(A38973) (A38973) Enbridge Northern Gateway Joint(A38973) Review Panel Hearing (A38973) Daiya-Matess Keyoh (A38973) Diaya – Mattess Keyoh New proposed route from Enbridge (A38973) Jan 9 2012, submssion Diaya – Mattess Keyoh – proposed pipeline (A38973) detail (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh
DEEP CONSULTATION AT A HIGHER LEVEL:
WIJ'LITSWX v. BRITISH COLUMBIA (MINISTER OF FORESTS) By Christopher G. Devlin (A38973)
The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh
Management Plan Presentation (A38973) Outline
• The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh • Wildlife • Risks • Limitations & Opportunities • Management Approach & Strategies • Values, objectives, indicators, targets • Scenarios & Results
9 (A38973) The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh
• Keyoh united with the Daiya Keyoh around 1900 – Mutual respect for other keyoh holders and their land • Keyoh holder responsible for the management of all hunting, fishing and trapping activities within the keyoh • Three main objectives of the plan: – Protect aquatic ecosystems – Restore wildlife habitat – Protect culturally significant areas and values
10 (A38973) Wildlife
• One of the management plans main objectives • Culturally Significant Species – Moose – Sandhill Crane – Beaver – Fisher – Wolverine – American White Pelican – Caribou
• Other Species – Black Bear – Common Nighthawk – White-tailed Deer – Rusty Blackbird – Mule Deer – Muskrat 11
(A38973) Wildlife: Species at Risk
Animal BC Listing COSEWIC
Grizzly Bear Blue Special Concern
Fisher Blue n/a
Wolverine Blue Special Concern
Common Nighthawk Yellow Special Concern
Rusty Blackbird Blue Threatened
American White Pelican Red NAR
Sandhill Crane Blue NAR
Dolly Varden Blue Special Concern
Bull Trout Blue n/a
Sturgeon Red Endangered 12 (A38973) Risks
• Global Warming – Increased temperatures and peak flow levels – Increase in Douglas-fir range • Ecological Threats – Increase in Pests and Diseases • Fire Management – Fewer large scale
harvesting activities 13
(A38973) Risks
• Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipeline – Environmental policies – Spills
• CN Railway – Chemical transport – Vegetation management
• Vision Herbicide – Broad Spectrum, non-selective – Impacts on birds or small mammals
14 (A38973) Opportunities
• Ecological – To restore and enhance environmentally and culturally significant ecosystem resources
– To establish and preserve stewardship through sustainable management strategies • A stepping stone
15 (A38973)
The Historical and Cultural Contexts of The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, A Family Ancestral Territory, Great Beaver Lake, B.C.
Prepared for:
Ken Sam Box 52 Fort St. James, B.C. V0J 1P0
Prepared by:
John Dewhirst, M.A., RPA Archaeo Research Limited Suite 354 185 – 911 Yates Street Victoria, B.C. V8V 4Y9
December 31, 2011 (A38973) Historical and Cultural Contexts of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh , Great Beaver Lake, B.C.
MANAGEMENT SUMMARY
The keyoh with its extended family is the main traditional economic and political unit of the eastern Carriers. Keyohs are the ancestral lands of a patrilineal extended family led by a hereditary chief (köyohodachum). However, the keyoh is virtually ignored in the large body of ethnographic and literature on the eastern and southern Carriers. This report describes the social and cultural contexts of the keyoh at Stuart Lake, B.C. As an example, this report also traces the tenure history and outlines the land use of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh on Great Beaver Lake, about 40 km east of Fort St. James.
Keyohs were present at Stuart Lake prior to the first arrival of Europeans in 1806, and the keyoh has persisted as the basic economic and political unit of Stuart Lake Carrier society to the present day. Thus, the extended family with its keyoh is analogous to the traditional “houses” of the Wetsuwet’en and Gitksan.
This report describes the extended family with its keyoh in the context of Stuart Lake Carrier traditional social organization. Three major levels of social organization are examined: (1) regional “subtribes”; (2) matrilineal clans or phratries in the potlatch system; and (3) the extended family with its keyoh as the basic political and economic unit. The importance of the keyoh has been largely overlooked in the literature because many keyoh leaders (köyohodachums) also were “nobles” (duneza’s) in the matrilineal clan/potlatch system therefore land ownership was incorrectly attributed to the matrilineal clans. The extended family with its köyohodachum and keyoh is the only traditional social group to own land and to have a strong measure of political authority.
This report also traces the tenure history of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh from the early 19th century, before 1846, to the present day. In 1926, the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was registered as trapline 0714T008. Today, this keyoh continues to provide its extended family with fish, game, plant and fur resources.
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CONTENTS
Page
Management Summary ...... ii Figures ...... iv Tables ...... iv
1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Scope and Objectives ...... 1 1.2 Study Area ...... 2 1.3 Ethnographic Sources ...... 4 1.4 Terminology ...... 7
2.0 CARRIER SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ...... 11 2.1 The Carrier Regional “Subtribes” ...... 11 2.2 Matrilineal Phratries and Rank-Potlatch System ...... 14 2.3 The Extended Family and Keyoh ...... 25
3.0 A TENURE HISTORY OF THE DAIYA-MATTESS KEYOH ...... 31
4.0 USE AND OCCUPANCY OF THE DAIYA-MATTESS KEYOH ...... 35
5.0 CONCLUSIONS ...... 40
6.0 REFERENCES CITED ...... 43
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FIGURES Page
1. The location of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh ...... 2
2. “Carrier Territories” (Steward 1960:734) ...... 21
3. A Tenure Genealogy of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh ...... 32
4. Land Use and Archaeological Sites in the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. .... 37
TABLES
1. Carrier “Regional Subtribes” that became First Nations ...... 12
2. Archaeological Sites Recorded in the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh ...... 38
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This report examines the historical and cultural contexts of the keyoh, reported in the ethnographic literature for the Stuart Lake Carrier. The keyoh is a hereditary ancestral territory owned and managed by the chief or head of an extended family. This review of the ethnographic literature finds that the keyoh is integral to the social organization, culture and sustenance of the Stuart Lake Carrier. The report also traces the history of traditional land tenure of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh from the early 19th century to the present day. This keyoh is located on the southeast shore of Great Beaver Lake, about 40 km east of Fort St. James.
The literature shows that the keyoh, as a cultural institution, was present before contact with Europeans, and that the keyoh continues to the present day. When the Stuart Lake Carrier became involved in the fur trade, the keyohs provided fur resources for their extended families and supported traplines. In 1926 the British Columbia government required that all traplines be registered, and the chiefs who owned keyohs registered them as traplines. Often referred to as “traplines” today, the keyohs continue to provide traditional game, fish, plant, and fur resources for their extended families. The keyohs were the basis of the traditional sustenance economy prior to 1846. They continue as the basis of the aboriginal traditional domestic economy today. The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh has operated from at least the early 19th century, before 1846, to the present.
1.1 Scope and Objectives
This report, based on the ethnographic literature, describes the history and cultural contexts of the keyoh among the Stuart Lake Carrier. This report has the following specific objectives:
1. To describe keyoh in the context of the social organization and culture of the Stuart Lake Carrier.
2. To determine the relative time depth of the keyoh among the Stuart Lake Carrier.
3. To trace the history of traditional land tenure of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. from before 1846 to the present day.
4. To summarize the history of traditional use and occupation in the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh.
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1.2 Study Area
The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, a hereditary ancestral territory of a Stuart Carrier extended family, is located on the southeast end of Great Beaver Lake, about 40 km east of Fort St. James and 144 km northwest of Prince George. The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh includes the section of the headwaters of the Salmon River, which flows from northwest to southeast through the keyoh (Fig. 1)
Figure 1. The location of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh on the southeast side of Great Beaver Lake. A detail of a published map with anthropologist Julian Steward’s annotations (Steward 1940b) to show the boundaries of keyohs and registered traplines.
In Figure 1, the original Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is identified with the chief’s name “DAIYA” in red. The red line represents the original keyoh boundary in the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, Daiya subdivided his keyoh. He gave one subdivision, identified as g' to “Seymor Sagalon” (Fig. 1). Daiya gave another subdivision, identified as g'' to “Louis Mates” [Louis Mattess] (Fig. 1), which is the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh today. The blue lines and blue numbers represent the subdivided keyohs that became registered traplines in 1926. The boundaries of the subdivided keyohs and their registered traplines are more or less the same.
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The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh includes the southeast shore of Great Beaver Lake (Fig. 1) and extends eastward beyond the Salmon River. Within the keyoh are many small lakes and a number of creeks. Great Beaver Lake is part of the headwaters of the Salmon River, a salmon bearing stream. The outlet of the Great Beaver Lake is Beaver Creek,1 which flows eastward for about 3 km to the Salmon River, a tributary of the Fraser River. The western boundary of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh includes the southwest shore of Great Beaver Lake (Fig. 1).
On the west side of Great Beaver Lake, across from the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, is the permanent village of Adih Kənla (‘ant house point’) indicated by the number “34”2 on Steward’s map (Fig. 1). In the 19th century, Adih Kənla was the village site of the keyoh of chief Laya. Laya’s keyoh adjoined the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh on the west.
The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is rich in fish, game and forest resources that have sustained the extended family for generations. Great Beaver Lake is part of the Salmon River watershed that forms the Salmon Resource Management Zone within the Fort St. James Forest District. The Salmon River supports chinook salmon spawning habitat; the greatest concentrations of spawning adults are immediately downstream from the Muskeg River confluence3 and within the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Timber values are high. Lodgepole pine is the leading tree species. Other trees include spruce, balsam, Douglas-fir and several deciduous species.4 Wildlife includes ungulates, bears, furbearers, porcupine, goshawk and owls. The Great Beaver Lake area provides good ungulate winter range habitat and the Salmon River is a wildlife movement corridor.5
1 On modern maps the creek is named “Great Beaver Creek,” but on earlier published maps, such as the one 2 The village of Adih Kənla is located about 1.5 km to the northwest of the location marked by Steward (1940b) and reproduced in Figure 1 (Interview of Larry Sagalon by John Dewhirst, June 5, 2011). 3 Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Integrated Land Management Bureau. Fort St. James Land and Resource Management Plan 1999. Section 4.3 Salmon Resource Management Zone. (Accessed Sept. 30, 2009: http://www.ilmb.gov.bc.ca/slrp/lrmp/princegeorge/fort_stjames/plan/43.htm) 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid.
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1.3 Ethnographic Sources
The ethnographic and historical literature on the Carrier is large and varied. It includes regional ethnographies as well as cultural summaries for the Carrier as a whole. Much of the literature focuses on social organization and culture change, particularly in relation to the matrilineal clans or phratries and the potlatch system among Carrier regional “subtribes.”6 The recent literature includes publications by Carrier researchers.7
Although the Carrier share a common language, culture and similar social organization, significant regional differences are present. The early ethnographic literature and cultural summaries or overviews generalizes from the western regional “subtribes,” such as the Wetsuwet’en, to the eastern “subtribes.” The western Carriers, such as the Wetsuwet’en of the Bulkley River, adopted the Gitksan matrilineal phratries and rank-potlatch system. However, the eastern Carrier “subtribes” did not fully adopt the phratries and the rank-potlatch system of their western cousins.
The ethnographic literature tends to ignore regional differences. Although the social organization of Stuart Lake Carrier—one of the eastern “regional subtribes”--has been well documented,8 it has received little attention. Because of the skewed literature, sources specific to the Stuart Lake Carrier, and particularly to the Nak’azdli First Nation, are the most pertinent, therefore this report has relied on several key authorities that pertain directly to the Nak’azdli and Stuart Lake Carriers.9 This report focuses on the context of the extended family with its keyoh in the traditional social organization of the Stuart Lake Carrier. The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is described as an example of an extended family group with traditional aboriginal rights and title to their ancestral territory or keyoh.
6 There are a number of major sources on this subject. Diamond Jenness (1943) worked extensively with the Bulkley River Carrier and described their social organization, including their matrilineal clans and potlatch system. James Hackler (1958) and Jo-Anne Fiske (2000) have described the matrilineal clan and potlatch system of the Lake Babine Carrier. Wilson Duff (1951) compared the matrilineal phratries at Cheslatta, Fraser Lake, Fort Fraser and Stony Creek. Douglas Hudson (1972) studied the matrilineal clan system among the Stuart-Trembleur Lake Carrier. Kobrinksy (1977) rejected the hypothesis that matrilineality among the Carrier was ancient, and he argued that the system of matrilineal phratries and associated territories among the Northern Carrier was adopted in historic times to regulate access to fur trapping areas. Father A.G. Morice, who lived at Fort St. James from 1885 to 1906, described traditional Carrier culture and society in many publications. Anthropologist Julian H. Steward, who worked mainly with the Stuart Lake Nak’azdli Carrier in 1940, studied acculturation, particularly in relation to the matrilineal phratries, land ownership and the potlatch system; Steward recorded the tenure histories of family ancestral lands (keyohs) among the Stuart Lake Carrier (Steward 1940a, 1940b, 1941a, 1941b, 1955, 1960). Irving Goldman, who worked with the Ulkatcho Carrier in 1935- 1936, studied their social organization and acculturation, including phratries and the potlatch system (Goldman 1940, 1941). Margaret L. Tobey (1981) has written a definitive cultural overview of the Carrier. 7 For examples: Antoine et al. 1974; Hall 1992; Sam 2001. 8 Julian Steward 1940a,b; 1941a-c, 1955, 1960. 9 For a bibliography of Morice’s work see Gaston Carrière 1972.
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A. G. Morice
Reverend Father A.G. Morice O.M.I. wrote the first detailed ethnography of the Carrier. Morice was the first long-term missionary resident at Fort St. James, where he ran the Stuart Lake Mission from 1885 to 1905. He also travelled widely among the Carrier, Sekani and Tsilhqot’in. Based on his travels in north central British Columbia, Morice produced the first detailed maps of a then poorly known region.10 A brilliant scholar, Morice spoke Carrier fluently, and he developed a syllabic writing system for the language.
Although the Carrier had undergone significant social and cultural change before Morice’s arrival, his ethnographic objective was to describe traditional Carrier society and culture prior to change from European influences.11 He wrote extensively on the history, society, material culture and language of the Carrier. Based on oral history and continuing traditional practices, Morice produced a static reconstruction of “original” Carrier culture set in an apparently undefined pre-contact and early contact period.12
Morice made a valuable record of traditional Carrier culture, but he did not distinguish differences between the regional “subtribes.” In his publications, Morice invariably generalized the same social organization to all the Carriers, including the Babines.
Morice also did not fully research Carrier social organization. He focused on the dramatic, romantic “upper levels” of social organization: the “nobility,” matrilineal clans and the potlatch.13 Morice virtually ignored the foundation of Carrier social organization: “the commoners” and the extended family with its keyoh.
Julian H. Steward
In 1940, thirty-five years after Father Morice left Stuart Lake, anthropologist Julian H. Steward arrived to study Stuart Lake Carrier social organization in an acculturative context. Steward collected information on social organization and land tenure since the early 19th century. Steward was the first to record the extended family and its territory (keyoh) as the
10 Morice 1907. 11 For example, in the “The Western Dénés—Their Manners and Customs,” Morice wrote, “Many of the remarks I am going to offer on the social status of the western tribes should be understood as applying to their original condition when no missionaries had as yet (20 years ago) endeavoured to civilize and morally coerce them into giving up the most obnoxious of their customs.” (Morice 1890, page 114.) 12 For the Stuart Lake Carrier, the year of first contact with Europeans is 1806, when Fort St. James was established at the outlet of Stuart Lake 13 For example: Morice 1890, 1893, 1895, 1897, 1932, 1978.
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basic unit of social organization. Steward’s research also demonstrated that the matrilineal clans or phratries at Stuart Lake did not own land.
Steward worked mainly among the Nak’azdli. His principal informant was hereditary Chief Louis Billy Prince14 (1864-1962), grandson of the famous historic Chief Kwah of Stuart Lake (1755-1840).15 In 1913 Louis Billy Prince was the interpreter for the “Necausley” [Nak’azdli] Band at their meeting with the Royal Commission on Indian Affairs for the Province of British Columbia (also known as the McKenna-McBride Commission). Louis Billy Prince provided Steward with extensive, detailed information on family ancestral lands (keyohs), land tenure, inheritance, genealogies of keyoh holders or kyohodachums, potlatch titles, and cultural change, among other subjects. Because Steward’s field notes are not paginated, page numbers are added in this report to assist referencing.16
Anthropologist Julian H. Steward is the main source specifically for Stuart Lake social organization, especially regarding the matrilineal phratries and rank-potlatch system, keyohs, land tenure, and acculturation.17
Wendy Aasen
In the late 1980s Wendy Aasen studied matrilineal phratries and the potlatch system among two Carrier “subtribes,” including Stuart Lake. She observed two Nak’azdli potlatches during her fieldwork. Aasen (1992) demonstrated the continuation among the Carrier of matrilineal clans or phratries for potlatching and ceremonial purposes.
Genealogy
In this report, genealogical information was used to trace the tenure of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh from the early 19th century to the present. The genealogical information is based on Steward (1940a,b,c), Sam (2001), Hall (1992), and excerpts of the “Nak’azdli Genealogy” (Nak’azdli First Nation n.d.) provided by Ken Sam of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Ken Sam also provided genealogical information on the core of the Mattess extended family since ca. 1940.18
14 Nak’azdli elder Lizette Hall, the daughter of Louis Billy Prince, has written a biographical sketch of her extremely knowledgeable father. See Hall 1992, pages 105-111. 15 Morice (1978) provides biographical information about Kwah. See Bishop (1980) for a biographical sketch of Kwah as a remarkable historic figure. 16 In referencing Steward’s non-paginated field notes (1940a) for this report, Page 1 has the heading “Villages & Temp. Camps” and a numbered list of village names, each noted with a literal translation in English and the location of the village or camp. 17 Steward 1940a, 1940b, 1941a, 1941b, 1941c, 1955, 1960. 18 Interview of Ken Sam, by John Dewhirst, June 4, 2011.
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Steward’s genealogical data pertain to the 19th and early 20th centuries. Steward collected extensive genealogical data during his fieldwork among the Nak’azdli in 1940. His main genealogical informant was Chief Louis Billy Prince. The raw genealogical data is in Steward’s fieldnotes.19 In 1960, Steward published his analysis of the social organization, based on his genealogical and land tenure data.20
The “Nak’azdli Genealogy” is an untitled, electronic genealogy of the Nak’azdli community, prepared by the Nak’azdli First Nation. The “Nak’azdli Genealogy” covers the 19th and 20th centuries. It includes not only Steward’s data (1940a,c) but also data from other documentary sources, such as baptismal records, vital statistics and interviews of elders. The “Nak’azdli Genealogy” is not paginated. Instead, the genealogical computer program generates specific descent charts and genealogical reports. Parts of the electronic genealogy relevant to this report are computer generated small “reports.” The genealogical data, frequently from multiple sources, is carefully referenced. Information from one referenced source often corroborates information from other. For these reasons, a high level of confidence can be placed in the “Nak’azdli Genealogy.” In addition, genealogical data came from Hall (1992) and from Sam (2001); however, much of the latter is based directly on the “Nak’azdli Genealogy.”
Based on the above Stuart Lake sources, this report describes the three main traditional social units that form the Stuart Lake Carrier: (Subsection 2.1) the regional “subtribes,” which became Indian Bands or First Nations in the late 19th century; (Subsection 2.2) the matrilineal phratry; and (Subsection 2.3) the extended family with its keyoh. Section 3.0 traces the tenure history of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh from the early 19th century to the present.
1.4 Terminology
Anthropological descriptions of Carrier social organization use several Carrier and anthropological terms, some interchangeably. Some key terms are defined here to assist the discussion of social organization in later sections of this report.
The terms clan and phratry are interrelated and often used interchangeably, but both terms have different meanings. It is important to bear in mind how these terms are applied in various contexts of each Carrier “subtribe.”
19 Steward 1940a, 1940c. 20 Steward 1960.
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A clan is a unilineal descent group whose members believe they are descended from a common ancestor, but the members do not know their genealogical connections to the common ancestor.21 Clans consist of lineages, unilineal descent groups whose members trace their descent from a known common ancestor and they know their genealogical connections to that ancestor.22
Clans may be patrilineal or matrilineal. Descent traced from a female ancestor and through her female children is matrilineal. Descent traced in the male line from a male ancestor is patrilineal.
The term “clan” often is applied loosely and incorrectly to groups that are not clans in the anthropological sense. Such groups may include extended families, blood relatives, lineages, and broadly speaking, any relatives.
The older ethnographic literature, Morice for example, may use terms such as gentes or gens, which originally referred to groups descended in the male line from a common ancestor.23 Thus, in the older literature gentes or gens may refer to a clan or to a lineage. Morice uses the terms gentes and gens to refer to matrilineal clans, which Steward calls phratries.24
A phratry is a group of clans related by traditions of common descent or by an historical alliance based on kinship.25 While eastern Carriers adopted the phratries of their western cousins, the social organization of the eastern Carriers, such as the Stuart Lake “subtribe,” was not based on actual clan or lineages. Phratries among the eastern Carriers appear to be historic alliances based on kinship, rather than on groups of actual clans related by traditions of common descent.26 However, in the literature on Stuart Lake Carrier social organization, the terms phratry (i.e. Steward 1960) and clan (i.e. Hall 1992; Aasen 1992) are often used interchangeably.
A nuclear family consists of the parents and their non-adult children. The nuclear family is the smallest social group, usually associated with a household.
An extended family is a domestic group consisting of two or more nuclear families linked through a parent-child relationship or through a
21 Keesing 1975 Kin Groups and Social Structure. Page 31. 22 Ibid. 23 Fox 1967 Kinship and Marriage, pages 20, 50. 24 See Morice 1890, page 118; 1895, pages 28, 203. See Steward 1960, pages 738-739 and passim. 25 Keesing 1975. Pages 31, 150. 26 Steward 1960, page 732, explains how real phratries are not present at Stuart Lake, therefore he puts the term in quotation marks, i.e. “phratry.”
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sibling relationship.27 The core of an extended family consists of closely related relatives: several brothers, their wives and children, and the parents and grandparents of the brothers. Through kinship and marriage, the extended family may extend beyond its core to include relatives in other households and villages. The extended family, particularly its core of closely related senior members and their children, often operates on a domestic or a household basis. Members of the extended family often work together to hunt, fish, trap and collect resources. The core of the extended family controls and manages the keyoh. Thus the extended family, especially its core, is an economic unit tied closely to the land. The extended family also directly supports its members at festive and ceremonial occasions and in times of crisis.
The ethnographic literature also has recorded several key Carrier terms that pertain to social organization. Several different terms have been used for “chief.” Morice recorded the term tneza for a headman or “chief” or “noble” holding a potlatch name or “title”:
As to the Babines, the Carriers, and the Chilcotins, they possessed what they called tneza, hereditary “noblemen,” who owned the hunting grounds and were the honorary heads of various clans or gentes. Success to rank or property invariably followed the female line among the Babines and the Carriers. . .28
In recent literature, the term tneza has been rendered as duneza’.29 This term has been translated as ‘noble’ or ‘nobleman.’30 Morice also used the English word ‘notable’ for tneza.31 Steward noted that tene’za’ [duneza’] was a “Phratry chief”32 who was part of the rank-potlatch system associated with the matrilineal phratries or clans.
Steward recorded the term kyohodachum (‘village big tree’) for ‘village chief,’ a separate position from the duneza’. The kyohodachum was the head of an extended family and owned its keyoh. However, most duneza’s also must have been kyohodachums in order to direct surpluses resources from their keyohs for potlatching.
27 Keesing 1975, page 149. 28 Morice 1978, page 5. With respect to ownership of hunting grounds, Morice appears to have assumed that the tœnezas at Stuart Lake held this right. Steward’s data (1940a) indicate that “village chiefs” held keyohs and most village chiefs also were tnezas. Morice seems to have been unaware of this important distinction. Morice also may have generalized from the Babine Carrier. 29 Hall 1992, page 17. Antoine et al. 1974, page 90, gives the plural of duneza’ as duneza’ne, translated as “noblemen.” 30 Ibid. Also: Morice 1895, page 28; Steward 1960, page 733; Sam 2001, page 115. 31 Morice 1890, pages 12, 142; 1893, page 111. 32 Steward 1940a, page 57.
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The term dayi also has been recorded for “chief.”33 This is a recent term, obviously borrowed from the Chinook jargon “tyee,” the word for “chief.” This term appears to have been used generally for various leaders or “chiefs.” It is synonymous with duneza’,34 and it also was used for “village chief.”35
33 Antoine et al. 1974, page 77; Steward 1940a, pages 20, 22. 34 Steward seems to equate the two terms, i.e. 1940a, page 20. 35 Steward 1940a, page 57.
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2.0 CARRIER SOCIAL ORGANIZATION36
The Carriers, who speak an Athapaskan language, occupy the north central interior of British Columbia from the Rocky Mountains to the Coast Mountains. The Carriers who inhabit this vast area are made up of different social, political and economic groups, each with a close relationship to the land. Those groups include: (1) large regional “subtribes,” (2) matrilineal clans or phratries, and (3) extended families owning specific keyohs.
The extended family and keyoh is the only traditional social group with political authority and ownership of ancestral lands or keyohs. Steward’s data (1940a, 1940b) and his analysis (1960) indicate that before and after 1846 the extended family and keyoh was the main political and economic social unit among the Stuart Lake Carrier. As a traditional social unit, the extended family with its keyoh has continued to the present day.
2.1 The Carrier Regional “Subtribes”
Within the vast Carrier culture area, anthropologists have identified some 14 “subtribes” or regional sociolinguistic groups.37 Each occupied a specific region associated with a dominant geographical feature such as a lake or river or a major village. Consequently, the Carrier regional sociolinguistic groups are identified by the name of a lake or river (i.e. “Stuart Lake”) or by the name of their major village (i.e. Ulkatcho). Within the region were a number of permanent villages and camps, often associated with salmon resources.
The Carrier “regional subtribes” in the late 19th century were: (1) Bulkley River; (2) Babine Lake; (3) Stuart-Trembleur Lake; (4) Stuart Lake; (5) Fort George; (6) Nulki; (7) Tachick; (8) Fraser Lake; (9) Stellaquo; (10) Nazko; (11) Kluskus; (12) Ulkatcho; (13) Cheslatta; and (14) Alexandria.38
In the late 19th century, the Department of Indian Affairs established Carrier “regional subtribes” as Indian Bands or First Nations. Over the years, some Indian Bands amalgamated with other Indian Bands, and some Indian Bands divided into smaller Indian Bands. Table 1 lists the late 19th century Carrier “regional subtribes” that became Indian Bands or First Nations.
36 Section 2.0 on Carrier Social Organization is largely reproduced from Dewhirst (2009), with permission from the Mayoo Keyoh Society. On June 4-5, 2011 Dewhirst elicited additional data on social organization through interviews of Nak’azdli elder Richard (“Dick”) A’Huille, and Nak’azdli First Nation members Ken Sam and Larry Sagalon. That information is included in Section 2. 37 Tobey 1981, Figure 1 and pages 413-414, 430-431. 38 Ibid.
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Table 1. Carrier “Regional Subtribes” that became First Nations. “Regional “Tribe” and Indian Band Indian Band Present Indian Subtribe,” late Royal Commission on Name (1963) Band or First th 19 century Indian Affairs for Province Nation Name of B.C. (1916) Bulkley River Hagwilget Tribe Moricetown Moricetown (Witsiwoten) Moricetown Band Tsitsk (Hagwilget) Hagwilget Babine Lake Hagwilgate Tribe Lake Babine Lake Babine Nation Fort Babine Band (amalgamation 1957 Old Fort Babine Band of Fort Babine and Old Fort Babine ) Stuart-Trembleur Tache Tribe Stuart-Trembleur Tl’atzt’en (formerly Lake Tatche Band Lake (amalgamation Stuart-Trembleur Lake) (Tachiwoten) Pinche Band 1959 of Tache, Yacutcee Band Pinche, Portage [Yacutcee], Grand Yekooche (formerly Grand Rapids Band Portage; split off from Trembleur Lake Band Rapids and Middle River Bands) Stuart-Trembleur Lake in 1994) Stuart Lake Stuart Lake Tribe Necoslie Nak’azdli Necosli Band Fort George Fort George Tribe or Band Fort George Lheidli T’enneh (Tanoten) Nulki Stony Creek Tribe or Band Stony Creek Sai’kuz (Nulkiwoten) Tachick (Tachickwoten) Fraser Lake Fraser Lake Tribe Fraser Lake Nadleh Whut’en (Natilwoten) Fraser Lake Band Stellaquo Stellaquo Band Stellaquo Stellat’en (Stellawoten) Cheslatta Cheslatta Tribe Cheslatta Cheslatta (incl. Uncha Lake) Small scattered Francois Lake Tribe Omineca Nee Tahi Buhn groups Francois Lake Band Tsil Kaz Koh (formerly (Duff 1964:33) Decker Lake Band (in 1984 Omineca Burns Lake) Maxim Lake Band divided into Nee-Tahi- Skin Tyee (separated Skin Tyee Band Buhn and Broman from Nee Tahi Buhn in Uncha Lake Band Lake Indian Bands) 2000) Burns Lake Band Wet’suwet’en (formerly Broman Lake) Nazko Kluskus Tribe Nazko Nazko First Nation (Nazkoten) Nazco Band Euchinico Band Quesnel Tribe or Band Quesnel Red Bluff (Lhtako) Kluskus Kluskus Tribe Kluskus Kluskus (Lhoosk’uz) (Kluskoten) Kluskus Band Ulkatcho Ulkatcho Tribe or Band Ulkatcho Ulkatcho
Alexandria Alexandria Alexandria Alexandria (now a Tsilhqo’tin community) SOURCES: Left column (Tobey 1981:414, 430-431); other “subtribe” names in brackets are from Duff (1964:33-35). Middle columns (Duff 1964:33-35); Right column: websites, August 2009, for: Nee Tahi Buhn First Nation, Yekooche First Nation, Carrier-Sekani Tribal Council, Carrier-Chilcotin Tribal Council.
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Anthropologist Wilson Duff described the Carrier regional “subtribes” as equivalent to the “tribes” of the coast and the “bands” of the Plateau:
The Carrier and Tahltan spent part of the year in large groups congregated at good fishing places, and were influenced by the example of their coastal neighbours; consequently they formed aggregations which were equivalent to the “tribes” of the coast and the “bands” of the Plateau; in the case of the Carrier these have been called “subtribes.”39
In the literature the “subtribes” also have been referred to variously as “regional bands,” “tribal subdivisions,” “bands,” and “septs” or “clans.” 40
Duff’s “band” is not the same as an Indian Band of the Department of Indian Affairs. Duff’s use of the terms “tribes” and “bands” is in the sense of a sociolinguistic group, rather than a group organized on a political and economic basis.
The Carrier “subtribe” consists of groups who speak the same or closely related dialect and who are associated with a specific region. The regions are identified with their main geographical feature, such as Stuart Lake, Babine Lake, Bulkley River, among others.
The groups within the “subtribe” were not organized politically at the “subtribe” level. The “subtribe” was acephalous. Instead, “subtribe” unity was based on dialect, marriage and kinship, and ties to the land:
Subtribal unity was enhanced by a uniform dialect that differed slightly from other subtribe dialects (Morice 1895:3). The ties that bound the individual to the subtribe were less important than the cohesiveness of the constituent villages and families. It was only the frequent association, the links of marriage and kinship, the uniform dialect, and the pressure to share resources with a territory that counteracted the strong centrifugal tendencies of the smaller-scale residence and kinship units, knitting these units into a definite, though clearly acephalous, subtribe (Jenness 1943:482).41
39 Duff 1964, page 17. 40 Ibid. 41 Tobey 1981, page 415.
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As acephalous groups, the “subtribes” did not represent the smaller political or economic or corporate groups that collectively made up the “subtribe.”
Characteristically, the constituent units of a regional band or subtribe were not physically together or co-resident. In the case of the Carrier, the constituent units of the subtribe were distinct villages that corresponded in the structural hierarchy to the local bands of the Mackenzie drainage Athapaskans . . . The villages that comprised a subtribe may have occasionally united and operated as a task group in the exploitation of seasonally abundant resources such as the annual salmon runs.42
It is clear from the above discussion that the regional “subtribes” were simply sociolinguistic groups associated with specific regions. Many regional “subtribes” later became Indian Bands or First Nations (Table 1). Although the regional “subtribe” was acephalous and without political organization at the “subtribal” level, its component groups were organized.
The component groups of the Stuart Lake “subtribe” were organized on two levels: (1) matrilineal phratries with ranked potlatch positions and (2) extended families with keyohs. Each is discussed in detail below.
2.2 Matrilinal Phratries and Potlatch System
Within the regional “subtribe,” matrilineal clans or phratries organized [extended] families at a social level in the context of a potlatch system. The Carriers adopted the matrilineal clans or phratries and the potlatch from their Tsimshian neighbours, prior to the arrival of Europeans. The matrilineal clans and potlatch became an integral and well developed part of the social organization of the western Carriers, such as the Wetsuwet’en and the Babines. However, the eastern and the southern Carrier “subtribes” did not adopt the matrilineal clan and potlatch system to the same extent as their western cousins.
The modification of the matrilineal clan and potlatch system among the eastern and southern Carriers is one of the significant regional differences among the Carrier “subtribes.” The ethnographic literature tends to generalize from the western Carriers to the eastern Carriers. To understand the regional variation in social organization, one must look at each “subtribe” in its own context. The following discussion compares the
42 Tobey 1981, pages 414-415.
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social organization of clans or phratries of the western Carriers and their eastern cousins, the Stuart Lake “subtribe.”
Western Carrier Social Organization and Its Diffusion Eastward
Anthropologists generally are of the opinion that the Bulkley River and Babine Lake Carrier “subtribes” adopted the matrilineal clan and potlatch-rank system from the neighbouring Gitksan. 43 Gitksan society is highly structured. It is organized into four exogamous matrilineal clans or phratries. Each clan or phratry consisted of a number of ranked “houses.” The “houses” are corporate matrilineages that owned fishing, hunting and gathering territories and localities. Each “house” was directed by a hereditary chief. Among the Gitksan, chiefs were not organized above the clan level and the chief of the highest ranking house in a clan did not have authority over other clans.44
Gitksan social organization is based on four exogamous matrilineal clans, each associated with a specific totemic crest (i.e. Fireweed, Wolf, Eagle, and Frog/Raven). The clans consisted of corporate matrilineages referred to as “houses.” Each house owned fishing, hunting and gathering territories, as well as crests, songs, names and other privileges. Within each house was a series of ranked hereditary names or “titled” positions; the house chief held the highest ranked name within the house “titles.” The principal of rank also applied to the chiefs within each clan and to the clans themselves. The clans are made up of lineages.
Matrilineal clans and the potlatch rank-system are well developed among the (Wetsuwet’en) Bulkley River45 and Lake Babine Carrier “subtribes.”46 The matrilineal clans and potlatch system are integral to social organization. The society is organized into ranked “houses” or corporate descent groups, each with its own traditional ancestral lands or territories and a ranked series of chiefs or title holders. The matrilineal clan/phratry system and the potlatch regulated marriage and validated rights and title in traditional ancestral lands owned by the “house.” Inheritance of titled positions was matrilineal; usually a chief passed his title to his sister’s son or daughter.
