheReign of Louis XIV, eds. Andrew Lossky and Paul Sonnino (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1991),47. 181. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 97. 182. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 165 . 183. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 97. 184. Ibid ., 99. 185. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 165. 186. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 77. 187. Geremek, TheMatginsofSociety, 130 . 188. Ibid., 167. 189. Ibid ., 193-94. 190. Ibid., 35, 39. 191. Ibid., 40. 192. Ibid., 131. 193. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 72. 194. Garnot, Crime et justice, 84-85. 195. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 131. 196. Parisian thieves could be compared to prerevolutionary Russian peas­ ants. Most were not proprietors of commune land but received allot­ ments according to a "moral economy," depending on the number ofsons, roughly correlated to the size family the peasant needed to feed. 197. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 69. 198 . Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 86. 199 . Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 73. 200. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 107. 201. Ibid ., 108. 202 . Ibid . NOTES 199

203 . Ibid ., 129. 204. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 123 . 205 . Ibid ., 170. 206 . Ibid ., 169. 207 . Gonthier, Delinquance, 26-27. 208 . Elias, The History ofManners, 198. 209. Geremek, The Mar;ginsofSociety, 131. 210. Gonthier, La chdtiment du crime, 178 .

CHAPTER 4

1. Herodotus, The Histories (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1998), 61. 2. Robin W. Winks, Crane Brinton, John B. Christopher, and Robert Wolff, A History of Civilization: Prehistory to the Present (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996),233. 3. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," Social Science History 1, no. 2 (1977) : 116-17. 4. Ibid ., 123. 5. Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, 2 vols. (New York: HarperCollins, 1986-90),2: 238. 6. Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action:A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group ofRecent European Writers (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1949), 111. 7. Samuel K. Cohn Jr., introduction to The Black Death and the Transformation of the West by David Herlihy (Cambridge, MA: Press, 1997),5. The similarities between AIDS and the plague have been highlighted by noting that AIDS is the only epidemic to destroy as many people as the BlackDeath, approx­ imately forty million. "AIDS Set to Surpass the BlackDeath asWorst Pandemic," New York Times on the Web, January 25,2002. 8. The relationship between globalization and spread ofpandemic dis­ ease can be seen in post-Soviet Russia. The spread ofvenereal disease, AIDS included, was due to Russia's openness to the outside world. "Russia Is Experiencing the Downside of Globalization and Putting Much ofthe Rest ofthe World at Risk," Boston Globe, February 10, 2002 . 9. Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2: 420 . 10. Yves Renouar, "The Black Death as a Major Event in World History," in The Black Death:A Turning Point in History? ed. William M. Bowsky (Huntington, NY: Krieger, 1978),27. 200 NOT ES

II. Giovanni Boccaccio, "Plagu e in Florence: A Literary Description," in Bowsky, The Black Death, 8 . 12. Ibid ., II. 13. Agnolo di Tura del Grasso, "The Plague in Siena: An Italian Chronicle," in Bowsky, The Black Death, 14. 14. The ancient residents of Kiev were fond of hot baths, which fasci­ nated observers. The tradition continued in late medieval and early modern Russia, though the streets of major Russian cities were as dirty as those in Europe . 15. Norbert Elias, The History ofManners, The Civilizing Process, vol. I (New York: Pantheon, 1982 ),65. 16. Ibid ., 69. 17. Jean-Noel Biraben, Les hommes et la peste en France et dans les pays europeens et mediterraneens, 2 vols. (Paris: Mouton, 1975-76), 1: 147. 18. Jean Delumeau and Yves Lequin, Les malheurs des temps: bistoire des fleau» et des calamites en France (Paris: Larousse, 1987), 199. 19. Biraben, Les hommes et la peste, 1: 139. 20. David Mayall, "Egyptians and Vagabonds : Representations of the Gypsy in Early Modern Official and Rogue Literature," Immigrants and Minorities 16 (1997): 61. 21. Brandel , The Identity ofFrance, 2: 157. 22. Birabcn, Les hommes et la peste, 1: 23 . 23 . Stuart Flexner and Doris Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide to History (New York: Quill, 2000), 61. 24 . Biraben, Leshommes et la peste, 1: 23 . 25. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 10-11 . 26 . Ibid., 11. 27. Ibid ., 28-29. 28 . Ibid ., 23. 29 . Ibid ., 30. 30. Elisabeth Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," in Bowsky, The Black Death, 35 . 31. Robert H . Pollitzer, Plagu e (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1954), 12. On the plague during the reign of Justinian see also Biraben, Leshommes et la peste, 1: 25. 32. Flcxner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 37 . 33. Ibid ., 35. 34. Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," 35. 35. Biraben, Les hommes et la peste, 1: 25 , On the spread of bubonic plague in history, see also Ruth Oratz, "The Plague: Changing Notions of Contagion: London 1665-Marseille 1720," Synthesis 2 (1977): 5. 36. Pollitzcr, Plague, II. NOT ES 201

37. Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," 36. Recent research shows that what was called the Justinian plague (541-767 CE) affected all of Europe . Daniel Del Castillo, "A Long -Ignored Plague Gets Its Due," Chronicle ofHigher Education, February 15, 2002. 38. Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," 124. 39. William H . McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, NY: Anchor/ Doubleday, 1976 ), 151. 40 . Flcxner and Flcxncr, The Pessimist's Guide, 47. 41 . Philip Ziegler, The Black Death (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 15. 42. Renouar, "The Black Death," 25; see also Birabcn, Leshommeset la peste, 1: 49 . 43 . Linda Altman, Plague and Pestilence: A History ofInfectious Disease (Springfield, NJ: Enslow, 1998), 19. 44 . Monique Lucenet, Les grandes pestes en France (Paris: Aubier Monraigne, 1985), 21; Flexner and Flcxner, The Pessimist's Guide, 48 . 45 . Lucenet, Lesgrandes pestes, 16; Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 47 46 . Ncithard BuIst, "La lutte contre la peste noire en France (1348-debut XVle sieclc)," Bulletin d'Information de la Societe de Demoqraplaie Historique (1983): 34. 47. George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, vol. 3, The Mongols and Russia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953),213; see also 211 . 48 . John B. Henneman Jr., "France: A Fiscal and Constitutional Crisis," in Bowsky, The Black Death, 87 . 49 . Renouar, "The Black Death ," 33. 50. Pierre Chaunu, La mort it Paris: X VIe, XVlIe et XVIIIe siecles(Paris: Fayard, 1978), 184. 51. Maurice Berthc, Famines et epidemies dans lescampagnes navarraises it la fin du Moyen Age, 2 vols. (Paris: S.F.I.E.D, 1984),2: 315 . 52. Delumeau and Lcquin, Les malheurs, 141. 53. Ibid ., 198. 54. Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," 37. 55. Ziegler, The Black Death, 64; on the French perception, see Claude Gauvard, «Degrace especial": crime, etat et societe en France it la fin du Moyen Age (Paris: Sorbonne, 1991 ),217. 56. Claude Gauvard, "Fear of Crime in Late Medieval France," in Medieval Crime and Social Control, eds. Barbara A. Hanawalt and David Wallace(Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1999), I. 57. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 47. 202 NOTE S

58. Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," 37; Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 47 . 59. Ziegler, The Black Death, 227. 60. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 48 . 61. Herlihy, The Black Death, 19. 62. Ibid ., 31. 63. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 47. 64. Altman, Plague and Pestilence, 201. 65. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 48 . 66. "The Kosciuszko Chair of Polish Studies," Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia, Bulletin 1 (Fall 2001) : 40 . Other nature events could lead to devastation, for example, locusts, which since ancient times were a danger to crops, dooming many people to starvation. An 1875 swarm in the was recorded as "1,800 miles long and 110 miles wide, equaling the combined area of Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and Vermont." Carol Kaesuk Yoon, "Looking Back at the Days of the Locust," New York Times on the Web, April 23, 2002 . 67. The ratio ofdeaths in battle and disease and starvation can be seen in the Congo, where it could compare to France during the Hundred Years War. Only a small proportion died because ofthe violence. The great majority were victims of starvation and disease. Barbara Crossette, "War Adds 1.7 Million Deaths in Eastern Congo, Study Finds," New York Times, June 9, 2000. 68. Henneman, "France," 86. 69. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 198-99. 70. Rcnouar, "The Black Death," 27. 71. Ziegler, The Black Death, 64 . 72. Braudel, The Identity of France, 2: 157. On mortality during the Black Death in France see also Delumeau and Lequin, Lesmalheurs, 188-89. 73. Lucenet, Lesgrandes pestes, 92 . 74. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 48 . 75. Bronislaw Geremek, The Margins of Society in Late Medieval Paris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987),31. Pandemic dis­ eases can affect economic performance even in modern times. The spread ofAIDS and other infectious diseasesin the former USSR and Africa is a good example. A CIA prediction for 2015 stated, "AIDS and such associated diseases as TB will have a destructive impact on families and society. In some Africancountries, average life-spanswill be reduced by as much as 30 to 40 years, generating more than 40 million orphans and contributing to poverty, crime, and instability. AIDS, other diseases, and health problems will hurt prospects for NOTES 203

