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Townhouses, Netherlands by Avi Friedman. 1 Vitruvio International journal of Technology and Sustainability Volume 3 Is 1

The Evolution of Façades and Interior Layouts of Narrow-Front Townhouses

Avi Friedman

School of Architecture, McGill University

ABSTRACT

What made the narrow townhouse, narrower than 20 ft (6 m), a suitable structure for public markets in medieval times, a dwelling for the nobility in the Renaissance, and a type of affordable housing in the modern era? Massey & Maxwell regard the townhouse as a type of building, rather than a building style (Massey, 1993). This observation lay the that explains how the townhouse adapted to fit particular time periods and geographical locations, and their respective aesthetics values. While the building has remained structurally identical, it has undergone manipulations of interior layout and exterior expression. Despite the differences in style, material, ornamentation, and detail over their history, townhouses all share one common property: the continuous façade of several joint units. By examining variations of narrow-front townhouses this paper establishes what factors or elements were responsible for its evolution. The author concludes that the design survived changes in economic conditions and social values, and political upheaval due to the inherent adaptability of its basic form, remaining part of the architectural context in every era.

KEYWORDS architecture, design history, housing design, style

https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2018.100.23 2

1. LAYING THE GRIDWORK

One can argue that the Romans’ contribution to the development of the townhouse can be traced to both their and urban design. As the Roman Empire expanded across Europe, their urban planning principles spread as well. Settlements were modelled after military camps, and the gridiron pattern that was originally introduced in the Greek city of Miletus in the seventh century B.C. (Kostoff, 1991). The defining geometrical features of Roman cities were the cardus and decumanus, two main perpendicular axes that oriented and subdivided the city. Secondary streets branched off of these main axes to form an orthogonal grid, shown in Figure 1. The gridiron system’s simple geometry was highly adaptable and could be applied to virtually any site. It facilitated the division of property and collection of local taxes, and, as a result, proliferated. The interior of the Roman townhouse was planned orthogonally off a central axis, echoing the linearity of the city in which they were built. From the street, one entered into a central , which led to an inner . Commonly two storeys high, the let light and fresh air into the dwelling’s core. At the far end of the atrium was the entrance to the tablinium, the most important room in the that often contained a depository of family records (Gorlin, 1999). The highly controlled movement through the house can also be regarded as reflection of the strict organization and hierarchy of Roman society. Despite the empire’s decline in the fifth century, its urban planning strategies and house designs continued to influence European townhouses in the centuries that followed. Most European towns established at the end of the twelfth century and in the thirteenth century Figure 1. were organized in this manner (Büttner, 1982). The Cardus and Decumanus, two main perpendicular streets and a relic from Roman times, are present in many European cities including the French town of Sauveterre-de-Guyenne. 3 Vitruvio International journal of Architecture Technology and Sustainability Volume 3 Is 1