43 Tobey 1981, pages 418-419. 44 For an overview of the Tsimshian, including the Gitksan, see Halpin and Seguin 1990. See Adams 1973 for a detailed description of Gitksan social organization and its interrelationship with the rank-potlatch system. 45 See Tobey 1981, pages 420-422, for a summary of clans, phratries and the potlatch among the Bulkley River Carrier. Jenness (1943) describes the clans, phratries, houses and potlatch system in detail. 46 Fiske (2001) describes the social organization and potlatch system of the Lake Babine Carrier.
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The ethnographic literature tends to generalize from the better known western Carriers to the less known eastern Carriers, particularly concerning matrilineal social organization and land ownership. Morice did not distinguish differences in social organization between the Carrier “subtribes.” Definitive cultural summaries also generalize, ignoring regional subtribal variations.47
The matrilineal “clans” organized the “nobility,” prominent families whose heads held potlatch names or titles. Such a person is called a deneza’. The deneza’s and their close relatives formed a noble “class.” Beneath them were “commoners”—less affluent families that supported their deneza’ relatives. The deneza’s or nobles belonged to matrilineal “clans” or phratries. Ownership and inheritance were on a matrilineal basis, therefore titles and (theoretically) land were passed on through the matrilineal line. Persons could not marry members of the same clan, therefore clan exogamy and cross-cousin marriage was preferred. In this way, hereditary names (noble titles) and other properties remained within the same clan from generation to generation.
Morice has described how the deneza’s or notables formed an influential “upper class” that ideally followed matrilineal inheritance through the mother’s sister son:
Authority was represented in each locality by the college of Tnezas or notables which, mutatis mutandis, may be compared to the nobility of European nations. Their rank was strictly hereditary and was shared in by their children, who were called zlzas. The possible successor to the position however, was only the tneza’s eldest maternal nephew, whom he would generally bring up and educate himself in view of his future position. Should he have no such nephew, a younger brother, or failing him, even a maternal niece would regularly succeed him.48
Also according to Morice, only the deneza’s owned hunting grounds, among other hereditary privileges and properties.
The notables were the sole proprietors of the hunting grounds, and as their name indicates (“the only men” is the nearest equivalent thereof), they were regarded as the only men entitled to be heard upon any topic of interest to the tribe. Theirs was the privilege to use a hereditary name, to which was attached a particular song handed down from
47 For example, Tobey 1981. 48 Morice 1890, page 142.
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generation to generation; to dance first to the tune of said chant; and the privilege of wearing insignia distinctive of their rank to be assigned an honourable place in the ceremonial “pot-latches;” and lastly, the right to pacify belligerents, settle disputes and otherwise exercise some authority in their respective villages.49
With respect to his statement above that the “notables were the sole proprietors of the hunting grounds,” Morice seems to have been unaware of the distinction between the deneza’ and the kyohodachum, described later by Steward, who found that most deneza’s were also kyohodachums.50
Morice generalized the above matrilineal social organization to all the Carrier. Also, he did not report variations among the “subtribes.” It is noteworthy that after living among the Stuart Lake Carrier for 20 years and publishing extensively on their culture, Morice ignored the extended family with its keyoh that supported the clans and their potlatching. These regional variations at Stuart Lake are discussed below.
Eastward Diffusion of Matrilineal Clans and the Potlatch
The matrilineal phratries and rank-potlatch system spread from the Bulkley River Carrier eastward to the northern and central Carrier “subtribes.” Their adoption of the matrilineal phratries and the rank- potlatch system likely occurred in late prehistoric times. At European contact in the early 19th century, most if not all, northern and eastern Carrier “subtribes,” including Stuart Lake, had some variation of matrilineal phratries and a potlatch-rank system.51 Surpluses of furs and salmon resources were essential to sustain the potlatch system and its matrilineal phratries. The eastern Carrier regions had fur and salmon resources, but they were significantly less abundant compared to those in the Bulkley River and Lake Babine regions.52
Anthropologist Julian Steward compared the reduction of phratries among four “subtribes” from the Bulkley River eastward to Stuart Lake and Stoney Creek.53 It is noteworthy that the Bulkley River (Wetsuwet’en) Carrier were organized into five phratries, each consisting of clans. The clans, in turn, were made up of “houses”—corporate matrilineages with chiefs and “house” territories. The Wetsuwet’en Carrier social organization resembled that of their Gitksan neighbours. The eastern Carrier “subtribes”
49 Morice 1890, page 143. 50 Steward 1960, pages 742-743. 51 Steward 1941a, pages 281, 283; Steward 1941c, page 496. 52 Steward 1960, page 737. 53 Steward 1960, pages 737-740.
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also adopted the matrilineal phratries and rank-potlatch system, but reduced and simplified them.
Considerable variation has been reported for the eastern “subtribes.”54 For example over time, the number of phratries and their names vary. At Stuart Lake, Morice recorded five, whereas Steward reported essentially two.55 Lizette Hall, whose father Louis Billy was, Steward’s main informant, wrote that there were two “clans,” but later a small fraction broke off from one to form a third clan.56 Aasen, who studied potlatching at Fort St. James in the late 1980s, reported four clans there, noting that one was new from Takla.57
Matrilineal “Phratries” among the Stuart Lake “Subtribe”
As noted above, the eastern Carriers reduced and simplified the matrilineal clans and potlatch of their western cousins. At Stuart Lake, two systems of social organization coexisted. A system of extended families, each with a keyoh, owned, controlled and managed the land and its resources (see Section 2.3). The matrilineal clans or phratries operated separately from the system of extended families and keyohs.
In the ethnographic literature, which largely has ignored the extended family and keyoh, the leadership and ownership of keyohs has become confused with the matrilineal clans. One reason for this is that many heads of extended families and owners of keyohs (köyohodachum), also were deneza’s who played prominent roles in the matrilineal clan and potlatch system. The role of the köyohodachum became attributed to the deneza’. In other words, the same persons often held both positions in the two co- existing systems of social organization.
A second reason for the confusion is that the well developed clan or phratric social organization of the western Carriers has been generalized to the eastern Carriers, including the Stuart Lake “subtribe.” Julian Steward is the only ethnographer to have studied the operation of the matrilineal clan system specifically at Stuart Lake and its interface with the “keyoh system” there.
Unlike the Bulkley River (Wetsuwet’en) Carrier, where the clans represented “houses” or matrilinal corporate descent groups with owned territories and resources, the Stuart Lake Carrier had matrilineal phratries and a rank-potlatch system distinctly separate from ownership of family ancestral lands or keyohs. Among the Stuart Lake Carrier, the matrilineal
54 Tobey 1981, pages 419-420, summarizes the variation of phratries among the eastern “subtribes.” 55 Steward 1960, page 739. 56 Hall 1992, page 5. 57 Aasen 1992, pages 201, 208.
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phratry and rank-potlatch system operated separately and parallel to a “keyoh system” of chiefs (kyohodachums) who led their extended families and owned their family ancestral lands or keyohs. Steward found several significant differences between the Stuart Lake Carrier and the western Carrier “subtribes.” The Stuart Lake Carrier had a smaller number of phratries than the western Carrier “subtribes.” The Stuart Lake phratries were nominal, rather than actual phratries or clans.
But among the Stuart Lake and Babine Lake Carrier the system of nobility and potlatching involved individuals rather than groups. Consequently, the term “phratry” is inappropriate. Individual men held titles which gave rights to the surplus from certain tracts of land which they used to potlatch. The common people who subsisted on this land were required to contribute furs and certain foods to the nobles. They were said to be of the same “company,” that is, “phratry,” as the nobles, but this probably did not imply genuinely exogamous matrilineal kin groups. The commoners may in fact have been related through either parent to their nobles; for it was the title to nobility rather than land use for subsistence purposes that was theoretically inherited by a man’s sister’s son.58
Also, the Stuart Lake Carrier did not transfer potlatch names or “noble titles” through matrilineal cross cousin marriage.
In theory, a title of nobility is transferred to the sister’s son, and marriage especially of the eldest son, is with the mother’s brother’s daughter. My recorded genealogies go back to the parents of Kwah, who died in 1840, but they show no case of cross-cousin marriage, and Carrier kinship terminology in no way suggests such marriage.59
The separation of the two “systems” at Stuart Lake lies in the traditional ownership and management of lands. The matrilineal phratry and potlatch system, with its matrilineal inheritance of noble titles from a man to his sister’s son, operated separately from “keyoh system” where the extended family head, kyohodachum, owned its keyoh (the family ancestral territory of the extended family).
Steward noted that the two “systems” were intrinsically different in their production. The “keyoh system” produced the basic commodities for daily sustenance—food, clothing and housing. In contrast, the co-existing
58 Steward 1960, pages 736-737. 59 Steward 1960, page 736.
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matrilineal clan and potlatch system did not produce the basic commodities for subsistence, but instead channelled surpluses from the “keyoh system” into potlatching.
In considering the processes by which the pattern of nobility spread inland to the Carrier, it is important to distinguish production of basic subsistence commodities— food, clothing, housing—from surplus goods, which were predominantly furs and secondarily fish. In a sense, two social arrangements for land use—two unlike cultural ecological adaptations—coexisted.60
In contrast to the matrilineal phratries, the position of kyohodachum was inherited patrilineally, passing to the kyohodachum’s brother or son or to someone chosen for his ability.
. . . the function of village chief [kyohodachum] remained distinct from that of nobles and that it was inherited patrilineally, whereas the latter [noble or deneza’] was in theory acquired matrilineally. . .61
Steward’s extensive genealogies tracing land tenure demonstrate the separateness of the two systems: matrilineal inheritance of noble titles and the patrilineal inheritance of the kyohodachum or ‘village chief’’ who owned the keyoh.
A title of nobility might also be possessed by a village chief [kyohodachum] kyohodachum, but the two positions were separable. Thus Kwah at Fort St. James was kyohodachum and held the highest potlatch title, agetas. But the title of agetas was passed on to Yuwani, Kwah’s nephew (probably his sister’s son, which accords with the theory of descent), while the village chieftainship was taken over by Prince, his own son.62
Steward’s map of “Carrier Territories,” reproduced here as Figure 2, shows the geographical distribution of the keyohs in relation to the clan or phratric membership of each kyohodachum.
60 Steward 1960. Page735. 61 Steward 1960. Page 734. 62 Steward 1960, page 737.
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Figure 2. “Carrier Territories” (Steward 1960:734), based on his field notes (1940a, 1940b). The territories are the “lands of nobles” or keyohs with the noble names of their kyohodachum before 1840. The “Noble-potlatch group” indicated with Roman numerals is the phratry to which the kyohodachum belonged. Numeral “I” represents the Lasilyu phratry. Numeral “II” indicates the Łtsəməshyu phratry. Numerals “IIA” and “III” represent the Tsayu phratry. The map includes part of Daiya’s keyoh on the southeast shore of Great Beaver Lake. In the late 19th century, Daiya’s keyoh was subdivided to form the present Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. (See Section 3.0)
Steward’s map (Fig. 2) depicts information from significantly different time periods.63 The “lands of the nobles” with affiliated “noble-potlatch group” or phratry, depicted in solid black lines, must represent the tenures
63 Steward 1960. Page 734.
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until 1840, as Kwah’s holdings are shown, and Kwah died in 1840. Territories marked in broken lines are later subdivisions of keyohs into the registered traplines,64 which continued to operate as keyohs.
At Stuart Lake, the phratic memberships of the kyohodachums formed large territorial blocks (Fig. 2) at the “subtribal” level.
Within the framework of this somewhat erratic diffusion, most of the people of Fort St. James at Stuart Lake were brought into Łtsəməshyu [“phratry”], shown on the map as II. The group II nobles at Fort St. James holding land were Kwah, Asu, Təsti, Kədəlcho, and Daiya, while Skələtjat of group I, (Lasilyu), also lived in this village. While each of these five nobles of II controlled the surplus of the territory indicated on the map and potlatched after their own fashion, they were subservient to Kwah, who held the title of agetas and was thus supreme over all group II nobles.65
Whole blocks of keyohs were associated with specific phratries by virtue of the keyoh chief’s (kyohodachum) phratry membership. 66 Thus, on a collective level, the matrilineal clan system organized the keyohs, their kyohodachums, and their extended families throughout the “subtribe.” This relationship appears to have extended to other “subtribes” where phratric equivalents were present.
While Steward shows the territories [keyohs] associated with “nobles” [deneza’s] (Fig 2), he is clear that most deneza’s also were ‘village chiefs’ or kyohodachum, who kept the noble titles within their families.
Village chieftainship was a separable role from potlatch nobility, although the same man might hold both. There can be little doubt, however, that the power of the village chief enabled him to assume potlatch titles when the effect of the fur trade was felt and the Tsimshian matrilineal pattern began to spread. Since the Stuart Lake pattern was one of individual titles with rights to surplus from tracts of land rather than one of strictly exogamous groups, the feeling was that the titles should be kept in the “phratry” or “company.” 67
64 Steward 1960. Page 740. 65 Steward 1960, page 738. The map referred to is reproduced in this report as Figure 2. 66 Steward 1960, page 734—map of “Carrier Territories” reproduced in this report as Figure 2. 67 Steward 1960, pages 742-743.
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With respect to persons who had married within the same phratry, Hall noted that if a husband and wife belonged to the same “clan” [phratry], “one of the spouses could change into another clan at a potlatch.”68
Roles of the Matrilineal Clan “System
The matrilineal phratries performed important collective functions for the regional “subtribe” within the scope of the matrilineal clan or phratric system. The matrilineal phratries gave the kyohodachums and their extended families and keyohs a phratic membership that exercised political and economic influence for the collective good of the phratry throughout the “subtribal” region
Within the regional “subtribe,” the phratries organized the kyohodachum and their extended families and keyohs—the main political and economic productive unit—so that surpluses from the keyohs maintained the nobles in their potlatch positions, with authority among their phratries. Many deneza’s were the heads of their extended families and also held the position of “village chief” or köyohodachum. Deneza’s who were not köyohodachum also belonged to extended families with keyohs. Consequently, chiefs holding potlatch positions had enormous political and economic influence throughout the regional “subtribe” and particularly among the köyohodachums or keyoh holders who belonged to the same phratry.
Steward also noted the relationship between the village chief (kyohodachum) and the potlatch group or matrilineal phratry:
Village chief [kyohodachum] – must be in same potlatch group as father. (Early infor. on this from LB incorrect.) Therefore, succession father to son only when man marries in own company [phratry], in which case potlatch name also goes with it. Biggest potlatch name automatically made a man Koyahodatcun.69
It appears that the keyoh system was in place among the Stuart Lake Carrier prior to adoption of the matrilineal phratries and potlatch system. After the Stuart Lake Carrier adopted the phratries and potlatch system, the keyoh system continued to operate separately from the phratry and rank- potlatch system.
68 Hall 1992, page 5. 69 Steward 1940a, page 22.
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Both Julian Steward and anthropologist Diamond Jenness were of the same opinion that the matrilineal phratries were superimposed on “a band ownership of land” (the extended family and keyoh system) that was previously in place. Jenness agreed with Steward:
I think your diagnosis of the superimposition of a phratry organization on a band ownership of land is correct, and that the same process took place among the Tahltan also.70
On a collective level, Morice noted that clan [phratry] membership supported members of the same “clan” travelling in the region and beyond:
. . . as among the maritime Indians, the Carriers were also divided into several clans or gentes, which originated in their estimation, a relationship closer and more binding than that resulting from blood parentage. Each gens [clan or phratry] had one or more totems which were held in high veneration, as was more particularly noticeable on festive occasions. In case of extended travelling—which, however, was of rather rare occurrence—the totem served also as an emblem guaranteeing to the bearer a brotherly reception and constant protection by any member of the same clan he might fall in with.71
By “totem,” Morice referred to the totemic crest associated with each phratry. For example, the Łtsəməshyu phratry had the Owl; the Lasilyu phratry, the Frog.72
Membership in each phratry united many deneza’s and their associated territories throughout the subtribal region. Steward’s map, “Carrier Territories,” depicts the large contiguous blocks of territory associated with specific phratries or “noble-potlatch group” (Fig. 2). The Łtsəməshyu phratry (indicated with “II” on Steward’s map) united deneza’s whose collective territories formed a continuous tract of lands on the south, and east sides and on the western tip of Stuart Lake (Fig. 2). The deneza’s of the Lasilyu phratry, indicated with “I” on Steward’s map, collectively brought together large tracts on the north side of Stuart Lake and to the northeast (Fig. 2).
70 Jenness to Steward, 8 July 1940. See Jenness 1940. Letter in Steward papers 1940d. 71 Morice 1893. “Are the Carrier Sociology and Mythology Indigenous or Exotic?” Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for the Year 1892, ser. 1, sec. 2. Vol. 10. Page 112. 72 Steward 1960, page 739. Hall (1992 page 5) noted that the frog, owl and ermine were symbols of the Łtsəməshyu and that the Lasilyu had the grouse and frog as symbols or crests.
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The phratries performed important collective functions for the regional “subtribe.” The matrilineal phratries organized the kyohodachums and their territories (keyohs) into phratric groups that exercised political and economic influence for the collective good of the phratry throughout the “subtribal” region. The deneza’s of each phratry formed a group of chiefs who provided advice and used their authority to settle disputes, particularly over territorial rights, among members of the phratry.
Morice also described the authority and influence of the deneza’s in their phratry and village:
By “authority” however, I should not be understood as meaning the strict right or power to command with the implicit co-relative of absolute and instantaneous obedience—except when it was a question of territorial rights. As there was scarcely any sanction to their injunction, and no definite punishment for disregard of the same, it follows that the power of nobles was more persuasive than obligatory. . . . it was very seldom that their orders were despised, especially if seconded by some influential person—the natives instinctively submit to properly supported authority. There were more than one of these notables belonging to the same clan and village and they were all of the same rank. It frequently happened indeed that one of them exercised prominent authority in the village, more generally than otherwise on account of his reputed wealth and liberality—but even such notable was more primus inter pares than the possessor of the titles and attributes distinctive of the modern chiefs.73
In addition to settling territorial disputes, the authority of the phratry chiefs ensured a measure of safe travel for phratry members in the region.74
2.3 The Extended Family and Keyoh
The third main traditional group consisted of a large extended family attached to a keyoh. The keyoh is a family ancestral territory, owned and managed by the ‘village chief’ or kyohodachum who is the head of the extended family. Anthropologist Jo-Anne Fiske has described the extended family with its keyoh as “the productive unit” in the Carrier traditional economy:
73 Morice 1890, pages 142-143. 74 Morice 1893, page 112.
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The aboriginal Carrier subsisted on fish, primarily salmon, large and small game, and foraged berries, roots, and other vegetation. The productive unit was the extended family of bilateral membership with a patrilineal emphasis. Within the productive unit, women and men fished and trapped, while only men hunted large game, caribou, and black bear. Women gathered with the aid of children. Each family occupied a specific territory known as its keyoh. Resource rights were by usufruct and access was sufficiently flexible to include married men and women who resided elsewhere, according to their individual need and productivity. During the winter, the extended family remained within the keyoh. Men pursued large game and trapped small animals. Women trapped and netted fish through the ice.75
On a social organizational level, the keyoh, was a corporate economic unit with owned territories. The keyoh consisting of an extended family directed by a hereditary chief (kyohodachum) is similar or analogous to the Bulkley River Carrier “house.” The “houses,” led by hereditary chiefs owned territories and operated as economic units.
Linguists have recorded several Carrier terms with respect to the keyoh. The noun keyoh as has several interrelated meanings. The Central Carrier Dictionary defines keyoh as (1) town and (2) country.76 “Country” is meant in the sense of land, for example, “The country where they usually trap is beautiful.”77 It also is noteworthy that keyoh means village; as in “keyoh whujút (n.): old village.”78 A recent glossary translates keyoh as “trapline, village or camp.”79
A recent Carrier-English dictionary (Poser n.d.) translates keyoh as “village, or permanent camp, trapline, trapline area, and town or city”; the English words for village and trapline are translated in Carrier as keyoh.
N keyoh. A person’s trapline, including not only the route along which traps are set but the area in which he is entitled to set them. Also, the size of the trapping camp.
75 Fiske 1987, page 187. The gender-based division of labour likely was not so fixed. 76 Antoine et al. 1974, page 117. 77 Ibid. 78 Ibid. Elder Lizette Hall (1992, page 119) noted that the old village present when Fort St. James was established is known as “Keyoh whujut.” 79 Sam 2001, page 115.
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Also a village or other permanent camp. For some but not all speakers may also refer to a town or city.80
Also associated with keyoh in the dictionary is the term for “village leader”: “N keyoh whuduchun.”81 This term appears to be the same as “koyahodatcun” which Steward recorded in 1940 for village chief with respect to ownership and inheritance of tracts of land (keyohs) associated with villages.82 In Steward’s 1960 article on Carrier acculturation, based on his analysis of his 1940 field data from Fort St. James, Steward used the term kyohodachum (‘village big tree’) for village chief.83 This report has used Steward’s rendering.
Ownership and management
The keyoh is defined by specific boundaries, ownership and authority. Ownership of the keyoh rests in the kyohodachum, the head of the extended family that uses the keyoh. The chief (kyohodachum or keyoh whuduchun) directs and manages the keyoh on behalf of his extended family, which consist of smaller nuclear families.
Formerly, each potlatch company land [keyohs associated with the köyohodachum’s phratry], there being no subdivisions which owned or controlled any land. The chief [kyohodachum] assigned different families to different portions of it, usually but not necessarily the same portion each year. Portions might be left untouched one season for game to increase (formerly more care in conservation). All families might camp together or split up at discretion of chief. In any event, each trapping family or group [of] families had to give head man [kyohodachum] several beaver skins. However, lands were some times sep. [separate], e.g. Laya’s land independent of Kwah, tho’ Laya had to help Kwah potlatch [because Kwah held highest potlatch title in the same phratry]. But these Laya people rarely came down [to Nak’azdli] to potlatch.84
80 Poser n.d., pages 568, 573. 81 Poser n.d., page 573. 82 Steward 1940a, pages 20, 21, 22. Steward did not explicitly define the term “koyahodatcun,” but he recorded it in several examples of changes in ownership of family ancestral lands (keyohs) associated with villages. Most of Steward’s fieldnotes (1940a, 1940b) record the Stuart Lake Carrier keyohs as tracts of land prior to 1846 and the subsequent inheritances of those lands to the time of his fieldwork in 1940. 83 Steward 1960, pages 735-736. 84 Steward 1940a, page 63. (slightly rephrased)
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The land tenure system of the keyoh included exclusive hunting rights. Game could not be hunted on another’s land (keyoh), but game could be pursued across the boundary of a territory (keyoh).85 Steward recorded several examples in which family members and neighbours had to ask permission to hunt or trap.86
The chief owned all fur bearing animals, but meat animals, including bear, moose, deer and caribou, could be killed on someone else’s land only in case of emergency or hunger.87
Fishing, like hunting and trapping, took place only on one’s own territory [keyoh].88
Using a keyoh without permission was a very serious offence. In 1818, fur trader D. W. Harmon recorded an incident in which Carriers from Fort St. James killed an Iroquois family who repeatedly hunted without permission:
For several years past, Iroquois from Canada, have been in the habit of coming into different parts of the North West country to hunt the beaver, &c. The Natives of the country, consider them as intruders. As they are mere rovers, they do not feel the same interest, as those who permanently reside here, in keeping the stock of animals good, and therefore they make great havock [sic] among the game, destroying alike the animals which are young and old. A number of Iroquois have passed several summers on this side of the mountains, which circumstances they knew to be displeasing to the Indians here, who have often threatened to kill them, if they persisted in destroying the animals on their lands. These menaces were disregarded. A month since, an Iroquois, with his wife and two children, were all killed, while asleep, by two Carriers of this village, which melancholy event, I hope, will prevent any of the Iroquois from coming into this region again.89
Elder Lizette Hall, the daughter of Chief Louis Billy Prince, described the management of the trapline (keyoh) by the chief, its ownership, and inheritance within the [extended] family:
85 Steward 1940a, page 49. 86 Steward 1940a, pages 42, 43, 60. 87 Steward 1940a, page 61. 88 Steward 1940a, page 49. 89 Lamb 2006, pages 173-174.
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Each family, had it’s [sic] own trapline which they owned for generations. There was no poaching, on other traplines. No indiscriminate killing of any animals was practised. The head of the family decided which part of the trapline to use, and now [how] many beavers should be taken, also which colonies should be trapped or netted each year.90
Inheritance
Inheritance of the position of kyohodachum was strongly patrilineal. It passed to the chief’s brother or to a chief’s son or to someone chosen by the retiring chief for his ability.91 Formerly, the keyoh was never subdivided upon the death of the owner. If there were several sons, the oldest was placed in charge and the sons used the keyoh jointly. If a chief had no sons, the keyoh was given to the nearest relative in the male line. A chief about to die picked the most competent of his heirs for succession. A man dying without relatives could give the land to anyone he wanted. The keyoh could not be sold. Sometimes keyohs or parts of a keyoh were given to men who were not related to the owner, but who had helped him potlatch or trap and who belonged to the same phratry.92 In the 19th century, inheritance practices changed to include subdivision of keyohs so that several sons would benefit as heirs.93
The Nak’azdli keyoh/traplines of today are keyohs or family held ancestral territories in the Carrier traditional system of land tenure. The position of kyohodachum continues to be passed down from generation to generation in the extended families. Today, the term kyohodachum is less familiar, so the English term “keyoh holder” may be used.
In 1926 the kyohodachum were required to register their keyohs as as traplines with the British Columbia government. The kyohodachum is the registered owner. If several persons are registered owners of the same trapline, the kyohodachum is often the senior owner and the junior owners are next in line to become the kyohodachum. Although the keyoh lands are registered as traplines, they are traditional keyohs that continue to provide country foods for their extended families.
90 Hall 1992, page 23. 91 Steward 1960, page 735. 92 Steward 1940a. Page 70. 93 Steward (1940a) traced the inheritance of the Stuart Lake Carrier keyohs. The Nation Lakes, upper Nation River and northeast Great Beaver Lake, are some areas where keyohs were subdivided.
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Modern day Carriers may refer to a keyoh/trapline as a “trapline,” but to a Carrier person the meaning of “trapline” goes beyond the narrow economic sense. Although modern day Carriers may use the word “trapline,” it evokes the traditional sense of ancestral lands that have sustained specific families for many generations in the past and into the future.
At European contact in the very early 19th century, each Carrier extended family used and occupied a specific ancestral family territory or keyoh that provided fish, game and plant resources for that extended family. When the Carrier became involved in the fur trade in the early 19th century,94 the keyohs not only continued to sustain the extended family with food sources, but also provided fur resources from trap lines. The keyohs passed from generation to generation within families.
Julian Steward traced the tenure histories of the Stuart Lake keyohs from the first half of the 19th century to 1940. He recorded the keyoh boundaries, the line of keyoh inheritance in noble families, subdivisions of keyohs, and the registration of keyohs as traplines. Steward depicted this information in his map, “Carrier Territories,” included in his 1960 analysis of his 1940 Stuart Lake data. That map is reproduced as Figure 2 in this report.
However, to understand more fully the territories marked on the map, one must also consult Steward’s handwritten field notes, which include genealogies that trace land tenure from generation to generation to 1940. Through Steward’s data and the “Nak’azdli Genealogy,” it is possible to trace the land tenure of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh from the early 19th century to the present.
94 Fort St. James, established in 1806 beside Nak’azdli village near the outlet of Stuart Lake, became the headquarters of the fur trade in New Caledonia.
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3.0 A TENURE HISTORY OF THE DAIYA-MATTESS KEYOH
Inheritance of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh from generation to generation followed a typical cultural pattern of the Stuart Lake Carrier. Analysis by Julian Steward95 of numerous examples of inheritance of keyohs revealed the typical cultural pattern. Inheritance of land among the Stuart Lake Carrier is not based on land ownership by matrilineal clans and transmission in the matrilineal line to the sister’s son, as generalized by Morice.96 Instead, traditional land ownership is patrilineal and based in the core of the extended family. Inheritance of land within the extended family is patrilineal, with a preference for the firstborn son. If a firstborn son did not exist or if he was unsuitable, his brothers are next in line as heirs. If there are no sons, other near male relatives are considered. This pattern of inheritance keeps land ownership and control within a core of close male relatives in the extended family.
The succession of the kyohodachums of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh demonstrates the above pattern of traditional inheritance. A genealogy of tenure (Fig. 3), based on ethnographic notes and genealogy,97 shows that the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh has operated from at least the early 19th century, before 1846, to the present day. Originally, the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was part of the much larger Daiya keyoh. In the late 19th century, Daiya subdivided the original keyoh among several heirs. The subdivisions, including the present Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, later became officially registered as traplines and the subdivisions have continued to operate as keyohs.
was the earliest known chief or kyohodachum and ancestor of the present Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holders98 (Fig. 3). His noble or deneza’ name was the second highest potlatch title at Stuart Lake.99 was a contemporary of the famous Chief Kwah, ca. 1755-1840. One of ’s daughters married Daiya, a son of Kwah100 (Fig. 3). These contexts show that obviously lived in the early 19th century, before 1846, and quite possibly in the late 18th century. The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, which owned, therefore must have been extant in the early 19th century and likely earlier.
95 Steward 1960. 96 Morice 1890, page 119. 97 Steward 1940a, 1940b. Nak’azdli First Nation n.d. Sam 2001. 98 Steward 1940a, page 8. 99 Steward 1940a, page 27. 100 Steward 1940a, page 44. Daiya was said to be a son of Kwah. Daiya may have been a half brother to Kwah’s most notable son, Simeon LePrince (1824-1882).
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Figure 3. A Tenure Genealogy of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh .
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who had four daughters and no sons to inherit his keyoh, passed his keyoh to his son-in-law, Daiya (Fig. 3). When died is not known, but anthropologist Julian Steward has indicated that Daiya held the undivided keyoh lands on southeast Great Beaver Lake in ca. 1840 (Fig. 2).101
Daiya
Daiya does not appear to have had children to inherit his keyoh. He subdivided his large keyoh into at least two parts. Daiya gave what is now the “Daiya-Mattess Keyoh” to his nephew, Louis Mattess (Fig. 3). The Mattess subdivision is indicated as g” in Figure 1.
The second subdivision went to Seymour Sagalon, a friend who had helped Daiya. Sagalon’s tract, indicated as g’ in Figure 1, adjoined the north side of the “Daiya-Mattess Keyoh.”
Inheritance of the southeast corner of Daiya’s original territory along the Salmon River is not clear. At some point, a whiteman, Martin Schafer, obtained a large portion of those southeast lands. The easternmost parts of Daiya’s holdings became part of traplines belonging to David Michel and Max Fred Pious (Fig. 1). Daiya’s death and the subdivision of Daiya’s keyoh must have taken place in the late 19th century, as Louis Mattess was born in 1875 (Fig. 3).
Louis Mattess
Louis Mattess, the grandson of and the nephew of Daiya (Fig. 3), lived from 1875 to 1963.
In 1926 the British Columbia government registered the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh as trap line 0714T008. The Seymour Sagalon keyoh subdivision adjoining the north side of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was registered as trap line 0724T006. The registered trap line boundaries more or less followed the subdivided keyoh boundaries.
Louis Mattess, who died ca. 1963, passed the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh to his son, Isidore Louis (Fig. 3).
101 Steward 1960.
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Isidore Louis
Isidore Louis, who died in 1969, had no children. He passed the position of kyohodachum of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh (and owner of registered trapline 0714T008) to his senior nephew, John Sam, with his junior nephew, Dick A’Huille (Fig. 3), next in line after John Sam.
John Sam
After Isidore Louis died, his senior nephew, John Sam, became the kyohodachum of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. John Sam passed away in 1997, and the position of kyohodachum passed to Isidore’s junior nephew, Dick A’Huille (Fig. 3).
Dick A’Huille
Dick A’Huille (born 1938) is the current kyohodachum of the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh. He has no children. Following tradition, John Sam’s sons, Ken and Victor (Fig. 3), are in line to succeed Dick A’Huille as kyohodachum. Currently, Dick A’Huille, Ken Sam and Victor Sam are the registered owners of registered trapline 0714T008.
Tenure Summary
The above tenure history in its genealogical context (Fig. 3) shows that the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh has operated from before 1846 to the present day. In the early 19th century, the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was part of an enormous keyoh held by , a kyohodachum and prestigious deneza’. , who had no sons, gave his keyoh to his son-in-law, Daiya, very likely by 1840. In the late 19th century, Daiya, who had no children, subdivided the keyoh. Daiya gave his nephew, Louis Mattess, what is now the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh. Daiya gave another subdivided portion on the north side of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh to his friend, Seymour Sagalon. Some of Daiya’s eastern lands were acquired by a whiteman, Martin Schafer, and by Carriers David Michel and Max Fred Pious.
The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh has continued to provide for its extended family. In 1926 the keyoh was officially registered as trapline 0714T008, then held by Louis Mattess. Upon his death, the keyoh passed to his son, Isidore Louis. Isidore Louis, who had no children, passed the keyoh to his senior nephew, John Sam, with junior nephew Dick A’Huille next in line. With John Sam’s passing in 1997, Dick A’Huille became the current kyohodachum of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. John Sam’s sons, Ken Sam and Victor Sam, are in line after Dick A’Huille passes. Dick A’Huille, Ken Sam and Victor Sam currently are the owners of registered trapline 0714T008.
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4.0 USE AND OCCUPANCY OF THE DAIYA-MATTESS KEYOH
The tenure genealogy of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh (Section 3.0) has shown that the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was extant well before 1846. The traditional ownership of the keyoh by headmen representing the core of the extended family has continued to the present day. As such, the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh has sustained its extended family for at least five generations (Fig. 3), from at least the early 19th century to the present day.
Keyohs have permanent seasonal settlements or “villages” that served as bases for accessing the wide range of game, fish and plant resources within the keyoh. Families used these villages as base camps to access resource locations within the keyoh. The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was accessed via the aboriginal overland trail that ran between Fort St. James and Fort McLeod via the north side of Great Beaver Lake. From the main trail, a branch trail went southeast to the north end of Great Beaver Lake; and from the east shore of Great Beaver Lake, a trail ran eastward through the middle of the Maiyoo Keyoh to the Salmon River and beyond.102 Morice’s map also shows an “Indian trail” extending from the east end of Great Beaver Lake, northeast to the Salmon River, east along the Salmon River and then northeast to an unnamed lake, which appears to be what is now called Bugle Lake. The aboriginal overland trail to Fort McLeod in 1810103 and the “Indian trails” recorded by Morice attest to long aboriginal use of the Great Beaver Lake region and confirm the long antiquity of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, the Maiyoo Keyoh, and others in the region.
According to the late elder Lizette Hall, there were three “big villages at [Great] Beaver Lake, one situated at the west end, one at the outlet and the other one was on the south shore of the lake.”104 The village at the outlet immediately adjoins Daiya’s original keyoh. The village on the south shore of the lake is in the adjoining keyoh to the west. In addition to the villages, various smaller camps and cabins were located at resource areas within the keyoh.