transition to democratic regimes as they undermine civil society, hamper the evolution of sound political and economic institutions, and intensify the struggle for power and resources." Global Trends 2015: A Dialogue about the Future with Nongovernment Experts, Publication ofthe National Intelligence Council, 2000, 24 (Internet version). Regarding the devastating implications of AIDS for the for­ mer USSR, see also Abigail Zuger, "Infectious Diseases Rising Again in Russia," New York Times on the Web, December 5, 2000. 76. Anthony Sutcliffe, Paris: An Architectural History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993),3. 77. Chaunu, La mort Ii Paris, 184-85. 78. D. Bourrouilh and B. Cheronnet, "A propos de la peste en Beam (1368-1652)," Revue de Pau et du Bearn 15 (1988): 45. 79. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheu rs, 10. 80. Carol L. Loat, "Gender and Work in Sixteenth-Century Paris," PhD diss., University of Colorado, 1993,2. 81. Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," 124. 82. Ibid ., 127. 83. Gauvard, "Fear of Crime," 21. 84. Herlihy, TheBlack Death, 64 85 . Gauvard, "Fear ofCrime," 21. 86 . Berthe, Famines et epidemies, 324, 353. 87 . Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 199. 88. Boccaccio, "Plague in Florence," 10. 89. PavelA. Florensky, Sobranie Sochenenii, 4 vols. (Paris: YMCA, 1985) . 90. Renouar, "The Black Death ," 30. 91. Herlihy, TheBlack Death, 65 . 92. Flexner and Flexner, ThePessimist'sGuide, 48 . 93. Leah Otis, "Nisi in Postribulo : Prostitution in Langedoc from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century," PhD diss., Columbia University, 1980,100. 94. S. H . Cuttler, TheLaw ofTreason and Treason Trials in Later Medieval France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 154. 95. See, for example, the wife of Edward II, "Edward II," Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 96 . Claude Fouret, "Douai et Ie XVIe siecle: une sociabilite de l'agres­ sion," Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 34 (January-March 1987): 18. 97. J. L. Flandrin, "Repression and Change in the Sexual Life ofYoung People in Medieval and Early Modern Times," in Family and Sexuality in French History, cds. Robert Wheaton and Tamara Haraven (Philadelphia: University ofPhiladelphia Press, 1980), 32. 98. Joan Brace, "From Chattel to Person: Martinique, 1635," Plantation Society 1 (April 1983): 65. 204 NOTES

99 . Elias, The History ofManners, 177 . 100 . Erich Goode, "Pornography," in Social Deviance, ed. Erich Goode (Boston : Allyn and Bacon, 1996 ),263. 101. Richard Lewinsohn, A History of Sexual Customs (New York: Bell, 1958 ),6-7. 102. Most people had little shame performing urination and defecation, so they did not hesitate to engage in sex in the presence ofa stranger, behavior seen as trul y uncivilized by Herodotus (H istories, 89). 103 . Herodotus, Histories, 88 . 104. Otis, "Nisi in postribulo," 21. 105. Soviet society with its marginal role ofmoney was structurally similar to feudal Europe. The sexual culture had features of Carolingian France. Sex life was quite promiscuous in the late years ofBrezhnev's regime , but there were few prostitutes. Most women who engaged in promiscuous sex (bliadstvo) did so for reasons such as enjoyment of sex, boredom, or social protest.A popular Soviet joke/proverb makes the difference clear: "Prostitution is a profession, bliadstvois a call." On sexuality in Soviet and post-Soviet Russia, see Dmitr y Shlapenrokh, "Making Love in Yeltsin's Russia: A Case of 'De­ Medicalization ' and 'De-Normali zation .?' Crime, Law, and Social Changes 39 (2003): 117-62. 106. Lewinsohn, A H istory ofSexual Customs, 143 . 107. This practice can be seen among primates. Presumably it would ensure natural selection . 108. The notion of sex in which all males had sexual access to all females as a mor e advanced form ofsexual organization has been questioned by some scholars. Friedrich Engels, for example, in The Origin ofthe Family, Private Property, and the State, in the Light ofthe R esearches of Lewis H. MOllJan (London : Lewis and Wishart, 1943 ) suggested that promiscuity was the most ancient form ofsexual relationship . 109. Jacques Rossiaud, "Prostitution, jeunesse et societe dans les villes du sud-est au XVesieclc," Annales 31, no . 2 (1976): 289-325. 110 . There were indications that prostitutes could be seen in French cities in the sixteenth century. See Francois Martineau, Fripons, gueux et louhards: une histoire de la delinquance en France de 1750 it nos jours (Paris: J. C. Lattes, 1986 ), 100. 111. The UN troops in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, in 1991 were compara­ tively well disciplined . Yet their presence led to a dramatic increase in prostitution. In 1991 there were six thousand prostitutes in the city; in 1992 there were twenty thousand . A. Betts Feth erston, "Voices from War Zones: Impl ications for Training," in A Future for Peacekeeping? ed. Edward Moxon-Browne (New York : Macmillan, 1998 ),167. NOTES 205

112. Jeffrey Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation: Minority Groups in the Middle Ages (London: Routledge, 1991),116. 113. Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief in Sixteenth- Century Toulouse," Historical Reflections 17 (1991): 277 . 114. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 117. 115. Gerernek, The Ma1lJins ofSociety, 215. 116. Ibid ., 216; Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 117 . 117. Jacques Rossiaud, " La prostitution dans les villes francaises du XVe siecle," Communications 35 (1982): 290-91. 118. Gcrcmck, The Ma1lJins ofSociety, 226 . 119. Ibid ., 231 120. Jacques Rossiaud, "Prostitution, Youth, and Society in the Towns of Southeastern France in the Fifteenth Century," in Deviants and the Abandoned in French Society:Selectionsfrom the Annates: Economies, Societies, Civilisations IV, eds . Robert Forster and Orest A. Ranum (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 3-4. 121. Otis, "Nisi in postribule," 69. 122. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 116. 123. Ibid .; Rossiaud, "La prostitution," 292 . 124. Fouret, "Douai," 18. 125. Rossiaud, "La prostitution," 5. 126. These authorities were not unique in their desire to make money on prostitutes: see "Nevada Considers Taxing Its Prostitutes," NeJV York Times, February 26,2003. 127. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 124. 128. Flandrin, "Repression and Change," 31. 129 . Ibid ., 127. 130. Ibid., 125. 131. One might add that drugs such as hashish had been known since the Middle Ages. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 142 . 132. Gauvard, «Degrace especial,"575; On the spread ofconcubinage, see also Nicole Gonthier, Delinquance, justice et societedans le lyonnais medieval: de la fin du XlIIe siecle au debut du XVle siecle (Paris : Editions Arguments, 1993), 163. 133. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 118. 134. Gonthier, Delinquance, 164; On concubinage among clerics, see also Jacques Chiffoleau, Les justices du pape: delinouance et criminalite dans la region d'Avignon au quatorziime siecle (Paris : Sorbonne, 1984), 176. 135. David Potter, '''Rigueur de Justice : Crime, Murder and the Law in Picardy, Fifteenth to Sixteenth Centuries," French History II, no . 3 (1997): 270. 136. Nicole Gonthier, La chdtiment du crime au Moyen Age: XIIe-XVle siecles(Rennes: Presses Universitaircs de Rennes, 1998), 182. 206 NOT ES

137. Gauvard, «Degrace especial,'l816. 138. Gauvard, "Fear of Crime," 1. 139. Ernie Bradford, The Battle for the West: Thermopylae (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980),76. 140. Ibid ., 64. 141. Simon Pepper, "Up Close and Personal," Times Literary Supplement, October 26, 2001,36. 142. Robert Muchembled, La violence au village: sociabiliti et comporte­ ments populaires en Artois du Xle au XVIIe sieclc (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1984),322. 143. Goode, "Rape," 294 . 144. Cuttler, TheLaw ofTreason, 147. 145. Elias, TheHistory ofManners, 118 . 146. Ibid., 144. 147. Madeleine Lazard, Pierre de Bourdeille, Seigneur de Brantome (Paris: Fayard, 1995) ,220. 148. Antony Beevor, "They Raped Every German Female from Eight to 80," Guardian, May 1, 2002. 149. Clifford Coonan, "Interview- Book on Red Army Rapes in Berlin Angers ," Reuters, June 4, 2002 . 150. Orner Bartov, "The Last Battle," Times Literary Supplement, June 14,2002. 151. Beevor, "They Raped Every German Female." 152. Marc Lacey,"War Is Still a Wayof Life for Congo," New 'fork Times, November 21, 2002. In Chechnya, soldiers mortally wounded fif­ teen-year-old Arninat. A relative saw "half-dressed" Russian officers "lying on Np ofArninat. She was covered in blood from the bullet wounds. Another soldier shouted, 'Hurry up, Kolya, while she's still warm!'" Krystyna Kurcxab-Redlich, "Torture and Rape Stalk the Streets ofChechnya," Observer, October 27, 2002 . 153. Flexner and Flexner, ThePessimist'sGuide, 49 . 154. Many rapists assumed that violence was essential to sexual gratifica­ tion. These views were common in military culture, especially if moral restraint and fear ofpunishment were removed. This was, for example, the casewith the Soviet soldiers who engaged in rape sprees after the invasion of Germany. For most, rape was a way ofsatisfying sexual desire and humiliating and punishing the defeated enemy. Quite a few were convinced that the women enjoyed the rape and could receive sexual gratification that way. One soldier recalled his sexual exploits: "They all lifted their skirts for us and lay on the bed." Fetherston, "Voices from Warzones," 165. 155. Rossiaud "La prostitution," 75. 156. Ibid., 293 . NOTES 207

