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Glucosidase Bp Base Pair Charles University in Prague Faculty of Science Department of Genetics and Microbiology Microbiology Mgr. Tomáš Větrovský Combination of biochemical and high-throughput-sequencing approaches to study the role of Actinobacteria and fungi in the decomposition of plant biomass Studium úlohy Aktinobakterií a hub účastnících se degradace rostlinné biomasy kombinací biochemických a moderních sekvenačních metod Ph.D. Thesis Supervisor: RNDr. Petr Baldrian, Ph.D. Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Prague, 2015 Declaration: I declare that I wrote this work on my own and all sources and literature are properly cited. I also declare, that this work or its major part was not previously used for obtaining of the same or any other academic degree. Prague, 23.11.2015 Tomáš Větrovský Table of contents Acknowledgements 7 Abstract 8 Abstrakt 10 List of Abbreviations 13 1. Introduction 14 2. Scientific background 17 2.1. Dead plant biomass composition 17 2.2. Mechanisms of lignocellulose degradation 19 2.3. Actinobacteria as lignocellulose degraders 22 2.4. Fungal and bacterial communities in soils 24 2.5. The use of ribosomal genes for fungal and bacterial community analyses 26 2.6. Next generation sequencing data processing and analysis 29 3. List of Publications 35 4. Methods 45 5. Results and discussion 46 6. Conclusion 63 7. References 65 Acknowledgements First I would like to acknowledge my supervisor RNDr. Petr Baldrian, Ph.D. for his great help and friendly attitude over the period of my project and for the opportunity to obtain valuable skills in various areas of my research. Further, I would like to thank all my colleagues and friends from the Institute of Microbiology for their advice, assistance and collaboration. I have learned a lot from them and they were creating a pleasant working environment. My thanks also go to Doc. RNDr. Jiří Gabriel, DrSc., Mgr. Miroslav Kolařík Ph.D and Doc. Kari Steffen Ph.D. and his team at the University of Helsinky, where the experiments with radiolabelled substances were carried out. Finally I would also like to thank my wife for her patience and support and my family for the permanent encouragement. This work was supported by the Czech Science Foundation (Projects No. 526/08/0751, 13- 06763S), by the Czech Academy of Sciences (Project No. IAA603020901), and by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic (Project No. LD12048). 7 Abstract Dead plant biomass is a key pool of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems. Its decomposition in soil environments is thus an essential process of the carbon cycle. Fungi are considered to be the primary decomposers in soil ecosystems because of their physiological adaptations and enzymatic apparatus composed from highly effective oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes. Many recent works show that in addition to fungi, bacteria may also play a significant role in lignocellulose decomposition and among bacteria, the members of the phylum Actinobacteria are often regarded to significantly contribute to cellulose and lignocellulose decomposition. This thesis is focused on the evaluation of the role that fungi and Actinobacteria play in dead plant biomass degradation. First, it explored mechanisms involved in degradation, in particular the enzymatic breakdown of major lignocellulose components as cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Enzymatic apparatus of the saprotrophic fungus Fomes fomentarius was explored both in vitro as well as in vivo. Several Actinobacteria were isolated from soil and comparative experiments, investigating production of hydrolytic enzymes, were carried out to track the transformation of polysaccharides and lignin by these strains. To explain the roles of lignocellulose decomposers in complex environments like soil, the community composition of fungi and bacteria, with special focus on Actinobacteria, was investigated. The use of next generation sequencing (NGS) methods to cover this task required implementation and design of appropriate tools for data handling, not available at the time when the studies were conducted. This resulted in the development of the software pipeline SEED. With the help of this tool, active degraders in forest soil were identified by the comparison of RNA and DNA communities. Further, it was demonstrated that some microbial taxa show high RNA/DNA ratio or were detected only in RNA pool and thus they are underestimated or missing in studies based on DNA analysis. Results also confirmed the importance of Actinobacteria showing that they belong to the most active bacterial groups especially in soil organic horizon. To provide an in-depth analysis of actinobacterial communities along the gradient of heavy metal contamination, where they were