2. THE PUBLIC AND THE PRIVATE unchanged. The entrance to the was decorated as a symbol of social status. The space During the Middle Ages, extensive fortifications was commonly used by merchants as an adjunct to were erected around cities to guard against looters their house, but the usual lack of direct access from and foreign armies (Write, 2007). Due to the limited one to another did not require this arrangement for buildable land in these walled cities, the construction of residential dwellings (Quiney, 2003). high-density housing was a necessity. A result of strict Multilevel townhouses with shops and regulation coupled with landlords’ desire to maximize covered galleries at ground level were one of the the number of rentable units along a street, frontal characteristics of the medieval city (Slocombe, 2001). widths was restricted to between 13 and 25 ft. (4 and Undercrofts provided the means for the ground level 8 m). Area could only be gained by increasing depth to be reserved for commercial activities. The street and storey height. As a result, townhouses ranging was always regarded as the public face of the town. from two to five were built on long and narrow Even smaller towns had thriving markets along the plots (Quiney, 2003). According to Barnow, local laws streets lined with townhouses, which extended from regulated the interactions between public and private their . Commercial activity blurred the distinction property, allowing the two to overlap (Barnow, 2005). between public and private domains along the Residences could extend their upper space façades of townhouse rows. Facades also defined and by constructing bays that jutted out over the street. shaped the street, while inner and gardens Similarly, and external staircases invited provided families with semi-private space. public activities to occur near a dwelling. According to Büttner and Meissner, in the townhouses This is exemplified in the medieval town of Ragusa, of the medieval patriarchs, the master’s living area better known today as Dubrovnik, located at the was normally placed on the first floor, or bel étage southern tip of Croatia on the coast of the Adriatic (Büttner, 1982). A higher class status was mirrored Sea. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the through grand saloons and that spanned the settlement prospered and grew as trade increased. width of the house, guest quarters, and distinguished Streets were laid according to the gridiron system in oriel . The servants, however, were situated the north-south and east-west directions. in any leftover room: “in on the ground floor, In 1292, a fire destroyed Ragusa and resulted in a under stairways, in the or else in the courtyard.” reconstruction that led to paved and widened streets. Büttner goes on to contrast the much more reserved The gridlike pattern of the streets ensured an equitable artisan’s house. The lower middle class townhouses distribution of land among those who wanted to were significantly smaller than those of the nobles in purchase it. It was easy to suggest an appropriate both height – one or two storeys – and width – three price according to variation in lot size – which was to six meters. Predominantly wood-framed, they also an important contributor to equitable rent. The displayed modest façades that led into a front room, plots, therefore, became narrow to maximize income and further into a courtyard. from sale or rent of land, divided into whatever size According to Quiney, the Rows of Chester in England and degree of uniformity, and leased annually. It was exemplify how site conditions were utilized to at that era that planning necessity defined the width create a dynamic relationship between the private and appearance of townhouses. townhouse and the public domain (Quiney, 2003). The , another Middle Age design Shallow bedrock and the presence of Roman ruins innovation, was a room excavated underneath a prevented builders from excavating deep cellars. building which was primarily used as storage. They Instead, undercrofts and open galleries were built measured approximately 50 by 20 ft (15 by 6 m), slightly below street level, while shops and living and were dug 6.6 ft (2 m) below ground, providing spaces were constructed on the levels above (Binney, sufficient storage space and leaving the street façade 1998). These once hidden spaces now emerged onto 4

Bed chamber Bed chamber Row Service room Courtyard

Cellar

Section

Row Shop Hall Service room Courtyard Kitchen

Ground floor plan 0 10 20 30 ft

0510 m Figure 2. The Rows of Chester, England created a unique relationship between private and public domains. the façade and lifted the private levels above. unfeasible or unnecessary. Yet, densification of were built in the covered galleries to connect the first the city through the construction of tall, attached level of the townhouse with the ground. The Rows of buildings continued (Schoenauer, 2000). Taller and Chester had a convenient streetscape for pedestrians dense towns did not imply chaos, however. Unlike the that promoted local economic activity as illustrated in haphazard developments that characterized medieval Figure 2. towns, urban planning in the Renaissance was often delegated to intellectuals who sought clarity and order in their designs. This was guided by a set of planning principles that were implemented in a growing city. 3. SUPERIORITY AND GRANDEUR Tangled streets were widened and made straight to offer vistas that facilitated trade routes and military As far-reaching exploration and trade developed, displacement. Public squares were created to promote cities and their rulers amassed significant wealth commerce and to counterbalance the crowdedness. during the Renaissance. Despots and monarchs Townhouses framed these squares, and their façades acquired significant political power through provided a backdrop for the everyday activities that economic and military strength to control the took place in these spaces. This reorganization of development and expansion of their cities. With the cities brought about a grander atmosphere that invention of military artillery, the demolition and contrasted markedly with the smaller, human-scaled reconstruction of fortification was deemed medieval city (Schoenauer, 2000). 5 Vitruvio International journal of Architecture Technology and Sustainability Volume 3 Is 1