157. Ibid., 77. 158. Ibid., 293 . 159. Gonthier, Delinquance, 313 . 160 . Michael Ross, "It's Time for Me to Die," Whole Earth 98 (1999): 3. 161. Goode, "Rape," 285 . 162. Rossiaud, "La prostitution," 294 . 163. Ibid ., 297-98. 164. Ibid ., 293 . 165. Flandrin, "Repression and Change," 31. 166. Encyclopedia Britannica, "Saturn." 167. Rossiaud, "La prostitution," 75-76. 168. Ibid ., 7. 169. Diana Scully and Joseph Marolla, "Riding the Bull at Gilley's: Convicted Rapists Describe the Rewards of Rape," in Goode, Social Deviance, 298. 170. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 39. 171. Ibid., 16; on the spread ofgroup rape, see also Gonthier, Delinquance, 139. 172. Rossiaud, "Prostitution," 6. 173. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 39 . 174. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 123. 175. Etienne van der Walle, "Motivations and Technology in the Decline of French Fertility," in Family and Sexuality in French History, eds. Robert Wheaton and Tamara K. Haraven (Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvania Press, 1980), 147. 176. Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Talesand Their Tellers in Sixteenth-Century France (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987),85. 177. David Rock, Argentina, 1516-1987: From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 18. 178 . Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," 124. 179. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 59. 180. Robert Benoit, "La syphilis ala fin du XVle siecle, d'apres les cours du professeur Jean Riolan, de la Faculte de Medecine de Paris," Histoire dessciences medicales 32, no. I (1998): 40 . 181. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 59. 182. Laura Guidi, "Prostitute e carcerate a napoli: alcune indagini tra fine 800 e inizio 900," Memoria: Rivista di Storia delle Donne 4 (1982); Giovanna Fiume, "Le patenti di infamia: morale sessuale e igiene sociale nella sicilia dell'ottocento," Memoria : Revista di Storia delle Donne 17 (1986). 183. J. R. Hale, "The Soldiers in Germanic Graphic Art," in Art and History: Images and Their Meaning, eds. Robert 1. Rotberg and 208 NOTES

Theodore K. Rabb (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 103. 184. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 59 . 185. Claude Quetel, "Syphilis et politiques de sante a l'epoque moderne," Histoire, Economic et Societe 3, no. 4 (1984): 543-44; on the spread ofsyphilis see also Benoit, "La syphilis," 39. 186 . Howard M. Smith, "The Introduction of Venereal Disease into Tahiti: A Re-Examination," Journal of Pacific H istory 10, no . I (1975): 39; on the beginning of the spread of syphilis, see also Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 240. 187. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 59 .

CHAPTER 5

1. Lynn Martin, "Jesuit Encounters with Rural France in the Sixteenth Century," Australian Journal of French Studies 18, no . 3 (1981): 207; see also Jacques Lorgnicr and Renee Martinage, "L'activite judiciaire de la Marechaussee de Flandrcs (1679- 1790)," R evue du Nord 61, no . 242 (1979) : 593. 2. Yves Berce, History ofPeasant Revolts: The Social Origins of Rebellion in Early Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990),99. 3. Robert Muchembled, "Anthropologie de la violence dans la France moderne (XVe- XVIIIe sieclc)," Revue de Synthese 1 (January-March 198 7): 31-55; James B. Collins, "State Building in Early Modern Europe," Modern A sian Studies31, no. 3 (1997): 624. 4. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Royal French State, 1460-1610 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 153. 5. Robert Muchembled, La violence au village: sociahilitie et comporte­ ments populaires en A rtois du Xle au XVlIe siecle (Turnhout , Belgium: Brepols, 1984). 6. Robert Muchemblcd, L'iniention de Phomme moderne: sensibilites, moeurs et comportements collectifssous Pancien regime (Paris: Fayard, 1988),16. 7. Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Poverty and Poor Reliefin Seventeenth­ Century Toulouse," Historical R eflections 17 (199 1): 270. Benoit Garnot, Crime et j ustice aux XVIIe et XVlIIe siecles (Paris: Imago, 2000),78. 8. Claude Fouret, "Douai et le XVIe siecle: une sociabilite de l'agrcs­ sion," R evue d'histoire moderne et contemporains 34 (January-March 1987): 11. NOTES 209

9. Arlette [ouanna, "Les gentilshommes francais et leur role politique dans la seconde moitie du XVIe sicclc ct au debut du XVIIe," Pensiero Poltico 10, no . I (1977): 35. 10. Fouret, "Douai," 13; Benoit Garnot, "La perception des delinquants en France du XIVe au XIXe siecle," Revue Historiqu e 296, no . 2 (1996): 350-51. II. David Potter, "'Rigueur de Justice': Crime, Murder and the Law in Picardy, Fifteenth to Sixteenth Centuries," French History II, no . 3 (1997): 288. 12. Fouret, "Douai," 16. 13. Jaime Contreras, "Espagne et France au temps d'Henri IV: inquisi ­ teurs , morisques et brigands," Revue de Pau et du Bearn 17 (1990): 36 . 14. Fouret, "Douai," 9. 15. Ibid., 9-10,30. 16. Potter, "Rigueur de justice," 277; Fouret, "Douai," 7-9, 27; Bernard Schnapper, "La justice criminelle rendue par le Parlement de Paris sous Ie regne de Francois I," Revue historiquede droitfranfais et etranger 52 , no . 2 (1974): 255,271. 17. J. J.Woltjer, "Violence during the Wars ofReligion in France and the Netherlands:A Comparison," Nederlands Archief voor Kerkgeschiedenis76, no . 1 (1996): 29 . 18. Ibid ., 31. 19 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Noblesse de robe ." 20 . Bronislaw Gcremck, The Margins of Society in Late Medieval Paris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 127. 21. Jcan Delumeau and Yves Lequin, Les malheurs des temps: bistoire des fleaux et des calamites en France (Paris: Larousse, 1987), 195. 22 . Roger Chartier, Figures de la gueuserie (Montalba, Paris: Bibliotheque Bleue, 1982),92. 23 . Fernand Braudcl, The Identity of France, 2 vols. (New York: HarperCollins, 1986-90),2: 387. 24 . Contreras, "Espagne et France," 37 . 25 . Ibid., 34, 36-38. 26. Potter, "Rigueur de justice," 301. 27 . Ibid ., 300. 28. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Callot, Jacques," http://search.eb .com/ eb/ article-9018716. 29 . Jean Gallet, "En Bretagne, seigneurie et pouvoir militaire du XVIe au XVlIIe sieclc," Revue historique desarmees1 (1985): 9. 30 . Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 258 . 31. James B. Wood, The KingJs Army: Warfare, Soldiers, and Societydur­ ing the Wars of Religion in France, 1562-1576 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996),227 (on troop criminal activity 210 NOTES

see p. 228); Jean-Pierre Babelon, Paris au XVIe siecle (Paris: Hachette, 1986), 183 . 32. R. J. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron: The Reign ofFrancis I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 359 . 33. Hilton L. Root, Peasants and King in BU1;gundy: Agrarian Foundation ofFrenchAbsolutism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987),210. 34. Potter, "Rigueur de justice," 290, 295 . 35. Berce, History, 10. 36. Wood, The KingJsArmy, 44. 37. Raymond A. Mentzer [r., "Organizational Endeavour and Charitable Impulse in Sixteenth-Century France: The Care of Protestant Nimes," FrenchHistory 5, no. 1 (1991): 15. 38. Dominique Diner, "De l'epee ala croix: les soldats passes al'ombre des cloitres (fin XVIe-fin XVIIIe siecle)," Histoire, economie et societe 9, no. 2 (1990): 172-73. 39. Robert Iutte, Poverty and Deviance in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 187 . 40. Mentzer, "Organizational Endeavour," 14. 41 . Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: A History ofInsanity in the Age of Reason, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Pantheon, 1966),47. 42 . Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron, 6, 359. 43 . Ibid ., 357 . 44 . Laure Chantrel, "Les notions de richesse et de travail dans la penice economique francaise de la seconde moitie du XVIe et au debut du XVIle siecle," Journal ofMedieval and Renaissance Studies 25, no. 1 (1995): 133. 45. R. J. Knecht, French Renaissance Monarchy: Francis I and Henry II (London: Longman, 1996),6. 46. Ibid ., 156. 47 . Kristin Elizabeth Gaper, '''Comme leur propre enfant': Adoption of Children and Domestic Boundaries in Sixteenth and Seventeenth­ Century Paris," PhD diss., Princeton University, 1992, 150 . 48 . Hilary Meg Bailon, "Architecture and Urbanism in Henri IV's Paris: The Place Royale, Place Dauphine, and Hospital St. Louis," PhD diss., Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, 1985, 192-93. 49 . Foucault, Madness and Civilization, 47 . 50. Babelon, Paris, 184. 51. Fouret, "Douai," 10; on the economic situation, see also Leslie Henry Goldsmith, "Poor Relief and Reform in Sixteenth-Century Orleans," PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1980; Schnapper "La justice criminelle," 21. NOTES 211