T’saisli Village
T’saisli village, is located at the head of Beaver Creek, which drains Great Beaver Lake. This village is the one that elder Lizette Hall noted was situated at the outlet of the lake.105 In 1940, Julian Steward recorded the name of this camp as “Ts’aiz·li” [T’saisli] with the possible translation, ‘beaver water starts,’106 in reference to the head of Beaver Creek. T’saili is a
102 Morice 1907. 103 Lamb 2006, pages 117, 119. Lamb’s map on page 113 depicts the general route of the overland trail. 104 Hall 1992, page 4. 105 Hall 1992, page 4. 106 Steward 1940a, page 1. See number 22 on list of villages and camps.
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fishing station that was set aside as an Indian Reserve at the request of Chief Jimmy L’Huille to the Royal Commission in 1913.107 In his testimony to the to the Royal Commission in 1913, the Indian Agent remarked that for some time the Indians had requested that the fishing station be made a Reserve, and the agent suggested that the band apply at the hearings. Subsequently, Great Bear Lake Indian Reserve No. 16, consisting of 10 acres, was established at T’saisli. The village or camp of T’saisli is located at the northwest corner of the Daiya’s original keyoh where it adjoins the south corner of the Maiyoo Keyoh.
Recent Use and Occupation of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh
The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was extant prior to 1846 and use and occupation of the keyoh has continued to the present day. As noted above, Great Beaver Lake was accessed from an ancient overland trail between Fort St. James and McLeod Lake via the north side of Great Beaver Lake. A branch trail accessed the north end of Great Beaver Lake. Modern roads have roughly followed the old overland trail, therefore modern access with trucks is relatively the same, but much faster than by horse and wagon used in the first half of the 20th century.
Members of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh still follow the ancient access route. Formerly, they travelled on foot and by horse and wagon, but now they drive trucks to the north end of Great Beaver Lake, and travel down the lake by boat to a series of cabins that serve as bases for hunting, trapping, fishing and plant collecting (Fig. 4). They hunted and trapped many species of animals and birds: moose, deer, bear, beaver, fisher, otter, marten, weasel, wolverine, lynx, foxes, squirrel, mallards and geese. They fished char, trout, Dolly Varden and suckers. In the fall, they caught salmon in the Salmon River. Plant resources—huckleberries, blueberries, blackberries, Saskatoon berries, Labrador tea, and medicines—also were collected.
107 Royal Commission on Indian Affairs for the Province of British Columbia 1913.
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. h y o y a-Mattess Ke a-Mattess y Dai ical Sites in the the in Sites ical g ure 4. UseLand and Archaeolo g Fi
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The first cabin (Fig. 4:Cabin A) is located just north of the creek that drains Tsulkeh Lake. This cabin was built by Louis Mattess in 1935. The cabin has been rebuilt a few times, the last time in the mid-1990s. From the cabin, trappers and hunters travelled on foot or on snowshoes into the surrounding area. When they stayed overnight on the land, they built a lean-to.
The second cabin (Fig. 4:Cabin B) is located on the north shore of Great Beaver Lake at its southernmost point.
The third cabin (Fig. 4:Cabin C) is located at the east end of Great Beaver Lake. This cabin is a base for access to the many swamps and small lakes to the north and east. Trails from this cabin lead to the Salmon River and beyond to Bugle Lake, where cabins were also located.
The fourth cabin (Fig 4:Cabin D) is located on a small island near the south shore of Bugle Lake. About 20 years ago, John Sam and his friend Rudy Sampson built a new cabin on the island. Nearby, on the south shore of Bugle Lake and directly across from the fourth cabin, is the site of a former cabin (Fig. 4:Cabin E).
The above five cabin sites (Fig. 4) must not be regarded as a complete inventory of land use and occupancy in the keyoh. The cabin sites (Fig. 4) are simply resident bases for intensive use in areas of the keyoh that were accessed by trails and by travel on snowshoes. A traditional land use and occupancy study will record many specific use sites and demonstrate the intensity and extent of use in the experience of the living keyoh members.
Similarly, past use of the keyoh was undoubtedly intensive for generations and it also needs to be studied. To date, five archaeological sites (Table 2) have been recorded in the keyoh (Fig. 4).
Table 2. Archaeological Sites Recorded in the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh* Site Details GcRu-1 Surface lithics located on low terrace overlooking Salmon River. Fire reddened soil and proximity to river suggests possibility of a habitation site. Requires further investigation. GcRu-2 Two lithic flakes recovered from subsurface deposits. Site 5 m x 5 m. GcRu-3 Three lithic flakes recovered from subsurface deposits. Site 23 m x 21 m. GcRv-1 Fish weir and surface lithics. GcRv-3 Culturally modified tree, cultural depression cache pit. * Source: “Detailed Site Reports. Archaeology Branch, Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations
However, only limited areas of the keyoh have been surveyed archaeologically, therefore the five recorded sites should not be regarded as a finite total. A comprehensive archaeological survey likely will locate many more archaeological sites, often in association with known traditional use sites and locations.
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Seasonal Round
In the experience of living informants,108 the cabins, trails and lake access by boat were the basis of a seasonal system of land use of the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh. In September, the informants hunted and still hunt moose, bear, and deer. The meat was dried in the field. The bear meat was rendered into grease. The fall hunting period was critical to collect meat to sustain the families through the winter. The fall was also a good time to take salmon in the Salmon River.
Winter trapping began in late October and continued until late November or early December. They stayed out for a month until it got too cold or until people had to return to work.
Spring trapping began in late April and went on until late May. The family set traps for mainly beaver. Spring was also a good time for fishing with nets for trout, suckers and Dolly Varden. Returning migratory waterfowl, ducks and geese, also were hunted in the spring.
According to informants, prior to logging that began in the area in 1957 and prior to construction of the Salmon River bridge in 1959, the above seasonal round was consistent from year to year. However, since logging has come into the area, clearcuts have adversely affected the abundance of game, which depends directly and indirectly on forest resources. Consequently, fish and game resources that sustained the keyoh extended families are greatly reduced, and this has affected the duration and timing of the present seasonal round, including trapping. As a result of forest operations, resources are currently insufficient to sustain the families that belong to the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh.
108 Interviews by John Dewhirst of: (1) Dick A’Huille, June 4-5, 2011 and (2) Ken Sam, June 5, 2011.
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5.0 CONCLUSIONS
This report has examined the ethnographic literature with respect to the history and cultural contexts of the keyoh among the Stuart Lake Carrier. Section 1.1 set out several objectives for this research. Their conclusions are discussed below.
The first objective was to describe the keyoh in the context of the social organization and culture of the Stuart Lake Carrier. The literature distinguished three major levels of social organization: (1) regional “subtribes”; (2) matrilineal clans or phratries; and (3) the extended family with its keyoh. The last two—the clan or phratry and the extended family with its keyoh—are interrelated on an economic and political level, but they co-existed and operated as separate systems.
The regional “subtribes” (Section 2.3) are simply ethnolinguistic dialect groups associated with regions. The regional “subtribes” are acephalous, unstructured and without formal political and economic organization. Despite the absence of formal political and social organization at the “subtribal” level, many regional “subtribes” later became Indian Bands or First Nations (Table 1). Collectively, the regional “subtribe” provided a social and regional identity, based on a common dialect, shared history and use of the region.
The second major level of social organization is the matrilineal clan or phratry associated with the potlatch (Section 2.2). Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Carrier regional “subtribes” adopted matrilineal phratries and the rank-potlatch system from the Gitksan, whose social organization is based on actual matrilineal clans and phratries. Unlike the Gitksan, eastern Carrier “subtribes” are based on extended families. Actual clans and phratries are absent among the eastern Carriers. As the matrilineal phratries and rank-potlatch system diffused eastward among the Carrier “subtribes,” whose social organization had no underlying clans or phratries or even lineages, the adopted phratries became increasingly reduced and simplified. The adopted phratries appear to be historical alliances based on kinship, rather than true matrilineal clans. Among the Stuart Lake Carrier the phratries did not own or control territories. The matrilineal phratries were simply adopted as a system separate from the extended families already in place, whose chiefs or köyohodachum owned and controlled ancestral family territories (keyohs).
Collectively, the adopted matrilineal phratries and the associated rank-potlatch system organized the Stuart Lake Carrier chiefs on a “subtribal” level within the region. The potlatch nobles or deneza’s were either köyohodachum or very closely related to köyohodachum kinsmen. The köyohodachum directed surpluses from their keyohs for potlatching.
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Based on the phratric membership of the köyohodachum, large blocks of specific family territories (keyohs) were associated with specific phratries (Fig. 2). The matrilineal phratries united the “nobles” or deneza’s/köyohodachum as a political group that had great influence and certain authority through the “subtribal” region. In the phratries, the deneza’s validated the succession of titled or named noble positions through the potlatch. The potlatch chiefs (deneza’s) had the authority to settle territorial disputes within their phratry. Membership in a phratry also ensured a measure of protection and safety beyond one’s village.
The third major level of social organization is the extended family and its keyoh (Section 2.3). The keyoh is a hereditary ancestral territory that sustained its extended family with fish, game, plant and fur resources. The core of the extended family—its köyohodachum, his close male relatives and their immediate families—is the traditional basic political and economic unit of the Stuart Lake Carrier. The head of the extended family is a ‘village chief’ or köyohodachum who owned and managed the keyoh on behalf of the extended family. Upon the death of the köyohodachum, that position and its keyoh were inherited patrilineally within the core of the extended family.
The boundaries of the keyoh were well defined and respected. Strict ownership laws required permission from the köyohodachum to hunt, fish or trap, or otherwise harvest resources. Persons from other extended families did not trespass or use resources without permission. To do so was a serious matter and sometimes violators were killed.
A second objective of this research was to determine the relative time depth of the keyoh among the Stuart Lake Carrier. Julian Steward’s ethnographic data clearly demonstrate that the extended family with its köyohodachum and keyoh were extant among the Stuart Lake Carrier prior to European contact and they continued into the 20th century. The keyohs fitted well into the contexts of the fur trade, providing furs for the extended family, as well as fish, game and plant resources. Steward’s land tenure histories indicate that the keyohs continued into the 20th century. In 1926 the keyohs were officially registered as traplines, as a requirement of the British Columbia government. However, the keyohs still continue to provide food and materials for the domestic sustenance of the extended family.
A third objective was to trace the history of traditional land tenure of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh from before 1846 to the present day. A genealogy of the chiefs or köyohodachums of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh (Fig. 3) shows that this keyoh was extant in the early 19th century and undoubtedly earlier (Section 3.0). The oldest known köyohodachum of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was , who lived in the early 19th century, before 1846.
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The position of köyohodachum of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh has been passed down in the extended family to the present day (Fig. 3). ’s successor, Daiya, subdivided the large keyoh in the late 19th century, and the present Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is one of those subdivisions. In 1926 köyohodachum Louis Mattess registered the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh as trapline 0714T008. It still operates as a keyoh and as a trapline for a large extended family. The present köyohodachum of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is Dick A’Huille. He also is a current registered owner of trapline 0714T008, along with Ken Sam and Victor Sam, who are in line, respectively, to succeed Dick A’Huille as köyohodachum. The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh continues today as the traditional domestic economic unit of its extended family.
A fourth objective was to summarize the history of traditional use and occupation in the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Based on available historical and ethnographic documents, the keyoh was accessed by “Indian trails.” Morice (1907) has recorded one trail to the north end of Great Beaver Lake and a trail from the east end of Great Beaver Lake to Salmon River and to what is probably Bugle Lake, which is an important site today
Although land use of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was intensive and extensive through the years, it has never been studied in depth. In this report five cabin sites and five recorded archaeological sites have been identified. All these sites must be regarded as a very incomplete record of use and occupation. A combined traditional land use and occupancy study, together with a rigorous archaeological survey, is needed to document the long and continued land use.
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6.0 REFERENCES CITED
Adams, John W. 1973 The Gitksan Potlatch: Population Flux, Resource Ownership and Reciprocity. Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada, Limited, Toronto.
Antoine, F., C. Bird, A. Isaac, N. Prince, S. Sam, R. Walker and D. B. Wilkinson 1974 Central Carrier Bilingual Dictionary. Carrier Linguistic Committee, Fort St. James, B.C.
Aasen, Wendy Katherine Grace 1992 Should the Clans Decide? The Problems of Modelling Self- Government among the Carrier-Sekani Indians of British Columbia. Unpublished M.A. Thesis (Anthropology), University of Alberta, Edmonton.
Bishop, Charles A. 1980 Kwah: A Carrier Chief. Pages 191-204 in Carol M. Judd and Arthur J. Ray (editors) Old Trails and New Directions: Papers of the Third North American Fur Trade Conference. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Carrière, Gaston 1972 Adrien-Gabriel Morice, O.M.I. (1859-1938); Essai de bibliographie. Revue de l’Université d’Ottawa 42: 325-341.
Dewhirst, John 2009 The Historical and Cultural Contexts of the Central Carrier Keyoh, a Family Ancestral Territory, with Reference to the Maiyoo Keyoh at Great Beaver Lake, B.C. Report prepared November 16, 2009, for the Maiyoo Keyoh Society, Williams Lake, B.C.
Duff, Wilson 1951 Notes on Carrier Social Organization. Anthropology in British Columbia No. 2: 28-34. Provincial Museum, Victoria.
1964 The Indian History of British Columbia, Volume 1, The Impact of the White Man. Anthropology in British Columbia Memoir No. 5. Provincial Museum of British Columbia, Victoria.
Fiske, Jo-Anne 1987 Fishing is Women’s Business: Changing Economic Roles of Carrier Women and Men. Pages 186-198 in Bruce Alden Cox (editor), Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit and Metis. Carlton Library Series No. 142, Carlton University Press, Ottawa.
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Fiske, Jo-Anne 2000 Cis dideen kat (When the Plumes Rise): The Way of the Lake Babine Nation. UBC Press, Vancouver.
Fox, Robin 1967 Kinship and Marriage. Penguin Books, Baltimore, Maryland.
Goldman, Irving 1940 The Alkatcho Carrier of British Columbia. Pages 333-386 in Ralph Linton (editor) Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes. D. Appleton-Century, New York.
Goldman, Irving 1941 The Alkatcho Carrier: Historical Background of Crest Prerogatives. American Anthropologist 43 (3):396-418.
Hackler, James C. 1958 The Carrier Indians of Babine Lake: The Effects of the Fur Trade and the Catholic Church on Their Social Organization. M.A. Thesis, San Jose State College, San Jose, California.
Hall, Lizette 1992 The Carrier, My People. Self published.
Halpin, Marjorie M. and Margaret Seguin 1990 Tsimshian Peoples: Southern Tsimshian, Coast Tsimshian, Nishga, and Gitksan. Pages 267-285 in Wayne Suttles (volume editor) Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7 Northwest Coast. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Harmon, Daniel Williams 1911 An Account of the Indians Living West of the Rocky Mountain. Pages 237-266 in A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America between the 47th and 58th Degrees of North Latitude, extending from Montreal nearly to the Pacific, a Distance of about 5,000 miles. The Courier Press Limited, Toronto. [originally published in 1820]
Jenness, Diamond 1934 The Carrier Indians of the Bulkley River: Their Social and Religious Life. Anthropological Papers No. 25, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 133. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
1940 Letter of July 8, 1940, from Diamond Jenness to Julian Steward. Letters received from M.W. Stirling, Diamond Jennes [sic], Donald
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D. Brand, and others. National Anthropological Archives MS 7053 (8), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Keesing, Roger M. 1975 Kin Groups and Social Structure. Holt, Reinhart and Winston Inc., Chicago, San Francisco, Toronto.
Kobrinsky, Vernon 1973 Ethnohistory and Ceremonial Representation of Carrier Social Structure. Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Anthropology and Sociology, University of British Columbia.
Lamb, W. Kaye (editor) 2006 Harmon’s Journal 1800-1819. TouchWood Editions, Victoria.
Morice, A.G. 1890 The Western Dénés: Their Manners and Customs. Proceedings of the Canadian Institute for 1888-1889. Series 3, Volume 7. pages 109-174. Toronto.
1893 Are the Carrier Sociology and Mythology Indigenous or Exotic? Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for the Year 1892, ser. 1, sect. 2. Volume 10, pages 109-126. Ottawa.
1895 Notes Archaeological, Industrial and Sociological on the Western D n s with an Ethnographical Sketch of the Same. Transactions of the Canadian Institute, Volume 4, pages 1-222. Toronto.
1897 Au pays de l’ours noir, chez les sauvages de la Colombie Britannique: récits d’un missionnaire. Delhomme et Briguet, Paris.
1902 A First Collection of Minor Essays, Mostly Anthropological. Self- published, Stuart’s Lake Mission, Fort St. James.
1907 Map of the Northern Interior of British Columbia by A.G. Morice, O.M.I. Published by direction of the Honourable The Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works, Victoria, B.C. 1907.
1932 The Carrier Language (Déné Family): A Grammar and Dictionary Combined. Anthropos: linguistische bibliothek, v. 9-10. St. Gabriel-Modling, Austria.
1978 The History of the Northern Interior of British Columbia (Formerly New Caledonia). Interior Stationery (1970) Ltd., Smithers, B.C. Facsimile reprint of 1906 edition published by John Lane, London.
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Nak’azdli First Nation n.d. “Nak’azdli Genealogy.” [Untitled] Electronic genealogy, untitled and not paginated. Nak’azdli First Nation. Fort St. James, B.C.
Poser, Bill n.d. English/Dakelh Dictionary. Unpublished. Printed and distributed by Tl’azt’en Nation Research & Development Office, Tache, B.C.
Royal Commission on Indian Affairs for the Province of British Columbia 1913 “Meeting with Indians of the Necausley Band held at Fort St. James 15 June 1913.” B.C. Archives GR 1995, Transcripts of evidence taken at hearings. Microfilms B-01457 and B-01458. [Because of conservation treatment, these microfilms were not available at the time of this research, therefore typed transcripts of the hearings, B.C. Archives MS-1056, were used.]
1916 Report of the Royal Commission on Indian Affairs for the Province of British Columbia. Volume 4. Acme Press, Victoria.
Sam, Lilian (editor) 2001 Nak’azdli Elders Speak Nak’azdli t’enne Yahulduk. Theytus Books Ltd., Penticton, B.C.
Steward, Julian H. 1940a Miscellaneous notes. National Anthropological Archives MS 7053 (4), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
1940b British Columbia, Dept. of Lands, Cariboo and Adjacent Districts, annotated to show land holdings. National Anthropological Archives MS 7053 (14e), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
1940c Genealogical charts. National Anthropological Archives MS 7053 (12), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
1940d Letters received from M.W. Stirling, Diamond Jennes [sic], Donald D. Brand, and others. National Anthropological Archives MS 7053 (8), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
1941a Investigations among the Carrier Indians. Scientific Monthly 52:280-283.
1941b Recording Culture Changes among the Carrier Indians. Explorations and Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1940: 83-90. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
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Steward, Julian H. 1941c Determinism in Primitive Society? Scientific Monthly 53:491-501.
1955 Theory of Culture Change: the Methodology of Multilinear Evolution. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
1960 Carrier Acculturation: The Direct Historical Approach. Pages 732- 744 in S. Diamond (editor), Culture in History: Essays in Honor of Paul Radin. Columbia University Press, New York.
Tobey, Margaret L. 1981 Carrier. Pages 413-432 in June Helm (volume editor) Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 6, Subarctic. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
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Forest Management Plan Daiya-Mattess Keyoh
April 2011
Produced by: The Daiya-Mattess Forest Group
Forestry 424: Sustainable Forest Management (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011
Executive Summary
Planning for Future Generations This management plan was created to help Ken Sam and his family manage and restore the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. The keyoh, located east of Fort St. James, has been part of Canfor's operating tenure for over three decades and during this time much of the area has been harvested against the wishes of the Sam family. After a site visit and consultation with Ken and his family it was determined that the immediate priority objectives for the keyoh were to protect the aquatic ecosystems, restore the wildlife habitat and protect culturally significant areas. To meet these objectives, a range of scenarios was produced, using the latest land use planning decision support tools, to describe management options for Ken and his family to consider.
Through analysis, it was demonstrate that the land management objectives could be met with a restoration management strategy that includes the partial deactivation of roads, the replanting of non-satisfactorily restocked blocks and a unique future timber harvest zoning. Methods to fund this management plan include carbon analysis, harvesting scenarios and external funding.
It was concluded that the expanded harvest zone is the best option to pursue. Having the largest area available to harvest, it would generate a good source of revenue and maintain habitat for species requiring early seral stages. By choosing the expanded harvest zone, culturally significant areas and water quality would be protected through the application of buffers.
Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Disclosure Agreement This project was created as part of a University of British Columbia Faculty of Forestry course, FRST 424, and that all content and work associated with this project is confidential. The research and analysis of this project was conducted for training and educational purposes and further validation would have to be undertaken to support the analysis and results. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Disclosure Agreement 3 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 “In order to practice conservation, members of my family move around the keyoh. We concentrate our actions in different areas according to season, using the entire keyoh. Our actions may involve hunting, fishing, gathering of food, and trapping. Movement around the keyoh for resource gathering allows areas to rest and recover from over usage. We would trap with our neighbours in times of intensive fur trading, and let entire keyohs rest. Trapping on any one keyoh would allow the animals a chance to regenerate. This is important to maintain the natural balance. According to our legends and transgressions, if you take too much, bad things will happen.” - JIM MUNROE, ON BEHALF OF KEN SAM, 2011 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 4 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Acknowledgements We would like to thank Ken Sam, Jim Munroe, and their families for sharing their knowledge and traditional values about their keyohs. Without their help, this management plan would not have been able to represent them as we feel it now does. We would also like to thank John Nelson and Gary Bull for their help and hours spent towards the creation of this plan, as well as the anonymous donor who sent us to Fort St. James to meet Ken Sam and see the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Figure 1: Ken Sam (right) with his family and fellow keyoh holders Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Acknowledgements 5 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Acknowledgements 6 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction ...... 10 1.1 Cultural Background ...... 12 1.11 Keyoh and Dakelh People...... 12 Keyohs ...... 12 Dakelh ...... 12 1.12 Daiya-Mattess Family Background...... 13 Historical Ownership ...... 13 Past Management ...... 13 Family Values ...... 14 1.2 Socio-Economics ...... 15 3.1 The Fort St. James Region ...... 15 Demographics and Employment of Fort St. James ...... 15 Industry Involvement in the Fort St. James Forest District ...... 16 Fort St. James Forest District AAC Timber Supply ...... 16 1.3 Ecological Background ...... 20 1.31 Biogeoclimatic Classification of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh ...... 20 Climate ...... 20 Vegetation ...... 20 Forest District of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh...... 22 1.32 Wildlife ...... 22 1.33 Aquatic Ecosystems ...... 23 1.34 Threats ...... 26 CN Railway ...... 26 Enbridge Pipeline ...... 26 Herbicide ...... 26 Fire Management ...... 27 Ecological Risks ...... 28 2.0 Modelling ...... 31 2.1 Introduction ...... 31 Emulating Natural Disturbances (END) ...... 31 Management Strategies ...... 32 Proposed Treatments ...... 33 2.2 Methodology ...... 39 2.3 The Modeling Process ...... 40 Generated growth and yield curves for the carbon planting scenarios: ...... 40 Generated carbon curves: ...... 41 Queried data in ArcMap, updated polygons in Atlas: ...... 42 Created Maps in ArcMap: ...... 43 Placed constraints in Atlas, modeled harvesting scenarios: ...... 43 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Acknowledgements 7 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 3.0 Values, Objectives, Indicators, Targets: Rationale and Evaluation ...... 45 3.1 Value, Objective, Indicator, Target Rationale ...... 45 Wildlife ...... 48 Protect and Restore Habitat ...... 48 Water ...... 48 Protect aquatic ecosystems and water quality ...... 48 Heritage ...... 49 Protect Culturally Significant Areas ...... 49 Forest ...... 50 Maintain ecosystem health and vitality ...... 50 Emulate natural disturbances (END)...... 52 Socio-Economic ...... 54 Maintain and enhance long-term benefits to the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh...... 54 4.0 Conclusion: Recommended Strategies ...... 56 5.0 Business Plan ...... 60 5.1 Carbon ...... 60 Methods...... 60 Results ...... 63 5.2 External Funding ...... 65 5.3 Research Forest Proposal ...... 66 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products ...... 66 Appendix 1: Wildlife ...... 68 Appendix 2: Aquatic Species ...... 73 Appendix 3: Socio-Economics...... 76 Appendix 4: Modelling Programs ...... 77 TIPSY (Table Interpolation Program for Stand Yields) & VDYP (Variable Density Yield Prediction) ...... 77 ArcGIS ...... 77 CBM-CFS3 (Carbon Budget Model- Canadian Forest Service) ...... 78 FPS-Atlas (Forest Planning Studio) ...... 78 Appendix 5: Values, Objectives, Indicators, Targets: Evaluation, Results and Discussion ...... 80 Wildlife ...... 80 Protect and Restore Habitat ...... 80 Water ...... 84 Protect aquatic ecosystems and water quality ...... 85 Heritage ...... 89 Protect Culturally Significant Areas ...... 89 Forest ...... 93 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Acknowledgements 8 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Maintain ecosystem health and vitality ...... 93 Emulate natural disturbances (END)...... 98 Socio-Economic ...... 102 Maintain and enhance long-term benefits to the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh...... 102 Appendix 6: Carbon Graphs ...... 106 Planting Scenarios Graphs ...... 106 Harvesting Scenarios Graphs ...... 111 Appendix 7 – Awareness Survey...... 114 Daiya-Mattess Keyoh Knowledge Survey ...... 114 Appendix 8: Ecological and Cultural Evaluation Table ...... 116 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Acknowledgements 9 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 1.0 Introduction The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is located approximately 40 kilometers (km) east of Fort St. James (Figure 2). The keyoh has been rich in timber in the past, but has been affected by the mountain pine beetle. This forest management plan outlines measures to restore the forest, enabling it to provide wildlife habitat for culturally important animals. The objectives for the keyoh were to protect the aquatic ecosystems, restore the wildlife habitat and protect culturally significant areas. This plan evaluates the habitat needs of specific animals and ensures ecosystem processes are fully functioning by examining several criteria and their respective indicators. Figure 2: The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is located along the south-eastern side of Great Beaver Lake, to the west of Bugle Lake. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Acknowledgements 10 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 For the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, a structure similar to the provincial Timber Harvest Land Base was used for the determination of available land to harvest. Using ArcGIS tools we deducted areas that were protected, unproductive, inoperable, or uneconomical. With the areas we determined that were harvestable in each scenario we were able to compare with the land available if left to the provincial determination. This document is meant to provide guidance and information for the future management of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Background, socio-economics and ecological information have been given to better understand the landbase within the keyoh. The document goes further to describe the methodology behind the criteria and indicators, and how they were applied to the modelling scenarios. Lastly, this management plan gives examples of some potential scenarios and conclusions for the Ken Sam family, before leading into a business plan proposal. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Acknowledgements 11 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 1.1 Cultural Background 1.11 Keyoh and Dakelh People Keyohs12 Keyohs are defined as “territory” and can be used interchangeably with “trapline.” Keyohs are the traditional territories of Dakelh people. The area surrounding Stuart Lake is divided into keyohs which each belongs to an extended family. As stated in Dakelh law, this title is not “granted, delegated or derived from an Indian Band or some other authority.” The families have title to the keyohs and the land is passed down each generation to a successor, which is customarily the first male child. In the case of several sons, the keyoh was used jointly between them. If the keyoh holder had no sons, the land was given to the nearest relative in the male line. A chief with no relatives was allowed to choose whomever he wanted. The leader of a keyoh is known as “Keyoh Holder” or “Keyohoduchun.” The keyoh holder’s duties include managing the hunting, fishing, trapping and gathering in his keyoh. While aboriginal rights and title have not been ceded, keyoh holders understand they have title. There is high respect and regard for other keyohs and their territories. This was imperative to ensure a strong social network including trade relations between families and loyal allies in time of war. There were exclusive hunting rights on each keyoh. One could not hunt or trap on another’s keyoh without explicit permission, although game could be pursued across boundaries. The keyoh holders decided how many beavers were to be trapped annually, which colonies to target and which part of the trapline to use. The keyoh and its holder are the traditional basic political and economic unit of the Stuart Lake Carrier. Dakelh3 Dakelh are a group of Carrier First Nations. The name Dakelh was given by the Sekani, a neighboring First Nations tribe. The Dakelh are situated near Fort St. James and are divided into four clans each containing a number of extended families. Traditionally, the Dakelh were the most active during the summer when they collected berries and fished for salmon. The main staple of their economy was fish, primarily salmon, which was preserved through smoking. Hunting was also common to provide food from meat, fur for clothes and bone for tools. Surprisingly, plants played a relatively minor role as food aside from berries4. 1 Keyoh Huwunline. (n.d.). Retrieved Feburary 5, 2011, from http://www.keyoh.net/respect_and_responsibility.html 2 Dewhirst, J. (2009). The Historical and Cultural Contexts of The Central Carrier Keyoh, a Family Ancestral Territory, With Reference to The Maiyoo Keyoh at Great Beaver Lake, B.C. Retrieved Feburary 5, 2011, from https://sites.google.com/site/keyohforestgroup/home/untitledpost/MAIYOOKEYOHABORIGINALINTERESTSR EPORT.pdf 3 Dakelh. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved Feburary 5, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakelh 4 ibid Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.11 Keyoh and Dakelh People 12 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 1.12 Daiya-Mattess Family Background The following is a summary of a history of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh based on dialogue with the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam and Maiyoo Keyoh Society President Jim Munroe. Past management and values of Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam are explained. Historical Ownership5 The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh was originally part of another larger keyoh held by Daiya. When Daiya passed away around 1900, he divided his keyoh in two and gave half the land to his nephew, Louis Mattess (Figure 3). Louis Mattess named the keyoh the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Louis Mattess passed the keyoh on to his son, Isadore Louis (Figure 4), who passed it on to Ken Sam who is the current keyoh holder. Figure 3: This is a selection of a large map from Julian Steward’s notes6. This selection displays hand- drawn boundaries for the keyohs in the Great Beaver Lake area. The Daiya Keyoh (Daiya II) was divided in two, with one half given to Daiya’s friend (g’ on the map) and the other half given to Daiya’s nephew (g’’ on the map). The boundaries today remain very similar to those seen on the map. Past Management In the past, the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh has been used for fishing, hunting and trapping. The only traditional historical logging on the land was restricted to the trees felled to build dugout canoes and deadfall traps, or similar other uses, on the keyoh. 5 Steward, J. (1940). Miscellaneous Notes. 36. National Anthropological Archives Smithsonian Institution. 6 Steward, J. (1940). Miscellaneous Notes. National Anthropological Archives Smithsonian Institution. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.12 Daiya-Mattess Family Background 13 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Family Values Land stewardship is of the utmost importance to Ken Sam. Water quality, wildlife habitat and ecological health are all important components of land stewardship. The aforementioned values are key values that Ken Sam has emphasized for protection, rehabilitation and maintenance. Figure 4: Isidore Louis Mattess was born in 1893. He raised the current Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.12 Daiya-Mattess Family Background 14 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 1.2 Socio-Economics 3.1 The Fort St. James Region Fort St James, a town located 152km North of Prince George, British Columbia, is home to a small population of people, including several First Nations bands, and a wide array of wildlife. Forestry is currently responsible for 46% of basic employment, and provides over 39% of the basic Incomes throughout the Fort St. James Forest District7. This has a potential to change however as a mine is being built in the adjacent forest district of Mackenzie, which should lead to big economic developments for Fort St. James. The forest sector plays a crucial role in the economics of the community of Fort St. James as well as the Forest District. Pre-Mountain Pine Beetle, the region was developing at a quick rate but then was hit hard by the pest infestation simultaneously with the market downturn. Services and industries faced challenging conditions but seem to have made it through the toughest times and are anticipating a quick recovery. Demographics and Employment of Fort St. James8 Fort St. James is among the larger communities located within the Prince George Timber Supply Area (TSA) with a population of over 4700. The Fort St. James Forest District has 5% of the TSA’s population, of which 44% lives within the community of Fort St. James. During the time from 1996 to 2000, the population of Fort St. James did not increase, it actually decreased by 0.2%, and the Forest District population decreased by 0.8%. Fort St. James is very dependent on logging and forestry activities for it’s economy, 54% of the communities’ employment is made up of logging, forestry, and forest product manufacturing. Since 1996, the Forest District saw an increase of 14% in the labour force, while at the same time having an unemployment rate of 16%. During the 6 years following 1990, the employment in logging and forestry services sub sector increased by about 43% where as the Prince George Forest District only grew by 2% in that same time. Since 1996, there has been a decrease in Fort St. James forest products manufacturing sector. In comparison to Forestry and related serviced in the Forest District, travel and public services employed only 33%. Fort St. James also received an employment multiplier of 1.28-1.36 during 1996. This number means for every 100 full-time forestry related jobs, 28-36 indirect or induced jobs are created or needed. 7 Ministry of Forests and Range. (2011). Fort St. James Forest District. Retrieved January 23, 2011, from Welcome to Fort St. James: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/DJA/OldFiles/page2.htm 8 Ministry of Forests. (2001). Prince George Timber Supply Analysis Report: Timber Supply Review. British Columbia, Timber Supply Branch. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 3.1 The Fort St. James Region 15 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Industry Involvement in the Fort St. James Forest District In 2000 there were about 30 solid-wood mills throughout the TSA, during the downturn, several mills underwent temporary shutdown, now in 2011 there are 28 mills operating again which consume approximately 11 million m3 of wood. It is forecasted that cycle times for wood loads will exceed 7 hours because of decrease in the timber supply and harvesting lower volume stands further than 1.5km from existing roads will increase. Around Fort St. James several large industrial forestry companies are harvesting and milling timber for dimensional lumber, pulp and paper, plywood and OSB, as well as newer technologies like pellets for energy. Some of the larger companies include Canadian Forest Products Ltd. (Canfor), Conifex Timber Inc., Pope & Talbot Ltd., Apollo Forest Products Ltd., among others. The area also provides services to several different logging contractor operations. Fort St. James Forest District AAC Timber Supply9 For the Prince George Timber Supply Area (TSA) the chief forester will determine the Allowable Annual Cut (AAC) for specific areas, which is measured, based on a number of factors10. The AAC is always determined for a specific Timber Harvest Land Base (THLB), which is defined as the area of productive land available for timber harvesting. Over the last decade, the Allowable Annual Cut has fluctuated from 12.2 million cubic meters to an uplift of 14.9 million m3; it now sits at 12.5 million m3 for the Prince George TSA. An example of the THLB for the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh can be seen below in Figure 5 and Figure 6. Figure 5: THLB on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh 9 Snetsinger, J. (2011). Prince George Timber Supply Area. Rational for Allowable Annual Cut (AAC) Determination. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Mines, and Lands 10 Ministry of Forests and Range. (2008, November). Prince George Timber Supply Area Timber Supply Review: Data Package. Retrieved on March 20, 2011 from: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hts/tsa/tsa24/tsr4/24ts08dp.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 3.1 The Fort St. James Region 16 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 In Prince George, the THLB was determined to be 5,242,481 ha11, and the Fort St. James THLB was determined to be 1,344,976 ha12. See Appendix 3 (Table 12) for Fort St. James THLB Determination. For the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh we only had a few features we could use for reduction in the total area, when we took away lakes, roads, and unproductive areas we were left with 18,322 ha. See Table 1 for the Daiya-Mattes Keyoh THLB Determination. From this land area, most licensees would harvest the pine stands, see Figure 7 Forest Cover by Leading Species, as well as those stands that are pure leading species, see Figure 8 Pure Stands and NSR Blocks. In most cases a harvesting operation would go for those stands that meet the above criteria as well as being in an older age class, see Figure 9 Forest Timber History (Stand Age). Table 1: Daiya-Mattess Keyoh THLB Determination Area (ha) Total Area 28,278 Lakes 3,024 Road and Right of Way 976 Non Commercial (Crown Closure <10%) 5,956 Current Timber Harvesting Landbase 18,322 Figure 6: THLB for the keyoh 11 Snetsinger, J. (2011). Prince George Timber Supply Area. Rational for Allowable Annual Cut (AAC) Determination. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Mines, and Lands 12 Fort St. James Sustainable Forest Management Public Advisory Group, BCTS Stuart-Nechako, Canfor Carrier Lumber, Takla Track & Timber Ltd. (2010). Fort St. James Sustainable Forest Management Plan. v3.7 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 3.1 The Fort St. James Region 17 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 7: Map showing the Forest Cover by Leading Species Figure 8: Map Showing Pure Stands and NSR Blocks Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 3.1 The Fort St. James Region 18 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 9: Map Showing the Forest Timber History within the keyoh (Stand Age) Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 3.1 The Fort St. James Region 19 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 1.3 Ecological Background 1.31 Biogeoclimatic Classification of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh Climate The entire Daiya-Mattess Keyoh falls within the biogeoclimatic zone variant SBSmk1, also known as the mossvale variant. This moist cool variant of the Sub-boreal spruce (SBS) zone is thought to be the most zonal of any the other variant in the SBS with its long snowy winters and moist cool summers. The growing season of these rolling hills is notably short and seasonal temperature extremes are not uncommon (Table 2). The demure topography of the keyoh is dominated by gently rolling hills with low-lying wet areas composed of lakes, swamps, and streams. To the west is the SBSdw3, a drier and warmer variant. To the East is the SBSwk, a variant even moister and cooler than the mk1. The keyoh falls within the Fort. St. James Forest District as seen by Figure 12. Table 2 Summary of climate and location data for the SBSmk1 variant.13 MAT: Mean annual temperature, MAP: Mean annual precipitation, GSP: Growing season precipitation Elevation MAT Frost Free MAP (mm) GSP (m) (ιሻ days (mm) Mean 850 1.5 73 727 273 Range 750-1070 -.2 – 3.3 43 – 92 628 – 838 197 – 432 Vegetation The following four site associations are most commonly found in the SBSmk1 (Figure 10): Hybrid spruce – Huckleberry (Figure 11) – Highbush-cranberry (Site Series 01) o Mature stands stocked with hybrid white spruce, lodgepole pine and subalpine fir o Soils are a mixure of Brunisolic Gray Luvisols, Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzols, Orthic and Eluviated Dystric Brunisols. Hemimors are the most common humus form o Shrub layer = black huckleberry, thimbleberry, highbush-cranberry and sitka alder Lodgepole pine – Huckleberry – Cladonia o Soils are predominantly Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzols and Eluviated Brunisols. Humus forms are thin, crusty Xeromors o Lodgepole pine with poorly developed shrub and herb layer o Sparse tree regeneration mainly of lodgepole pine, subalpine fir and hybrid spruce Hybrid spruce – Oak fern (Site Series 07) (Figure 11) o Fresh nutrient poor sites o Gleyed soils with various humus forms 13 Reynolds, G. (1989). Climatic data summaries for the biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Research Branch, Victoria, B.C. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.31 Biogeoclimatic Classification of the Daiya- 20 Mattess Keyoh (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 o Subalpine fir and hybrid white spruce are the climax tree species o Well developed herb layer dominated by oak fern Hybrid spruce – Devil’s club (Site Series 8) o Most, nutrient rich sites o Large, wide spaced hybrid white spruce and subalpine fir (good growth) o Many mosses and a dominant shrub layer Figure 10: Simplified schematic diagram of topographic relationships among four common site associations of a moist, cool subzone of the Sub-Boreal Spruce moist and cool variant. Figure 11: Common Vegetation for the SBSmk1 zone. Right: Red Huckleberry (http://www.portlandnursery.com/plants/nativePicks/vaccinium.shtml). Left: Oak Fern (http://bolt.lakeheadu.ca/~borfor/ferns/fern7.htm). Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.31 Biogeoclimatic Classification of the Daiya- 21 Mattess Keyoh (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Forest District of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh Figure 12: Forest Districts of BC (http://www.ask.com/wiki/Fort_St._James,_British_Columbia)141516 1.32 Wildlife The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is home to a variety of wildlife species including the kokanee salmon, moose, beaver, wolverine, caribou, sandhill crane and the fisher among many others. These species are considered culturally significant to the Daiya-Mattess people because they were historically hunted and trapped for recreation and subsistence purposes. Culturally significant wildlife was classified according to the Maiyoo Keyoh Land Use and Occupancy map and Julian H. Steward’s field notes. 14 BCTS, Carrier Lumber, CANFOR, FSJ SFMG. (2010). Fort Saint James Sustainable Forest Management Plan. Retrieved March 10, 2011, from http://www.carrierlumber.bc.ca/docs/fsj_sfm_plan_v3.7_FINAL_23feb10- web.pdf 15 Ministry of Forests. (n.d.). The Distribution of NDT’s across British Columbia. Retrieved March 10, 2011, from http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/biodiv/fig5.htm 16 Reynolds, G. (1989). Climatic data summaries for the biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Research Branch, Victoria, B.C. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.32 Wildlife 22 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Species of concern within the keyoh boundary can be seen below in Figure 13. For a more detailed description of the wide range of wildlife species with the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, please refer to Appendix 1. Figure 13: Wildlife concerns within the keyoh1718 1.33 Aquatic Ecosystems Protection of aquatic ecosystems has been expressed as a main concern and objective of Ken Sam and his family. Six species of fish are found within the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh’s streams, lakes and rivers. A visual example of two of these fish, the Salish sucker and White sturgeon can be seen in Figure 15. The main river and lakes within the keyoh are highlighted in the base map diagram below in Figure 14. Table 3 below summarizes the species found within the keyoh along with their habitat requirements, potential threats and current status. Current status for these fish species was considered according to the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), as well as the 17 COSEWIC. (2011). Wildlife Species Search. Accessed April 10, 2011, from http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct1/searchform_e.cfm 18 Ministry of Environment. (2011). BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer. Accessed April 10, 2011, from http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/eswp/ Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.33 Aquatic Ecosystems 23 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Ministry of Environments provincial red and blue lists. For a more detailed description of the six species of fish, please see Appendix 2. Figure 14: Streams and Lakes within the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh Figure 15: Salish Sucker (http://www.gov.chilliwack.bc.ca/main/page.cfm?id=1579) and White Sturgeon (http://www.stockpix.com/stock/animals/fish/67011.htm) Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.33 Aquatic Ecosystems 24 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Table 3: Aquatic Species within the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh Habitat Species Threats Current Status Requirements Found in Agricultural activity, COSEWIC: Salish Sucker headwaters of urbanization and Endangered (Catostomus sp. streams, or areas of low oxygen levels BC Status: Red 4)19 deep pools Listed Large, deep Over fishing and COSEWIC: White Sturgeon20 mainstream pools. habitat Endangered (Acipenser Estuaries and fragmentation BC Status: Red transmontanus pop outreaches are Listed 3) preferred for juveniles Lakes and estuary Forest harvesting, BC Status: Blue Dolly Varden21 environments, as and water quality Listed (Salvelinus malma) well as riparian degradation zones Limited to sensitive Angling and water BC Status: Blue Bull Trout22 river estuaries and quality degradation Listed small streams Kokanee Salmon Tributary streams, Industrial, Not listed (Oncorhynchus or shorelines along agricultural and nerka)23 lakes urban development Cold, clear water Peak flow timing Not listed Rainbow Trout with a fast current. (Oncorhynchus Shallow rivers and mykiss)24 gravel bottoms 19 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2011). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 7, 2011. 20 Environment Canada. (2011). Species at Risk and Local Government: White Sturgeon (Nechako River Population). Retrieved Feb 6, 2011, from District of Squamish: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8279 21 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2009). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 6, 2011 from: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8078 22 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2009). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 6, 2011 from: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8163 23 Ministry of Fisheries. (n.d.). B.C. Fish Facts. Retrieved February 7, 2011, from Kokanee : http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/fishfacts/kokanee.pdf 24 Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2010). Rainbow Trout. Retrieved February 7, 2011 from: http://www.dfo- mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/aquatic-aquatique/rainbow-trout-eng.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.33 Aquatic Ecosystems 25 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 1.34 Threats CN Railway The CN Railway currently runs through the centre of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. With Mount Milligan being built just North of Fort St. James, there is an increased concern by Ken Sam regarding transportation of minerals and chemicals along this line. These concerns can be seen in Figure 16. Figure 16: Threat of the CN Railway (http://cnebusiness.geomapguide.ca/?s_icid=home-feature-rght- stations-terminals-map)25 Enbridge Pipeline The Enbridge pipeline will be built to transport petroleum and condensate products between Bruderheim, Alberta (AB) and Kitimat, BC. The proposed route of the pipeline can be seen in Figure 17, along with the concerns of Ken Sam and his family. Herbicide As part of Canfor’s integrated pest management plan (IPMP), a broad-spectrum non0selective systemic herbicide known as Vision will be sprayed26. This herbicide has the 25 Fisheries and Oceans Canada et. al. (2008). Comprehensive Study Scoping Document Pursuant to Subsection 21(1) of the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act. Retrieved on March 15, 2011, from http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/050/documents/29641/29641E.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.34 Threats 26 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 potential to kill beneficial insects and negatively impact birds or small insect-eating mammals27. Due to the negative effects of herbicide use on the landscape and towards wildlife species within the keyoh, Ken Sam does not want them used. Thus, they will not be a part of this management plan for regeneration techniques. Figure 17: Enbridge Pipeline, location and concerns (http://www.northerngateway.ca/project- info/route-map )28 Fire Management Fire has been considered a natural agent to replace stands for many centuries in BC. Wildfires help to produce healthy, diverse and produce forests and are generally fine left alone unless economical or endangered aspects are threatened or impacted29. Like many other places around the province, fire suppression has led to decades of fuel build-up. This has led to an increase in wildfire severity, especially in fire-prone forests, like those within 26 26Sierra Club Canada. (n.d.). Pesticide Fact Sheet: Glyphosate. Retrieved on March 15, 2011, from http://www.sierraclub.ca/national/programs/health-environment/pesticides/glyphosate-fact-sheet.shtml 27 ibid 28 28 Northern Gateway Pipelines. (2011). Project Info: Route Map. Retrieved on March 12, 2011, from http://www.northerngateway.ca/project-info/route-map 29 Environment Canada. (2010). Wildland Fire Management Strategy. Retrieved on March 16, 2011, from http://bcwildfire.ca/Prevention/PrescribedFire/docs/BCWFMS.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.34 Threats 27 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 the keyoh. Management strategies involving biological diversity and natural ecological process often involve maintaining coarse woody debris, wildlife trees and riparian management areas on the landscape. In order to emulate a natural stand replacing within an area of these management strategies, clearcuts of up to 60 hectares may be conducted as per the Ecosystem Based Management guidelines. As well, though expensive, fire reduction treatments such as thinning trees, reducing ladder fuels, and/or wood mastication could also be conducted in the future. Methods for Fire Management As part of the management scenarios, culturally significant areas will not be harvested. The risk of fire in this area for the future is considerably high, as no large-scale management practices, like harvesting will be emulated. The total area for the culturally significant zone is 12,546 ha, and includes approximately 171.5km of road. Partial deactivation of roads throughout this culturally significant area will limit access for fire crews in the event of a disturbance. Future fire management in the area could involve thinning roadsides to create artificial breaks in the event of a fire. Though partial road deactivation is planned for the keyoh on non-essential routes, access for firefighters along mainline roads remains important in the event of a fire. Ecological Risks Ecological risks in the Fort St. James forest district can involve a number of things including pests, diseases, extreme weather conditions, and global warming effects. When considering potential pests and diseases within the keyoh, it is important to look at the different types of species that make up the forest. Lodgepole pine, sub-alpine fir, and hybrid spruce make up the majority of the species composition within the keyoh. Lodgepole pine, as seen by recent years, is very susceptible to the Mountain Pine Beetle in its mature form, when environmental conditions are favourable. Sub-alpine fir, which used to be the predominant tree species in the Fort St. James forest district, has succumb to many outbreaks of western balsam bark beetle and spruce budworm, as well as various heart rot diseases. From a management perspective, creating multi seral stages throughout the keyoh will help to protect the trees from mass infestations to pests and diseases. As well, increasing the biodiversity of the species present within the forest will also help to reduce future risks to health concerns for the keyoh. With a short growing season and changing conditions due to climate change, favourable summer conditions are key to a species success. Warming temperatures can lead to extended periods of drought, which can be harmful or damage the growth of a species. As well, with warming temperatures due to climate change and global warming, a shift in species throughout the Fort St. James forest district could be seen in the future. Douglas-fir (Fd), a tree species currently sitting on the boundary of its growing limit in the Fort St. James area, could have the ability to adapt and grow more frequently throughout the keyoh if the climate continues to warm. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.34 Threats 28 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Effects of Mountain Pine Beetle The Mountain Pine Beetle (MPB) epidemic, and large scale salvage logging operations have led to potential effects on water yield, peak flows, temperatures and flood timing among other things30. A visual example of the MPB and salvage logging practices can be seen in Figure 18. Increase in peak flows can have implications on the channel stability, decreasing potential areas of fish habitat31. Significant increases in temperature have been found in the upper Fraser River system of British Columbia throughout all freshwater habitats. In some cases, water temperature increases of 3-60C were found when compared to historic records, limiting salmon to larger water bodies32. For pacific salmon, a temperature increase of 2- 30C is enough to cause mortality to certain species. Methods for Reducing Site Access Reducing site access is one of Ken Sam’s main objectives for this management plan. As seen by Figure 19, an extensive layout of roads covers the landscape within the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. A forest service road that cuts across the keyoh will be left in as a main access route. Four recreational sites within the keyoh boundary are located just off of this forest service road: Tureen Lake recreational reserve, Bugle Lake recreational reserve, Tear Drop Lake recreational reserve, and Mossvale Lake recreational reserve. Recreational areas are generally classified as areas with a temporary status that allows mining and logging, with the intent of returning the land to an ecological reserve or park33. As prevention of access to these recreational sites cannot be limited, a chance to promote awareness about the keyoh may be available. Figure 18: Left: A Mountain Pine Beetle attacked stand (http://www.enewsletters.gov.bc.ca/Energy_Mines_and_Petroleum_Resources/EMPR_Ministry_Report/ April_2009/edition), Right: Post salvage logging (http://www.ecologyaction.ca/content/responding- coastal-development-issues) 30 Forst Practices Board (2007). The Effect of Montain Pine Beetle Attack and Salvage Harvesting on Streamflows. Retrieved February 11, 2011 from: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/bib106689.pdf 31 Forst Practices Board (2007). The Effect of Montain Pine Beetle Attack and Salvage Harvesting on Streamflows. Retrieved February 11, 2011 from: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/bib106689.pdf 32 McDaniels, T., Wilmot, S., Healey, M., & Hinch, S. (2010). Vulnerability of Fraser River sockeye salmon to climate change: A lifecycle perspective using expert judgements. Journal of Environmental Management , 91, 2771-2780. 33Western Canada Wilderness Committee. (1987). B.C. Parks and Ecological Reserves. Retrieved on March 17, 2011, from http://store.wildernesscommittee.org/campaigns/historic/otherpub/reports/Vol06No04/BCparks Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.34 Threats 29 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 19: Site Access and Wildlife Impacts Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 1.34 Threats 30 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 2.0 Modelling 2.1 Introduction The following section outlines the steps taken to create, analyze and rank modelled scenarios. Modelled scenarios are the main decision making tool in determining recommended strategies for the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Consequently, the level of detail in this section is such that it could be replicated. Assumptions are outlined and rationale is provided for each decision affecting the modelling. Before making any decisions, it was decided that the best method of managing the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh was an ecosystem-based approach in the form of emulating natural disturbances (END). A brief overview of what emulating natural disturbances means and why it is an appropriate management approach for the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is given below. Emulating Natural Disturbances (END) Emulating natural disturbances is a forest management approach, which uses management treatments, such as harvesting, to mimic historic disturbances and natural disturbance regimes34. Disturbance trends can be mimicked through disturbance return intervals (temporal scales) or area disturbed (spatial scales)35. END is a useful management approach. When implemented properly, it mitigates the risk of “...uncharacteristic and catastrophic disturbances...” in forests36. The Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is in an area in which fire is the main, stand-replacing disturbance every 125-200 years37. By END, fire risk is reduced on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh while values such as wildlife habitat, ecosystem health and biodiversity are maintained. END is a feasible management approach in this area as fire can be emulated through harvest. There is also recent scientific literature available on END specific to the Fort St. James area, which lends itself well to END on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh (Figure 20). 34 Natural Resources Canada. (2009, October 15). Nature's guide to sustainable forest management. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from Natural Resources Canada: http://canadaforests.nrcan.gc.ca/article/emulatingnaturaldisturbances 35 Long, J. N. (2009, April 16). Emulating natural disturbance regimes as a basis for forest management: A North American view. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from Forest Ecology and Management: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6X-4VF0XVR- 4&_user=1022551&_coverDate=04%2F16%2F2009&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=gateway&_s ort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1701511868&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050484&_versi 36 Long, J. N. (2009, April 16). Emulating natural disturbance regimes as a basis for forest management: A North American view. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from Forest Ecology and Management: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6X-4VF0XVR- 4&_user=1022551&_coverDate=04%2F16%2F2009&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=gateway&_s ort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1701511868&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050484&_versi 37 DeLong, S. (2010). BC Ministry of Forests and Range. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.1 Introduction 31 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 20: Emulating fire on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. The image to the left shows an intense, stand replacing fire38. The middle image shows a burned area39. The image to the right shows an area that has been harvested and been through a prescribed burn40. In the right image, note the variable sizes and the irregular edges of the harvested areas. These are the spatial aspects of fire that harvesting could emulate. Having determined the management approach for the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, the first step of the modelling process was to determine what management strategies would be employed on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh in order to meet Ken Sam’s objectives. Management Strategies In order to meet Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam’s objectives, five management strategies were proposed: 1) Do nothing (Base case) 2) Plant 3) De-build and re-vegetate roads 4) Apply Buffers 5) Harvest Prescribed burning was another strategy that was considered. However, prescribed burning is a costly and risky strategy. Due to the size of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, harvesting can be used to emulate fire so prescribed burning was eliminated as a management strategy. Management strategies can be further broken down into proposed treatments, which is the next step of the modelling process. 38 Fraumeni, P. (2010, July 15). It's forest fire season. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from University of Toronto: Research & Innovation: http://www.research.utoronto.ca/behind_the_headlines/its-forest-fire-season/ 39 U.S. Geological Survey. (2010, October 15). Landscape Effects of Frequency and Severity of Fire Effects on Boreal Alaskan Landscapes. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from U.S. Geological Survey: http://alaska.usgs.gov/science/geography/fire.html 40 Shorthouse, D. P. (2002, May 23). Browse. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from Forestry Images: http://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=1450031 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.1 Introduction 32 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Proposed Treatments In developing treatments for the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, there were some key aspects to consider. First, each treatment should be in harmony with Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam’s objectives. Second, each treatment should be an attempt to emulate a natural stand. As fire is the primary natural disturbance in the area, treatments were aimed at re-creating stands influenced by fire41. At this stage, cost was not yet considered. 1. Do nothing (Base case) There are no proposed treatments for the base case or baseline. Two baselines were used for every modelling scenario due to the keyoh’s complex history (Figure 21). To represent the logging history by Canfor, a baseline was created for “business-as-usual”. This harvest baseline was used to compare changes between Canfor’s harvesting regime and the proposed treatments. A second baseline was created to model a “do-nothing” approach and assess how the proposed treatments fared compared to no human influence. Figure 21: The image to the left represents the “do-nothing” baseline. The image to the right represents the “business-as-usual”, harvest baseline42. 2. Plant There are a total of four planting treatments that could be implemented in any combination. The first planting treatment is re-stocking the “Not Satisfactorily Restocked” (NSR) polygons. These are areas that have been assessed by the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resources Operations and deemed not yet ‘free to grow’. In other words, the stand is not adequately stocked with healthy, free growing trees of a minimum height of 2.00 m 41 DeLong, S. (2010). BC Ministry of Forests and Range. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059 42 Natural Resources Canada. (2009, October 15). Nature's guide to sustainable forest management. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from Natural Resources Canada: http://canadaforests.nrcan.gc.ca/article/emulatingnaturaldisturbances Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.1 Introduction 33 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 for lodgepole pine and 1.00 m for white spruce43. The most likely reason for being classified as NSR is inhibited seedling growth due to aspen (Populus tremuloides) competition. However, this is speculation, as it cannot be confirmed with the data provided. It is assumed that planting in these areas will only be successful after brushing has occurred, and potentially thinning where needed. Planting will target two NSR areas. The first targeted area is NSR areas with lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) as the leading species. The second targeted NSR areas are those with white spruce, hybrid spruce or Engelmann spruce (Picea glauca, P. glauca x P. engelmannii, Picea engelmannii respectively) leading species. In selecting planting species, BC Stocking standards were consulted, as well as natural stand compositions. Shade tolerance was of particular importance in predicting the survival success of planting species. In NSR areas with leading lodgepole pine species, white spruce is the proposed planting species. White spruce grows naturally with lodgepole pine, and this is supported by the species composition data found in the vegetative resource inventory data (VRI data) provided. It was challenging to determine the composition of the target stand. Given that most of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh area is naturally pine dominated, a stand of 80% pine and 20% spruce is more biodiversity than a 90 % pine- 10% spruce composition? Bearing in mind that one of Ken Sam’s objectives is to replace logged areas with healthy forests as quickly as possible, planting in NSR polygons is only one solution. Increasing white spruce composition introduces more variability throughout the stand, creating a more diverse and resilient stand. Ideally one would also plant one other species, such as Balsam fir (Abis lasiocarpa) or Douglas-fir (Pseutotsuga menziesii). However, it is difficult to generalise an area and declare that planting two species is better than one, as it may in fact not be better as you are creating an unnatural species composition in the stand. This should be considered if NSR planting is implemented. In NSR areas with leading spruce species, balsam fir is the proposed planting species. VRI data also indicated that balsam fir grows naturally with white spruce, and this is further supported by the natural ecology of the site (see section on Ecological Background). In all NSR areas, the target stand was 80% leading species- 20% planted species. The two remaining planting treatments aim to increase biodiversity. These planting scenarios are very similar to those proposed in the NSR blocks in that they both occur in areas with pine or spruce leading species. As above, white spruce will be planted in blocks where lodgepole pine is leading and balsam fir will be planted in blocks where white spruce is leading. These low biodiversity areas were identified based on leading species, composition of leading species (had to be >89 %) and stand age (had to be 15 years or younger). This identified polygons that were young enough that planting would be successful yet still create an even-aged stand. Even aged stands are an important 43 BC Ministry of Forests. (1995). Riparian Management Area Guidebook. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from Forest Practices Code: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/riparian/Ripar4.htm#link70 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.1 Introduction 34 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 component of emulating natural disturbances in this area44. 15 years is also the last year for replanted blocks cut blocks to be assessed for free-to-grow by the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations. This co-ordinates biodiversity planting with NSR planting, creating more even-aged stands throughout the keyoh. Brushing and thinning will likely be necessary to ensure survival of seedlings. 3. De-build and re-vegetate roads De-building roads is an intensive and expensive process. However, it meets Ken Sam’s objective of limiting access to the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh and helps reduce fragmentation. Due to the number of roads, there are concerns for water quality, fragmentation of the landscape and increased wildlife kills due to roadside hunting. De-building the roads entails removing stream crossings and culverts, pulling backside casts as necessary and re-contouring the land. We also propose planting aspen on the de- built roads for the purpose of claiming carbon credits and generating additional revenue, and speeding the process of ecosystem rehabilitation. Aspen was selected as the re-vegetation species for three main reasons. Firstly, it is a pioneer species that means it does well in disturbed areas, such as de-built roads45. Secondly, it grows naturally in the area and is an important habitat component for many naturally occurring wildlife species. Third, aspen helps mitigate fire risk, as deciduous species do not burn as well as other tree species46. 4. Buffer Buffer treatments are a simple, cost effective and will protect areas of importance during harvest. Ken Sam expressed grave concern regarding water quality and the protection of aquatic ecosystems. Fish are an important resource on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh and must be protected adequately. It was also important to protect land use sites for cultural purposes. In order to accommodate these concerns, buffers were applied to all water bodies (streams, the Salmon River and lakes) and land use sites and evaluated for protection and revenue generated through carbon credits. Buffer treatments can be seen in Figure 22. 44 DeLong, S. (2010). BC Ministry of Forests and Range. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia: www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059 45 BC Ministry of Forests. (2002, June). Forest Road Engingeering Guidebook. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from BC Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/Road/FRE.pdf 46 Province of British Columbia. (n.d.). FireSmart Manual: Protect your home from wildfire. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from Provincial Emergency Program: http://www.pep.bc.ca/hazard_preparedness/FireSmart-BC4.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.1 Introduction 35 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 22: Buffer Treatments Figure 23: Culturally Significant Areas and Zones Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.1 Introduction 36 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 The Salmon River is a crucial water body. It is well known that kokanee salmon spawn in this river, so water quality must be maintained. In order to ensure protection, large buffers of 200 m are used in modelling. As many streams feed in to the Salmon River, it is important to protect these as well. Streams are modelled with 100 m buffers. Buffers and protected areas will also help to protect species that rely on these riparian areas (Figure 24). Lakes typically do not require buffers if they are larger than 1000 ha47. This is because the larger the lake, the less it is affected by terrestrial ecosystems. On the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh a generic 60 m buffer was applied to all lakes, regardless of the size. This is in part due to the location of recreational sites within the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, which are subject to visual quality objective as outlined by the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, and in part to protect the lakes. The Forest Practices Code was used as a reference for determining buffer size to apply to water bodies. A literature review was conducted and found that the Forest Practices Code’s buffer sizes were in line with scientific findings. These buffer sizes were then double to ensure that water was fully protected. The large buffers also help protect culturally significant areas as many of these areas, or land use sites, are located near water. In addition, the large buffers protect most of the wetlands in the area. A separate wetland buffer was not applied as stream buffers protect most of the wetlands. 5. Harvest Harvesting is used to maintain wildlife habitat characteristics and emulate natural disturbances. It meets Ken Sam’s objective of maintaining wildlife habitat, although he expressed serious concern regarding the scale of Canfor’s harvesting on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. In order to meet Ken Sam’s wildlife habitat objective and mitigate his concern regarding negative harvesting impacts, a cultural heritage zone was set-aside as a no harvest area. This cultural heritage zone is approximately half of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh (Figure 23). To determine the optimal harvesting arrangement, numerous harvesting scenarios were examined. These can be summarised in four general scenarios, and further broken down into four minimum harvest ages (Figure 25). When determining the scenarios, the minimum harvest ages were manipulated through FPS-Atlas. The minimum harvest age refers to the average age at which a species is ready for harvest48. 47 BC Ministry of Forests. (1995). Riparian Management Area Guidebook. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from Forest Practices Code: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/riparian/Ripar4.htm#link70 48 Pedersen, L. (1996). Tree Farm Licence (TFL) 39 AAC Rationale. Retrieved March 31, 2011, from BC Ministry of Forests: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hts/tsr1/ration/tfl/t39/httoc.htm#RTppKC26 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.1 Introduction 37 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 24: Wildlife within the keyoh that may benefit from protected culturally significant areas, as well as buffers Figure 25: Harvesting Scenarios The objective of modelling a wide selection of harvesting scenarios was to examine many options and manipulate the harvest zone. Modelling variables examined the area of land Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.1 Introduction 38 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 allocated to harvest, the potential revenue to be generated by expanding and shrinking harvestable areas, the effects on wildlife habitat of expanding and shrinking harvestable areas, and annual allowable cut (AAC) effects of changing the minimum harvest age. 2.2 Methodology Having identified END as the management approach to the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh and determined management strategies and treatments, the next step was to determine how to model the management treatments. Two growth and yield models, one aspatial model and two spatial models were used to analyze the treatments’ effects upon the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. These different models can be found in a summary table below in Figure 26 and 27, and in more detail in Appendix 4 Figure 26: A summary table describing the models used and how they were applied Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.2 Methodology 39 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 27: There were three spatial scales used in modeling. For the purpose of accurately explaining the modeling process, it is important to understand the spatial scales of the models. ArcGIS and FPS-Atlas were the two spatial models used. The spatial scales explained here are meant to provide understanding of the terms that will be used to explain the modeling methods. Three spatial scales were used in ArcGIS and FPS-Atlas. The first spatial scale is the largest: the forest. For the purposes of this management plan, a forest refers to the entire Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. A forest is equivalent to the ‘analysis unit’ (AU) in FPS-Atlas. The second spatial scale is the stand, or stand group. The forest comprises of 43 stand groups. A stand is determined based on leading species, site index and whether it is managed or unmanaged. The third and finest spatial scale is the polygon. There are 13,668 polygons, which make up the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. 2.3 The Modeling Process This section outlines the general steps taken to produce the scenarios that were evaluated based on indicators. Generated growth and yield curves for the carbon planting scenarios: Three new growth and yield curves were needed. One for the aspen road re-vegetation, one for the lodgepole pine and white spruce planted blocks and one for the white spruce and balsam fir planted blocks. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.3 The Modeling Process 40 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 In order to model these stands in Atlas, it is necessary to have growth and yield model so Atlas can ‘grow’ the stands and harvest them. The assumptions used to model the growth and yield curves for the carbon planting scenarios can be seen in Figure 28. The growth and yield curves were generated in TIPSY and exported into Atlas by creating new stand groups. VDYP was used to generate an unmanaged balsam fir growth and yield curve, as the one provided was incorrect. Created five new stand groups, although the SG5100’s use the same growth and yield curves as the SG5200’s. In order to obtain accurate carbon data, the stand groups had to be applied to different areas, thus five new stand groups were needed. Scenario Assumptions Average site index (SI) of 18. 18 was derived from a query in GIS of all the site indices of areas to be planted Slope of 7 % based on field observations of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh Planting densities of 1600 stems per hectare Stand group 3257’s growth curve is incorrect. Did not correct stand group curve 3257 due to negligible area Assume Operational Adjustment Factors and utilization is Generated growth accounted for in Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource and yield curves for Operations growth and yield curves. This assumption is based on the carbon planting the Timber Supply Review (TSR) data package. scenarios Aspen growth and yield curve generated without utilization since there will be no deciduous harvesting on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh for fire protection purposes Pine-spruce and spruce-fir curves were generated using utilization of 17.5 cm for non-pine species and 12.5 cm for pine, and decay/waste/breakage as this ensured consistency with the growth and yield curves that were provided based on the TSR data package Figure 28: Assumptions for the carbon planting scenarios Generated carbon curves: Carbon curves needed to be generated for the baseline scenario and for the new stand groups. Curves were generated based on the growth and yield curve data provided by the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations. Each stand group needed a carbon curve. There were 43 stand groups, which required carbon curves. One stand group (SG888) is a non-productive stand group and was used to identify roads and water bodies- no carbon curve was generated for this stand group. Assumptions used to generate the carbon curves can be seen in Figure 29. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.3 The Modeling Process 41 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Once the carbon curves were created, they were imported into Atlas. Using the Carbon Grid, Atlas was able to provide carbon outputs for every scenario. It was these carbon outputs that are included in this report and were used to calculate carbon credit revenue in the companion business plan document. Scenario Assumptions All unmanaged, mature baseline carbon curves were modeled without a disturbance All managed baseline carbon curves were modeled with a harvesting clearcut disturbance of 97% at 80 years. The carbon data from 80 years onward was used to create the carbon curve that was then imported into Atlas. This assumes that stands are harvested at 80 years. The new, road re-vegetation carbon curves were modeled with an afforestation disturbance at 0 years. The carbon curve was created from the carbon data and was then imported into Atlas. The new-planted carbon curves were modeled with a clearcut disturbance of 97% at 80 years and an afforestation disturbance at 95 years (15 years later). The carbon curve was created from the carbon data from 95 years and onward, and was then imported into Generated Carbon Atlas. This assumes stands are harvested at 80 years and accounts Curves for the planted blocks having an age range of 0-15 years. It assumes that all blocks are re-forested 15 years later. Deciduous stand groups had modified carbon curves. It was assumed that deciduous stands were deciduous in perpetuity. In other words, deciduous species (likely trembling aspen) was the climax species. However, the carbon curves did not reflect this. The carbon curves grew, peaked, and then dropped down to 0 tones of carbon. To remedy this, the carbon at which aspen reached its pathological rotation age (120 years (BC Ministry of Forests and Range, 2008)) was the value assumed for the remainder of the stands’ existence. The carbon curves were allowed to peak, but upon their descent were not allowed to fall below the carbon generated in year 120. This value was then repeated. Figure 29: Assumptions for the generated carbon curves Queried data in ArcMap, updated polygons in Atlas: In order to identify polygons to be planted, areas to be buffered, and roads to be de- activated, queries were used in ArcMap. Once these polygons were identified, the tabular information was imported into Atlas. Having the data in Atlas allowed the model to grow Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.3 The Modeling Process 42 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 the areas to be planted and to avoid harvesting in buffered areas. Assumptions used to query the data in ArcMap to update the polygons in Atlas can be seen in Figure 30. To identify low-biodiversity areas to be planted, a query was used to first select pine and spruce leading species. Then % species composition was used to ensure these polygons were 90% or more leading species. Finally, age was used to select polygons aged 15 years or younger. In addition to querying data, ArcMap was also used to identify recently harvested polygons that were not up to date in the provided data. Selecting the polygons based on Canfor’s Winter Harvest map did this. The same process was applied to identifying NSR polygons. Once the NSR polygons were selected, they were queried to identify Pine NSR areas and Spruce NSR areas. The new stand groups were then applied to these areas accordingly, so spruce was only planted in pine NSR areas and balsam fir was only planted in spruce NSR areas. Once these were updated, the data was imported into Atlas to ensure the information was as accurate as possible. Scenario Assumptions Queried data in Some NSR polygons were neither spruce nor pine. These areas were ArcMap, updated open, upland, and non-treed. These polygons were not updated with polygons in Atlas new stand groups, and instead are reserved for habitat purposes. Figure 30: Assumptions for the queried data in ArcMap Created Maps in ArcMap: ArcMap was also the software used to create the various maps seen in this document. Placed constraints in Atlas, modeled harvesting scenarios: When modeling in Atlas, constraints, cliques and zones were used. Constraints were used to create the rotating harvest zones. Do not harvest constraints were also applied to the buffered areas. When developing the harvest scenarios, minimum harvest rotation ages were modified in Atlas. In order to do this, multiple copies of the Atlas database were made for each harvest scenario. The assumptions used to model these harvesting scenarios can be seen below in Figure 31. Cliques were used for buffered areas. Buffered areas consisted of the Salmon River, land use sites, streams and lakes. No harvest constraints were then applied to the buffered areas. Zones were used to create the cultural heritage zone and the various harvest zones. A no harvesting constraint was always placed on the cultural heritage zone. In order to generate carbon outputs for the re-vegetated roads, a query in GIS was used to identify road polygons. These polygons were used to create stand group 5000 (SG5000) and an aspen growth and yield curve and carbon curve were linked to the stand group in the Atlas database. The polygons in this stand group had to have their productivity modified so Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.3 The Modeling Process 43 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 they were able to grow trees. Having done this, Atlas was now able to model carbon for the road re-vegetation scenario. Scenario Assumptions Once the carbon scenarios were altered in the databases, they were modeled in every harvesting scenario. This means some of the stand groups are slightly different than the original stand groups, and that every harvesting scenario in fact models the planting scenarios. However the road re-vegetation scenario was not. Buffers were placed on all harvest scenarios except the “no buffer” Placed constraints scenarios. in Atlas, modeled No deciduous stands were harvested as a fire management strategy. harvesting The minimum harvestable ages were modified. The rotations scenarios associated with each of these minimum harvest ages were modified to match the ages in the four rotating harvest zones scenario. Minimum harvest ages of 80 years were on an 80 year rotation, minimum harvest ages of 100 years were on a 100 year rotation, and minimum harvest ages which maximized volume were on 120 year rotations as that was the age at which most of the stands’ volume peaked. Figure 31: Assumptions for the placed constraints in atlas for the harvesting scenarios Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 2.3 The Modeling Process 44 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 3.0 Values, Objectives, Indicators, Targets: Rationale and Evaluation 3.1 Value, Objective, Indicator, Target Rationale A value, objective, indicator, target framework has been used to evaluate the modelled scenarios. This framework is ideal as it ensures that the objectives of the client are met with the support of quantifiable results. In creating the values, objectives, indicators and targets for the keyoh (Table 4), the following definitions were applied: Value A characteristic, quality or key aspect of the keyoh which is important to the Daiya-Mattess keyoh holder or impacts the feasibility of the management strategy (ex- socio-economic value and revenue indicator). Objective A specific management approach for the associated value. An objective should ensure the value is addressed through protection or maintenance. Indicator A quantifiable characteristic which meets the objective. A good indicator should ensure the objective is met and the value is managed for. Target A quantitative assessment of the indicator. Targets should be scientifically supported. Each indicator and target is explained in detail based on the values they are meant to protect and the objectives they are meant to meet. For further detail, please see Appendix 5: Values, Objectives, Indicators, Targets: Evaluation Results and Discussion. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 3.1 Value, Objective, Indicator, Target Rationale 45 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Table 4: Summary of the values, objectives, indicators and targets used to evaluate modelled scenarios for the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Values Objectives Indicators Targets Wildlife Protect & Fragmentation49 Good: Harvested Restore Habitat polygons are aggregated Medium: Most harvested polygons are aggregated, some are dispersed, small polygons Poor: Most harvested polygons are small and dispersed Water Protect Aquatic Road proximity to Good: 0 % of roads Ecosystems & rivers, streams and Medium: 1-25% of Water Quality lakes: Road density roads within 100 m of Poor: >26% of roads streams and lakes50 Number of stream Good: 0-47 crossings crossings51 Medium: 48-98 crossings Poor: ≥99 crossings Heritage Protect Protect culturally Good: All cultural Culturally significant area area protected Significant Medium: Most Areas cultural area protected Poor: <70% cultural area protected Deactivate roads % or km for roads deactivated in cultural zone plus harvest zone 49 DeLong, S.C. 2010. Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. Tech. Rep. 059. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059.htm 50 DeLong, S.C. 2010. Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. Tech. Rep. 059. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059.htm 51 William Haskins and David Mayhood. 1997. Stream Crossing Density as a Predictor of Watershed Impacts. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual ESRI User Conference, Paper 457. http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc97/proc97/to500/pap457/p457.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 3.1 Value, Objective, Indicator, Target Rationale 46 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Forest Maintain Seral stage >17% Late Seral Ecosystem Species Douglas fir: 1% Health and Composition52 Fir: 9% Vitality Spruce: 30% Pine: 45% Aspen/Birch: 15%53 Road Density54 Good: <=0.40% of land base Medium: 0.41- 3.89% of land base Poor: >=3.90% of land base Emulate natural Harvest area sizes - Large cuts ranging disturbances from 40-60 ha55 -0.75-1.25% of land base disturbed56 Stand ages Even aged stands57 Forest Ages >200 y Rare58 Land disturbed 0.75-1.25% of land base disturbed59 Socio-Economic Maintain and Revenue generated Break-even enhance long- Jobs created >0 term benefits to the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh 52 Public Advisory Group, BC Timber Sales, Carrier Lumber Ltd., Takla Track and Timber Ltd., Canfor, Ltd., Apollo Forest Products, Stuart Lake Lumber Co. Ltd., (2007, March). Fort Saint James Sustainable Forest Management Plan. Retrieved March 26, 2011, from Canfor: http://www.canfor.com/_resources/sustainability/Fort_St_James_SFM_Plan_May-18-2007.pdf 53 Ministry of Forests and Range. (2008, November). Prince George Timber Supply Area: Timber Supply Review Data Package. Retrieved March 25, 2011, from Ministry of Forests and Range: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hts/tsa/tsa24/tsr4/24ts08dp.pdf 54 William Haskins and David Mayhood. 1997. Stream Crossing Density as a Predictor of Watershed Impacts. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual ESRI User Conference, Paper 457. http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc97/proc97/to500/pap457/p457.htm 55 DeLong, S.C. 2010. Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. Tech. Rep. 059. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059.htm 56 ibid DeLong 57 ibid DeLong 58 ibid DeLong 59 ibid DeLong Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 3.1 Value, Objective, Indicator, Target Rationale 47 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Wildlife Protect and Restore Habitat This objective addresses the importance of wildlife by ensuring there is habitat. To comprehensively assess wildlife habitat, a separate wildlife habitat criteria and indicator is applied to the top six scenarios evaluated by these targets (Appendix 5, Table 36). Fragmentation Indicator & Target Rationale Fragmentation is a useful indicator for wildlife habitat as it ensures that animals have sufficient area (Appendix 5, Figure 36). Fragmentation also doubly serves to ensure that the emulation of natural disturbances (END) is employed successfully. Fragmentation Results Fragmentation ranges from poor to moderate. ‘No harvest’ scenarios have no fragmentation. The harvest baseline ranks ‘good’ because all of the harvested areas are large openings and do not isolate the remaining stands of forest. All other scenarios have moderate fragmentation (Appendix 8). Discussion The larger the harvest zone the less fragmented the landscape. This is a result of increased flexibility when harvesting, allowing the aggregation of harvest polygons. Water Protect aquatic ecosystems and water quality Maintaining water quality on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh not only protects its aquatic organisms, but also contributes to the protection of aquatic organisms in the Fraser River and maintains healthy, resilient ecosystems. Road Proximity to Rivers, Streams and Lakes Indicator & Target Rationale The purpose of measuring the proximity of roads is to assess the potential impact they may have on water. The increased amount of sediment to streams from runoff (known as sedimentation) is a major environmental impact of roads and may damage fish food supplies and habitats, injure fish directly, cause bank erosion, fill the channel, widen the channel, or flood it.60 60 William Haskins and David Mayhood. 1997. Stream Crossing Density as a Predictor of Watershed Impacts. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual ESRI User Conference, Paper 457. http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc97/proc97/to500/pap457/p457.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Wildlife 48 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Road Proximity to Rivers, Streams and Lakes Results To assess this target, buffers of 20m, 40m, 60m, 80m and 100 m were used to gauge the road lengths in each width (Appendix 5, Figure 40). That information was used to evaluate the target in each scenario. There were 100% more roads within the 100m buffer than the 20m buffer. Discussion The highest number of roads falls within the 100m buffer. There is a significant difference in the number of roads in the 80 m buffer and the 100 m buffer, so it is possible that 80m would suffice in most situations. Number of Stream Crossings Indicator & Target Rationale The high density of roads and streams throughout the keyoh results in many stream crossings. Increasing number of stream crossings creates sedimentation risk or may result in contamination from pollutants entering the water from cars, trucks, and/or trains. Number of Stream Crossings Results The Cultural Heritage Preservation Zone has 50 water channels crossings and the remaining area has 65 crossings (Appendix 5, Figure 43). Crossings in each scenario vary with de- activated roads. Discussion Trends here mimic those in the road proximity to water target. The only scenario classified as `good` is the road de-activation and re-vegetation scenario. The one harvest zone and combo zone harvest scenarios are ranked moderate, and all other scenarios are ranked poor. Heritage Protect Culturally Significant Areas This objective seeks to maintain the heritage values of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh by protecting high use areas important to the keyoh holder and his family for trapping, fishing and recreation. Protect Culturally Significant Area Indicator & Indicator Rationale All cultural land use sites are special to the keyoh and tell a story of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh people’s history. The majority of these locations can be found at the west end of the keyoh, which is the primary reason a Cultural Heritage Zone was created (Appendix 5, Figure 44). 1 km radius buffers were placed on the cultural land use sites (Appendix 5, Figure 46). An Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Heritage 49 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 awareness survey has been created to promote awareness for the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, and can be found in Appendix 7. Protect Culturally Significant Area Results Most of the cultural land use sites are located in the Cultural Heritage Zone in the southwest portion of the keyoh. Discussion The smaller the area available for harvest, the better the cultural areas are protected. The less area available for harvesting, the more roads can be de-activated and the more access is limited. The Cultural Heritage Zone and water buffers protect the majority of the cultural land use sites. De-activated Roads Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator focuses on reducing the number of roads throughout the keyoh to decrease access and allow de-activated road areas to naturally regenerate (Appendix 5, Figure 47). De-activated Roads Results The 191.8 km of roads are found in the portion of the keyoh outside of the Cultural Heritage Zone. The Cultural Heritage Zone has 171.5 km of road. Discussion Road de-activation trends are similar to those seen in the cultural area protected target. The smaller the area available for harvest, the better the road-deactivation targets are met. Forest This ecological value seeks to protect one of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh’s most valuable resources. The forest provides habitat, protects water quality and has the potential to generate revenue. Maintain ecosystem health and vitality This objective ensures the forest is productive, resilient and healthy for use in future generations. The target seeks to create a forest within its natural range of variation. Seral stage Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator provides insight into stand turnover due to disturbances. It also ensures there is a range of seral stages to meet the varied requirements of wildlife. Target Rationale To meet this target, stands must comprise of more than 17% late seral stage. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 50 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Seral Stage Results In all scenarios except the baseline harvest scenario, seral stage increases from year 0 to 100. Increases of up to 63% occur in the no harvest baseline and the planting, buffer and road treatments. Discussion These results are as expected. Nearly half the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is reserved in a cultural heritage zone (Appendix 5, Figure 44). It is expected that late seral stage compositions will become quite high as harvesting is restricted and can no longer be used as a tool to maintain seral stage compositions. Species composition Indicator & Target Rationale In maintaining a natural, healthy stand, it is important to ensure species composition is within natural ranges. This helps maintain biodiversity, stand structure and regulates stand development through competition (Appendix 5, Figure 49). Species Composition Results None of the scenarios meet the species composition target. In all scenarios, pine is a very large component of the stand, much larger than the target composition of 45%. Species compositions do not vary much throughout the scenarios, and all scenarios show an increase in pine composition. Discussion While this target is specific for the SBS mk1, it would be surprising if the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh met the species composition target. However, the results do indicate that there is a problem that should be investigated further. Pine composition is too high. If this is a result of harvesting and conversion to pine stands, then pine stands should be targeted for harvest when possible and converted to their natural species compositions. Road Density Indicator & Target Rationale To return the forest to a natural, continuous stand there should be less fragmentation and openings due to roads (Appendix 5, Figure 50). Road Density Results In the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh there are 488km of road and just under 976 ha of right of way (assume 20 m wide) area. This works out to 19.32m of road per hectare of land or 3.87% of the keyoh land. If the cultural area was to be deactivated the road density would decrease to 2.51%. Discussion The only scenario classified as ‘good’ is the road-deactivation scenario. As with the previous targets, the smaller the area designated for harvest, the better the target is met. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 51 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Emulate natural disturbances (END) This objective ensures a healthy, resilient forest by emulating fire. Disturbances are nature’s way of re-setting a forest and eliminating old, decadent stands that are diseased or unproductive. END ensures that forests aren’t loading fuel and creating an immense fire hazard. Harvest area sizes Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator is useful for emulating the spatial aspect of a fire disturbance. Harvest sizes should range from 40-100 ha, but due to clear-cut size constraints in the interior, will range from 40-60 ha61. Harvest Area Size Results The no harvest baseline and road, buffer and planting treatments have no harvesting and do not apply to this target. The more area available for harvesting, the better the harvested area size results. Consequently, most of the no buffer scenarios do well- specifically the four rotating no buffer harvest scenario and the one zone no buffer scenario. Discussion Many of the openings are less than 40 ha. This is simple to change during planning. When determining long-term harvest plans and laying out harvest blocks on the ground, consider harvest area size. The harvest area trends are a result of Atlas choosing which stands to harvest. It is important to note that in the one harvest zone and the four rotating zones, it may be more challenging to meet these increased opening sizes, as there is limited area available for harvest. Stand ages Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator ensures that stands are even-aged which also helps to emulate fire as fire disturbance creates even-aged stands. Target Evaluation This target was evaluated based on four age classes: 0-20 years, 21-40 years, 41-60 years and 61-80 years. The emphasis is on younger age classes as these are the stands that will contribute to the forest over time. Stand Ages Results The trends for this target do not emulate fire well. Within 20 years of no harvesting in the no harvest baseline, road, buffer and planting treatments, there is no 0-20 age class. It follows that by period 100, there are no 0-80 year stands. 61 DeLong, S.C. 2010. Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. Tech. Rep. 059. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 52 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Discussion It is important to note that while the starting point can be used as a reference point for where targets ought to be, the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh has been heavily salvaged. The values at time 0 are not necessarily representative of what the keyoh should be at. Careful planning and valid information should be applied to seek balance within the targets. This is a doubly useful indicator as it also assess fire risk. The more area in the earlier age classes, the lower the risk of fire. The most harvest area available, the easier it is to regulate and balance the age classes, as the no buffer scenarios indicate. Forest ages Indicator & Target Rationale This target seeks to identify stands that are greater than 200 years old based on their percentage of the forest62. Forest Ages Results Trends indicate that without harvest, the percent of old forest increases to as much as 37 % in no harvest scenarios. Even with harvest, old forests are approximately 30 %. The baseline harvest scenario eliminates old forest by period 100. In either case, the target is not being met as there is either too much old forest or not enough. Discussion This target can be used to assess fire risk on the keyoh. Without harvest, fire risk increases and it may be necessary to pursue fire management strategies (Page 28). In scenarios with no harvest or in the one harvest zone scenario, it is important to monitor these areas, as they may be prone to disease outbreaks in addition to fire. Land disturbed Indicator & Target Rationale This target indicates that 0.75-1.25 % of the land base should be disturbed per year 63. Land Disturbed Results All scenarios have some level of disturbance except for the no harvest scenarios. However, many scenarios do not meet the 0.75-1.25% target. The only scenario that meets the target in every time period is the expanded harvest zone that maximizes volume. 62 DeLong, S.C. 2010. Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. Tech. Rep. 059. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059.htm 63 DeLong, S.C. 2010. Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. Tech. Rep. 059. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 53 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Discussion This target was applied to the entire Daiya-Mattess Keyoh even though half of the keyoh is in the Cultural Heritage Zone. If it were evaluated based on the disturbance in the harvestable area, the results would be quite different. It is also important to remember that disturbance is constantly taking place in the same areas- areas being harvested. This is not ideal unless the rotations are longer which allows stands to recover and provide habitat. Socio-Economic Maintain and enhance long-term benefits to the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh This objective addresses concern for the well being of Ken Sam’s family, and seeks to identify scenarios which practical to implement and have the potential to fund other treatments. Revenue Generated Indicator & Target Rationale Analysing the revenue generated in each scenario seeks to identify the most practical scenarios for implementation. If a scenario does not generate much revenue, then it will likely not be able to cover the costs of implementation. Revenue generated Results The results for this target are predictable. The scenarios that allowed the most timber harvesting yielded the best revenues. Scenarios that generated carbon yielded high revenues, but also have high implementation and start-up costs. Discussion Revenue is a consideration to fund other treatments such as planting and road deactivation. While it isn’t a high priority for Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam, it was examined to ensure treatments were feasible, and to determine which treatments were possible and practical. Job Creation Indicator& Target Rationale Job creation examines how much benefit the Sam family sees either by providing jobs within the family or within the Fort St. James Community. This may be a more important consideration in the future. For now, it helps to provide a sense of the labour involved for each treatment in that the more jobs, the more work a treatment requires, and the more it will cost. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 54 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Job creation Results The jobs created by harvesting scenarios are the most consistent through time. Jobs created through planting and road de-activation treatments are 12 and 5 respectively, but only occur in period 0. Discussion While jobs created by road de-activation occur only in period 0, in reality they may be spread through time, as it may not be realistic to pay for the road-deactivation treatments in one lump sum. It is also important to note that while jobs related to harvesting only occur for each 20-year. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 55 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 4.0 Conclusion: Recommended Strategies This section is meant to provide guidance for Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam in his pursuit of management options for the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. This section is based on the evaluated scenarios findings (Table 5). To determine recommended strategies, the top scenarios from the Ecological and Cultural Evaluation Table (Appendix 8) were compared in addition to the road-deactivation, planting and buffer treatments. These scenarios were then ranked against one another to determine the scenario which best met all of the values. Table 5: Top scenarios based on the Ecological and Cultural Evaluation Table (see Appendix#: ecological and cultural evaluation table). The scenarios were ranked against one another to determine the top scenarios overall (see bottom row). In some cases, scenarios were tied. The “Ranked out of…” column shows in which values scenarios had equal results. Colours are associated with the rankings (dark green = 1, medium green = 2, light green = 3, white = 4, >5 = yellow). Scenarios Ranked 4_Z B_Z B_Z_G Combo_Z_ Road De- Planti Buff Value out of… _G _G _80 G_35 activation ng ers Wildlife Out of 5 4 2 5 3 1 1 1 Water Out of 4 3 3 3 2 1 4 4 Heritage Out of 4 3 3 3 2 1 4 4 Forest Out of 5 4 3 1 2 5 5 5 Socio- Economic Out of 7 7 5 2 4 3 6 1 Overall Out of 3 1 2 3 The expanded harvest zone is the best option to pursue. Having a larger area available to harvest not only generates more revenue, it allows habitat maintenance for species requiring early seral stages and allows the emulation of natural disturbances. This option also maintains protection of culturally significant areas and water quality through the application of buffers. Culturally significant areas were applied with 1 km radius buffers, the Salmon River has 200 m buffers, streams have 100 m buffers and lakes have 60 m buffers. While harvesting in an expanded area requires access remain open, roads can still be deactivated in the cultural heritage zone. The suggested minimum harvest age (MHA) is 80 years as it creates more natural age distributions. While seral stage distributions are still favoring late seral (Figure 32) and old forest ages (>200 years), there is a better representation of the younger age distributions (Figure 33). The land disturbed in the 80-year minimum harvest age case is more regular and within the range than the base case expanded harvest zone (Figure 34). In addition, the 80-year MHA generates more revenue than the base case (Figure 35). Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 56 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Late Seral Stage Composition Target 70 60 50 4_Z_G 40 B_Z_G B_Z_G_80 30 Combo_Z_G_35 20 De-Activation 10 Buffers Late seral composition (%) 0 Planting 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Time (years) Figure 32: A comparison of the top management treatment scenarios and their late seral stage composition target results. The target was to have a minimum of 17% late seral. The concern is that too much late seral will create a fire hazard. B_Z_G_80 does the best job of meeting the target while posing less of a fire hazard than the other scenarios. Note the increases in all scenarios around period 40. Fire hazard assessment should begin around period 40. Age Distribution Target 60000 50000 Planting 40000 Buffers 30000 De-Activation 20000 Combo_Z_G_35 10000 B_Z_G_80 B_Z_G 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 4_Z_G Area in 0-20 year in 0-20 year Area age class (ha) Time (years) Figure 33: A comparison of the change in early age class (0-20 years) through time. The target is to maintain early age distribution classes. None of the scenarios do a very good job of this, though some fare slightly better than others. The trend in Figure 1 is echoed here in that by period 40, there is very little 0-20 age class remaining. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 57 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Land Disturbed Target 1.20 1.00 0.80 4_Z_G 0.60 B_Z_G 0.40 B_Z_G_80 0.20 Combo_Z_G_35 0.00 Land disturbed (%) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Time (years) Figure 34: Compares disturbed areas between top four harvesting scenarios. The de-activation, buffer and planting treatments are excluded from this graph as they experience no disturbance since they are no harvest scenarios. The target is 0.75-1.25% of the landbase disturbed per year. 100 80 60 Combo_Z_G_3 40 5 B_Z_G_80 Time (years) 20 0 $0 $100,000 $200,000 $300,000 $400,000 $500,000 $600,000 $700,000 Revenue Figure 35: A comparison of the revenue generated in the top two harvesting scenarios. In order to counter the accumulation of older forests, it is important to emulate natural disturbances. Disturbances often target older forests and in this case, it is important to prioritize harvests based on stand age. Fire often does this in nature due to the accumulation of fuels in old forests. Emulating natural disturbances is the recommended management approach, as this will help guide management decisions and will produce Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 58 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 stands with increased biodiversity and more natural species compositions that do not necessarily favour the most valuable tree species. Thoughtful planning is also important to successfully managing the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. There are many signs that monitoring will be required on the landbase, in part to ensure that treatments and strategies are appropriately implemented, but also to track the accumulation of old forest. The species compositions are showing signs that humans may have altered the natural composition to favour lodgepole pine. Based on historical knowledge of the keyoh, Ken Sam should consider whether this should be continued, or whether focus should be shifted to efforts to increase planting spruce and subalpine fir. In planning harvested areas, it is important to create harvest openings of variable sizes and with variable edges to emulate fire. Harvest blocks should be laid out to avoid fragmentation and creating small openings rather than large openings. Before any decisions are made, the land should be fully assessed so management decisions are informed and in the best interest of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. The conclusions of this management plan are meant to help guide management on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, but there is no perfect answer in managing forests. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 59 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 5.0 Business Plan 5.1 Carbon Methods In our project for Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, scenarios were established for managing the forests and improving the biodiversity. These scenarios include planting and harvesting, and were applied to various managed areas. The idea of a carbon project was considered, though not all requirements may be physically met, to help fund proposed actions in the management plan. The carbon analysis complies with the standards and procedures of creating a carbon project, but cannot necessarily be properly implemented without further action. Thus, the objectives of the carbon analysis research the possible impacts of our scenarios on the ecosystem by estimating the potential carbon credits the forest can generate under the scenarios. In order to overcome problems related to carbon credit calculations, and to just generate a brief analysis on the potential of carbon within our scenarios, four assumptions were made. First of all, it was assumed that each discrete area of managed land to be included in the boundary is eligible for a carbon project. Therefore, it was consider that all areas within the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh can be part of the carbon analysis. Approved afforestation and reforestation baseline methodology, AR-AM0005, was used64. Secondly, it was assumed that carbon pools included within the project boundary were found respectively aboveground, belowground, dead wood, litter, and soil organic carbon. Total ecosystem carbon stocks were used as the indicator for Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission reduction and removal by our managed forest. As well, the issue of gases considered from emissions by sources other than stocks in carbon pools is neglected in this carbon analysis. Thirdly, the project activity area is supposed to be homogeneous, meaning stratification was not applied to improve the accuracy and the precision of biomass estimates. 64 Carbon. (2009). Approved afforestation and reforestation baseline methodology AR- AM0005: Afforestation and reforestation project activities implemented for industrial and/or commercial uses. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.1 Carbon 60 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Fourthly, the crediting period is assumed to be 100 years. Based on the aforementioned hypotheses, Total Ecosystem Carbon (TEC) stocks changes were considered the basis for the management scenarios and baseline scenarios. This is the indicator of the additionality for GHG emission reduction and removal by our management scenarios. The Equation used for each period was: Equation 1: Net TEC Change Net TEC Change = TEC of Management Scenario – TEC of Baseline Equation 2: Total TEC Change Total TEC Change = ȊNet TEC Change for Period n (n=0, 1, 2 ͐͐10) = The Sum of Net TEC Change from Period 0 to Period 10 (From Year 0 to Year 100) Throughout the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, planting and harvesting scenarios were completed. For each scenario, clique combinations were derived, and two different baselines were set. These were respectively set according to Ken Sam’s baseline and Canfor’s baseline. Planting Scenarios Each planting scenarios was classified into 10 different cliques, according to the management plan. Here’s a description for these cliques: Clique 2: Deactivated roads- Cultural Area Clique 3: Salmon River buffer Clique 4: Streams buffer Clique 5: Lakes buffer Clique 6: Pine NSR Clique 7: Land use sites buffer Clique 8: Pine Biodiversity Plant Clique 9: Spruce Biodiversity Plant Clique 10: Spruce NSR Clique 11: Deactivated Roads- Harvest Several planning options were created for each clique combination. These can be seen below in Table 6. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.1 Carbon 61 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Table 6: Planting options created for each clique combination Option No. Clique Combinations Description 1 8 Pine Biodiversity Plant 2 9 Spruce Biodiversity Plant 3 8&9 Biodiversity Plant(Pine & Spruce) 4 6 Pine NSR 5 10 Spruce NSR 6 6&10 NSR Plant(Pine & Spruce) 7 2 Road Re-vegetation------Cultural Area 8 2&11 Road Re-vegetation----Cultural & Harvest Area 9 3,4,5&7 Salmon River buffer, Stream buffer, Lakes buffer & Land use sites buffer Harvesting Scenarios Six harvesting zones were created for each harvesting scenarios according to the zones. Below is a description of the harvesting scenarios for each zone (Table 7). Table 7: Harvesting Scenarios for each zone Zone Total Area (ha) Unproductive Productivity (%) Net Area (ha) Area (ha) Total Area 28583 3848 24734 Cultural Heritage 12483 1917 58 10566 Zone Expanded 12705 1418 57 11286 Harvest Zone Harvest Zone 1 3059 206 53 2853 Harvest Zone 2 3022 136 58 2885 Harvest Zone 3 3643 891 59 2752 Harvest Zone 4 2981 185 58 2796 No Harvest area 3395 513 54 2882 Several harvesting options were created for each zone combinations as seen in Table 8. Table 8: Harvesting options created for zone combinations Option No. Zone Description Combinations 1 2 Cultural Area 2 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 Rotating Zones Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.1 Carbon 62 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Gradual harvests, 100 years rotation 3 3 & 5 Combined two harvest zones Gradual harvests, 80 years rotation 4 3 & 5 Combined two harvest zones Gradual harvests, maximize volume 5 3,4,5 & 6 Expanded harvest zone Gradual harvests, 80 years rotation 6 3,4,5 & 6 Expanded harvest zone, Gradual harvests, maximizing volume By using Equation 1 and Equation 2, we’re able to compute the net carbon change between management scenario and baseline in each period for each option, and then calculate the total carbon mass change in 100-years period for each option. And graphs are plotted to illustrate the trend of baselines and management scenarios. For example: For Period 1 in “Biodiversity Pine Plant” Option, TEC (Management Scenario) = 190628 tonnes TEC (Canfor’s baseline) = 154690 tonnes Net Carbon Change= 190628-154690=35938 tonnes By using this equation, Net Carbon Change for each of other periods can be calculated. Finally, summing up Net Carbon Changes of all of these periods, we can find that Total Carbon Mass Change=288127 tonnes. Results By using the database processed by CBM and ATLAS, Total Carbon Mass Change for each scenario was obtained and compared in the following tables to including planting options and harvesting options (Table 9 and 10). Table 9: A table showing TEC changes among different planting scenarios Description TEC Change for Ken TEC Change for Canfor’s Sam’s baseline baseline 1. BioDi Pine Plant 252345 288127 2. BioDi Spruce Plant 36530 58002 3. BioDi Plant 288875 346129 4. NSR Pine Plant -4966 199559 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.1 Carbon 63 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 5. NSR Spruce Plant 8581 19144 6. NSR Plant 3615 218703 7. Road Re-vegetation- Cultural 621692 621692 8. Road Re-vegetation- C & Har 1228833 1228833 9. Buffers 0 7575862 Table 10: A table illustrating TEC changes among different harvesting scenarios Description Scenario 1 Scenario 1 for Scenario 2 for Scenario 2 for for Ken Sam’s Canfor’s Ken Sam’s Canfor’s baseline baseline baseline baseline Cultural Area 0 1885893 None None Rotating Zone 3 -30087 463610 None None Rotating Zone 4 -52819 479312 None None Rotating Zone 5 -31888 60738 None None Rotating Zone 6 -39545 -89090 None None Combo Zones 3-5 -270014 316309 -78563 507760 Big Harvest Zone -393714 675195 -163766 905143 Planting Scenarios In plotted graphs, Baseline (No Harvest) stands for the baseline set under the requirements by Ken Sam, and Baseline (Harvest) represents the baseline that we assume Canfor would apply in the future. Referring to Table 9, under Ken Sam’s baseline, it can be found that the scenario of Road Re-vegetation- Cultural & Harvest is able to lead to the most GHG emission reduction & removal, followed by Road Re-vegetation- Cultural. Under Canfor’s baseline, the scenario of buffers is capable of reducing much more GHG emission than Road Re-vegetation-Cultural & Harvest. From Graph 1, 2 and 3, (Appendix 6, Figure 52, 53, 54 respectfully) it can be found that Baseline (No Harvest) Curves and Scenario increase gradually, but Baseline (Harvest) Curves drop sharply in approximately Period 7. As can be found in Graph 4, 5 & 6 scenarios (Appendix 6, Figure 55, 56, 57 respectfully). Curves decrease significantly in the beginning periods. This is caused by our calibration on the starting points of the curves. TEC values of Baseline Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.1 Carbon 64 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 (Harvest) in Period 0 should have been the same to the values of Baseline (No Harvest), based on the fact that none of planting strategies is applied to the forest in our management scenario in the Period 0. In order to reduce the bias, we calibrate the TEC values of Baseline (Harvesting) to be the same to that of Baseline (No Harvest). For Graph 7 & 8 (Appendix 6, Figure 58 and 59), the curves for Baseline (No Harvest) and Baseline (Harvest) keep at the value of 0 due to no deactivation to existing roads. For Graph 9 (Appendix 6, Figure 60), as no strategies are applied in management scenario, the curve of management scenario and the curve of Baseline (No Harvest) coincide. Harvesting Scenarios Referring to Table 10, for Combo Zones 3-5, Scenario 2 will be a better choice to manage the forest, which is gradual harvesting and maximizing volume. For Big Harvest Zone, Scenario 2 will be better than Scenario 1, which is gradual harvesting and maximizing volume. As can be seen from Table 2, the scenario for Cultural Area will be the most likely to maintain the capability to sequestrate GHG. For Graph 10 (Appendix 6, Figure 61), the curve for management scenario and the curve for Baseline (No Harvest) coincide. This is because we don’t apply any harvesting activities to cultural area in management scenario. In Graph 11, 12, 13, 15 and 16 (Appendix 6, Figure 62, 63, 64, 66 & 67 respectively), harvesting activities in Baseline (Harvest) cause significant reduction in TEC. So it can be found that there is greater additionality between management scenarios and Baseline (Harvest). As can be seen from Graph 14 (Appendix 6, Figure 65), Baseline (No Harvest) is similar to Baseline (Harvest). So TEC Changes for two baselines are close. 5.2 External Funding There are many avenues for funding the management options being pursued on the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh. However, some of these avenues are less achievable and realistic than others. Some of the most generous philanthropists in the United States and their foundations are possible options. These foundations include: Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Donald Bren Foundation, Ted Turner Foundation. They fund environmental and conservation related projects but are strictly by invitation only and generally deal with larger scale projects. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.2 External Funding 65 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Another option is from funding through the Canadian Federal Government. The Natural Resources of Canada has a First Nations Forestry Program that fund first nations groups to improve economic conditions and promote sustainable forest management. Moreover, the funding is used to improve the capacity of first nations and help them develop and sustainably manage their resources. This appears to be one of the more feasible and obtainable options compared to the other foundations and organizations. A third option is funding from foundations such as the Koerner Foundation, Tides Canada and Ducks Unlimited. An issue with this funding option is that some of these Non- Governmental Organizations (NGO’s) offer protection through acquiring or joint acquiring of the land and the chance of funding is very low. 5.3 Research Forest Proposal Research forests are often established through special use permits, or crown grants given to a specific party with the intention of providing a research, demonstration and education facility in an outdoor environment. Generally, research forests need to be partnered with a certified university, and need to be created with the intent of creating jobs that will benefit local economies. Although zoning can occur to preserve areas of cultural significance, funding to support these forests are generally created through large scale harvesting on the landbase. Obtaining the rights to create a research forest can be a complex and lengthy process. Areas of land in question need to have certain characteristics in order to be considered for academic use by both a university and the government. The ability to be used for multiple uses and co-management research is key making characteristics like big lakes, mines, geological fault lines, and old growth very important. 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products Most Non-timber forest products (NTFP)65 are collected and sold at farmer’s markets. Aside from the seed cone industry and the nursery business, NTFP’s generate less than a gross annual income of $30,000. The seed cone industry provides the greatest contribution to the regional economy and generates $700,000 annually. Mushrooms are another common NTFP but it is hard to determine exact numbers for this industry because pickers are very secretive about their harvest areas and typically reluctant to share harvest information. Various species of wild berries are picked and turned into jam, jellies, fruit spreads, etc. The production of these goods occurs on small scale and none of it can be considered a 65 Carla Burton. (2006). A Regional Profile of Commercial Harvesting of Non-Timber Forest Products in the Prince George, British Columbia Area. Prepared for The Centre for Non-Timber Resources, Royal Roads University. Victoria, British Columbia. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.3 Research Forest Proposal 66 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 commercial business since annual sales are less than $1000-2000. Other types of edible non-timber forest products include honey and fiddleheads. Non-timber forest products are also used to produce herbal cosmetics. Natural soaps, bath products and other skin lotions are a few of the products being made in the Prince George area. This is a small industry, generating less than $30,000 annually. Arts and crafts such as boxes, picture frames, tool handles are made from waste wood and waste sources usually commonly found in recent forest cutblocks. This business again generates less than $30,000 in sales annually. A potential business venture in the Prince George and surrounding area is utilizing non- timber forest products are floral greens. However, the work involved is seasonal and considered part-time work. Moreover, a few contacts that were surveyed complained that the greens native to the area were “not green enough.” Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 67 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Appendix 1: Wildlife Moose66 Moose are a common source of food, clothing and implements in the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. They are widely distributed across British Columbia and are most commonly found in the central and sub-boreal interior, the northern boreal mountains, and the boreal plains of north-eastern British Columbia. Snow depth and sufficient supply of winter browse dictate population densities. Typical winter population densities vary from 0.3 moose per square km to 1.5 per square km. They roam between their summer and home ranges that are roughly 5 to 10 square km. Moose are well adapted to travelling through deep snow and studies have shown that they are adept at moving through snow up to 40cm deep and only slight difficulties in snow depths of 40 to 70cm deep. The seasonal movements of the moose can be attributed to the depth and duration of snow cover. They are commonly found near lakeshores, swamps and Beaver ponds. In the winter, they are attracted to river valleys that cut through the plateaus and in burns, logged areas, and wetland complexes. Logging is mostly detrimental to the moose. Although, it may provide abundant browse in cutblocks but a lack of forest cover reduces hiding cover, shade in hot weather and for shelter during severe winter storms. Beaver The ideal habitat for a beaver is along slow-moving sections of rivers and streams and on ponds and lakeshores. They are attracted to muddy shores and stable streams and avoid areas with rock and gravel, which make burrowing, channelling and damming difficult. In northern areas with waters that freeze in the winter, an accessible supply of woody vegetation is vital for a sufficient supply of winter food. The best beaver colonies are found in newly established stands of poplar that regenerated from disturbances. Poplar stands can support beaver populations 8-10 years after a burn, but it usually takes 20-30 years to produce poplar stands large enough to provide a steady supply of food67. Fire suppression has reduced the amount of aspen stands and consequently renewed beaver habitat. Logging may also change drainage patterns and alter velocities of streams that were once stable. Beavers are primarily nocturnal animals and stay in well-defined area within range of their home. Wolverine68 66 Blood, D. (2000). Moose in British Columbia. Retrieved on February 5, 2011 from http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/moose.pdf 67Hatler, D., Beal, A. (July 2003). Furbearer Management Guidelines. Retrieved on February 5, 2011 from http://datafind.gov.bc.ca/cs.html?url=http%3A//www.elp.gov.bc.ca/fw/wildlife/trapping/docs/beaver.pdf&ch arset=utf8&qt=url%3Awww.elp.gov.bc.ca/fw+%7C%7C+beaver+trapping&col=bcgovt+blogs+govdaily+qlinks& n=3&la=en 68 R.D. Weir. (2004). Accounts and Measures for Managing Identified Wildlife – Accounts V. Retrieved on February 5, 11 from http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/frpa/iwms/documents/Mammals/m_wolverine.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 68 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Wolverines are common in low elevations and across most of British Columbia. They range from valley bottoms to alpine meadows but are less common at higher elevations due to a lack of food. Male wolverines have home ranges of roughly 1000 square km while females occupy 300 square km. They spend large amounts of time in forests that are at the mature and old structural stage. However, because they are dependent upon many different food sources, they also need a wide range of stand structures. Human activities and transportation corridors are detrimental to wolverine movements around the landscape. Moreover, activities such as logging can cause habitat fragmentation, as wolverines will often avoid young cutblocks. Wolverines are especially susceptible to population threats because of their low densities, large home ranges and low reproduction rates. Management strategies include: limiting the amount of roads and access, maintaining a mosaic of structural stands and creating habitat corridors between cutblocks. Caribou69 Caribou require a variety of habitats at different elevations. They occupy different ranges depending on the season so caribou depend on both old growth forests and open habitats. In the winter, caribou migrate from high elevation summer ranges to lower elevation sites. They feed predominantly on terrestrial lichens and consequently they are attracted to drier sites or sites with low productivity such as old growth forests, which are rich in lichens. Old growth forests also have many vital attributes and features that make it an important habitat. Firstly, old growth forests have large crowns that provide good snow interception, which improves winter movement. Secondly, there is more visibility in old growth forests due to open stand structures and less under brush, which leads to an improved ability to detect predators. Thirdly, arboreal lichen such as Bryoria is only abundant in old growth forests. Sandhill Crane70 The sandhill crane is a species at risk in British Columbia due to its small population and threats to its nesting habitat. Due to the size and vastness of crane nesting sites in British Columbia, some information such as population data is not listed with confidence. Sandhill cranes are widely distributed throughout North America. In the Cariboo-Chilcotin area in British Columbia, where most of the nesting cranes are found, common habitat is sedge dominated wetlands surrounded by coniferous forest. Moreover, these wetlands have convoluted shorelines with many bays. Dense bulrush marshes in rangelands are also a common nesting habitat and it appears that there is greater preference for an isolated habitat over amount of water and in size. During migration, they use swampy fields, the edge of 69 Cichowski, D., Kinley, T., Churchill, B. (2004). Accounts and Measures for Managing Identified Wildlife – Accounts V. Retrieved on February 5, 11 from http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/frpa/iwms/documents/Mammals/m_caribou.pdf 70 Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. (1999). Sandhill Crane: small populations and threats to nesting habitat put this species at risk in British Columbia. Retrieved on March 20, 2011 from www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/sandhillcrane.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 69 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 wetlands, dry rangelands, grain fields and estuarine meadows as stopover sites. Crane nesting sites are harmed by agricultural land development and logging. Logging projects that remove tree buffers around water bodies can expose nesting wetlands to disturbance. Fisher71 The fisher is a provincially blue listed species. It has a home range of 32 square kilomoters for females and between 19-79 square kilometers for males. They forage within non- vegetated through to tall shrub structural stages but their most common habitats are associated with mature forests and old growth forests. Features such as coarse wood debris, wildlife trees and canopy cover are key to denning habitats. Moreover, fishers generally stay near forests with 30% canopy closure with a dominant understory. The main long-term threat to this species is human development on forested lands resulting in a loss of habitat. Fishers require a large spatial habitat and the loss of contiguous forests cause a major conservation challenge. American White Pelican72 The American White Pelican has been legally designated as an Endangered Species in British Columbia and is red listed under sensitive species. This is due to the fact that British Columbia has only one nesting colony of this species. The colony is situated in Stum Lake, 70 kilometers west of Williams Lake. The species has been rebounding from roughly 100 nests in the early 1980’s to over 400 in 1993. They are migratory birds and leave their southern winter homes in March to nest in British Columbia, specifically Stum Lake. The government of BC has provided protection to the nesting colonies by giving Provincial Park Status to Stum Lake and the surrounding lands. The preferred nesting sites are islands that are flat, have bare ground and are covered by minimal tree and shrub growth. Moreover, the habitat is situated close to the water but far enough to avoid waves. Table 11: Culturally Significant Animals and Characteristics Animal Habitat and Ecological Values and Uses Conservation Relationships White-tailed Valley bottoms are the main Heavily relied on Not at-risk in BC but Deer73 habitat. Best summer ranges for food and human activity has are in well-developed clothing. Antlers put pressure on their riparian habitats. Winter were made into habitat. Several areas ranges are on south to tools and are undertaking 71 Ministry of Water Land and Air Protection. 2004). Accounts and Measures for Managing Identified Wildlife: Northern Interior Forest Region. Retrieved on March 21, 2011 from http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/frpa/iwms/documents/Accounts_and_Measures_North.pdf 72 Ministry of Enironment, Lands and Parks (1993). American White Pelican: British Columbia has only one nesting colony of the provincially endangered American White Pelican. Retrieved on March 19, 2011 from www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/pelican.pdf 73 Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. (2000). White-tailed Deer: In British Columbia. Retrieved on March 22, 2011, from www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/whttail.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 70 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 southwest facing slopes ornaments; sinews habitat enhancement where the understory has became bowstrings, measures, such as developed after a fishing lines, and prescribed burning disturbance event thread. Not as and logging. In summer, migrates to abundant in BC floodplains and cultivated therefore less are fields where they find forage hunted Mule Deer74 Old-growth forests are Traditionally, Has been fairly critical for survival. They heavily relied on for resilient to provide shelter, snow food and other expanding interception, and food in the products. civilization and are form of lichen. Recreational not species at risk. In summer, migrates to hunting has been Habitat loss has higher elevations. Cannot popular since WWII occurred as a result survive in alpine zones in and in BC it is of mining, highways, winter due to difficult worth millions of agricultural land moving through snow dollars development, deeper than 30cm forestry Black Bear75 Home ranges are of adult In the past, First Not at risk in BC males are 25 to 150݇݉ଶ Nations included but conflicts while adult females are 5 to the black bear in between people 25݇݉ʹ . They are typically traditional and bears are of in wooded areas that ceremonies and concern. Up to provide cover. Black bears mythology. The 1000 black bears avoid open areas when meat was used are killed every travelling between foraging fresh or dried for year due to sites. the winter. Along serious conflicts Habitats include forests, with other large with people. wetlands, subalpine carnivores that Improperly meadows, riparian habitats symbolize disposed garbage and beaches. Listed as an wilderness, the is the prime cause omnivore, but it functions black bear is a of human-bear primarily as a herbivore major tourist conflict in BC. and secondly as a attraction. carnivore. Muskrat76 Found in aquatic habitats Has been one of the Productive muskrat 74 Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. (2000). Mule and Black Tailed-Deer in British Columbia. Retrieved on March 22, 2011, from www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/muledeer.pdf 75 Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. (2001). Black Bears in British Columbia. Retrieved on March 22, 2011, from www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/blackbear.pdf 76 Halter, David, et. al. (2003). Muskrat. Retrieved on March 23, 2011, from www.env.gov.bc.ca/fw/wildlife/trapping/docs/muskrat.pd Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 71 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 that feature a body of fresh most valuable habitat is in the water, usually standing or furbearers in North lowland areas that slow moving. The most America generating are also commonly productive habitats are as much as $30 occupied by marshes and lake or ponds million in the humans. that can support growth of 1980s. Also used as Controlling water plants but won’t freeze to the a source of food levels is the most bottom in winter. important method Cattail is the main source of of improving food, making up 80% of its muskrat habitat. diet. Home range is roughly 100m from their den. Limited distribution in BC due to mountainous terrain but abundant in wetlands. Rusty Common habitat includes Blackbirds and Listed as special Blackbird77 slow moving streams, peat sometimes concern in bogs, sedge meadows, considered pests COSEWIC given that marshes and swamps. In the and may be killed if 70% of the winter it nests in primarily they cause damage breeding range is in damp woodlands and human property. Canada. Agriculture cultivated fields. and urban Over 70% of the breeding development is the range is in the boreal forest. main cause of habitat loss. Common Habitat includes open areas One of the only Listed as Nighthawk78 where there is no vegetation species of threatened by such as sand dunces, beaches, insectivorous bird COSEWIC. 49% logged areas and forest that is both decline in some clearings. crepuscular and areas over the last 3 widely distributed generations. in Canada. 77 COSEWIC. (2006). COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Rusty Blackbird in Canada. Retrieved on March 23, 2011, from dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW69-14-495-2006E.pdf 78 COSEWIC. (2007). COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Common Nighthawk in Canada. Retrieved on March 23, 2011, from dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/collection_2007/ec/CW69-14-515-2007E.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 72 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Appendix 2: Aquatic Species Salish Sucker (Catostomus sp. 4) A survivor of the ice age, the Salish Sucker is found only within a few small freshwater lakes and streams throughout wetland areas of British Columbia (BC) and the United States. More specifically, in BC it is only found within the Chilliwack, Fort St. James and Prince George Forest District79. Smaller than other suckers, the Salish sucker reaches a maximum size of approximately 25 centimeters in length. They are often found in the headwaters of small streams, or areas with relatively deep pools with plenty of well established aquatic vegetation80. Mainly agricultural activities, urbanization and low oxygen levels threaten the Salish Sucker81. Its current status entails82: COSEWIC: Endangered BC Status: Red listed SARA: Schedule 1 White Sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus pop. 3) The white sturgeon is one of the largest freshwater fish in Canada mainly restricting them to large rivers of the Pacific Northwest83. Six distinct populations of white sturgeon occur within BC, the Nechako River population being the one affected in the Fort St. James region. Among rivers, they are also found within estuary, inshore marine, and lake environments. In their adult stage, large, deep mainstream pools are preferred, where as juveniles prefer the outreaches of tributaries. Declines in numbers are attributed to over fishing and habitat degradation and fragmentation84. In the Nechako and Fraser River however, population numbers have declined due to failed reproduction due to dams and river regulations85. The white sturgeon is currently listed below, even though conservation measures are in place. 79 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2011). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 7, 2011. 80 Environment Canada. (2004). Aquatc Species at Risk - Salish Sucker. Retrieved Feb 6, 2011, from Fisheries and Oceans Canada: http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/species-especes/salishsucker-meuniersalish- eng.htm 81 Environment Canada. (2004). Aquatc Species at Risk - Salish Sucker. Retrieved Feb 6, 2011, from Fisheries and Oceans Canada: http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/species-especes/salishsucker-meuniersalish- eng.htm 82 Environment Canada. (2009). Species at Risk and Local Government: Salish Sucker. Retrieved Feb 6, 2011, from District of Squamish: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/7846 83Environment Canada. (2011). Species at Risk and Local Government: White Sturgeon (Nechako River Population). Retrieved Feb 6, 2011, from District of Squamish: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8279 84 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2011). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 6, 2011 from: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8279 85 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 73 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 COSEWIC: Endangered BC Status: Red Listed SARA: Schedule 1 Dolly Varden (Salvelinus malma) Named after its colourful fashion, the Dolly Varden occurs in coastal drainages of all sizes around BC. They can be found in riparian, lowland stream and river systems, lakes and estuary environments86. Juveniles rear in all forms of freshwater streams, where as adults are free to migrate between fresh and salt water. Spawning in the fall, fry are able to emerge from the gravel in April. This makes the timing of forest harvesting key to this species survival. Although this species is only blue listed in BC, non-native species of brook trout are one of the major declines in some watersheds throughout the province87. Bull Trout The bull trout is found throughout various parts of western North America, but specifically in BC, it is found throughout the interior. Though it is relatively abundant species in BC, it is not found in any of the large coastal rivers throughout the province, making it limited to highly vulnerable, sensitive river estuaries and small streams. Being a cold-water species, the bull rarely inhabits water warmer than 150C88. Due to warming stream temperatures throughout the Fort St. James Forest District, this makes it increasing hard for this species to survive in the area. The two largest threats of this species include angling and water quality degradation89, which has made it a blue listed species throughout the province. Kokanee Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) A landlocked version of Sockeye Salmon, Kokanee live at mid depths in the open waters of lakes90. When it is time to spawn, this species travels to neighbouring tributary streams or settles for the shoreline of lakes. Although this species is only yellow-listed in BC, it is relatively susceptible to industrial, agricultural and urban development due to their reliance Environment Canada. (2008). Aquatc Species at Risk – White Sturgeon. Retrieved Feb 6, 2011, from Fisheries and Oceans Canada: http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/species-especes/white_sturgeon-esturgeon_blanc- eng.htm 86 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2009). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 6, 2011 from: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8078 87 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2009). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 6, 2011 from: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8078 88 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2009). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 6, 2011 from: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8163 89 Pearson, Mike and Healey, M.C. (2009). Species at Risk and Local Government: a Primer for BC. Stewardship Centre of British Columbia, Courtenay BC. Retrieved February 6, 2011 from: http://www.speciesatrisk.bc.ca/node/8163 90 Ministry of Fisheries. (n.d.). B.C. Fish Facts. Retrieved February 7, 2011, from Kokanee : http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/fishfacts/kokanee.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 74 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 on clear flowing streams. In terms of forestry practices, they are considered at risk due to an increase in sedimentation and water temperature91. Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) A close relative to salmon and arctic char, Rainbow trout are a native species to the Pacific Ocean, yet one of the most widely introduced species on a global level92. Habitat requirements often involve cold, clear water with a fast current93. Shallow rivers with moderate flow and gravel bottoms are preferred for the river dwelling population, where as lake residents require deep cool pools. Rainbow trout spawn in the spring immediately following the melting of ice off the rivers and lakes. 91 Ministry of Fisheries. (n.d.). B.C. Fish Facts. Retrieved February 7, 2011, from Kokanee : http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/fishfacts/kokanee.pdf 92 Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2010). Ontario-Great Lakes Area Fact Sheets: Rainbow Trout. Retrieved February 7, 2011 from: http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/regions/central/pub/factsheets-feuilletsinfos-ogla- rglo/rainbowtrout-truitearcenciel-eng.htm 93 Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2010). Rainbow Trout. Retrieved February 7, 2011 from: http://www.dfo- mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/aquatic-aquatique/rainbow-trout-eng.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 75 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Appendix 3: Socio-Economics Table 12: Fort St. James THLB Determination Area (ha) Total Distric Area 3,084,653 Non Crown Forest 976,456 Reserve 4,706 Non Forest 26,555 Private Crown Grant 17,392 Small Leases 20 Woodlots 2,768 Crown Forested Landbase 2,056,758 Reductions to CFLB Non Commercial 22,221 Non Merchantable 76,277 Parks and Protected Areas 90,194 Isolated High Cost Planning Cells 990 Physically Inoperable 2,418 Economically Inoperable 204,710 RMZ 465 Visual Preservation Area 1,229 Caribou Habitat 9,772 ESA's 125,644 Semi Spatial Reductions (Roads, Trails, 177,863 Landings, Riparian, IWAP) Current Timber Harvesting Landbase 1,344,976 Future Roads, Trails and Landings 2,985 Long Term Timber Harvesting Landbase 1,341,991 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 76 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Appendix 4: Modelling Programs TIPSY (Table Interpolation Program for Stand Yields) & VDYP (Variable Density Yield Prediction) Description TIPSY and VDYP are growth and yield programs94. They generate volumes curves for each age period of a specific species. They are not models that generate information based on inputs. They are based on species, site index, and other stand management treatments. Limitations TIPSY cannot generate mixed species or uneven aged stands95. It cannot simulate more than one species growing in a stand. To generate a multi- species stand, this yield program averages the two species’ growth and yield curves together and presents one curve96. VDYP has more specific limitations, but these would not have affected the one growth and yield curve it was used to generate (for SG1200). Use TIPSY was used to generate growth and yield curves for some of the new-planted stand groups. VDYP was used to model our mature, or unmanaged, stand group 1200. ArcGIS Description ArcGIS is a geospatial program, which allows users to process large quantities of spatial and tabular data efficiently. In this project, ArcMap was used. Limitations In this case, ArcMap and its applications were limited by data and time. Much more could have been done had there been more data and more time. Use For the purpose of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, ArcMap was used to create and analyze buffer treatments, road treatments, and planting treatments. 94 BC Ministry of Forests and Range. (2007, November 22). TIPSY Home. Retrieved April 1, 2011 from Ministry of Forests and Range: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/gymodels/tipsy/ 95 ibid 96 ibid Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 77 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 CBM-CFS3 (Carbon Budget Model- Canadian Forest Service) Description CBM was developed by the Canadian Forest Service “…to simulate the dynamics of all forest carbon stocks required by the Kyoto Protocol (aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, litter, deadwood and soil organic carbon)97. CBM was chosen to model carbon on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh because it is compliant the International Panel for Climate Change’s (IPCC) carbon estimation methods, and in general it is a widely accepted carbon model. Limitations Our use of CBM was very limited by time and inexperienced users. Had there been more time, it would have been possible to learn the program better to generate more accurate curves. As it was, users relied heavily on the advice and input of other experienced CBM users and may have made decisions that resulted in minor inaccuracies. Most of these decisions revolved around the disturbance regimes and whether they ought to be modeled. It was decided to model them to produce more accurate carbon curves. Due to the inexperience of the users, the full capacity of the program was not used. Users were only able to provide the inputs for the model to run but were unable to manipulate the data due to limited knowledge of the outputs and limited time. Use CBM was used to generate the carbon curves for FPS-Atlas inputs. FPS-Atlas (Forest Planning Studio) Description Atlas is a harvest simulation model, which allows users to manipulate numerous harvesting variables such as harvesting volumes (or harvest flows), buffers, no harvest zones and minimum harvest ages98. Limitations Atlas limitations were data, time and user knowledge of the program. There were some outputs that could not be utilized due to a lack of data. For instance, if log grades were part of the database, we could have calculated much more accurate revenue based on Atlas’ log grade outputs. Time was a constant constraint. It was challenging to model as many scenarios as possible, providing enough options for the client, while producing data of a high quality. The lack of user knowledge of the program clearly limited how Atlas was used. It was impossible to fully utilize the capabilities of the program. 97 Canadian Forest Service. (2009, August 10). Forest Carbon Accounting. Retrieved April 1, 2011 from Natural Resources Canada: http://carbon.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/CBM-CFS3_e.html 98 About Atlas. (2003, April 9). Retrieved April 2, 2011 from ATLAS/SIMFOR Project: http://www.forestry.ubc.ca/atlas-simfor/atlas/about.html Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 78 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Use FPS-Atlas was the most used model. It was used for nearly every treatment. It was particularly useful in modeling the harvest scenarios, but was also used to model carbon. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | 5.4 Non-Timber Forest Products 79 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Appendix 5: Values, Objectives, Indicators, Targets: Evaluation, Results and Discussion Wildlife This is an important value for Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam. As explained in our background information (section 2.0), animals have many cultural uses and are valued as an integral part of the forest. Protect and Restore Habitat The objective of protecting and restoring habitat addresses the importance of wildlife by ensuring there is habitat. This is one of the most important objectives. In order to comprehensively assess wildlife habitat, a separate wildlife habitat criteria and indicator is applied to six scenarios which were selected based on how successfully they ranked in the ecological and cultural target evaluation. While there is only one indicator for this very important objective, the second wildlife criteria and indicator table ensures that wildlife habitat is protected, and indicates which aspects of habitat need to be restored. Fragmentation Indicator & Target Rationale Fragmentation is a useful indicator for wildlife habitat as it ensures that animals have sufficient area rather than small parcels dotting the landscape (Figure 36). Fragmentation also doubly serves to ensure that END is employed successfully. To properly emulate stand- replacing fire, openings should be few and large rather than common and small. While fragmentation is also a concern due to the number of roads, this indicator was evaluated from the perspective of harvesting impacts rather than logging operation impacts. Target Evaluation Good Medium Poor Clear-cut polygons Most clear-cut Most clear-cut are aggregated polygons are polygons are small Target rather than aggregated, some are and dispersed dispersed dispersed, small polygons Figure 36: Fragmentation target evaluation The simplest method of evaluating fragmentation was using the viewer in Atlas. The viewer allows users to see how the land base is changing in each time period. The target is a scale of good, medium, poor. See Figures 37, 38, and 39 below for assessing examples of ‘good’, ‘medium’ and ‘poor’. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Wildlife 80 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Due to the visual nature of the target evaluation, it was important to maintain the same level of zoom when evaluating each of the harvested areas. In order to ensure consistency, one person evaluated this target for all scenarios. If time was not a constraint, two members would have evaluated this target and the results would have been compared. If there were further discrepancies, a third member would have evaluated the target separately and been the deciding factor. Although this is a somewhat subjective analysis of fragmentation, it is still indicative of fragmentation and is adequate for assessing whether one scenario results in more or less fragmentation. Figure 37: This snapshot of Atlas’ viewer display is an image of the four rotating harvest zones scenario: gradual harvest flows, no buffer at 80 years. This was evaluated and deemed “good” as all harvested areas are aggregated. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Wildlife 81 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 38: This is the one harvest zone scenario: gradual harvest flows, no buffers at 80 years. This scenario was judged “medium” as there are some large, aggregated cuts and some small cuts. The Top image shows the zoomed area in relation to the rest of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Wildlife 82 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 39: This is the two-combined harvest zones scenario: gradual harvest flows, at 60 years. Deemed “Poor” as there are many small cuts. The top image again provides context for the zoomed in area, but is not representative of the specific scenario being evaluated. Fragmentation Results See Appendix 8 for the ecological and cultural summary table for results. The no harvest baseline and road de-activation, planting and buffer treatments have no fragmentation, as there is no harvesting. The harvest baseline ranks well because all of the harvested areas are large openings and do not isolate the remaining stands of forest. The one harvest zone scenario varies. The one harvest zone base case (minimum harvest ages are not modified) does well. As the minimum harvest age rotations increase, the results worsen. However, the one harvest zone scenario which maximizes volume has moderate fragmentation overall. The four rotating harvest zone scenario fares well. All of the minimum harvest age scenarios have moderate fragmentation. The no buffer scenario does very well, and ranks ‘good’ in all time periods. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Wildlife 83 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 The combined zones scenario does not fare as well overall, however the base case and no buffer scenarios display moderate fragmentation overall. The remaining combined zones scenario mostly received ‘poor’ fragmentation. The expanded harvest zone scenario echoes the combined zones scenario in that the base case and no buffer scenario display moderate to good results. The minimum harvest age scenarios do not perform very well. The road re-vegetation, buffer and planting treatments all do well in this target, as there is no harvesting. Discussion The larger the harvest zone the less fragmented the landscape. This is a consequence of having more options when harvesting, and having the ability to clump polygons together when harvesting. The scenarios with modified minimum harvest ages’ results are unexpected. In the one harvest zone scenario, once buffers are applied there is such a small area of land available for timber extraction that it is not surprising that the landscape becomes fragmented as the only available areas are harvested. In the combined and expanded zone scenarios, it appears Atlas does not need to harvest large areas in the maximizing volume scenario. Stand volume is much greater when trees are harvested at the peak of their volume curve, so there is no need to harvest as many stands to meet harvest flow volumes. It should be noted that the harvest flows (a term which can be likened to AAC but on a 10 year period) are much lower in the maximize volume scenarios (see Appendix `Harvest flows``). The remaining minimum harvest age scenarios with 80 and 100-year rotations result in poor to moderate fragmentation. This is likely because of the large buffers, which limit where harvesting can occur and isolate some harvestable areas. When those isolated harvestable areas are harvested, it creates fragmentation. In reality, this is relatively minor because there is so much retention over the entire Daiya-Mattess Keyoh that there need not be overly much concern regarding the 80 and 100 year rotation effects on fragmentation. Section 5.2 goes into further detail regarding the wildlife criteria and indicator rationale used for this plan. Water Water is very important to Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam. There is a long history of fishing on the keyoh, and water quality is important in maintaining wildlife habitat. Water values are also important on this keyoh as the Salmon River is indirectly a tributary to the Fraser River (Fraser Basin Council, 2004). Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Water 84 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Protect aquatic ecosystems and water quality The objective of maintaining water quality on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh not only protects aquatic organisms on the keyoh, but also contributes to protecting aquatic organisms in the Fraser River. Protecting the aquatic ecosystem of the keyoh is one component of maintaining healthy, resilient ecosystems. Two indicators were developed to assess this objective: stream and lake proximity to roads and number of stream crossings. Road Proximity to Rivers, Streams and Lakes Indicator & Target Rationale With high value placed on water quality and species habitat, a 200 m buffer was placed on the Salmon River, a 100m buffer was placed on all streams and a 60m buffer on all lakes. There buffers were created from the Riparian Management Area Guidebook from the B.C. Forest Service and were verified using a literature review. For best practice, all the streams were classified as S1 (See Table 13 and 14), the largest class, because stream classification information was unknown. This classification associates the largest riparian management area (RMA) of 100m on either side of the channel, which we then used as our minimum buffer size99. For the Salmon River, this buffer size was double to a 200 m buffer to address the client`s concern of protecting this invaluable river. Although most of these mapped streams are most likely S4 or less the 100m buffer meets our water protection objectives of. Based on scientific evidence the buffers are not too small, which was the main concern. All definite, indefinite, and indeterminate streams were included in the analysis. Wetland buffers were not included in modelling, but have been mapped. They are not included because the majority of stream buffers overlap wetlands. Wetlands should be managed for when implementing treatments and harvesting. Table 13: Specified minimum RMA slope distances for stream riparian classes100 99 Ministry of Forests and Range. (1995, December). Forest Practice Code of BC Act: Riparian Management Area Guidebook. Retrieved March 25, 2011 from Ministry of Forests and Ranges: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/riparian/Rip-toc.htm 100 ibid Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Water 85 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Table 14: Specified minimum slope distances for lake riparian classes101 The purpose of measuring the proximity of roads is to see the potential risk for impact they may have on water. The increased amount of sediment to streams from runoff (known as sedimentation) is a major environmental impact of roads. Sedimentation can damage fish food supplies and habitats, injure fish directly, cause bank erosion, fill the channel, widen the channel, or flood it.102 The buffers treatments are no harvest zones. Trees and vegetation are left to filter groundwater, intercept precipitation and shade the immediate riparian areas. Target Evaluation The stream and lake proximity to roads target is based on the amount of roads within the Salmon River, stream and lake buffers (Figure 40). To evaluate the target, a good, medium, poor ranking system was used. ‘Good’ describes scenarios with less than 1% of roads within 100m of water. This limits the roads around water and the number of stream crossings (Appendix 8) Good Medium Poor < 1% of roads in 1-25% of roads in > 26% of roads in Target 100m buffer 100m buffer 100m buffer Figure 40: Targets for road proximity to rivers, streams and lakes. When buffers are applied to all the water bodies over the entire keyoh, 20566 ha remains, which is just under 73% of the total land area. Targets were analyzed in ArcGIS. Buffers of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 meters were created from stream channels. These buffers were then intersected with the road lines and isolated to determine kilometres of road within each buffer size. Road Proximity to Rivers, Streams and Lakes Results In analyzing 100m buffers, there were 100% more roads within the 100m buffer than the 20m buffer (see Figure 41). 101 Ministry of Forests and Range. (1995, December). Forest Practice Code of BC Act: Riparian Management Area Guidebook. Retrieved March 25, 2011 from Ministry of Forests and Ranges: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/riparian/Rip-toc.htm 102 William Haskins and David Mayhood. 1997. Stream Crossing Density as a Predictor of Watershed Impacts. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual ESRI User Conference, Paper 457. http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc97/proc97/to500/pap457/p457.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Water 86 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 A B Figure 41: This shows the difference in the density of roads within 100m buffers (left image, A) and within 20m buffers (right image, B). The black lines represent kilometres of road found within the buffers. As buffer sizes increased from 20m to 80m we saw an increase of about 3-3.5% then a drop to approximately 1.7% increase for 100m buffers of roads that were included within buffers. There is a large amount of roads within buffers because while Canfor has been harvesting they most likely have been using multiple buffer widths, as they were able to identify each stream classification. The 100m buffer increases the protection of wildlife habitat and maintains natural hydrological processes by maximizing the distance roads must be from water. Discussion The only scenario which was classified as `good` was the road de-activation and re- vegetation scenario. This is because minimal roads can be deactivated in the various harvesting scenarios. In the remaining no harvest scenarios (baseline, buffer and planting treatments), roads are not de-activated. All other scenarios range from poor to moderate. We found the highest number of roads to fall within the 100m buffer, but the increase from 80 to 100m was not as large as from 60 to 80m, so it’s possible that 80m would suffice in most situations. Number of Stream Crossings Indicator & Target Rationale The high density of roads and streams throughout the keyoh, results in many stream crossings. This is also the case for the CN rail line that runs through the area as well. With the increased number of stream crossings there is increasing risk of sedimentation or other pollutants entering the water from cars, trucks, trains, or other sources. Water quality degradation can affect other water bodies downstream and lower the quality of the aquatic Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Water 87 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 ecosystem.103 With any future development of the area, detailed surveys should be used to determine if stream crossings are required. If yes, crossings should be planned with the utmost care. Target Evaluation When evaluating the number of stream crossings it’s important to realize some of the mainline and Forest Service Road (FSR) stream crossings were required because there was no alternate route for the road (Figure 42). Crossing streams may have been a management decision to avoid areas of higher importance. It is important to realize that in order to meet the future needs for access to Ken Sam’s cabins and culturally significant areas, some roads will be left. Other remaining roads are the FSR. In addition to these roads, the crossings for the CN rail cannot be removed due to regulations and operational constraints. To be evaluated as `good`, all roads except the FSR and mainline left for access are deactivated, which removes most of the stream crossings in the keyoh. Medium and poor targets were developed by dividing the remaining stream crossings in half. This was done because there is no scientific target for stream crossings. Good Medium Poor Target 0 – 47 crossings 47 – 98 crossings 98+ crossings Figure 42: Number of stream crossing targets Number of Stream Crossings Results Using our GIS information on roads and streams, ArcGIS was used to determine where roads crossed water. A tally for each area and each scenario was then evaluated based on the good, medium and poor targets. The Cultural Heritage Preservation Zone has 50 water channels crossings, while the portion of land to the north of the Salmon River has 65 crossings. There are two significant crossings on the Salmon River. One is the FSR and the other is the at the far west end of the keyoh. There two crossings are bridges- one is a trestle bridge for the CN Rail line, and the other crosses the Salmon River. Figure 43: Road and rail stream crossings 103 William Haskins and David Mayhood. 1997. Stream Crossing Density as a Predictor of Watershed Impacts. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual ESRI User Conference, Paper 457. http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc97/proc97/to500/pap457/p457.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Water 88 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Discussion Similar trends are seen in this target as in the road proximity to rivers, streams and lakes target. The only scenario classified as `good` is the road de-activation and re-vegetation scenario. The one harvest zone and combo zone harvest scenarios are ranked moderate, and all other scenarios are ranked poor. These results have to do with road de-activation planning within the scenarios. For example, in the expanded harvest zone and the four rotating zones scenario, it is not possible to de-activate as many roads as they must be left open to provide access when harvesting. There were some difficulties trying to decide when a road was mapped close to a stream so it was included as a crossing. In many cases there were no alternate locations for roads, but to meet the requirements for Ken Sam there must be fewer crossings to impact the rivers and streams. Heritage This value is considered synonymous with cultural. It encompasses areas important for familial, cultural or heritage reasons. It also seeks to preserve the aspects of the keyoh that make it unique for users of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh and ensure these aspects are preserved for future generations. Protect Culturally Significant Areas This objective seeks to maintain the heritage values of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh by protecting areas that are important to the keyoh holder and his family. This objective also seeks to protect areas that are known to be high use areas for trapping, fishing or recreation, such as areas surrounding the cabins. Protect Culturally Significant Area Indicator & Indicator Rationale In this area, there are several areas that have high cultural and historical importance to the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh and their traditions. There are lakeside family cabins which are used when hunting, trapping, and fishing. There are many cultural land use sites around lakes and rivers which are sources of fish and game. Fish and game are used for food, tools, and apparel. Some of these cultural land use sites have been affected or disturbed by harvesting. All these cultural land use sites are special to the keyoh and tell a story of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh people’s history. The majority of these locations can be found at the west end of the keyoh, which is the primary reason the Cultural Heritage Zone was created (see Figure 43). 