While economic and cultural circumstances led the members and allegorical figures. nobles to reside in townhouses, they were designed The use of a classical architectural language elevated to imply a social stratification. The high-class sought the status of the dwelling and its occupants. Trends in to simulate the appearance and grandeur of a façade design did, however, vary depending on the through height and rich decoration. Narrow-front building’s location. This is evident along Amsterdam’s townhouses evolved to become perceived only as a four major canals, which were lined with approximately domestic dwelling, as well as completely detached 2,200 (Figure 3). A small set of steps called from mixed-use connotations carried in their medieval a stoop were added leading to the ground floor of forms, which facilitated standardization of their these houses, which would later be inherited in New façades. York City, first called New Amsterdam. According to Two bay windows and an entry composed the Henry Adams, the high stoops in Harlem in the late front façade. The ground floor was connected to the nineteenth century were used as protection against street by a couple of steps followed by an interior flooding (Adams, 2002). vestibule. The was located in the front part of the ground floor, and was the first room one would enter. Unlike the medieval townhouse, the integration of these vestibules and parlours separated the private interior from the public street. The façade acted as a threshold between the public and private realms. Behind the parlour, the had a view onto the . This was a convenient place for dining, since the kitchen, cellar and service were typically placed on the ground level underneath. The second floor was called the piano nobile or the “noble floor” and contained formal reception rooms with high . The front parlour was reserved for men while the rear one was designated for women. The third floor was occupied by the of the nobility, while the or uppermost floor was designated as servants quarters (Schoenauer, 2000). Stairs were given additional width to create the impression of a more luxurious setting. Interior private courtyards were also introduced to ensure sufficient . The exterior appearance of upper-class townhouses varied considerably as façades evolved to become an important status symbol. The classical orders of architecture were rediscovered during the Renaissance and greatly influenced the composition of European façades, as it was an important tool to attract occupants. Carefully proportioned openings, cornices, and ornaments recalled the sublime architecture of antiquity. Façades also celebrated the Figure 3. rise of Renaissance art. Certain Florentine houses had Façades of early nineteenth century canal side townhouses in painted façades and bas reliefs which depicted family Amsterdam, Holland. 6

The flourishing economies of Italian Renaissance were built in proximity to each other, which led to a cities, for example, allowed the high-class townhouse uniform appearance and continuous façade. In the façades to be built of quarried and carved stone, a Building Act, townhouses were classified into several fire-resistant and durable material. For many Italian categories based on the dwelling’s width and height. townhouses that used brick instead of stone, stucco Residents occupied different grades depending on was often applied as a finishing surface to create their social class. For example, the wealthy commonly a uniform texture that emphasized the purity of lived in four-storey tall houses with raised architectural lines. While brick became abundant as while those of the artisans and working-class families a cheap, pre-manufactured product, timber remained were three storeys high over a sunken basement the most common building material for the masses, (Binney, 1998). The differences in height were visible particularly in northern Europe (Quiney, 2003). Only from the exterior and dictated the social status of the after London’s Great Fire in 1666 were traditional residents. In the late seventeenth century to early wood-frame houses in England replaced by fire nineteenth century, narrow-front American homes resistant stone and brick construction. were stylistically attached to their English and Dutch Figure 4 illustrates three of the four housing types roots. Nevertheless, there was a much faster pace introduced after London’s Great Fire of 1666. The change in architectural design that continued into the Great London Building Act of 1774 also dictated next era to bring further evolution of the townhouse sizes, maximum setbacks and material floor plans and façades. selection. Consequently, same sort townhouses

External walls External walls External walls Party walls Party walls Party walls

FIRST SORT SECOND SORT THIRD SORT Fronting by-lanes Fronting streets, lanes of note and the Thames Fronting high and principal streets

Figure 4. Three of the four housing types that were introduced after London’s Great Fire of 1666. 7 Vitruvio International journal of Architecture Technology and Sustainability Volume 3 Is 1

4. ESTABLISHING CHARACTER

Kitchen Back parlor The Industrial Revolution initiated rapid fundamental economic, social, and cultural shifts. As technology Hall Hall Hall developed, machine-based manufacturing surpassed Dining room Front parlor Bedroom rural agricultural production as a driving economic force. The emergence of new industries and the availability of jobs in major cities across Europe and North America drew millions of people from rural areas to urban centres. Acute housing demands led to an increase in townhouse construction, and urban