52. Alexander Cowan, Urban Europe, 1500-1700 (London: Arnold, 1998),152. 53. Mentzer, "Organizational Endeavour," 15. 54. Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 184 . 55. Cowan, Urban Europe, 172. 56. Quoted in Matthew Koch, "Poor Relief in Montauban, 1548 to 1629," in vol. 23 ofProceedings ofthe Annual Meeting ofthe Western Societyfor French History: Selections ofthe Annual Meeting, ed. Barry Rothaus (Boulder: University Press ofColorado, 1996),73. 57. Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 183. 58. Cowan, Urban Europe, 176. 59. Karen Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to State Centralization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), x. 60. Ibid ., 168 . 61. On the role ofslavery, including slaves as soldiers, see, e.g., Richard Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982). 62 . Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats, 176. The following quotations from this source are cited by page number in text. 63. Fouret, "Douai," 11; on the spread of plague in sixteenth-century France, see also Annette Finley-Croswhite, Henry IVand the Towns: The Pursuit of Legitimacy in French Urban Society, 1589-1610 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 164. 64. Koch, "Poor Reliefin Montauban," 73; Cowan, Urban Europe, 159. 65. Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 35, 235 . 66. Muchemblcd, L'invention de l'homme moderne, 49 . 67. Cowan, Urban Europe, 189. 68. Babelon, Paris, 286. 69. Kristin Gager, '''Comme leur propre enfant': Adoption of Children and Domestic Boundaries in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Paris," PhD diss., Princeton University, 1992, p. 156; Pierre Chaunu, La mort Ii Paris: XVIe, XVIIe et XVIIIe siecles (Paris: Fayard, 1978), 184. 70. Bailon, "Architecture," 188. 71. Mentzer, "Organizational Endeavour," 4. 72. Olivier Zeller, "L'espace et la famille aLyon aux XVIe et XVIIe sie- cles," Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine 30 (October-December 1983): 588-89. 73. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 260. 74. Ibid ., 274 . 75. Babelon, Paris, 172. 76. Pierre Gregoire, "Les enjeux du souvenir collectif: evenemcnt et rep­ resentations historiques en Provence, XVII-XXe siecle," Historical Papers(1987): 70. 212 NOTES

77. Bailon, "Architecture," 191. 78. Justin Stagl, "The Methodising of Travel in the 16th Century," History and Anthropology 4 (1990): 317 . 79. Muchemblcd, L'invention de l'homme moderne, 61, 76, 79; Muchembled, La violence, 324. 80 . See Alain Couprie, "'Courtisanisme' et christianisme au XVIle sie­ cle," Dix-septieme Siecle 33, no. 4 (1981): 372; Madeleine Lazard, Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantome (Paris: Fayard, 1995),223; Francois Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: une histoire de la delinquance en France de 1750 it nosjours (Paris: J. c. Lattes, 1986), 101. 81. James R. Farr, Authority and Sexuality in Early Modern BU1;gundy (1550-1730) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995),65. 82 . Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Talesand Their Tellers in Sixteenth-Century France (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987),86. 83 . Emmanuel Lc Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans(New York: George Braziller, 1979),224. 84 . Muchembled, L'invention de l'homme moderne, 66 . 85 . Bette Talvacchia, Taking Positions: On the Erotic in Renaissance Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999),199. 86 . Fouret, "Douai," 17. 87 . Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Reconstructing the Poor in Early Sixteenth Century Toulouse," FrenchHistory 7, no. 3 (1993): 281. 88 . Delumeau and Lcquin, Les malheurs, 9; Joan Sherwood, "Treating Syphilis: The Wetnurse as Technology in an Eighteenth-Century Parisian Hospital," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 50, no. 3 (1995): 315. 89 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Medicine, History of," http:// search.eb.com/eb/ article-911031 . 90 . Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 92 . 91. Ibid., 142, 145. 92 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Europe, History of," http:// search.eb .com/eb/ article-91 06072. 93. Leah Otis, "Nisi in Postribulo: Prostitution in Langedoc from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century," PhD diss., Columbia University, 1980,95. The direct connection can be seen in post-Soviet Russia. In social arrangements the Soviet regime in many ways resembled premodern society. A comparison between the Soviet regime and ori­ ental despotism was made by Karl Wittfogel, Die Orientalische Despotic: cine vn;gleichende Untersuchung totaler Macht (Koln, Berlin: Kiepenheuer and Witsch, 1962). Although for some observers post-Soviet society is close to that ofthe Middle Ages, the early modern era is the best analogy. Prostitution exploded, with at NOTES 213

least on e hundred thousand prostitutes in Moscow alone in 2002, up to 35 percent infected with HIY. Boston Globe, February 10, 2002. 94 . Biraben, Les hommes at la pesteen France et dans lespays europeens et mediterraneens(Paris: Mouton, 1975-76),2: 38 . 95 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 208-9. 96 . Claude Quetcl, "Syphilis et politiques de sante a l'epoque rnoderne," Histoire, Economie et Societe3, no . 4 (1984): 45 . 97. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 208. 98. Ibid ., 55 I. 99 . J. R. Hale, "The Soldiers in Germanic Graphic Art," in Art and H istory: Images and Their Mean ing, eds. Rob ert 1. Rotberg and Theodore K. Rabb (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 105 . 100 . Ibid ., 103 . 101. Norbert Elias, The History ofManners, The Civilizing Process, vol. I (New York: Pantheon, 1982),72. 102 . Stuart Flexner and Doris Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide to History (New York: Quill, 2000), 59. 103 . EncyclopediaBritannica Online, "Francis 1," http://search.eb.com/ eb/article-9035120. On other possible other causes of Francis's death, see Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron, 545. 104 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 278-79; Babelon, Paris, 173-74. 105. Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 146 . 106. Quetel, "Syphilis," 544. One might add that infectious disease had been connected in people's minds with spiritual pollution and there­ fore with heresy. See Denis Crouzet, Lesguerriers de Dieu: la violence au temps des troubles de religion vers 1525-vers 1610, 2 vols. (Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 1990), 1: 257. 107. Potter, "Rigueur de justice," 292. 108 . Le Roy Ladurie , Carnival in Romans, 224. 109. Ibid., 224. 110 . Ibid. 111. Ibid . 112 . Ibid., 177 . 113 . J. L. Flandrin, "Repression and Change in the Sexual Life ofYoung People in Medieval and Early Modern Times," in ~Family and Sexuality in French History, eds. Robert Wheaton and Tamara K. Hareven (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980),45; see also Fouret, "Douai," 12. 114. Talvacchia, Taking Positions, 187. 115 . Ibid., 175 . 214 NOTES

CHAPTER 6

1. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 71. 2. Ibid., 72. 3. Ibid., 121. 4. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 323. 5. Michael D. Slaven, "Scapegoating, Sexuality, and Theories of the Body during the Parisian Fronds: A Reassessment of the Mazarinades," PhD diss., West Virginia University, 1993, 30. 6. Louis Marin, Portrait of the K ing, trans. Martha Houle (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), 14. 7. Karl Wegert, Popular Culture, Crime, and Social Control in 18th­ Century Wiirttember;g(Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994), 10. 8. Pierre Deyon, Le temps desprisons: essai sur l'histoire de la delinquance et les origines du systeme pinitentiare (Villeneuve d'Ascq, France: Universite de Lille III, 1975), 20. 9. Richard Andrews, Of Law, Magistracy, and Crime in Old Regime Paris, 1735-1789, vol. 1, The System ofCriminalJustice (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 395 . 10. Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the A rchives:Pardon Talesand Their Tellers in Sixteenth Century France (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987),85. 11. Ibid ., 86. 12. Ibid . See also D. Ulrich, "Le statut des municipes d'apres les donnees africaines," Revue historique de droit francais et itranger 50 (1972): 402 . 13. Gerard Aubry, La jurisprudence criminelle du Chdtelet de Parissous le regne de Louis XVI (Paris: Librairie Generale de Droit et de Jurisprudence, 1971), 54. 14. Ibid., 52. 15. Wegert, Popular Culture, 102. 16. Ibid ., 384 . 17. Ibid ., 99. 18. Louis Chevalier, Classes laborieuseset classes dangereuses Ii Paris pen­ dant la premiere moitie du XIXe slide (Paris: PIon, 1958),212. 19. The state at the same time tried to minimize private violence and was engaged in the continuous disarmament ofthe population. Andrews, System ofCriminalJustice, 40 . 20. Robert Anchcl, Crimes et chdtiments au XVlIIe siecle(Paris: Librairie Acadernique Perrin, 1933), 183. 21. Wegert, Popular Culture, 105 . 22. Ibid., 108. NOTES 215

23. Francois Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: une histoire de la dilinquance en France de 1750 anosjours (Paris: J. C. Lattes, 1986), 242. 24. James R. Farr, Authority and Sexuality in Early Modern BUJ;!]undy (1550-1730) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 128. 25. Duane Anderson, "The Legal History ofthe Reign," in The Reign of Louis XIV: Essays in Celebration ofAndrew Lossky, ed. Paul Sonnino (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1991),75-76. 26. Ibid ., 82 . 27. D. Ulrich, "La repression en Bourgogne au XVIIIe siecle," Revue historique de droit franfais et etranger 50 (1972): 401-2. 28. Claude C. Strugill, VOJ;!]anisation et l'administration de la marechaussee et de la justice prevotale dans la France des Bourbons: 1720-1730 (Paris: Service Historique de I'Arrneede Terre, 1981),6. 29. Pascal Brouillet, "L'organisation de la marechaussee dans la general­ ite de Paris ala fin de l'Ancien Regime," Revue historique desarmees 4 (1998): 10. 30. Davis, Fiction in the Archives, 10. 31. Ibid., 389. 32. [urgcn Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse ofModernity: Twelve Lectures (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987),243. 33. Hilton 1. Root, Peasants and King in BUJ;!]undy: Agrarian Foundations ofFrenchAbsolutism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987),41. 34. Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief in Sixteenth­ Century Toulouse," H istorical Reflections 17 (1991): 101. 35. Mary Elizabeth Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," in The Reign of Louis XIV: Essays in Celebration of Andrew Lossky, ed. Paul Sonnino (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1991),48. 36. France was definitely not the first to be activelyinvolved in economic life. The despots of Egypt and China engaged in wide management of economic activities. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Man and Society in Calamity: The Effect of War, Revolution, Famine, Pestilence upon Human Mind, Behavior, Social OJ;!]anization, and Cultural Life (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1963), 129. 37. This harshnesscould be testifiedto bycatastrophic faminessuch as that ofl693-94, which killed a tenth of the population and could be com­ pared to any famine in totalitarian societies.Audrey Dorothea Devore, "Under Pressure: The Ministers of the State of Louis XIV, 1688 to 1700," PhD diss., University ofSouthern California, 1979 ,7. 38. Andrews, System ofSocialJustice, 343-44. 39. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 89. 40 . Ibid, 88. 41. Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 48 . 216 NOT ES