1 km radius buffers were placed on the cultural land use sites (Figure 46). Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Heritage 89 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 44: Zoning on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Target Evaluation To meet the objective of protecting the culturally significant areas, ArcGIS was used to determine whether scenarios were good, medium or poor. `Good` protects areas that are located closer to the mouth of the Salmon River. These areas see the most hunting and trapping. To ensure protection of the area as a whole so it provides resources for wildlife habitat, the scenarios which are classified as `Good` protect the Cultural Heritage Zone. Medium and poor targets were created by dividing the remaining protected areas in half. This was done because there is no scientific target for culturally protected area. Good Medium Poor > 13,662 ha 13,662 ha – 9563 ha < 9563 ha protected Target protected protected Figure 45: Targets for evaluating the protection of culturally significant area. Protect Culturally Significant Area Results To analyze this target, information was gathered from the cultural land use site locations provided by the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh and industry maps. Points were created and buffered using a 1 km radius. 1km buffers retain as much forest around the sites and minimally disturb those areas. Most of the cultural land use sites are located in the Cultural Heritage Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Heritage 90 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Zone in the southwest portion of the keyoh. Provincial recreation sites were also buffered because they provided access to some of the cabins. Figure 46: Cultural land use sites Discussion The smaller the areas available for harvest, the better the cultural areas are protected. The less area available for harvesting, the more roads can be de-activated and the more access is limited. However, the cultural zone protects the majority of the cultural land use sites. Many of the cultural land use sites are also covered by the water buffers because they are located along rivers or lakes. De-activated Roads Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator focuses on reducing the number of roads throughout the keyoh to decrease the access and allow de-activated road areas to naturally regenerate. The amount of roads throughout the keyoh has fragmented the forest, disrupting wildlife movement and habitat requirements. A road kill analysis examined the increased potential for animal mortality due to hunting, accidents, and predation. Within 500m of road animals have a higher chance of being affected by noise, pollution or injury. As roads are deactivated, they are left to return to natural stands regenerated by the tree and shrub species along the roadsides (see Figure 47). Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Heritage 91 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 47: Natural regeneration following road deactivation. Target Evaluation Using ArcGIS, the number of deactivated roads was analyzed (Figure 48). To be classified as `good` all roads except those important for access on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh are deactivated. Medium and poor targets were developed by dividing the remaining road deactivation lengths in half. This was done because there is no scientific target for road deactivation. Good Medium Poor 488 km – 441 km 441 km – 244 km 243 km – 0 km Target deactivated deactivated deactivated Figure 48: Road deactivation targets. To evaluate the scenarios, the roads which would be deactivating were selected to calculate the distance of deactivated roads. De-activated Roads Results The majority of roads, 191.8km, are found in the portion of the keyoh north of the Salmon River, and the Cultural zone has 171.5km for comparison. As a result, most of the harvesting scenarios do a moderate job of road de-activation. Discussion Road de-activation trends are similar to trends seen in the cultural area protected target. The smaller the area available for harvest, the better the road-deactivation targets is met. Road deactivation should also include a barrier to vehicles to prevent access.104 It was challenging to decide which roads should be left open in the Cultural Heritage Zone. The best option is to deactivate all the roads in the keyoh except the FSR as it is provincial and outside of our jurisdiction, and the main road in the Cultural Heritage Zone. If harvesting is to occur in the keyoh then other roads will have to be left active because it’s not financially feasible to deactivate roads only to reactivate them for harvest. In most cases, road de- activation is difficult to implement because of the high costs. 104 Ministry of Forests and Range. (2003, December). Forest Practice Code of BC Act: Forest Road Regulation. Retrieved March 30, 2011, from Ministry of Forests and Range: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/archive/fpc/fpcaregs/forroad/froadr.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Heritage 92 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Forest This ecological value seeks to protect one of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh’s most valuable resources. The forest provides habitat, protects water quality and has the potential to generate revenue. Maintain ecosystem health and vitality This objective ensures the forest is productive and healthy for use in future generations. In this context, healthy does not only mean free of disease. A healthy forest is also within its natural range of variation. For example, forests should not be modified to the extent that the species composition no longer represents a composition that could be found elsewhere on the natural landscape. This objective also maintains ecosystem resilience. Should a disturbance occur, the ecosystem will be able to cope and maintain its functions of providing habitat, filtering water and air, storing carbon, sustaining organisms and so on. Meeting this objective is one way to help a forest cope with climate change. Seral stage Indicator & Target Rationale Seral stage is an indicator of ecosystem health and vitality because it ensures that the forest is within its natural range of variation. Seral stage is a term similar to forest age but conveys information regarding stand structure. Seral stage can be used to describe three broad forest cohorts or age groups: early/young (0-40 years), mid/mature (80-120 years) and late/old (>120 years)105. This indicator provides insight into stand turnover due to disturbances. It also ensures there is a range of seral stages to meet the many and varied requirements of wildlife. Target Rationale To meet this target, stands must comprise of more than 17% late seral stage. 17% is based on recent research by Craig De Long regarding the Moist Interior Natural Disturbance Unit (NDU), in which the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is located. All the operators in the Fort St. James forest district derived 17% from the Sustainable Forest Management plan developed It is also important to note that while 17% may not seem like much, in an area that is disturbed by large stand replacing fires, it is not natural to have an abundance of late seral forest as the fire risk becomes quite high. 105 BC Ministry of Forests. (2005). Biodiversity Guidebook. Retrieved on March 10, 2011, from http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/biodiv/app4.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 93 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Target Evaluation The seral stage target was evaluated using a constraint in Atlas, which monitored stands older than 120 years. The constraint grid was used to create a text file, which was exported into Excel and modified to fit into the Criteria and Indicator evaluation table. Seral Stage Results In all scenarios except the baseline harvest scenario, seral stage increases from year 0 to 100. Increases of up to 63% occur in the no harvest baseline and the planting, buffer and road treatments. The one harvest zone scenario has the next highest late seral stage increases, reaching nearly 60% of the forest. The four rotating harvest zones have seral stages, which hover around 60 % by year 100, but the no buffer scenario has a late seral stage composition of 48% in year 100. The combined harvest zones scenario has slightly lower seral stage compositions than the previous scenarios, ranging from 56-59% in the buffered scenarios. However the no buffer scenario results in 45% late seral in year 100, and maintains late seral composition from 30-34% in periods 0-80. The expanded harvest zone echoes the other harvest scenarios, with buffered scenarios having high seral stage compositions ranging from 53-56% and the no buffer scenario hovering around 30%, reaching 35% in year 100. Discussion These results are as expected. It is important to remember that nearly half the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh is reserved in a cultural heritage zone (Figure 44). The remaining half is either being used for timber, as in the expanded harvest zone, or allocates a small section to timber and places the rest in reserve, as in the one harvest zone. It is expected that late seral stage compositions will become quite high as harvesting is restricted and can no longer be used as a tool to maintain seral stage compositions. This can be seen in the no buffer scenarios do a better job of maintaining late seral stages as they are able to regulate the ages by harvesting more. Considering the minimum value for seral stage is 17%, it is difficult to say at which point late seral stage compositions are too high. However, given the nature of the fire disturbance in the area, anything over 50% late seral can be considered high and fire risk should be monitored. At this point, it may be necessary to take steps to mitigate fire. It is also important to note that while everything is considered late seral, it incorporates a wide range of ages. In this case, late seral simply describes stands over 120 years. This contributes in part to the large amounts of forest comprised of late seral. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 94 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Species composition Indicator & Target Rationale In maintaining a natural, healthy stand, it is important to ensure species composition is within natural ranges. This helps maintain biodiversity, stand structure and regulates stand development through competition. This target was derived from the Timber Supply Review data package (TSR) based on unmanaged stands using a weight average species composition for the SBS mk1 zonal site (see Figure 49)106. The TSR was used as it is a relatively recent, reliable source based on inventory conducted by the province of British Columbia. Figure 49: This shows species compositions in natural stands in the SBSmk1 zone in the Prince George Timber Supply Area 106 Ministry of Forests and Range. (2008, November). Prince George Timber Supply Area: Timber Supply Review Data Package. Retrieved March 25, 2011, from Ministry of Forests and Range: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hts/tsa/tsa24/tsr4/24ts08dp.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 95 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Target Evaluation Species composition was calculated in Atlas using the growing stock grid to analyse the area in each stand group. Since stand groups are based on leading species, it was assumed that this would suffice for determining species composition over the entire Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. Species Composition Results None of the scenarios meet the species composition target. In all scenarios, pine is a very large component of the stand, much larger than the target composition of 45%. These compositions do not vary much and all scenarios show an increase in pine composition. Discussion While this target is specific for the SBS mk1, it would be surprising if the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh met the species composition target. However, the results do indicate that there is a problem that should be investigated further. The fact that pine composition is so much higher and is consistently in the 80 % range in every scenario is troubling. If this is a result of harvesting and conversion to pine stands, then pine stands should be targeted for harvest when possible and converted to their natural species compositions. It is possible that this pine composition is natural, as there is always a wide range of variation and pine may simply do well on the keyoh, however for the entire keyoh to consist of 80% pine seems too high as it creates a risk for beetle infestations which is something that would naturally be avoided as much as possible by nature. This is why it may be a result of harvesting. However, historical data or knowledge of the land would be needed to confirm this. There is 0% fir composition on the keyoh. This may simply be because fir is such a minor component of the keyoh. It does not mean that there is no fir at all; it simply means that the stands with fir as a leading species are not playing a major role on the keyoh. The creation of some fir stands where fir is suited to grow is one potential strategy for creating a more diverse forest. Douglas-fir composition is just below half a percent. The target is 1%, and considering the compositions of the remaining species, Douglas-fir is currently best meeting the target. Spruce composition is surprisingly low, about one third of what the targeted composition is. Due to the amount of wetter areas on the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, more spruce was expected. Potentially some spruce stands have been converted to pine stands, which would explain the high pine and low spruce compositions. However, as this is speculation, more research is needed. Aspen/birch compositions are adequate, though still below the targeted 15% composition. They range from 6-9 % depending on the scenario. No deciduous stands are being harvested. This helps mitigate fire risk. However, the fact that none of these stands are being harvested yet are still below the target indicates that in order to meet the target, it may be necessary to plant. However, planting is not suggested strategy to increase the Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 96 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 deciduous stands. These deciduous species are excellent competitors, but have lower longevity than the conifers. It may be that they have higher compositions than the results indicate, but are dying out earlier, allowing the conifers to take over. Road Density Indicator & Target Rationale Similar to deactivated roads, the densities of roads are substantial for this area due to timber development over the past three decades. To return the forest to a natural, continuous stand there should be less fragmentation and openings caused by roads (Figure 50). These roads also have an average right of way (ROW) of 20m. A ROW is cleared for safety and operability of the roads but naturally regenerates with roadside species over time. Figure 50: Aerial image of keyoh fragmentation due to roads Target Evaluation The optimal situation is for the keyoh to have a low density of roads (Figure 51). This would limit fragmenting stands beneficial to wildlife.107 Such a goal is only feasible if the entire area is a reserve zone, eliminating harvesting and human disturbances. Area of road was calculated using 20 m ROW and length of road to provide percentage of roads in the Daiya- Mattess Keyoh. The calculated values were then used to create an index of the keyoh to compare road densities. Good Medium Poor ≤ 0.4% land base 0.41-3.8% land base ≥ 3.9% l Target Values: land base 107 Canadian Land Reclamation Association. (2010). Canadian Reclamation: Resource Road Reclamation. Retrieved Apr. 1, 2011. Hemmera Consultants: http://www.hemmera.com/upload/PDF/ResourceRoadReclamation_CanadianReclamationMagazine.pdf Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 97 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Figure 51: Road density targets used for scenario evaluation. Road Density Results ArcGIS was used for this analysis. In the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh there are 488km of road or just under 976ha of ROW area. This works out to 19.32m of road per hectare of land or 3.87% of the keyoh land. If the cultural area was to be deactivated then the road density would decrease to 2.51%. It is important to note that not all of the roads mapped have 20m of right of way; block roads and spur roads may have significantly less amount of area affected. Discussion The only scenario classified as ‘good’ is the road-deactivation scenario. As with the previous targets, the smaller the area designated for harvest, the better the target is met. In road deactivation, problems arise with respect to future harvesting activities. These are mainly scheduling problems and are avoided if roads remain open and are maintained. Emulate natural disturbances (END) This objective ensures a healthy, resilient forest. Disturbances are nature’s way of re-setting a forest and eliminating old, decadent stands that are diseased or unproductive. Emulating fire disturbance is natural. In this area, END ensures that forests aren’t loading fuel and creating an immense fire hazard. Harvest area sizes Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator is useful for emulating the spatial aspect of a fire disturbance. Harvest sizes should range from 40-100 ha, but due to clear-cut size constraints in the interior, will range from 40-60 ha108. Openings should have varied edges than straight, square cut blocks. Intense fires often skip stands. This can also be emulated by harvesting. However, fragmentation should be avoided. This target was developed using recent research by Craig DeLong, the regional research ecologist with the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations in the Prince George. It should be noted that in fact, stand replacing fires are much larger than 40-60 ha. Large, intense, natural fires can be over 1000 ha109. DeLong suggests creating patches that are greater than 100 ha. 108 DeLong, S.C. 2010. Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. Tech. Rep. 059. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059.htm 109 DeLong, S.C. 2010. Land units and benchmarks for developing natural disturbance-based forest management guidance for northeastern British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Range, For. Sci. Prog., Victoria, B.C. Tech. Rep. 059. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr059.htm Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 98 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Target Evaluation This harvest area size target was evaluated in three components: area <40 ha, area 40-60 ha and area >60 ha. The 60 ha area was included as pine beetle salvaged stands can be greater than 1000 ha if there is more than 25% retention. Harvest Area Size Results As expected, the no harvest baseline and road, buffer and planting treatments have no harvesting and do not apply to this target. When examining the results, percentage of harvest area <40 ha should be smaller than the 40-60 ha and >60 ha targets. The baseline harvest has many polygons that are less than 40 ha. The remaining harvest scenarios display the same trend. The more area available for harvesting, the better the harvested area results. Consequently, most of the no buffer scenarios do well- specifically the four rotating no buffer harvest scenario and the one zone no buffer scenario. Discussion Many of the openings are less than 40 ha. This is simple to change during planning. When determining long-term harvest plans and laying out harvest blocks on the ground, consider harvest area size. The harvest area trends are a result of Atlas choosing which stands to harvest. It is important to note that in the one harvest zone and the four rotating zones, it may be more challenging to meet these increased opening sizes, as there is limited area available for harvest. Stand ages Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator ensures that stands are even-aged. Even-aged stands are a component of emulating fire disturbances as fire results in even-aged stands. This target should not contribute to the creation of an even aged forest. The target forest is comprised of multiple ages composed of even-aged stands. In other words, the forest is made up of a number of large areas, with one age associated with each large area. Target Evaluation This target was evaluated based on four age classes: 0-20 years, 21-40 years, 41-60 years and 61-80 years. The emphasis is on younger age classes as these are the stands that will contribute to the forest over time. This target was calculated in Atlas using the age class grid. This provided age class distribution based on area. This information was exported into Excel and formatted into the Ecological and Cultural Evaluation Table (Table 15). Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 99 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Stand Ages Results The trends for this target do not emulate fire well. Within 20 years of no harvesting in the no harvest baseline, road, buffer and planting treatments, there is no 0-20 age class. It follows that by period 100, there are no 0-80 year stands. The harvesting scenarios fare slightly better, but the areas in the early age classes quickly decrease in the one harvest zone, the four rotating harvest zones and the combo zone. The expanded harvest zone and all of the no buffer scenarios are adequate in maintaining early age class distributions, but never come close to the age class areas in the period 0 starting point. Discussion It is important to note that while the starting point can be used as a reference point for where targets ought to be, the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh has been heavily salvaged. The values at time 0 are not necessarily representative of what the keyoh should be at. Careful planning and valid information should be applied to seek balance within the targets. This is a doubly useful indicator as it also assess fire risk. The more area in the earlier age classes, the lower the risk of fire. It is also important not to have too much in the earlier age classes, as they will all mature at the same time and create an imbalance and possibly result in an extreme fire risk around the same period. Balancing the age classes is important in mitigating fire risk and managing a natural forest. Scenarios that have limited harvest areas have difficulty regulating the age classes, as we see in the one zone and four rotating zone scenarios. The most harvest area available, the easier it is to regulate and balance the age classes, as the no buffer scenarios indicate. Forest ages Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator ensures that old trees do not comprise of too much of the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh. This indicator can also be used to assess fire risk as it minimizes old forest ages. This target seeks to identify stands that are greater than 200 years old based on their percentage of the forest. This target was developed using DeLong’s natural disturbance unit research. Target Evaluation This target was calculated in Atlas using a seral stage constraint, which tracked stand ages of 200 years or more. This information was then exported using the constraint grid and formatted into the Ecological and Cultural Evaluation (Appendix 8). Forest Ages Results Trends indicate that without harvest, the percent of old forest increases to as much as 37 % in the no harvest scenarios. Even with harvest, old forests are approximately 30 %. The Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 100 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 baseline harvest scenario eliminates old forest by period 100. In either case, the target is not being met as there is either too much old forest, or not enough. Discussion This target can also be used to assess fire risk on the keyoh. This target also indicates that without harvest, fire risk increases and it may be necessary to pursue fire management strategies (Page 28). In scenarios with no harvest or in the one harvest zone scenario, it is important to monitor these areas, as they may be prone to disease outbreaks in addition to fire. The target is to classify forests older than 200 years as ‘rare’. Rare would be a target percentage of around 10% or less. Anything over 10% is no longer being considered rare. The scenarios do not adequately meet this target after period 40. It may be necessary to either harvest more area or ensure monitoring is in place to protect the forest from disease and fire. Land disturbed Indicator & Target Rationale This indicator looks at the land disturbed, mainly due to harvest. Road area is not considered disturbed as it is too challenging to incorporate, and road densities have been accounted for in other targets. Analysing the land disturbed helps ensure that period disturbances are occurring and forest health is being maintained by these disturbances. The target for this indicator is based on DeLong’s recent research on natural disturbance units in the Fort St. James area. His targets indicate that 0.75-1.25 % of the land base should be disturbed per year. Target Evaluation This target was evaluated using Atlas outputs from the treated areas grid. Using the areas `treated` with clear cuts, land base disturbance was calculated by dividing the clear-cut area by total area to determine the percent of land disturbed. Land Disturbed Results All scenarios have some level of disturbance except for the no harvest scenarios. However, many scenarios do not meet the 0.75-1.25% target. The only scenario that meets the target in every time period is the expanded harvest zone that maximizes volume. Discussion This target was applied to the entire Daiya-Mattess Keyoh, although half of the keyoh is in reserve. If it were evaluated based on the disturbance in the harvestable area, the results would be quite different. It is also important to remember that disturbance is constantly taking place in the same areas- areas being harvested. This is not ideal unless the rotations are longer allowing stands to recover and provide habitat. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Forest 101 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Socio-Economic This value generates benefit to Daiya-Mattess Keyoh family and contributes to the community by providing jobs. This value is not as important as providing habitat and maintaining a healthy forest, but was provided for the consideration of Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam should his management objectives shift in priority. Maintain and enhance long-term benefits to the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh This objective addresses concern for the well being of Ken Sam’s family, and seeks to identify scenarios which practical to implement and have the potential to fund other treatments. Revenue Generated Indicator & Target Rationale Analysing the revenue generated in each scenario seeks to identify those scenarios, which are the most practical to implement on the land base. If a scenario does not generate much revenue, then it will likely not be able to cover the costs of implementation. Profit would have been the preferable indicator, but was challenging to evaluate for the number of scenarios, so revenues are used instead. Target Rationale The target is to break-even. If a scenario is break-even and the ecological effects of management meet the objectives, then it will be worth implementing. Any scenario that results in financial losses is too challenging and would not be implemented. Target Evaluation The evaluation for this target can be seen in more detail in the business plan. Revenue generated Results The results for this target are predictable. The scenarios that allowed the most timber harvesting yielded the best revenues. Scenarios that generated carbon yielded high revenues, but also have high implementation and start-up costs. Discussion Revenue is a consideration to fund other treatments such as planting and road deactivation. While it isn’t a high priority for Daiya-Mattess Keyoh holder Ken Sam, it was examined to ensure treatments were feasible, and to determine which treatments were possible and practical. Job Creation Indicator Rationale Job creation examines how much benefit the Sam family sees either by providing jobs within the family or within the Fort St. James Community. This may be a more important consideration in the future. For now, it helps to provide a sense of the labour involved for Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 102 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 each treatment in that the more jobs, the more work a treatment requires, and the more it will cost. Target Rationale As long as the number of jobs created is greater than 0, the target is considered met. Target Evaluation The evaluation for this target can be found in more detail in the business plan. Job creation Results The jobs created by harvesting scenarios are the most consistent through time. Jobs created through planting and road de-activation treatments are 12 and 5 respectively, but only occur in period 0. Discussion While jobs created by road de-activation occur only in period 0, in reality they may be spread through time, as it may not be realistic to pay for the road-deactivation treatments in one lump sum. It is also important to note that while jobs related to harvesting only occur for each 20-year period, they are actually providing jobs on an annual basis as well. Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 103 Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Table 15: This table outlines the assumptions made when evaluating the scenarios to determine whether they met the targets. Target Assumptions Fragmentation Wildlife is already present on the keyoh so there is already adequate habitat, just need to ensure harvested areas which will become habitat are not fragmented Road proximity to rivers, All streams classified as S1 and given a 100 m buffer streams and lakes There is no harm in having a buffer too large The stream, river and lake data is accurate and complete Number of stream crossings Size and lengths of crossings are all equal Anywhere a road crossed a stream or river in ArcGIS, there was a stream crossing All streams crossings present in the data are active All active stream crossings would be removed if the road was de-activated Protect culturally significant No harvesting or human disturbance other than the keyoh holder's family within cultural land use site buffers area Cultural land use sites are areas used for trapping, hunting, fishing, cabins Included recreational sites as they provide access All land use sites were either located on the land use occupancy map provided or were indicated by keyoh holder Ken Sam during our meeting 1 km buffers are sufficient De-activated roads Mainlines and cultural land use site access should remain open All roads are active Current road data is comprehensive and accurate De-activation in this scenario means de-building roads (remove stream crossings, re-contour the land) Entire length of road must be de-activated due to provincial regulations regarding road maintenance Seral Stage No limit on late seral stage, but should consider fire hazard Species composition Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is not an anomaly and it is appropriate to apply the TSR's species composition for the SBSmk1 zone Road density Right of way (ROW) is 20 m (A38973) Applied 20 m of ROW to all roads, including spur and block roads Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 104 Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 All roads on Canfor's Winter Harvest Map are active Harvest area sizes Pine beetle salvage regulation allows the emulation of intense fires greater than 60 ha Harvest areas <40 ha do not effectively emulate fire Stand ages Period 0 does not provide a good reference point due to the amount of salvage logging The lack of early age class representation is indicative of increasing fire risk Forest Ages Rare means 10% or less Land disturbed Does not account for areas disturbed by road Does not account for disturbing different areas with each harvest (same areas may be repeatedly disturbed) Revenue Generated Successful management strategies only need to be break even, since objectives are to protect the values and generate jobs rather than make money Job creation Number of jobs reflects the cost of the treatment (the more jobs, the more expensive the treatment) Number of jobs reflects the intensity of treatments (the more jobs, the more treatment intensity increases) (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 105 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Appendix 6: Carbon Graphs Planting Scenarios Graphs Biodiversity Pine Plant %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 52: Graph 1 Biodiversity Spruce Plant %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of CarbonTonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 53: Graph 2 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 106 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Biodiversity Plant %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of CarbonTonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 54: Graph 3 NSR Pine Plant %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 55: Graph 4 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 107 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 NSR Spruce Plant %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 56: Graph 5 NSR Plant %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 57: Graph 6 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 108 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Road Re-vegetation(Cultural Area) %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 58: Graph 7 Road Re-vegetation(Cultural&Harvest Area) %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 59: Graph 8 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 109 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Buffers %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Tonnes Carbon 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 60: Graph 9 %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Tonnes Carbon 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 61: Graph 10 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 110 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Harvesting Scenarios Graphs %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 62: Graph 11 %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 63: Graph 12 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 111 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 64: Graph 13 %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Carbon Tonnes 6FHQDULR Period(decade) Figure 65: Graph 14 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 112 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of Tonnes Carbon 6FHQDULR 6L Period(decade) Figure 66: Graph 15 %DVHOLQH1R +DUYHVW %DVHOLQH+DUYHVW Tonnes Of CarbonTonnes 6FHQDULR 6L Period(decade) Figure 67: Graph 16 Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 113 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Appendix 7 – Awareness Survey Daiya-Mattess Keyoh Knowledge Survey 1. Address (Town is acceptable): a. How long have you lived at this address? 2. Ethnicity: a. Eg. Caucasian, Asian, First Nations, Black, Hispanic 3. Age: 4. What recreational activities do you participate in? eg. Hiking, fishing, etc. (If hunting or fishing is answered please indicated what species) a. Summer: i. How frequently? Daily, Weekly, Monthly? b. Winter: i. How frequently? Daily, Weekly, Monthly? c. Year-round: i. How frequently? Daily, Weekly, Monthly? 5. Do you know about the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh? a. If yes, how do you know about them? 6. Do you know about the Maiyoo Keyoh? a. If yes, how do you know about them? 7. Have you met any Daiya-Mattess Keyoh people? a. If yes, who? 8. Do you know where the any Daiya-Mattess Keyoh is? If yes: a. How many times have you visited? b. Why did you visit the area? c. How long did you stay? d. Will you go back? e. Please describe where it is and how you accessed it: If no: f. Would you visit if you knew where it was located? 9. Have you visited any of the recreation sites in the area? If yes: a. How many? b. Which ones? c. On average how long was your stay at these recreation sites? If no: d. Would you visit them if you knew more about the area? 10. While at the recreation sites, did you see any wildlife? If yes: Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 114 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 a. What type of animals did you see? b. Approximately how many did you see of each kind? If no: c. Do you know why you did not see any animals? 11. Would you like to see signs to know when you’re entering the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh? a. If no, please explain why: 12. Would you like to see signs to know when you’re leaving the Daiya-Mattess Keyoh? a. If no, please explain why: Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 115 (A38973) Daiya-Mattess Keyoh: Forest Management Plan 2011 Appendix 8: Ecological and Cultural Evaluation Table Daiya-Mattess Forest Group | Socio-Economic 116 (A38973) (A38973) This has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs. PROTOCOL Of Recognition & Harmonization For Keyoh Title BETWEEN THE: Keyohs that resolve from time to time to enter this Protocol in accordance with this Protocol. Hereinafter referred to as the “Parties” WHEREAS: A. Each Party holds sole title (Keyoh title) to the lands and resources within each their Keyoh for the use and benefit of their extended families; B. Keyoh title includes sole decision making authority over all the lands and resources within the Keyoh; C. Keyoh title has been passed since time immemorial from the current family head to his or her successor; D. None of the Parties has never surrendered or delegated authority for their Keyoh title to or any other entity including recently created Indian Bands and Tribal Councils; E. The Parties recognize that our Keyoh titles are subject to consultation obligations from outside entities; and F. The Parties believe that recognition of each Party’s Keyoh title and clarity of authorities and roles in the administration between Keyoh titles is essential to minimizing conflict and collective long-term success between the Parties. Keyoh – Keyoh Working Protocol Page 1 (A38973) This has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs. THEREFORE THE PARTIES RESOLVE: 1. PURPOSE 1.1. This Protocol intends to foster an effective working relationship between the Parties by setting out recognition, roles and responsibilities of the Parties with respect to their Keyoh title. 2. GUIDING PRINCIPLES 2.1. This Protocol has no basis in modern law however the Parties will respect this Protocol on the basis that it is now a part of Dakelh (tribal) Law therefore carries as much or more weight as modern law. 2.2. Each Party will respect the other Party’s internal processes for exercising and administering Keyoh title. 2.3. This Protocol is intended to foster healthy relationships therefore must be based on a foundation of mutual understanding and respect. 2.4. Implementing this Protocol is a process of ongoing learning and continuous improvement which requires a collective understanding that mistakes are inevitable and must be treated as learning experiences that happened through good intentions. 2.5. Effective pro-active communications is essential to fostering the desired positive working relationship that the Parties are attempting to achieve through this Protocol. 2.6. Transparency and accountability is essential to fostering collective support and trust for this Protocol. 2.7. Land and resource activities within Keyohs must be culturally appropriate and sustainable. 3. RECOGNITION, ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES 3.1. The Parties recognize each Keyoh holder as the sole authority with respect to Keyoh title within their Keyoh. 3.2. The Parties agree to collaborate on matters related to the Keyoh title that have potential: Keyoh – Keyoh Working Protocol Page 2 (A38973) This has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs. 3.2.1. Impacts to cultural resources that are of common interest to Keyoh members; 3.2.2. Environmental impacts that may extend into other Keyohs; 3.2.3. Political ramifications of common concern; or 3.2.4. Economic impacts to other Keyohs. 3.3. The Parties agree to give full and fair consideration of any views expressed by other Parties with respect to Keyoh title. 3.4. When the Parties are collaborating on a Keyoh title matter the Parties will strive to achieve a mutually acceptable position before taking action on that matter or communicating their individual positions to the outside world. 4. GENERAL COMMITMENTS 4.1. When a Party becomes aware of potential impacts to Keyoh title within another Keyoh that Party will immediately inform the affected Party of those potential impacts. 4.2. The Parties will attempt to align their respective policies with respect to Keyoh title and the treaty process in order to facilitate a consistent approach on these items. 4.3. The Parties commit to teaching their respective members (particularly the youth) about the importance of the Keyoh system as well as adhering to this Protocol. 4.4. The Parties will openly share as much information as possible subject to their respective information sharing policies and their obligations to the owners of that information. 4.5. Parties may enter into additional protocols or agreements however will do so within the general scope of this overarching Protocol. Some of these may include: Communications, Governance, Information Sharing and Accommodation. 5. DISPUTE RESOLUTION 5.1. If there is a dispute between the Parties with respect to any matter arising from this Protocol or relating to the interpretation of this Protocol, the Parties agree that it is in their best interest to use their best efforts to resolve such dispute in a reasonable and timely manner. Keyoh – Keyoh Working Protocol Page 3 (A38973) This has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs. 5.2. The Parties will attempt to use any and all face-to-face means to resolve disputes. 5.3. The Parties may agree to use culturally based methods (e.g., Elders, talking circles) or outside resources to assist in resolving the dispute (on a cost share basis) if necessary. 5.4. Binding dispute resolution methods may be used as a last resort with the written agreement of the Parties. 6. TERM, AMMENDMENT AND TERMINATION 6.1. This Protocol will take effect on the date that it has been executed and delivered to the Parties and will remain in effect until terminated. 6.2. This Protocol may only be amended or terminated by written agreement of the Parties. 6.3. The Parties will review and evaluate this Protocol on an annual basis, from the effective date of signing. 6.4. Any Party may withdraw from this Protocol by giving 30 days written advance notice to the other Parties of their intention to withdraw. During this notice period the Parties agree to review this Protocol for any weaknesses that may have prompted the proposed withdrawal, and to use best efforts to cooperatively attempt to resolve the reasons for this proposed withdrawal. 6.5. All decisions regarding entering into, amending, terminating or withdrawing from this Protocol will be made by formal resolution of each Party. 6.6. If this Protocol is terminated the Parties agree to establish another agreement regarding representation and authorities with respect to aboriginal rights and land and resource issues within the Keyohs. 7. BREACH 7.1. The Parties understand that alleged breaches of this Protocol are a very serious allegation therefore the Parties agree to follow only the formal process outlined in this Protocol to address alleged breaches. 7.2. When a Party alleges that another Party has breached this Protocol that Party will: 7.2.1. Get a formal resolution authorizing them to enter into the formal breach process identified in this Protocol; and Keyoh – Keyoh Working Protocol Page 4 (A38973) This has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs. 7.2.2. Inform the other Party in writing of the alleged breach. 7.3. A Party who has received a written notice of an alleged breach on their part will immediately provide a written response to the other Party on the alleged breach. 7.4. The Parties will cooperatively attempt to resolve the alleged breach as soon as practically possible using the dispute resolution provisions in this Protocol. Some possible resolutions may include: 7.4.1. Accepting the alleged breach because the breach was not substantiated or is minor in nature; 7.4.2. Requiring the Party who in breach to modify their behaviour to stop the breach; or 7.4.3. Terminating from this Protocol if that Party refuses to change their behaviour and resolve the breach. 7.5. The Parties will only communicate alleged breaches to the public (including their membership) with agreement of the Parties. 8. ADDITIONAL SIGNATORIES 8.1. A Keyoh holder (Applicant) may apply to the Parties to become a signatory to this Protocol. 