Back parlor densities reached unprecedented levels as a result, as Back parlour depicted in Figure 5. While the wealthy continued to Kitchen live in lavish dwellings, working class families resided in substandard, cramped conditions. The high housing demand in the eighteenth and Hall nineteenth centuries resulted in poorly constructed Front parlour . Hall st Ve townhouses. In an effort to reduce transportation Hall costs, brick was often manufactured on-site, which Dining room Front parlor significantly affected its quality. The bricks were laid awkwardly, and as a result structure collapses were common. In seaport cities, structures were constructed primarily of timber. The rest were a mix of m

Bedroom Bedroom Bedroo

Store rooms Hall Hall

Bedroom

m Bedroom m Bedroo Bedroo

0510 30 ft.

01 5 10 m

Figure 5. Figure 6. The industrial revolution drew migrants to cities, which led to Floor plans of three American townhouses that were designed overcrowding and poor sanitary conditions as depicted by in the Federal Style. Gustave Doré in his painting of London. 8

brick and wood, but even in those cases, brick usually mainly brick and embellished with lintels over composed only the front façade. Inland cities, such and windows. Modest houses followed a pattern of as , tended to have larger townhouses two stories above the high basement, with a pitched cladded with brick only. and two dormers. Inside, as Gorlin describes, the A population decline during the American lower floor contained the kitchen and dining room, Revolutionary War of 1783 recovered rapidly in the the main floor had two parlour rooms, and bedrooms decades that followed. Cities like , Philadelphia were situated above (Gorlin, 1999). The staircase was and New York became centres for both local and along the party . In the 1820s, the row house was international trade. Economic prosperity attracted typically wider and not deeper than two rooms for the mass immigration to urban hubs, causing a building sake of having adequate sunlight, and therefore, the boom (Lockwood, 2003). During these years, the house was better suited to human scale. Federal Style was applied to narrow-front homes that As the originator of democracy, Ancient Greece prevailed until the 1830s. Figure 6 shows the plans resonated among Americans who were intent upon of three Federal Style American townhouses. This severing any remaining ties to their colonial past. The style diverged from the British Georgian style, and architectural references to ancient Greece and Rome attempted to emulate classical Greek and Roman in the Federal Style were meant to evoke patriotism architecture. Considerable attention was paid to the and pride in democracy. Revival styles did not entry doorway as public display. Front façades were replicate ancient buildings; rather, they resulted from

Figure 7. Elevation of a townhouse row in designed by Seth Geer in 1833 following the Greek-Revival style. 9 Vitruvio International journal of Architecture Technology and Sustainability Volume 3 Is 1