42. Martin S. Staum, Cabanis: Enlightenment and Medical Philosophy in the (Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 1980), 1l0. See also Martineau, Fripons,gueuxetloubards, 101. 43 . Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 49. 44 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 212. 45 . Ibid., 215 . 46. Philadclphe Maurice Alhoy, Lesbagnes: histoire, types, moeurs, mysteres (Paris: Havard, 1845),9. 47. Angus Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), 145. 48 . Root, Peasants and King, 22 . 49 . Andre Zysberg, "Les galeriens de Louis XIV," Histoire 98 (March 1987): 32; Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 53 . 50. Bernard Durand, "Remarques sur la recidive en Roussillon au XVIIIe sieclc," Revue historique de droit francais et etranger 63, no . 1 (1995): 51. 51. Fraser, The Gypsies, 96 . 52 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 101. 53 . Ibid., 204 . 54. Monique Lucenet, Les grandes pestes en France (Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1985), 159-60. 55. Ibid ., 156 . 56. Ibid., 164, 170. 57. Daniel Panzac, "Crime ou delit] La legislation sanitaire en Provence au XVlIIe siecle," Revue historique 275, no. 1 (1986): 41. 58. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans (New York: George BraziIler, 1979),224. 59. William Roosen, "Demographic History ofthe Reign," in The Reign of Louis XIV: Essays in Celebration of Andrew Lossky, ed. Paul Sonnino (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1991), 14. 60 . Slaven, "Scapegoating, Sexuality, and Theories of the Body." The drive against prostitutes intensified in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but some French city legislation for their expulsion could be traced to the thirteenth century. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Reliet~" 209 . 61. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 188 . 62 . Ibid .,211. 63 . Ibid ., 59. 64. Ibid., 210 . 65 . Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 48 . 66 . Colin Jones, "Prostitution and the Ruling Class in Eighteenth­ Century Montpellier," History Workshop Journal 6 (1978): 8; see also Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 53 . 67. Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 51. 68 . Ibid ., 53. NOTES 217

69. Jean-Louis Flandrin, Families in Former Times: Kinship, Household and Sexuality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 132. 70. Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 51. 71. Jeffrey W. Merrick, The Desacralization ofthe French Monarchy in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press, 1990),45. 72. Roosen, "Demographic History ofthe Reign," 15. 73. Deyon, Le temps des prisons, 22; see also Anchel, Crimes et chdti- ments, 5. 74. Aubry, La jurisprudence criminelle, 53 . 75. Merrick, The Desacralization, 40. 76. Robert Shackleton, "Censure and Censorship: Impediments to Free Publication in the Age of Enlightenment," Library Chronicle ofthe University ofTexasat Austin 6 (1973): 27. 77 . Roger Chartier, On the Edge of the Cliff History, Language, and Practices, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997),63. 78. Andrews, SystemofSocialJustice, 593 . See also Andrew Lossky, "The Absolutism of Louis XIV: Reality or Myth?" Canadian Journal of History 19, no. 1 (1984): 2. 79. Root, Peasants and King, 8. 80. Adrianna E. Bakos, Images ofKingship in Early Modern France: Louis XI in Political Thought, 1560-1789 (London: Routledge, 1997),94. 81. Ibid. 82. Root, Peasantsand King, 176. 83. Ibid . 84. Arlette Lebigre, "Lcs prefers du roi contre les regions," Histoire 46 (1982): 15. 85. Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 51. 86 . Andrew Lossky, Louis XIV and the French Monarchy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994),33. 87. "Even though the first regular postal service in France dated from the reign of Louis XI (1461-1483), the post developed very slowly as a public service under the ancien regime ." Susan Dimlich Bachrach, "The Feminization of the French Postal Service, 1750-1914," PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1981, 13. One could assume that the postal service started to resemble the modern system only in the eighteenth century. 88. Irma Staza Majer, "The Notion ofSingularity: The Travel Journals of Michel de Montaigne and Jean de Lcry," PhD diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1982, 54. 89. Clark, State and Status, 168-69,342. 90 . Prostitution actually increased in some French cities by the end ofthe seventeenth century. Jones, "Prostitution and the Ruling Class," 7. 218 NOT ES

91. Robert Berger, A Royal Passion:Louis XIV as Patron ofArchitecture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994),85. 92. Clark, State and Status, 337 . 93. Ibid., 343. The importance ofself-control could be seen in increased concern with masturbation and "excessive sexuality." Philippe Lejeune, "Le 'dangereux supplement': lecture d'un aveu de Rousseau," Annales 29, no. 4 (1974): 1015. 94. Berger, A Royal Passion, 4-5. 95. Nanc y Nichols Barker, Brother to the Sun King: Philippe, Duke of Orleans (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989) ,58-59. 96. Slaven, "Scapegoating," 84 . 97. Flandrin, Families in Former Times, 182 . 98. Merrick, The Desacralization, 20 . 99. Mary Rosalie Fisher, "Models for Manners: Etiquette Books and Etiquette in Nineteenth-Century France ," PhD diss., New York University, 1992, 18,50. 100. Calixte Hudemann-Simon, L'eta» et lespauvres: l'assistanceet la lutte contre la mendiciti dans lesquatre departements rbenans, 1794-1814 (Sigmaringen, Germany: Jan Thorbecke, 1997), 161. 101. Annik Pardailhe-Galabrun, The Birth of Intimacy: Privacy and Domestic Life in Early Modern Paris (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), 353. 102. Roosen, "Demographic History ofthe Reign," 23 . 103. Jean-Pierre Goubert, The Conquest ofWater: The AdventofHealth in the Industrial Age (Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 1989), 91. 104 . Ibid. 105. Pardailhe-Galabrun, The Birth ofIntimacy, 141. 106. Ibid. 107. On toilets, see also Pierre-Denis Boudriot, "Essai sur l'ordure en milieu urbain a l'epoque preindustrielle: boues, immondices et gadoue a Paris au XVIIIe siecle," Histoire, economicet societe 5, no . 4 (1986): 520. 108. Goubert, The Conquest ofWater, 92. 109. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 206 ; Reynauld Abad, "Les tueries aParis sous l'ancien regime ou pourquoi la capitale n'a pas ete dotee d'abattoirs aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siecles," Histoire, economic et societe 17, no . 4 (1998): 666 . 110 . On the drive for more hygienic behavior, see Annick Le Guerer and Georges Vigarello, "La propriete au temps de Louis XIV," Histoire 78 (1978 ): 1985 . 111. Annik Pardailhe-Galabrun, La naissance de l'intime: 3000 foyers parisiens XVIIe-XVIII siecles (Paris: Presses Universitairess de France, 1988), 1. NOTES 219

112 . Berger, A Royal Passion, 73-74. 113. Ibid ., 73. 114. Pardailhe-Galabrun, La naissancede Pintime, 215 . 115 . Francoise Bayard, "Maniere d'habiter des financiers de la premier rnoitie du XVIIe siecle," XVIIe siccle41, no . I (1989): 60. 116. Berger, A Royal Passion, 9. 117 . Richard Grassby, The Idea of Capitalism before the Industrial Revolution (Lanham, MD : Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), 50. 118. Steven L. Kaplan, Bread) Politics and the Political Economy in the Reign ofLouis xr; 2 vols. (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1976), I: 5. 119 . Ibid., I: 14. 120 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 101. 121. Roosen, "Demographic History ofthe Reign," 22. 122. On population increase, see, for example, Root, Peasants and King, 177. 123. Edward N. Luttwak, "Why Dutchmen Grew Taller," Times Literary Supplement, May 25, 2001; Robert William Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery (Boston: Little, Brown , 1974). 124. Chartier, On the Edge ofthe Cliff, 139 . 125. Fisher, "Models for Manners," 28-29, 33. 126. One might add that the idea that rulers should be self-restrained and control their emotions was known to ancient rulers . See, for example, Norman Hammond, "The Road That Has No Ending," Times Literary Supplement, June 30, 2000, 5; Louis Auchincloss, False Dawn: Women in the Age ofSun King (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1984),21. 127. Stability also benefited criminals: "stationary" bandits had a "vested interest in providing public services, defending the residents of the territory against roving bandits, for example, or building roads ." Mancur Olson, "Why China Did Better," Times Literary Supplement, November 23, 2001, 26. 128. The strong despotic government as the only way to maintain order was apparently axiomatic for oriental rulers . See Irene Eber, ed ., Confucianism: The Dynamics of Tradition (New York: Macmillan, 1986),33. 129. E. A. Rees, "Stalinism : The Primacy of Politics," in Politics) Society) and Stalinism in the USSR, ed . John Channon (New York: Macmillan, 1998),36. 130. J. Arch Getty, "Pragmatists and Puritans: The Rise and Fall of the Party Control Commission," Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies 1208 (1997): 3; Stephen White, "Stalinism and the Graphic Arts," in Politics, Society) and Stalinism in the USSR, ed. John Channon (New York: Macmillan, 1998), 125. 220 NOTES