expected to represent the most metabolically active group, the method for a selective community composition analysis of the 8 Actinobacteria using 454 pyrosequencing was developed that allows community composition at a high resolution. The study showed that diversity of Actinobacteria was unaffected by heavy metal content, but the contamination changed the community composition significantly. Results also confirmed that Actinobacteria thrive better than other bacteria in contaminated soils and may thus serve as important degraders of lignocellulose. Finally, to get the most accurate estimates of the relative abundance of fungal and bacterial taxa obtained by NGS, methods improving these estimates were proposed. This part of study investigated the impact of the variability of 16S copy numbers among the bacterial genomes on the diversity and abundances of different taxonomical groups and steps to refine the abundance estimates were suggested. In the case of fungal communities, an alternative marker derived from the single-copy gene rpb2 was compared with the widely used multi-copy ITS with the aim to reduce the problems of community analysis due to the intragenome variability and multicopy nature of the latter marker. Broad taxonomic coverage, suitability for taxonomic assignments and sufficient variation for the use in phylogenetic analyses were confirmed for the newly proposed marker. 9 Abstrakt Odumřelá rostlinná biomasa je klíčovým zdrojem uhlíku v pevninských ekosystémech, a proto je její rozklad pro koloběh tohoto prvku na zemi esenciální. Mezi nejvýznamnější rozkladače jsou řazeny především houby, a to zejména díky jejich schopnosti produkovat vysoce účinné oxidativní a hydrolytické enzymy. Mnoho současných prací dále ukazuje, že kromě hub mohou být dalšími důležitými rozkladači celulózy a lignocelulózy také bakterie, zejména zástupci kmene Actinobacteria. Tato disertační práce je zaměřena na zhodnocení role hub a aktinobakterií při rozkladu odumřelé rostlinné biomasy. V rámci jejího řešení byly nejdříve zkoumány mechanismy tohoto rozkladu, týkající se především rozkladu hlavních komponent lignocelulózy, celulózy, hemicelulóz a ligninu pomocí extracelulárních enzymů. U saprotrofní houby Fomes fomentarius byl důkladně popsán enzymový aparát a to jak in vitro, tak in vivo. Schopnost produkce hydrolytických enzymů byla dále testována u aktinobakterií isolovaných z půdy a u vybraných kmenů byly provedeny experimenty sledující osud polysacharidů a ligninu v průběhu jejich dekompozice. Pro objasnění úlohy rozkladačů lignocelulózy v komplexních prostředích, jako je půda, bylo zkoumáno složení společenstev hub a bakterií se speciálním zaměřením na aktinobakterie. K dosažení tohoto cíle bylo využito metod sekvenování nové generace (NGS), které vyžadovalo navržení a implementaci nástrojů pro práci se získanými daty, v dané době ještě nedostupných. Tato snaha vyústila ve vytvoření programu pro zpracování sekvenačních dat SEED. S pomocí tohoto programu byli na základě porovnání RNA a DNA komunit odhaleni aktivní mikrobiální rozkladači v lesní půdě. Z porovnání je patrné, že mnohé významné taxonomické skupiny mikroorganismů mají vysoký poměr RNA/DNA nebo jsou obsaženy pouze v RNA, a tak mohou být podceněny nebo úplně chybět ve studiích, kde byla analyzována pouze DNA. Výsledky také potvrdily význam aktinobakterií jako jedné z nejaktivnějších bakteriálních skupin, zejména v organickém horizontu půdy. Pro získání detailního popisu společenstva aktinobakterií žijících v půdách kontaminovaných těžkými kovy, ve kterých mohou představovat metabolicky nejaktivnější skupinu mikroorganismů, byla vyvinuta metoda pro jejich selektivní analýzu pomocí 454 pyrosekvenace s vysokým rozlišením. Použití této metody ukázalo, že diversita aktinobakterií není ovlivněna obsahem těžkých kovů, avšak koncentrace těchto kovů významně ovlivňují 10 složení jejich společenstva. Výsledky také podporují předpoklad, že aktinobakterie v těchto extrémních podmínkách prospívají lépe než jiné bakterie, a mohou zde představovat důležité rozkladače lignocelulózy. Práci uzavírají studie zaměřené na zlepšení odhadů relativních četností taxonů hub a bakterií zkoumaných metodami NGS. V případě bakterií byl analyzován vliv variability jednotlivých kopií 16S rRNA genů a jejich počtu v bakteriálních genomech na odhad diverzity a četnosti různých taxonomických skupin a byla navržena metoda umožňující zpřesnění těchto odhadů. V případě houbových komunit bylo provedeno srovnání analýz houbových společenstev získaných pomocí běžně používaného markeru ITS a alternativního markeru odvozeného od genu rpb2, vyskytujícího se převážně v jedné kopii. Cílem bylo zejména snížit problémy spojené s vnitrogenomovou variabilitou a výskytem mnoha kopií ITS markeru v houbových genomech. U nově navrženého markeru rpb2
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