the search for essential architectural principles. Figure purpose of architectural grandeur and pride than 7 shows an elevation of a townhouse row that was a functional one. Despite their encroachment onto designed in the Greek-Revival style. Despite America’s sidewalks, stoops provided space for a separate desire to mark its independence from England, the frontal entrance to the kitchen which was commonly use of the Federal and Greek-Revival styles did not located in the elevated basement, below the first fully succeed in displaying a new cultural identity. floor. They also encouraged homeowners to lounge In fact, other than the prevailing use of red brick in casually in front of their homes, and added a friendly American homes, visitors often commented on the atmosphere to the neighbourhood (Lockwood, 2003). close resemblance between British and American was a prevalent building material in townhouses (Lockwood, 2003). New York City during the nineteenth and twentieth The Gothic Revival Style played a crucial role in the centuries. Brownstone quarries were found all over the process of refinement to arrive at the architectural northeastern United States and stone became easily ideals laid out by Romanticism in America. Its extractable with steam-powered and pneumatic drills. problem, however, was one of mostly poor execution, Brownstone was initially associated with luxury in the for Gothic-inspired elements seemed to appear early 1800s. However, as the efficiency of quarrying where everything else was of Greek-Revival or technologies improved, the material was commonly Italianate. For example, the favour for asymmetry used and became known as cheaper substitute for in Gothic architecture was absent in the plan, as it marble. Because brownstone was widely available remained essentially the same Classical style. Instead, and relatively easy to shape, it became the material the ‘Gothic’ was expressed through exaggerated of choice during New York’s building boom. Brick was architectural ornamentation that seemed to disturb only to be seen in the foundation walls below the first the simplicity and calmness sought inside a . storey. Well-carved brownstone façades produce vivid According to Murphy the introduction of machinery shadows which highlighted rich workmanship. Today, to produce such ornamentation aggravated the this material is recognized as a defining characteristic situation into a monstrous “absurdity” (Murphy, 2005). of New York City architecture. There was not even enough investment to have handmade ornaments. Thus, even at the time, there was a general agreement that Gothic Revival is hardly appropriate in an urban environment, or that its use should be confined to the sacred, such as churches 5. CONTEMPORARY TIMES (Murphy, 2005). In The Rowhouse, Hayward and Belfoure By the early twentieth century, industrialized cities in state that the success of such housing is partly because Europe and in America were severely over-crowded of the opportunity of immigrants to live the American and polluted. Urban life was perceived as being life and own their own homes (Hayward, 1999). The disconnected from nature and, as a result, acquired emergence of townhouses in America became a negative connotations. A romantic idealization of the defining image representing the average lifestyle. The countryside created a desire among many to leave the evolution of these homes relates to political changes chaos of the city. The invention of the streetcar and and shifts in cultural influence. The city which perhaps the development of public transit systems allowed best illustrates this evolution is New York, initially a the city to spread outwards to rural areas. Traveling Dutch colony. Townhouses had incorporated the at least three to seven times faster than horse-drawn stoop, a small flight of stairs that connected an elevated cars, the streetcar made commuting drastically easier first storey to the sidewalk, as noted above. Without (Irvine, 1988). Despite the move away from the centre, any need to protect from flooding, as the case was housing densities in these early suburban areas in Amsterdam, the stoop served a more decorative remained high to maintain walking distances between 10

residences and streetcar stations. While rows of views, and an openness to the idea of reintroducing townhouses formed clusters around stations, the office space inside the house (Schonauer, 2000). planning of larger front and rear setbacks prevented Postwar designers and builders experienced a high neighbourhoods from reaching the same density demand in housing. They had to incorporate the most levels as the core. Only when the privately owned efficient and economic construction strategies. The automobile began to rival the streetcar as a popular extraneous decoration and ornamentation were the means of commute in the 1920s was the townhouse first things to leave the scene. This freed much more typology gradually replaced by the detached dwelling wall space, so windows covered a higher percentage (Hunter, 1999). of the walls. Instead of the “inward” focus of the old With plummeting demand for narrow-front homes, home, the new home was based on the inside looking North American developers recognized that row “outward”. In compensation for the decreased floor housing had to be reconfigured in response area, the residents borrowed exterior space. to competing suburban developments. Luxury Next, the new home followed a series of reorganization become a new housing type for wealthy of rooms. Higher presence of domestic activities within residents. This confirmed not only a departure from the house was inevitable. The kitchen was liberated narrow-front housing, but from all high density from the backroom. In some cases, sliding partitions dwellings for the time being. Cities like Baltimore were the only boundaries that distinguished the saw the last construction of luxurious row houses in bedroom from the , so that the bedroom 1910. Disguised under the name of Group Homes, could become an extension of the living room when alternative housing was placed within the suburbs for more space is required. the wealthy who wanted neither the responsibility of Some of the new development in narrow-front maintaining a large garden, nor an in the homes involves a complete renovation, such as the city. Not only did these group homes provide variety, Hilpert House, in New York City, designed by Ogawa they also served to insulate the expensive inner lots Depardon Architects and built in 1998 (Gorlin, 1999). from the surrounding lesser homes. In this project, the use of steel and glass glows in From 1910 to 1950, townhouses were almost brilliant contrast compared to the neighbouring exclusively built for the poor. But these efforts were traditional townhouses. With the use of , and concentrated in recreating communities after the closets attached to only one side of the wall, the plan disasters of war, without satisfying any Romantic brought maximum openness into the house. ideals of including access to the outdoors. Except when the consequences lead to higher Once narrow-front homes began to be designed maintenance costs or complicate home improvements, for higher living standards, comparable to that of other strategies to reduce the cost of construction and the suburbs, townhouses were rejuvenated and finishing have been well received. These exceptional dissociated from the negative connotations of city cases concern mostly the insulation of the house in life. This time, there were new elements that had to the selection of windows, doors, and insulations. On be incorporated into the design. Out of these, the the other hand, it is seen as reasonable to begin with most obvious one was the issue of car storage. While inexpensive vinyl flooring, until the homeowner is the majority of families owned a car by the 1950s, it financially secure enough to replace it with high quality became common for a family to own a second car material (Friedman, 2001). As industrialized materials (Schonauer, 2000). The contemporary version of the have provided viable and efficient alternatives to row house was designed for middle-income families. traditional modes of construction, the prefabrication The layout of contemporary narrow-front houses seems of building components has been an especially to enable more freedom for personalization than valuable innovation. ever before. The conventional arrangement of rooms is compromised to take advantage of surrounding 11 Vitruvio International journal of Architecture Technology and Sustainability Volume 3 Is 1