131. Geoffrey A. Hosking, "Cards on the Table, Comrades," Times Literary Supplement, January 28, 2000, 3. The machinery and per­ sonnel ofrepression were trained long before the Great Purges dur­ ing the Civil War. Executions became enterprises that not only terrified but also entertained the public. Even children enjoyed them. Izvestiia, February 8, 2001. 132. Anne Applebaum, "Inside the Gulag," New YOrk Review of Books, June 15,2000,35. 133. Vadim Volkov, "The Concept of Kul'turnost': Notes on the Stalinist Civilizing Process," in Stalinism: New Directions, ed. Sheila Fitzpatrick (London: Routledge, 1999),218,223. 134. White, "Stalinism and the Graphic Arts," 121. Awe was felt even by liberal intellectuals . They were hardly so naive as to believe Stalin was elected in the usual way, and they were aware ofthe span of the ter­ ror. Yet they were in awe of Stalin. Valentin Lyubarsky, "Soviet Civilization," Times Literary Supplement, September 7, 2001, 17. 135 . On nationalism in Stalin's Russia and his desire to identify with ancient rulers, see David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931-1956 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). 136. Applebaum, "Inside the Gulag," 33. 137. "General Alexander Lebed's father, a factory worker, was twice ten minutes late to work in 1937, for which he received a five-year camp sentence." Ibid ., 35. 138. Hardt and Negri, Empire, 330 . 139 . Foucault and the postrnodernists who saw in "discourse" both enslavement and liberation continued to be popular. Hardt and Negri saw even building empires in the Foucaultian way. "Imperial command is exercised no longer through the disciplinary modalities ofthe modern state, but rather through the modalities ofbiopolitical control. These modalities have as their basis and their object a pro­ ductive multitude that cannot be regimented and normalized, but must nonetheless be governed, even in its autonomy" (Empire, 344). 140 . One recent episode might demonstrate the persistence ofpostmod­ ernist paradigms in their Leftist reading . A 2002 study suggested that blacks are more predisposed to certain diseases than whites. This dis­ covery of biologists has been perceived as having racist implications and protested. "The American Sociological Association, for instance, said in a recent statement that 'race is a sociological construct,' and warned of the 'danger ofcontributing to the popular conception of race as biological.'" Nicholas Wade, "Gene Study Identifies 5 Main Human Populations," New York Times, December 20,2002. NOTES 221

141. Michael Walzer, "Intellectuals, Social Classes, and Revolution," in Democracy, Revolution, and History, ed. Theda Skocpol (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 136-37. 142. See, tor example, Hardt and Negri, Empire. 143. Tony [udt, "Why the Cold War Worked," Nell' York Review ofBooks, October 9, 1997 . 144 . In this theory, the cold war was not a geopolitical conflict but rooted in ideological differences between the USSR and the West. These views were elaborated in the Black Book ofCommunism. For discus­ sion, see, for example, Henri Astier, "Worse than Hitler?" Times Literary Supplement, September 1, 2000; Anne Applebaum, "A History of Horrors," New YOrk Review ofBooks, October 18, 2000; Martin Malia, "The Lesser Evil?" Times Literary Supplement, March 27, 1998 ; Gabriel Schoenfeld, "Room at the Top," Wall Street Journal, April 15, 1998 ; Arkedii Vaisberg, "Professora sorbonny v poiskakh novogo 'svetlogo budushchego,''' Obshchaia Gazeta 8, no . 4 (1998). Postmodernist intellectuals on the Left were also trashed; see, for example, John Hargreaves, "Michel Foucault and His Defenders," Times Literary Supplement, January 25, 2002, 17; James Drake, "The Naming Disease," Times Literary Supplement, September 4, 1998 . On conservative views ofRussian history and the Left, see, for example, Richard Pipes, "Did the Peasants Really Make Russia?" Times Literary Supplement, August 24, 2001 . These ideolo­ gists lambasted the "ideological frenzy" to create harmonious soci­ eties that cost countless millions and strike a "triumphalist note" seeing their ideological rival vanquished by the collapse ofthe USSR. Joseph Joffe, "The Worst of Times," Nell' York Times Book Review, December 21,1999,22. 145. Lynne Brindley, "American Influence in the Post-War World," Times Literary Supplement, August 31, 2001,15. 146 . Robert D. Kaplan, The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams ofthe Post-Cold War (New York: Random House, 2000). See also Chester A. Crocker and Fen Osler Hampson with Pamela All, eds., Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict (Washington, DC : U.S. Institute of Peace, 1996). On peacekeeping, see Clement E. Adibe, "Learning from Failure in Somalia," in A Future for Peacekeeping? ed. Edward Moxon-Browne (New York: St. Martin's, 1998),144. 147. "How Great Are the Risks for Socioeconomic Collapse in Russia? An Inventory of Russian Problem Areas," Swedish Defense Research Institute (May 1, 2000). On "chaos theory," see Jack Martin Balcer, The Persian Conquest of the Greeks, 545-450 B.C. (Konstanz, Germany: Universitatsverlag Konstanz, 1995),220. 222 NOTES

148 . "Russia's Solzhenitsyn Wants Death Penalty Restored," Reuters (April 29, 2001). 149 . Michael Dutton and Lee Tianfu, "Missing a Target? Policing Strategies in the Period of Economic Reform," Crime and Delinquency 39, no . 3 (July 1993): 317 . 150. Some people downplayed the importance ofthe events ofSeptember 11. Sec, for example, Patrick E. Tyler, "The World Cries Uncle," New York Times Book Review, September 22, 2002, 22. 151. On rather grave pictures ofthe crime problem in contemporary soci­ ety, sec Robert Reiner, "Prisoners in the Cage," Times Literary Supplement, January 25, 2002. 152 . Maureen Dowd, "Plague on the Potomac," New York Times on the Web, October 17, 2001; "Laws for an Epidemic," editorial, Washington Post, December 3, 2001. 153 . Postmodernists regarded activities of criminal, terrorist , and asocial groups as a way ofcombating "hegemonic discourse." Because post­ modernism was born in France, the attack against crime as "alterna­ tive discourse" acquired a French reading, reinforced by the fact that France was the strongest opponent of the Iraq war. The French reciprocated, and their anti-American feelings spread in Europe . Henri Astier, "La maladie francaise," Times Literary Supplement, January 10,2003. 154. Ideologies and discourse continue to be popular explanations ofthe events. The attacks were often reduced to the influence of Islamic fundamental ists. The economic problems of this or that country were also explained by the variety ofideologies. Liah Greenfeld, The Spirit ofCapitalism: Nationalism and Economic Growth (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001). 155. On the vision of the role of the state at that time, sec, for example, Martin van Creveld, The Rise and Decline ofthe State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 156 . Bill Keller, "Reagan's Son," New YOrk Times, January 26, 2003. 157 . John Lewis Gaddis, "Setting Right a Dangerous World," Chronicle ofHigher Education, January 11, 2002, BI0. 158 . Robert Kagan, "Power and Weakness," Policy Review (June-July 2002). 159 . William Safire, "Seizing Dictatorial Power," New YOrk Times, November 15,2001; Safire, "Kangaroo Courts," New YOrk Times on the Web, November 26, 2001 ; Safirc, "Military Tribunal Modified," New York Times on the Web, March 21, 2001; Safire, "The Great and Unwatched," New York Times on the Web, February 18, 2002 ; Elizabeth Bumiller and Katharine Q. Seelye,"Bush Defends Wartime Call for Tribunal," New York Times on the Web, December 5, 2001); Mike Allen, "Bush Defends Order for Wartime Tribunals," NOTES 223

Washington Post Online, November 20, 2001; Katharine Seelye, "Public Defender Denied for Suspected American Taliban," New York Times on the Web, June 26, 2002; John Markhoff-Schwartz, "Bush Administration to Propose System for Monitoring Internet," New York Times, December 20, 2002; Dan Eggen, "FBI Seeks Data on Foreign Students," Washington Post, December 25, 2002. 160 . Politika, October 25, 2001; Izvestiia, February 4,2003. 161. Satire, "Seizing Dictatorial Power." 162 . Bob Herbert, "Bait and Switch," New York Times, January 30, 2003. 163 . William Safire, "Voices of Negativism," New York Times, December 6,2001. 164 . Diane Squire, "Information Policy, Citizen Privacy, and 'National Insecurity,'" IU Home Pages, February 28, 2003. 165 . Izvestiia, April 14,2001. 166 . Kai T. Erikson, "The Functions of Social Deviance," in Social Deviance, ed. Erich Goode (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1996), 136 . 167. Recognition ofthe importance ofa strong state as guarantor ofsecu­ rity changed the approach to modern authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Some observers stated that China's economic success was due to its ability to preserve social and political stability by keeping the controlling power of the party government. The VSSR, which did not preserve a strong state, collapsed and Russiawas relegated to a third world country. Christopher Marsh, "Talking Behind Their Back: Chinese Thoughts on Their Coming Collapse," National Interest, October 23, 2003. 168. Maureen Dowd, "Dances with Wolfewitz," New York Times, April 9, 2003. 169. Michael Ignatieff, "Barbarians at the Gate?" New York Review of Books, February 28, 2002. 170 . Keller, "Reagan's Son." 171. "The Worst-Case Scenario Arrives," New York Times, March 6, 2003. 172 . "V.S.-Europe Iraq Dispute a Strategy Shift," New York Times, March 6,2003. 173. R. Scott Appleby, "The Next Christendom," New York Times Book Review, May 12,2002. 174. Elaine Sciolino, "European V nion in the New Warning on Bush Go­ It-Alone War," New York Times, March 12,2003. 175 . Paul Krugman, "Things to Come," New York Times, March 18, 2003. The economic problems could be aggravated by the spread of contagious disease. Thomas Crampton, "Asia Faces Increasing Isolation Because of Deadly Disease," New York Times, April 9, 2003 . 224 NOTES