8.2. The Applicant’s submission to become a signatory will include: 8.2.1. The Keyoh holder’s name and contact information; 8.2.2. A resolution from the Applicant’s membership authorizing the Applicant to make the submission on behalf of the Keyoh; and 8.2.3. A map illustrating the boundaries of the Applicant’s Keyoh. 8.3. The Parties from time to time will decide on a consensus basis to allow or disallow any Applicant and will inform the Applicant as soon as practicable of their decision. 8.4. An Applicant will become a Party to this Protocol once the Applicant has been approved by the Parties and has signed a copy of a map of the Applicant’s Keyoh as illustrated in Attachment 1 that will be attached to this Protocol. Keyoh – Keyoh Working Protocol Page 5 (A38973) This has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs. SIGNATORIES The undersigned have agreed to work towards the spirit and intent of this Protocol with the full knowledge and understanding that it is a good faith Protocol and does not carry any legally binding obligations to any Party, and that this Protocol does not alter, abridge or modify any of the Parties’ individual authorities or responsibilities. Name/Date Name/Date Maiyoo Keyoh / June 16, 2008 Diaya-Matess Keyoh / June 18, 2008 Beaver Lake & Co Keyoh / June 18, 2008 Lhooz Lhai Unli Keyoh / December 9, 2009 Tsa Dulk’un Keyoh / December 21, 2009 Keyoh – Keyoh Working Protocol Page 6 (A38973) This has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs. ATTACHMENT 1 {Name} Keyoh Consent Protocol of Recognition & Harmonization For Keyoh Title The Applicant’s Keyoh boundary map goes here. The {name} Keyoh as defined by {description}. {Name} Keyoh agrees to work towards the spirit and intent of this Protocol with the full knowledge and understanding that it is a good faith Protocol and does not carry any legally binding obligations to any Party, and that this Protocol does not alter, abridge or modify any of the Parties’ individual authorities or responsibilities. On behalf of the {name} Keyoh (sign & print name) Date Keyoh – Keyoh Working Protocol Page 7 (A38973) (A38973) (A38973) (A38973) [this has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs.1 ATTACHMENT 5 Lhooz lhai 'unli Keyoh Consent Protocol of Recognition & Harmonization For Keyoh Title The Lh'ooz Ihai 'unli Keyoh as defined by Julian Steward 1940. The Lh'ooz Ihai 'unli Keyoh agrees to work towards the spirit and intent of this Protocol with the full knowledge and understanding that it is a good faith Protocol and does not carry any legally binding obligations to any Party, and that this Protocol does not alter, abridge or modify any of the Parties' individual authorities or responsibilities. j7ee-/ pc;-Ioo [ On' alfofthe L ~ &'ate Keyoh - Keyoh Working Protocol Page 11 (A38973) [his has been ratified by the signatory Keyohs.1 ATTACHMENT 6 Tsa Dulk'un Keyoh Consent Protocol of Recognition & Harmonization For Keyoh Title "- . ~~"'. •-.:0 n_ The Tsa Dulk'un Keyoh by Julian Steward 1940 The Tsa Dulk'un Keyoh agrees to work towards the spirit and intent of this Protocol with the full knowledge and understanding that it is a good faith Protocol and does not carry any legally binding obligations to any Party, and that this Protocol does not alter, abridge or modify any of the Parties' individual authorities or responsibilities. ~~~ .fJ.,., c- 2: (S'J!& Cf On behalf of the Tsa Dulk'un Keyoh (sign & print name) Date Keyoh - Keyoh Working Protocol Page 12 (A38973) CARRIER SEKANI TRIBAL COUNCIL 30TH ANNUAL GENERAL ASSEMBLY ‘People, Purpose & Passion’ The Pathway to Success Host Nation – Wet’suwet’en First Nation Decker Lake Hall October 6, 2011 AGENDA 8:30 AM Registration 9:00 AM Opening Prayer by Wet’suwet’en First Nation Elder 9:10 AM Welcoming remarks by Chief Karen Ogen, Wet’suwet’en First Nation 9:15 AM Chairman: Tribal Chief David Luggi, CSTC & Co-Chair: Vice Tribal Chief Terry Teegee, CSTC Meeting called to order Introduction of CSTC Council of Chiefs Review and Acceptance of the Agenda Motion Request: Acceptance of the Agenda Review of 2010 Annual General Assembly Meeting Minutes Motion Request: Acceptance of the 2010 Annual General Assembly Meeting Minutes 10:00 AM BREAK 10:15 AM Tribal Chief David Luggi Year End Report 10:45 AM Vice Tribal Chief Terry Teegee Year End Report 11:15 AM KPMG Auditors’ Report: Rayna Howard, Senior Finance Officer 12:00 PM LUNCH 1:00 PM Technical Services Unit Year End Report Audrey Osterhout, TSU Coordinator Ron Prochot, Building Inspector 1:20 PM Christina Ciesielski, Fisheries Program Manager’s Year End Report 2:00 PM Land Use Planning Year End Report 2:15 PM Resolutions 3:30 PM BREAK 4:00 PM Closing Remarks Closing Prayer by Wet’suwet’en First Nation Elder 4:30 PM MEETING ADJOURNED (A38973) 1) Registration 2) Opening Prayer by Wet’suwet’en First Nation Elder Ruby Ogen, Wet’suwet’en First Nation Member. 3) Opening Remarks by Chief Karen Ogen, Wet’suwet’en First Nation Our band has been busy with a lot of things going on in our community. I sit on the BOD for CSTC and voice my concerns, especially when they come from my community. Hope everyone enjoys their day today; I don’t have much elders or hereditary chiefs here today. I welcome you to the Wet’suwet’en territory, and hope we have a good round of discussions today. Mussi. 4) Chairman: Tribal Chief David Luggi, CSTC & Co-chair, Vice Tribal Chief Terry Teegee, CSTC, and Meeting called to order. Thanks for the welcome Karen. 2pm is Land Use program report, would like to replace that with a PTP ASEP program update. Without a quorum of Chiefs in the building, no resolutions can be passed, and right now we don’t have a quorum of Chiefs. 5) Introduction of CSTC Council of Chiefs Fred Sam, Nakazdli; Ann Abraham, Takla; Larry Nooski, Nautley; Reg Louis, Stellako; Jackie Thomas, Saikuz. 6) Review and Acceptance of Agenda a. Motion Request for Acceptance of Agenda Additions: PTP ASEP – Diane Collins, Territory Issues – Jim Munroe. Moved: Karen Ogen Seconded: Wesley Sam All in favor. 7) Review of 2010 Annual General Assembly Meeting Minutes a. Motion Request for 2010 Annual General Assembly Meeting Minutes Moved: Larry Nooski Seconded: Fred Sam All in favor. (A38973) 8) Tribal Chief David Luggi Year End Report Enbridge: We had a fairly large protest against Enbridge. We had supporters from Alberta and across Canada to show their support. It’s an issue that will take decades and decades of fighting and legal wrangling. We will look at the steps we’ve taken and take a look at the next steps we should take. The pipeline does threaten the land and water in our territories and the West Coast. And are pretty repetitive in stating so. In late 2006, the CSTC filed a lawsuit and successfully stopped Enbridge Northern Gateway from advancing to the government regulatory process. No First Nation was prepared or ready to make a front against Enbridge. Once the lawsuit was filed, Enbridge backed off, as they did not have a sponsor. If CSTC hasn’t stepped in, it would have been 9-10 months into construction. In 2008, Enbridge began public consultations and the project proposal is now moving its way through the government review process. Enbridge found another sponsor and had $100 million in their back pockets. In early 2013 construction is scheduled subject to project approval. Adam Beach supports CSTC’s drive to defeat the Enbridge Proposal. Next Steps: more protesting, letter writing, all First Nations need to find out who will file the next litigation, that’s what will stop or rest the project proposal. Pacific Trails Pipeline: The CSTC completed its role in leading 15 First Nations consortium to an overall benefits package with Apache and BC. The First Nations Limited Partnerships’ Directors are now operating the company in anticipation of Apache making a Final Investment Decision. Each Director will be responsible for reporting to their respective communities. One of the largest First Nations business consortiums in Canada. Karen Ogen – I’ve been hearing PTP and Enbridge might join forces down the road once construction starts. 15 First Nations are signed on with PTP, what is the protocol that will happen if this does happen? David Luggi – We thought about that prospect pretty early and were very concerned, what CSTC has an environmental accord with the overall benefits package. In that environmental accord, PNG and Apache, Apache can’t give any authorization to move an Enbridge Northern Pipeline. It’s the CSTC bands that issue that permission, so if we say no, then it’s null. The First Nations that are signed on with PTP can exercise their right to say no. Karen Ogen – If a First Nation wants to get out of the process, how is that done? (A38973) David Luggi – You’ve signed on with the Province, which you’ve gotten money from; the balance would be directed to the investment of the whole project. You’ll have to consult the legal council with the process of pulling out. If you pull out, it will leave you with other issues, if your intent is to stop the project or not participate, then you won’t get any payments out of it. The other downside is consultation; the company will argue that you were being consulted. It depends on what you’re objectives are. Whoever your lawyer is will be able to tell you that at not tell charge you. Apache is a fairly big pipeline company, natural gas, and smaller oil pipelines in the States. Been around since the 50’s, they’re a bigger company than PNG. If we go back to 2007, the first business plan we looked at, and the benefits package that was included, the business analyst anticipated that Apache would buy PNG. Why is Apache going to be upping our natural gas rates? David Luggi – The natural gas rates are regulated by what the world is paying. The world market drives the prices of natural gas. BC Treaty Process: Funding issues, Chief Albert Gerow suggested we move that we have $14 million in loans that be given to an identity such as the First Nations Summit. The CSTC has been offered a loan extension to 2016 by Canada to the $14 million in loan funding that was issued since 1995. The CSTC advanced this resolution at the September 2011 First Nations Summit Meeting. Therefore it be resolved that the First Nations Summit Chiefs in Assembly supported the prospect, if feasible, of transferring all BC First Nations treaty regulations loan funding debt to the First Nations Summit or another separate entity. That the First Nations Summit table this concept to the Principals meetings for discussion. As members we have to keep in the back of our minds that these loans will have to be paid one day. How could we consider negotiating with these guys when most First Nations don’t have a treaty with them? What’s the point going ahead with this if there’s no treaty to protect us? David Luggi – We tried our best to procure what’s in title, rights and title are still part of the treaty process, but are considerably less than what your expectations are. When we were at the table there were 6 meetings between 2000 and 2006, the result of the Haida decision it made treaty negotiations less attractive. Accommodation agreements, PTP for example, where you issued a permit to this company to do business, it wasn’t shoved down your throat. The other difference between PTP and treaty structure, treaties is all designed to consult you, whether you like it or not. With CSTC there’s an environmental accord, you issue permission for them to use that part of the land. Overall in BC, there are 2 or 3 treaties that were signed under the new (A38973) structure; the treaty process doesn’t have huge momentum. Our neighbors to our north, Nakazdli, were close to signing an agreement. Sherry – What are CSTC’s plans to 2016, and the government requires you to pay back the $14 million? David Luggi – Here’s what I picture, fake negotiations, keep getting extensions. Two years ago I talked to a Provincial negotiator, his instruction was to keep on talking, make them think we’re close to signing a treaty. We can use that talk with the government as a strategy. If they pull $14 million, CSTC will hold the brunt of that money, if they call those loans, then they will have trouble getting that money from us. They’re going to want you to sign a treaty; they want treaties because they want certainties. Enbridge is an example; we would just be a stakeholder in this project because you signed away your title and rights. As long as we have no treaties under the current system, uncertainty is driving the government wild. Every project is different; they all have to be treated differently. Larry Nooski – I’d like to thank Wet’suwet’en for letting us in their territory, can you summarize why you think the treaty process failed for the Tribal Council? David Luggi – There’s a real simple answer to that question, last year I did a presentation to the Lheili Tenneh. It doesn’t recognize title and rights, it keeps you as a stakeholder and we are more than stakeholders. It summarizes why a treaty wouldn’t work in our territory. It might work in other territories, but even if you do sign a treaty, is you‘ll have consultants and lawyers given to you, that will not be anyone from your territory. Larry Nooski – If we had proper records of those meetings, then each band can take their part of the debt and go to court and fight paying it back. There was no mandate given. David Luggi – Our instruction is to secure title and rights in a treaty. Their policy and framework is developed in Ottawa. No matter how tough we are at the table, the government will only give 5%. We need to either stop them or secure a benefits agreement. What most bands are doing are letting it sit, and then in the future can say that we tried. Land claims policy, that’s the hang up for everyone. First Nations that have gone for treaty, they’re closer to larger urban centers. Sherry – What is CSTC’s intention for the future, with land claims and that? David Luggi – I have more slides that will talk about that. 80% of the treaty funding is loans; 20% of the treaty funding is contribution (not repayable). The majority of the funds derive from Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (formerly INAC). Just as your community’s existing program contributions do today. Recommendation: Pass a resolution today to accept, for an interim period, the Treaty Contribution portion of funding from Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. (A38973) PTP ASEP Training Society: 2 year $18 million training package for 15 First Nations involved in the Pacific Trails Pipeline. CSTC was the lead, is developing the initiative. David Luggi is President Existing mandate and funding ends March 2012. Exit strategy is complete. Looking at other sources of funding partners to continue. Saikuz & Stella’s Litigation Against Rio Tinto Alcan: Since the construction of the Kenney Dam, water flowing to the Nechako river has been diverted and altered and has resulted in a number of issues, including; . Bank erosion; . Unnatural sedimentation in the bed of the Nechako River; . Unnatural flooding and high water flows at some times of the year; . Adverse impacts on fisheries resources of the Nechako and its tributaries; . Loss of spawning habitat; . Adverse impacts from changed temperature and flow interfering with the ability of fish populations to survive and thrive. What we learned in the Cohen Commission is their abandoning the project. Steve – I was wishing to inquire about the salmon stocks, story was a couple years back they were going to genetically modify salmon, is there anything being done about that? David Luggi – I don’t think it’s gotten off the ground in Canada, save that question for Christina in her Fisheries update. This project was glorified in the 50’s with a plaque. 2007 CSTC AGA Recommendations: Development of human resource capacities through higher education and skills training; PTP ASEP. Assert CSTC governmental powers and land rights through direct actions; domestic and international court challenges to force the federal and provincial governments away from their current positions; Enbridge, Rio Tinto. Secure and carefully select more economic accommodation agreements to fund the development and implementation of the proposed resolution strategy; PTP Benefits Package. The underpinning of these initiatives is based on Rights and Title. Sherry – If a band is in the process of separation, how would CSTC work with it? David Luggi – One of the requirements, the treaty loan would have to be addressed. The debt goes along with that band, which is one of the biggest challenges. A band can decide not to be part of the Tribal Council. It comes down to Rights and Title. There’s 30 years under the CSTC’s belt. (A38973) Jack – What can we do as a group here to improve patient travel for our people? David Luggi – Programs are more on subsidies, they’re just keeping the pulse. Patient travel has been an ongoing issue for as long as I can remember, the government doesn’t move on it, how we can resolve it, no one knows. Ron Prochot – Is there a way to negotiate with Northern Health to use their bus? David Luggi – We don’t have the mandate to talk about that here. It would be up to those political leaders to negotiate with the government. The problem with patient travel is they watch every penny you spend. 9) Vice Tribal Chief Terry Teegee Year End Report I want to thank Wet’suwet’en Nation for coming to our AGA. This is just a brief report on the initiatives I’ve been working on in the last year. CSTC Assist Russia Indigenous People: July 2011 travel to Khabarovsk Kirai, Russia to meet with indigenous people – experience with Model Forest. Partnership project between Government of Canada and Russia Federation. National Aboriginal Forestry Association asked to assist. Result – in August the Russia Federation agreed to fund a Model Forest for the Indigenous People and the Region. First Nations Carbon Collaborative: Collaborative project between the International Institute for Sustainable Development, Centre for Indigenous Environmental Resources, and several First Nations: CSTC, Poplar River First Nations, and Ticho Government. Webinar series is about learning and sharing information regarding carbon and emissions trading and how it impacts Aboriginal communities. Case study and literature review reports completed. Result – Better understanding of Carbon Markets provide for our FN communities and potential for more work to develop our own Carbon Market with partners. Missing Women Commission: September 2010, speech from the throne announces funding for a missing women inquiry. Wally Oppal appointed as commissioner. Terms of Reference developed without any FN or women’s’ groups input. CSTC encouraged partnering with other organizations (Union of BC Indian Chiefs). Granted standing with limited participation. Jack – Why are we only getting limited participation when it’s our people going missing? Terry Teegee – That was one of our questions to Wally Oppal, and got real no answer. I believe it’s because of the Terms of Reference that was developed. (A38973) During this whole period, we’ve been advocating for a separate inquiry on the Highway of Tears. None of the murders up here have been solved. . Issues with Oppal Inquiry: Limited Terms of Reference, no FN input; Potential for conflict of interest with commissioner; CSTC granted standing without funding; No ability to question RCMP or VPD; Highway of Tears added as just a report; Result – along with 20 organizations we supported a letter to Premier Clark to intervene in the inquiry, without funding we cannot participate adequately. Jack – We’re working our tails off to get legislation to get RCMP to be more accountable for their actions. Terry Teegee – There were 3 groups that were granted funding, RCMP, VPD and the families of the victims of the downtown east side. Larry Nooski – I was at the January meeting in Prince George, and heard loudly that people in our area don’t want the Pictin cases related to the Highway of Tears cases. I feel they’re going to white wash the cases here and just push it under the rug saying they talked to First Nations down in Vancouver regarding this. Terry Teegee – We did support a letter of concern with the 20 organizations in regards to the inquiry, without financing we have no resources to participate. It’s not only us; it’s 14 other organizations that can’t participate either. Jackie Thomas – I saw that girls’ name, if there’s a conflict, in Saikuz they had a separate meeting with the chair, I have concerns that they’re going to lump our girls who weren’t prostituting. I don’t know what the process is to shut it down, I don’t want it to have any integrity to talk about our communities. The way they treat our people is that we’re only worth pennies, it’s a sad situation, it’s going to be the same in the future if we don’t change it. Terry Teegee – That’s the main part of the letter, a few weeks ago before the letter went out, a legal society left the commission, they took a different approach and are going to start their own inquiry. Steve – I don’t even know why we’re dealing with that, BC Civil Liberties, when they’re involved with the people who are fighting with the polygamists in BC, and have supported them to the point where they’re going to come up with an agreement. Cohen Commission: Inquiry on the decline of the Fraser sockeye in 2009. CSTC part of the coalition with the Upper Fraser Fisheries Conservation Alliance and the First Nations Fisheries Council. Meeting with Alexandra Morton on issues with sea lice, fish farms and viruses. No conclusive evidence. Final report will be released in June 2012. (A38973) A lot of the fish farms in BC are owned by Scandinavian companies. Steve – When they say there’s no conclusive evidence that just means there is evidence that we’re not going to know about. When did they start genetically modify salmon? Terry Teegee – They’re considering it in the States, there are genetically modified vegetables in the markets in the States. It would have to pass a series of test with the FDA. They are genetically modifying animals. Jack – Regarding the salmon in the Fraser, the paper company is dumping their waste in the rivers and affecting the salmon, and our FN people are dying of stomach cancer, what can we do about it? Terry Teegee – There needs to be rigorous monitoring, it should be done by the Minister of Environment, but they are so underfunded, they have no ability. There’s one thing we can do is to do better monitoring. If it’s not a general issue such as tobacco, there’s a real grey area on how to improve it. We need to force the government to change their policies, and will have to do that in court. Steve – You go through all their hoops to get funding from the government, and then they tell you they don’t have any more money. Why do we even deal with them? Because we have to we have no choice. Terry Teegee – DFO is just managing for commercial fisheries. Wesley Sam – In regards to fish farms, apparently there are a few that can’t fish inlands. Why can’t CSTC prove that there can be an inland salmon fishery, and prove they don’t need fisheries on the Coast? Terry Teegee – Only those bands who are signed on with CSTC can be on the committee. I think there are licenses to sell fish inland. Enbridge Pipeline: Continued opposition to pipeline. Kitimat protest August 2010. CSTC organize Prince George march September 2010. Joint Review Panel begins December 2010. Hearings begin early 2012. Result – demonstrated continued opposition and decision potential for litigation in the future. In Canada, the Key Stone Pipeline has already been approved. Canadian Boreal Forest Agreement: May 2010 environmentalist groups and Canadian Forest industries sign an agreement to conserve Boreal Forest across Canada. No First Nations input. CSTC along with Treaty 8, Kaska Dene Council met with Canadian Forest Industry to demonstrate our opposition. We have never supported the agreement. Result – Meet with both groups and see if there is potential to move forward. Need our own research on the Boreal forests and how development affects species such as Caribou. Developed the Northern BC Caribou Alliance. (A38973) Steve – Why can’t we do a moratorium on the Boreal Forests? Terry Teegee – I’m alluding to that, there has been a moratorium done. Mining Exploration Policy Development: CSTC has developed a mining exploration policy template. Funded by Western Mining Action Network and Indigenous Environmental Network. Needs legal review. Actively seeking funding to continue. Land Use Planning: Jamie Sanchez and Marlene Flannery continue work on CSTC Initiatives. Terry Tobias workshop September 2011. First Nations Carbon Collaborative. Continue to work with funding from BC Capacity Initiative. Government has been cutting back on a lot of programs and initiatives. A lot of FN groups have seen a decline in funding. One potential is to get funding from big organizations such as foundations. Fred Sam – Tackou land use plan has been recognized by the government. We started an initiative in the name of my Dad who passed away, for a musical bursary. A lot of the donations will be going to CSFS. 10) KPMG’s Audit Report: Rayna Howard, Senior Financial Officer Audit comprises of statement of financial position, statement of revenue, expenditure and deficit, statement of changes in member’s deficiency, statement of cash flows, and notes to summary financial statements. Audit report summarized that the summary financial statements present fairly in all material aspects. Current assets: $395,578. Loans receivables: $12,107,535. Capital assets: $832,605. Current liabilities: $353,065. Long-term debt: $15,100,371. Members’ deficiency: ($2,117,718). Contingent liability: $13,335,718. Operating with $2 million less than last year. Current revenue: $2,036,969. Current expenditure: $2,478,881. Deficit for the year (442,211). Looking at training for 16 staff for specialized financial training. Trying to develop a network of all band finance staff, I’d like to see 3-4 finance meetings a year, and create a network that belong to CSTC, to give people someone to call if they have a problem. Reg Louis – Is there a way to get more assistance as far as band hours? Rayna Howard – I only have so many hours allocated for each band, there are bands that don’t use all their hours. I can’t offer the hours to you, but closer to year end (A38973) when someone isn’t using their hours, they have priority over another band who has used their hours. Fred Sam – If CSTC were to dissolve tomorrow, would the bands assume the debt? David Luggi – The treaty debt comes from Canada, to CSTC, then agreements goes to the bands, if the society dissolves tomorrow then the First Nations Civil Partnership will assume the debt. Larry Nooski – I’ve never seen the Tribal Council in this position ever. I ask you about the cash flows, when will staff make sure their cheques are cashed? This is serious, we need some action here, and I’ve proposed a lay off plan so we can save some money, so in the future there won’t be any cheque bouncing. We need a recovery plan, my resolution stands, I forwarded it to the chiefs, and had a mover and a seconder. One was a layoff of the executive to 2 days a week, and lay off of staff to 4 days a week. It’s an embarrassment. Nautley stands against any treaty money being proposed. We shouldn’t have to go to the government for hand outs. Building deficit: $165,000. Rental income: $155,477.56 Annual cost of operating building: $143,464.00 Need new HVAC & Roof Replacement Costs: $180,000.00 2012 Executive Elections: $25-40,000 Enbridge litigation costs: unknown Legal fees & research (2006-2011): $926,185.20 Larry Nooski – I don’t think this has any relevance to what we have here, it doesn’t have anything to do with the deficit. Rayna Howard – Everything accumulates, there’s $900,000 that was not refunded by programs, if we didn’t have to pay that $900,000 we would be in a much different financial state today. Admin fee revenue: 2008-2009: $266,065.04 2009-2010: $290,915.10 2010-2011: $101,815.09 Projected 2011-2012: $100,000 2006-2010 Additional Funding Received: PNG Mountain Pine Beetle BC Capacity Funding for PTP Canada – SWOP & MRED Options for Deficit Reduction: Option 1: Reduce all staff to 4 day work week at 8 hours a day, BCTC $220,000 contribution. Caution: any savings from cutting wages must be shown as own source revenue or INAC may recover funds. Option 2: Reduce Tribal Chief, Vice-Tribal Chief and Executive Assistant to 2 day work weeks at 8 hour days and the remainder of staff to a 4 day work week at 8 hours per day. (A38973) Steve – If you go one way or another and say have $150,000 in savings, can’t that be put towards the deficit? Rayna Howard – INAC gives a specific budget, if we don’t spend it all we have to give it back. We do have the ability to show own source revenue, but have to be careful in what we’re cutting, we can’t cut in an INAC program where they can potentially cut funds. Larry Nooski – What happens if the Tribal Council dissolves tomorrow? Who will have to deal with the $400,000 deficit? David Luggi – Worst case scenario, each band would not be liable to pay for the deficit. That’s why you set up a society so you wouldn’t have to deal with any debt. The First Nations Limited Partnership will cover the deficit. Savings by Option: . Option 1: Year 1 - $7,116 wages, $220,000 BCTC, total $227,116. Year 2 - $9,930 wages, $220,000 BCTC, total $229,930. Year 3 - $9,930 wages, $220,000 BCTC, total $229,930. . Option 2: Year 1 – 49,738. Year 2 – 102,056. Year 3 – 102,056. Do you know the value of the building and what the mortgage balance is? Rayna Howard – The mortgage is at over $300,000, and the building value is at $450,000 right now as the HVAC needs to be replaced. Fred Sam – The contribution funding ($220,000), shouldn’t part of that go to the bands? David Luggi – What I propose is for an interim period. Other pressures we look at are tenants leaving our building. When we bought the office building, the economy was steaming hot. Since we purchased the building the property taxes have gone up $10,000 in a couple years. Looking at BC Treaty Funding, we would only need one year of funding from them. Steve – How much tax are you paying on it right now, $25,000? Wouldn’t it make sense to move the building to a CSTC reserve, to skip out of all the taxes completely? David Luggi – We looked into that but we have no building. And have looked at building one around 15 years ago. So then there’s the price of building it. To get a mortgage we would have to go through some land transfers and designations to set aside parts of the land. Larry Nooski – This is not the source, the taxation you’re talking about, it’s all budgeted for. It’s the unauthorized spending that’s occurred that’s a source of the deficit. I can’t stand back and allow this to happen, my only option is to resign as director of the Tribal Council. If you look at your books, my name had zero attendance out of 7 meetings, I felt I was becoming a distraction, because I brought up at every meeting the unauthorized expenditures. David Luggi – I’m not sure if this is sugar coated, but this is reality. You presented a plan; we have a proposal on the options. Charlie Joseph – When you think about deficit and to recover, I feel for the small bands. If you divide the deficit amongst them, they will suffer more than the bigger bands. When I look at the BC Treaty Commission, they want (A38973) us to sign a treaty so they don’t have to deal with us anymore, we are the land holders, it’s our title and rights, and it’s our land. They segregated us to the Indian Reserve, I say we have to come together and get a plan against the government. David Luggi – I’m 100% with you. What about Bednesti? There’s a big multiplex that’s not being used there. You would help Stoney Creek a lot by moving there. David Luggi – We thought about that too, some of the same issues came about with the building we were going to buy in Vanderhoof. The cost considerations are there, and then have to renovate and move. All these costs we have to consider, it’s desirable that the office move to the reserve. How do you exit BCTC after the first year? David Luggi – Can do a referendum and a resolution on the table. Circumstances do change, the economy does change. Nautley has been given clear direction not to sign the treaty for the $220,000. Fred Sam – When talking about unauthorized spending, something to think about. Joanne Teegee – Maybe looks an option 3, look at the travelling done by the Chiefs, maybe cut that by half. Or what about job shadowing, where the youth can step in and volunteer for positions in the organization. Karen Ogen – I agree with what Larry is saying, we’re at a place where our financials are in a pretty serious situation. At the end of the day the directors are the ones that are responsible. When I got voted in last year, treaty was just not an option; I still see it being brought up today. There’s a bigger issue here, I’ve voiced my concerns at the table, but have they been followed up on? I recommended a recovery program last August, and now we’re in a worst state than we were before. Our people have spoken and said no to the treaty, we have to look at different options besides treaty to fix our problems. In the long run it’s going to be a community driven process, as directors of the society does our voice really count? We’re directors and make recommendations and should be followed up on. I feel we’re being made to go down the path of signing a treaty to sign a treaty. I see we’re crumbling in some way, one community is leaving. Do we work together to save this agency and have it flourish again? I’d like to see that. I can’t be a part of a society that won’t listen to us as directors. Even with the treaty, the people have said no, it’s a bigger issue, as a chief when I speak I hope my voice gets heard. I deal with a lot of issues in our community, and when I speak, I do it for our community. Sell the building and move the reservation. Can we look at a subcommittee, and seriously look at how we can get out of this deficit, comprised of at least 3 chiefs. David Luggi – I didn’t say we want to sign a treaty; we’re just looking at the contribution from BCTC. We can look at selling the building, but there are costs included in that as well. I am in favour of having the building on the reservation. It’s not for lack of trying. (A38973) Sophie – I want you to stop beating around the bush and start listening to the chiefs. We’re poor and living in a small committee, they elected you in to work with the chiefs, and you just do your own. When you get stuck with funding you come to the chiefs. I like to see committees on everything you do. Start going around to band meetings, I never see you once to our community. This is why I quit going to meetings; I don’t want to go to meetings when people don’t go to the meetings. Start listening to the people; you should take a good look on the reserve. When you get stuck with the money, you’re crying to the chiefs for your deficits. The elder have a lot of wisdom, and you cut them off too. They came from their land. Sherry – I’ve heard about moving CSTC to a reserve a few years ago. They said the staff doesn’t want to move the office, how true that is, I’m not sure. Leadership has changed, for me things have changed; we have to look at the present. From what the people are talking about is to recoup the costs. For bands like ours, it saddens my heart when our elders aren’t being heard. The travel, to reduce it can be another option. I do thank you for communicating this information. I want to talk about the travel for the Tribal Chief and Vice Tribal Chief. You can do meetings through technology instead of travelling. You can save a lot of money if you use technology. David Luggi – I only go to meetings mainly that are reimbursable to CSTC. I’m not a meeting junkie, so I pick and choose the important meetings to go to. 11) Technical Services Unit Year End Reports a. Audrey Osterhout, TSU Coordinator I’ve worked for CSTC for 17 years. We have 4 staff, R. Radloff have employees that have required certification that we need. Paul Gunther is our circuit rider. Ron Prochot is our house inspector. Cecelia Harvey is a temporary clerk until the end of October. Been busy doing capital projects, assisting with village maintenance etc. Spent a lot of times with bands to address capital projects. As long as we’re on top of it, we can get the money back to finish these projects. Doing sewage projects at Nautley and Lejac. Nautley has an agreement with Endako for a camp facility. Working on finalizing the Wet’suwet’en reservoir. We’re working on 120+ house inspection reports for the bands. The delay on getting the inspections submitted is Ron is developing a methodology to ensure the reports go out to the bands sooner than they have in the past. Continue to maintain a good rapport with INAC staff. b. Ron Prochot, Building Inspector (A38973) I’ve been with CSTC since 2005. We have about 120+ reports due; for the most part they are under way, just needed to engage the services of the office secretary. The details on the projects are in the Annual Report. I’m pleased to report that we’ve managed to get 3 bands off the freeze list with INAC; we are seeing new construction which we haven’t seen in years. I’d like to point out, the need for fresh air in your homes. A lot of times I go into a house, what tends to happen is I see a lot of fresh air intakes. Please do not throw socks or towels into fresh air intakes in your home. To control mold, make sure water is going away from your house, make sure you have clear eaves troughs. Virginia George – I have mold in my home for 2 years, and I approached the chief about the mold. My son’s daughter had a baby, and living in a moldy home. What are you going to do about it? I feel like going to the media. We’re living in homes that are not well built. The leaders have to rise up and do something about it. The mold in the house is serious, it’s a health hazard, and I’m living in one. I approached the chief, and have all the reports, and went to the housing coordinator and what they are going to do about it. The inspector should be concerned about it too, if he really cares he’ll do something about it. Ron Prochot – One of the problems that happen a lot with the homes on reserve, a lot of the problems that need to be fixed in homes are more than what funding is available. The last report I did, the repairs were $107,000, about 47% of a new house. The tendency of funding structure, and could be easier to build a new house. CMHC and INAC will give money to build a new house. The reports vary on my work load. If I specify in my report to replace windows, the windows will be replaced but the siding won’t be fixed, the insulation won’t be completed etc. Marlene – I’d like to know if you’re a qualified inspector. It takes another inspector one week to come in, do the inspection and I get a report. I strongly suggest you remove yourself from the position if you can’t handle the work load. It doesn’t feel good to be laughed at when you have money in your account. I never complain, I’m always independent, but if the band has money to fix our homes then do it! All your people are suffering out there. DIA never gave us enough money for our homes. I believe our communities really need help, and I don’t like the home I’m living in, if I had the money I’d buy my own home. You’re here to help us, not to put us down. I don’t like the comment you made, you said everyone here doesn’t know what they’re doing. All these reports should be done accordingly. If you can’t do them, hire someone! Ron Prochot – I will be happy to come by your home tonight. You said you had 135 inspections to do, have you conducted all of those inspections or can you prioritize the non healthy units? You see yourself (A38973) there are members who have babies and elders living in these homes. We can’t be waiting a year for an inspection report. All the members want is to go there and get the inspections done. When we have an agreement, I expect follow up. Ron Prochot – The houses I did condemn, I submitted letters earlier. When it comes to prioritizing the houses, consider 10,000 people spread out in the territory. All the houses are really bad cases, most cases have mold, lack of ventilation, back drafting, inadequate fresh air supply. In terms of prioritizing, what I look at is new buildings, so we don’t deal with this over and over again. I make sure the new units have been properly installed, preventative measures. After new homes, I next in line are the other homes out there. I had every intention of getting reports out right away. A lot of homes on the reservation have mice and rats and can’t get rid of them. I have a lot of allergies, my husband is really sick. I don’t know what can be done about that. Ron Prochot – Has anyone contacted a specialist? If any job is not written up in a contract, then the contractor has no means to do the work. What kind of inspection do we do around here with the government funded homes we’re living in? They talk about health care, 40% in health, and 60% in education. I disagree with all of this. Our people must do something here, who do we talk to? Is this the proper assembly we’re having, it makes me sick. Our water system is actually poisoning us. The chief and council are still making us drink the water. My son is 35 years old and has liver cancer, and is it because of the water we’re drinking? You need to change your attitude towards our people. Ron Prochot – I did the inspections in your community, and have many problems that I pointed out in the report and was given to housing coordinator and chief and council. As of the last time I looked at them, the new houses out there are not livable, but are being occupied. It’s easy to blame the inspector, but I did what I can do. I would like new electric meters in our houses, because there’s old wiring. Ron Prochot – It’s my opinion against the professionals out there, so I won’t make any comment on that. Elsie – When the big flood came, it was only our house and the band office safe. When the crack was fixed in our house, it’s supposed to be level, but there’s a lump in the floor now. So when the flood comes it’s going to happen again. Herbie – I think we can listen to the complaints all day, but it’s up to our own people and chief and council. If there’s a work load that’s too much for you, maybe new people should be trained, and then we don’t have to wait so long for reports. I think it should be considered, to have more inspectors. Ron Prochot – That would be very helpful to have a trained inspector in each community. (A38973) Sophie – As I said, we’re so poor living on reserve. My balcony is rotten, why can’t you come visit all the members on reserve. You get paid for what you’re doing, not for just when you’re on call to go somewhere. That’s what you’re there for. You’re worse than DIA. The trailers are not worth living in, there’s no money to patch the roof when it’s snowing or raining. No one is getting help. You have money to go to each reserve, go to them. It’s a health hazard when the house burnt down. We’re crying out to you guys, help please, we have a housing coordinator, who is trying and trying but don’t know if we’re getting anywhere. You don’t want to listen to us, you’re doing your own thing. Ever since I quit this band, I don’t get help, I don’t want to go to Tribal Council, or CSFS. See what you guys are doing for our people, wake up and look at the people that are crying to you guys. Do your work, not for us to tell you to come look at the house. Not one of our houses is right. That’s all I wanted to tell you, but thank you for listening. Ron Prochot – Because of our budget, we are on limited income, and we can only do inspections if we are invited or have an ongoing project. Sherry – I agree with the comment on training inspectors, I recommend they be First Nations. Ron Prochot – I agree, having someone local doing inspections is desirable. David Luggi – I don’t laugh at anybody, I totally understand what everyone is going through, it’s how I grew up. It’s not like I don’t understand it. Looking at the projects we’ve done in the years, our goal was to build 15 houses, unfortunately costs doubled in that time. There are costs that are beyond chief and council. Looking at the world economy affects our ability to build homes on reserve. Karen Ogen – I propose we deal with the resolutions while we have quorum. You’ve heard some of our problems, and it’s because lack of resources. Steve – The problem with that, is if you do a meeting in one day, nothing’s going to be done, you have to run a 3 or 4 day meeting. There’s still not enough time to deal with anything we’re talking about. Fred Sam – The resolutions maybe should be tabled, because not much representation is here from other communities, I don’t know if my community will be affected by these resolutions. David Luggi – Most resolutions need money to put any resolutions forward. 12) Christina Ciesielski, Fisheries Program Manager Year End Report 13) PTP ASEP Update – Diane Collins Omit. 14) Keyoh Huwunline – Jim Munroe (A38973) 15) Resolutions Resolution #1: Keyoh Huwunline – Protect our Rights and Title of Traditional Stewards of the land including Keyoh. . Moved: Sally Sam . Seconded: Charlie Sam . In favour: 49 . Not in favour: 0 . Abstentions: 2 Resolution #2: Risk Management to Implement Drug Free Screening for the Carrier Sekani Tribal Council Member Bands . The CSTC supports the efforts of a drug free workplace to their member nations. . Moved: Joanne Teegee . Seconded: Virginia George . In favour: . Not in favour: Resolution #3: Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement . Moved: Joanne Teegee . Seconded: Virginia George . In favour: . Not in favour: Resolution #4: 16) Closing Remarks 17) Closing Prayer by Wet’suwet’en First Nation Elder George George Sr. 18) Meeting Adjourned