6. DISCUSSION REFERENCES

While the above designs describe some of our era’s Adams M. H., (2002). Harlem Lost and Found: An Architectural and Social History, 1765-1915, The Monacelli Press, New York. intentions, it is valid to ask how embedded and connected people are to these issues. Following Barnow F., (2005). The City of the Merchant. Royal Danish Academy analysis of various narrow townhouses archetypes, it is of Fine Arts, School of Architecture Publishers, Kobenhaven. evident that adaptability is among its highest virtues. It Binney M., (1998). Town Houses: Urban Houses from 1200 to the seems that throughout history designers and builders Present Day, Whitney Library of Design, New York, p. 46. adapted a template-like floor plan to emerging urban and social situations. A suitable design response to Büttner H., (1982). Meissner g., Townhouses of Europe, St. Martin’s Press, Leipzig edition, New York. these changes explains the townhouse’s survival. The townhouse’s narrow width eliminated the Friedman A., (2001). The Grow Home, McGill-Queen's University need for interior load-bearing walls or , Press, Montreal & Kingston, p. 42. permitting virtually any interior configuration. This Gorlin A. , (1999). The New American town house. Rizzoli, New York, accommodated the introduction of undercrofts in p. 68-77. the Middle Ages, parlours in the Renaissance, and home offices in the contemporary dwellings. This Hayward M. E., Belfoure C., (1999). The Baltimore Rowhouse, flexibility is also reflected on the exterior, allowing Princeton Architectural Press, New York, p. 130-2. for the emulation of a public market, a residence for Hunter C., (1999). Ranches, Rowhouses, and Railroad flats: American the nobility or a low-income dwelling. By looking at Homes: how they shape our landscapes and neighbourhoods. W.W. a the exterior of a townhouse that was designed in a Norton, New York.

Federal Style, or a Gothic-Revival Style, a passerby can Irvine C. Viesti J. F., (1988). The Town House, Bantam Books, . also “read” its interior. As for our times, with affordability remaining a global Kostoff S., (2007). The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings concern, the need to use housing prototypes that cost Through History, Bulfinch Press, New York, 1991; M. Smith, ‘Form and Meaning in the Earliest Cities: A New Approach to Ancient less takes on an urgent priority. Being cost and energy Urban Planning’, Journal of Planning History, vol. 6, no. 1, February efficient, the townhouse remained relevant and highly pp. 3-47. useful as environmentally friendly designs. Having a small footprint and consuming fewer resources is Lockwood C., (2003). Bricks and brownstone: the New York row house, 1783-1929, Rizzoli, New York. perhaps more valued today than ever, which adds to the allure of this type of dwelling. The narrow- Massey J., (1993). Maxwell S., ‘Rows and Rows of Row Houses’, The front townhouse has lasted through centuries of Old-house journal, Old-House Journal Corp, Brooklyn. transformation and, with all that it has to offer, it will Murphy K. D., (2005). The American Townhouse, Harry N. Abrams, likely to continue to be used by future designers. New York, p. 37.

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Write R., (2007). Chronology of Housing in the United States, McFarland & Company, Jefferson, N.C.