176. Thomas L. Friedman, "Hold Your Applause," New York Times, April 9,2003. 177 . Barry Gewen, "Thinking the Unthinkable," New York Times Book Review, September 15,2002, 12. 178 . Eric Lichtblau, "Republicans Want Terror Law Made Permanent," New YOrk Times, April 9, 2003. 179. On the possible reverse ofglobalization, see Harold James, The End ofGlobalization: Lessonsfrom the Great Depression (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). INDEX

absolute power, 12, 14, 15, 17,22, views of, 17-19, 131-32 136,137-38,139,156, arbitrary punishment, 144 165, 180 Arendt, Hannah, 2, 5-6 absolutism and the law, 155-56 army absolutist state. Seerepressive state mercenaries and, 37,44-45, Africa, 78, 79, 80, 81,164,168, 56-58 171,171 and nobles, 44 AIDS, 73,75, 137, 181 Augustus Caesar, 23, 24 anomie Badefol, Seguin de, 47 assumptions of, 17 Baker, Keith, 12 characteristics of, 20, 25, 29, 45, banditry 54,89,114 beggars and, 114-15 classstructure and, 29,50,64, clergy and, 112 134 decline in, 107, 157 defined as, 7, 31, 131 disease and, 77 displacement and, 108 famine and, 82 marginalization of, 7 incentives for, 39--40 significance of, 133 increase for, 36, 122 violence and, 36 mercenaries and, 61,112-13, anomization 113-14 absolutist governments and, nobles and, 42, 44, 110-11, 134-35 112, 134 biological consequences, 20 peasant uprisings and, 63 capitalism and, 132-33 politics of, 45--46 class structure and, 134 soldiers and, 112, 113-14, 118 ideology and, 133 students and, 53-54 increase of, 20, 21-22, 36, 37, vagabonds and, 115 109,124 Bayley,David, 7 injustice and, 19 beggars, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69-70, as mainstream, 131 114-15,116,123,147 mercenaries and, 21 Bellamy, John Williams, 40 societal breakdown and, 19-20, Belleville, Jeanne de, 47 132,134 bin Ladin, Osama, 172 226 I ND EX

Black Death Charles VII, 106 biological aspects of, 75 children, concern for, 159 death rates for, 82-83, 83-84, China, 11, 13,36-37,135, 106 154,182 depopulation from, 84-85 Christians, 6, 63, 66, 140 famine and, 82, 83-84 Church discipline, 152-53 globalization and, 75-76, 122 cities handling ofcorpses, 84 crime and, 116-17 increase ofcrime during, 85-86 economic regulation of, 164 lawful authority and, 85 prostitution in, 93 other diseases and, 82 spread ofplague , 123-24 pan-European range of, 80-81 See also Paris psychological effects of, 83-84 clergy routes of, 81-82 banditry and, 112 sanitation and, 76, 160 criminality of, 54-55 similarities to AIDS, 75 decline in violent crime, 107 symptoms of, 83 democratization ofsexuality, 95, Braude!, Fernand, 73, 75 124 bribery, 51-52 moralizing of, 123 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 171 Clinton, William Jefferson, 10 Bubonic plague. See Black Death; Cohen, Esther, 38 plagues Collins, James, 108 burglary, 53, 63, 70, 71, 103 communes, 15,64,145 Bush, George W., 177 concubinage, 57, 72,95,99, 129, 158 Callot, Jacques, 112 Congo, 59, 137 Cambodia, 154 contrainte solidaire, 145--46 capitalism corporal punishment, 136-37 anomization and, 132-33 Courtier, The (Castiglione), 158 cohesiveness of, 7, 8 courts, 23, 71,141,156 development of, 30, 31, 33, 179 crime extinction of, 145 acceptance of, 21,34,69 ideology of, 56, 154, 166, 168, decrease in, 107, 157-58 179 defined as, 19 state expansion and, 4 increase of, 21, 29, 30, 63, 65, trade and, 73, 74 95,119,134,137 , 141, 142--44, intolerance toward, 34 144 nobles and, 43--44, 107 Carpentier, Elisabeth, 80 normalcy of, 32-33 castes, 49,50,58,107 opportunities for, 69,116 Castiglione, Baldassare, 158 pandemic diseases and, 85-86, censorship, 153 107-8 Chandos, John, 56 prosecution of, 33-34 I ND EX 227

social controls and, 15,29,30, Fogel, Robert William, 164 117,165 Foucault, Michel, 34, 73, 135, social divisions and, 32, 49 168,179, 181-82 spacial divisions of, 32-33 Fouret, Claude, 109 urbanization and, 116 Fracasoro, Girolamo, 125 white-collar, 42 France, liberalism of, 183 Cuttler, S. H ., 46 Freud, Sigmund, 165 Friedman, Thomas, 178 Dark Ages, violence during, 24-25 Fukuyama, Francis, 171, 179 Davis, Natalie Zemon, 116 debauchery, 88-89 Gaddis, John Lewis, 174 decapitation, 142 gemeinschaft society defecation/urination regulation, customs of, 7, 8, 20, 26, 68, 98, 159-60 119 De Revolutionibus orbium erosion of, 30, 133, 134, coelestium (Copernicus), 5 180-81 despotic regimes. See absolute military and, 26, 44,56 power; repressive state; State patriarchy and, 86 diseases. See Black Death; pandemic urban influence on, 68 diseases gesellschaftsociety, 7, 8,133, 180 drug trafficking, 42 globalization, 79, 80,174,177, drunkenness, 52, 53, 57, 123 179 dueling, 37, 141, 157 Goldsmith, Leslie, 116-17, 123 Durkheim, Emile, 7, 31, 32 Gonthier, Nicole, 49 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 169, 171 economic regulations , 163-64 Got'e, Iurii, 182 Edward II (England), 48 Greece, 23, 30, 64, 80, 97, 105, Edward III (England), 52-53 106 Elias, Norbert, 49,73, 107, 110, Gurr, Ted Robert, 3 165 gypsies, 67,148-49 elites. See nobles Engerman, Stanley L., 164 Henri II (France), 141 Etienne, Charles, 130 Henry IV (England), 116, 163 executioners, 144 Herzen, Alexander, 179 highway robbery, 42, 47-48, 49, Falstaff, John, 56 57,58,72 family, importance of, 158 Hobbes, Thomas, 138-39, 178-79 famine Leviathan, 175 bandits and, 82 Hobbesian state, 138, 139, 164, Black Death and, 82, 83-84 175,179,182 mercenaries and, 82 homicide,36,38,52,109,142 spread ofdisease and, 77, 124 hunger, 14, 163-64 fixation, 146 See also famine Florensky, Paul, 88 Hussein, Saddam, 178 228 INDEX hygiene Lossky, Andrew, 157 bathing and, 77 Louis XIlI (France), 150 eating utensils and, 77 Louis XIV (France), 151, 152, 157, improvements in, 162 159,161,162,168,174 laws to enforce, 74 Louis XV (France), 158 rules of 73,132,159 venereal disease and, 105 Man and Society in Calamity (Sorokin),8-9 infanticide, 103-4, 141-42 Marx, Karl, 21,73 McVeigh, Timothy, 176 Jean 11 (France), 48 mercenanes Jews, 63,66, 110, 140 anomization and, 21 Johnson, Chalmers, 3 as army, 37, 56-58 Kagan, Robert, 175 banditry and, 112-13, 113-14 Keller, Bill, 174, 177 brutality of, 59-60 kings cost of 56 corruption and, 52-53 decrease in violence, 156 divinity of, 139-40 discipline of, 60-61 legitimization of, 12 famine and, 82 pardons and, 144 gemeinschaft culture and, 56 protection ofsubjects, 155, 156 habits of 57 knights highway robbery and, 57 emergence of, 25-26 incentives for, 39-40, 57-58, hunting and, 28-29 58-59 solidarity among, 26 increase in, 58 violence and, 26-27, 27-28, 29 nobles and, 58 Knowles, Robert, 56 organization of, 61-63 origins of, 55-56 laws popularity of, 58 absolutism and, 155-56 prostitution and, 93 Black Death and, 85 sense ofdisplacement and, bureaucracy and, 51 108-9 hygiene and, 74 syphilis and, 105 impartiality of, 33-34 threats to public, 57 men/women recognition, 52 weapons availability, 38 sexuality and, 149-52 middle class, 12-13 as societal controls, 73-74 conflicts and, 29 legitimization of rulers, 12-14 crime and, 42, 43, 101 Lenin, Vladimir, 3, 174 democratic tradition of, 14 LeRoy Ladurie, Emmanuel, 75, 80, economic weakness of, 12-13, 85, 105, 130, 149 14 Leviathan (Hobbes), 175 legalistic culture of, 14, 110 looting, 132 power of, 133 I ND EX 229

values of, 32,134,181,183 pandemic diseases migration biological aspects of 75 increase ofviolence, 35, 119-20 crime and, 107-8 spread ofdisease, 122, 134, 159 decline of, 159 Moore, R. 1., 140 discarding possessions and , 76 murder, 20, 24, 28, 29, 30, 33,46, famine and, 77 47,53,54,59,60,63,108, globalization and, 75-76 114,115,130,142 handling ofcorpses and, 76, 77 prosecution for, 40, 143 sanitation and, 75-76, 134 sexual promiscuity and, 104, New York Times, 176, 178 Nixon, Richard, 10 125, 127 nobles spread of, 73, 74-75, 75-76, army and, 44 181 banditry and, 42, 44, 45-46, pardons, 144 110-11,112,134 Paris as bureaucrats, 51 anonymity of 69 corruption and, 51-52 beggars and, 69-70 highway robbery and, 47-48 crime in, 68, 70, 116, 161, 162 and mercenary armies, 44-45 depopulation from Black Death, order and, 10-II 84-85 petty theft and , 50, 134 economic crisis of, 69 political banditry and, 45-46, mobility tor criminals, 72 46 pickpockets and, 71-72 private wars and, 46 as place ofrefuge, 69 rape and, 134 prostitution and, 93 restraint of, 107-8, 158 regulation of 161 sense ofdisplacement and , security improvements, 157 108-9 spatial and social division of, social norms of, 49-50 70-71 toughness of, 43 as student center, 53 victims and, 49 thieves and guilds, 69, 70 violent crime and, 43-44, 107 transportation improvements, women and banditry, 47 161-62 Operation Iraqi Freedom, 177 Parsons, Talcott, 31, 132 order, restoration of, 10-12 peasants oriental despotism, 22 banditry and, 63,117,120-21 Ottoman Empire uprisings of, II, 13, 59, 63 , increase ofviolence, 121-22 100,117 migration and, 119-20 petty theft, 45, 49,50,65,66,69, peasants and, 120-21 72,94,134 spread of banditry, 117-19 pickpocketing, 71-72 students and, 120 Pipes, Richard, 10 230 INDEX plagues public attitude toward crime, 21, in Athens, 77-78 34,69 Biblicalaccounts of, 77 public order, disturbance of, 115 decline of, 159 Putin, Vladimir, 137, 170 effects in Constantinople, 79-80 as punishment, 123 rape in Rome, 78-79 cultural roots of, 96-97,132 decrease in, 157-58 spread of, 80, 122-24 economic status and, 101, 128, throughout Roman Empire, 79 129-30 policing group assaults, 100-101, 102, cohesiveness of, 68 130 controlling, 11,22,34,107, indicator ofvirility, 97-98 157,159,161 lack ofrestraint and, 98-99 created, 23-24, 151 military culture and, 99-100 growth of, 107, 156 motivation for, 101 presence, 95,151, 154 nobles and, 98, 134 regulations of, 148, 153 property crimes and, 103 rural,144 punishment and, 100 weaknessesof, 22 victims of, 97 women and, 96,151 victims' responses, 102-3 See a/so self-policing violence of, 98, 128 pornography, 90-91,158 repression, increase of, 139, power and bureaucracy, 51-52 140-41, 155 premeditated murder, 141 repressive state property crimes, 40 absolutism and, 155-56 prostitution, 42 corporal punishment and, attitudes toward, 89-90 136-37 clergy and, 95 ideologies and, 135-36 concubines and, 95 ideologies of, 154, 170-71, economics of, 91, 94 181-84 importing of, 94 increase ofsecurity, 164-66 increase of, 124 leaders and, 137-38 mercenaries and, 93 legitimacy of, 144-45, 179-80 nobility and, 94 normalization and, 137, 138, in Paris, 93 155, 180-81 pornography and, 90-91 personal security and, 156-57 regulation of, 94, 125, 149-51 property protection and, 163 social stability and, 95 repression and, 139, 140-41 societal breakdown and, 86 role of, 1-2,9 societal need for, 91-92 slave trade and, 164 syphilisand, 105, 126-27, 134 success of, 164 vagabondsand,92-93 support for, 17-18 violence and, 95-96,134 See a/so State I ND EX 231 revolutions September 11,2002,135,172-74, collapse oforder, 8 175,183 cyclical model of, 4-6 sexual acts, 95-96, 97 defined as, 2-4, 4-5, 6 See also rape medieval vision of, 5-6 sexuality restore basic order, 1,9-10, attitudes toward, 89, 158-59 11-12 democratization of, 124, Rock, David, 105 128-29 Roman Republic, 22-24 lack ofrestraint, 98-99 Rome,S, 22, 23, 24, 54, 64--65, laws on, 149-52 78,79,84,171 multiple partners and, 99 rulers speech and, 124 absolute power of, 14-16 spiritual changes and, 88-89 characteristics of, 137-38 See also prostitution legitimacyof,12-14 Simrnel, George, 25, 36 Russia Skocpol, Theda, 2-3 anarchy and, 18 slavelabor, 148, 168 bribery and, 51-52 slavery, 14,65,90,91,92,99, communes, 145 102,118,119,145,146, criminal elite and, 43 147,164,168,169,173 post-Soviet, 137, III slavetrade, 80,148, 164 Romanov dynasty and, 10 social control Rwanda, 137 changes in, 3, 35, 65, 99, 133, 136,137,181 sacrilege, 152-53 courts and, 23, 71, 141, 156 Sade, Marquis de, 96-97 crime and, 15,29,30,117,165 Safire, William, 176 early modern state and, 74 sanitation social disintegration defecation/urination regulation capitalism and, 30-31 and, 159-60 despotic state and, 16, 154 and handling of corpses, 77 disease and, 77 improvements in, 162 factors leading to, 9 lack of, 74 increase ofcrime and, 23, 29, regulation of, 160-61 36,73,91,92,95,111,117 spread ofdiseasesand, 76, 122, longevity of, 137 134 normalization and, 180-81 urbanization and, 74 patriarchy and, 86-87 Schmidt, Carl, 175 sense ofdisplacement and, 64, security, increase of, 156-57, 159, 108 162,164-66 as transitional state, 19,21,133, self-policing, 15, 16, 136, 138, 134,136 155, 165, 180, 181,182 urbanization and, 30-32, 68 See also policing social engineering, 146-47 232 I ND EX social norms, 20, 31, 33, 49, 54, State and Revolution, The (Lenin ), 155,162,163 174 Sociology ofRevolution, The Stenitskii, N. A., 132 (Sorokin), 8- 9 students, 53-54, 120 soldiers syphilis banditry and, 112,113-14, 118 spread of, 86, 104, 105-6, 108, decrease in violence, 156 125-27, 181 honorable discharge of, 163 treatment of, 127-28 military organization of, 118, terrori sm, 176, 177-78 119 See also September 11, 2002 sense ofdisplacement and, terrori sts, 173, 176, 183 108-9 thievery syphilis and, 127 Paris and, 69 , 70 See also mercenaries rates of, 38 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 171-72 students and, 54 Sorokin, Pitirim, 2,15,16,18,21, See also pickpocketing 31,33,131-32,137,154, Ti me on the Cross(Fogel and 182 Engerman), 164 Man and Society in Calamity, Tocqueville, Alexis de, 165, 179 8-9 Tonnics, Ferdinand, 7, 30 Sociology ofR evolution, The, 8-9 tot alitarian regimes. See repressive State state brothel regulations, 125 trade, 73, 74 censorship and, 153 travel, 74-75, 148-49 defecation/urination regulation Two Tactics ofSocial Democracy in and, 159-60 the Democratic R evolution, economic regulations and, The (Lenin ), 3 163-64 fixation regulations, 146 United States food regulations and, 145-46, civil libert ies and, 179 163-64 global predominance and, 177 increased power of, 107, 154 governing elite and, 10 ineffectiveness of, 112 imperialism of, 171 institution regulations and, instability of, 177-79, 179-80 147-48 need tor security, 173-74, 183, legitimacyof,144-45 184 sexuality regulation, 149-52 as repressive state, 174-76, 181 slave labor and, 148 torture and, 179 social engineering and, 146-47, toughness of, 42-43 148 urbanization spiritual regulation and, 152-53 crime and, 116 travel restrictions and, 148-49 sanitation and, 74, 122, 134 violence of, 154 social disintegration and, 30-32 INDE X 233 urination/defecation regulation, proliferation of, 40-41 159-60 protection from, 15 USSR,154 religious factions and, 108 as repressive state, 176, 182-83 sense ofdisplacement and, securityof,171-72 108-9 Stalin regime and, 135, 166-70 by State, 154 unmotivated, 39 vagabonds urban/rural, 115-16 banditry and, 115 weapons accessibility and, 109 emergence of, 64-65 weapons availability, 117-18 in France, 66-68 See also crime increase of, 65 Volkischer Beobachter, 174 and mercenaries, 67-68 migration of, 65 war, democratization of, 37 and prostitution, 92-93 War ofthe Roses, 49 rise of, 66-67 weapons slave labor and, 148 availabilityof, 37-38, 38 social engineering and, 148 ofmass destruction, 177, 178 susceptible to disease, 77 white-collar crime, 42 Villandrando, Rodrique de, 47 women violence criminal behavior of, 39 culture of, 27 interest in sexuality, 87-88, 128 declining, 156 lack ofmale guardianship, economic divisions and, 109 86-87 increase of, 36, 40, 108, 121-22 legal existence of, 52 institutionalization of, 28 nobles and banditry, 47 legitimization of, 37 rape victims, 97 plunder and, 109-10 starvation and, 87