U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Rhythms of the Refuge A Guide for Educators

Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge

1 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Rhythms of the Refuge A Guide for Educators Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge Table of Contents

Dedication ...... 4 3. Objectives...... 24 Welcome Educators...... 5 4. Methodology...... 25 Acknowledgments...... 6 E. Standards/Activities/Lessons Chapter I: Introduction to 1. Standards...... 25 Established Conservation Systems...... 7 2. Lessons/Activities...... 25 A. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service...... 7 a. Fire Adaptations...... 25 1. Mission...... 7 b. Fire and the Carbon Cycle...... 26 2. Programs and Activities...... 7 c. Using Art to Show Understanding...... 31 B. National Wildlife Refuge System...... 7 Chapter III: Water is Our Treasure for the Balance of Life...... 32 1. Map...... 8 A. Water and the Refuge...... 32 2. Presence in Florida and Map of Refuges...... 9 1. Quality...... 32 3. History...... 10 2. The Water Quality Problem...... 33 4. Mission...... 10 3. The Solution...... 33 5. Waterfowl Production Areas...... 11 4. What Can You Do to Help...... 34 6. Wildlife Management...... 11 5. What the Future Holds...... 34 7. Recreation...... 11 B. Standards/Activities/ Lessons 8. The Blue Goose...... 11 1. Standards...... 34 9. Rachel Carson...... 11 2. Lessons/Activities...... 34 10. Timeline...... 12 a. Water Quality Testing...... 34 C. Standards/Activities/Lessons b. Plants vs. Pollutants “Run-off” Race...... 35 1. Standards...... 13 Chapter IV: Everglades Ecosystem...... 36 2. Activities/Lessons – Timeline...... 13 A. Cypress Swamp...... 36 3. Activities/Lessons – USFWS Emblem Design...... 14 1. What is a Swamp...... 36 4. Activities/Lessons – Conservation Jeopardy...... 14 2. Why is it called a Cypress Swamp...... 36 Chapter II: Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee NWR...... 15 3. History and Conservation...... 37 A. Everglades History...... 15 4. Plants of the Cypress Swamp...... 37 B. Historical Dates Affecting the Refuge...... 16 5. Wildlife of the Cypress Swamp...... 40 1. Culture and Archeology...... 17 B. Sawgrass Communities...... 43 a. Native Americans...... 17 1. What is Sawgrass?...... 43 b. Homesteading and Pioneers...... 19 2. How does the Sawgrass Community Develop?...... 44 2. Influences...... 20 3. Plants of the Sawgrass Communities...... 44 a. Location...... 20 4. Wildlife of the Sawgrass Communities...... 45 b. Geology...... 20 C. Tree Islands...... 46 c. Climate and Weather...... 20 1. What comprises a Tree Island?...... 46 C. Management...... 21 2. Why are Tree Islands Significant?...... 47 1. Environmental and Wildlife Management...... 21 3. How did Tree Islands Begin?...... 47 2. Human Management...... 21 4. Plants of Tree Islands...... 47 3. Fire...... 21 5. Wildlife of Tree Islands...... 49 4. Map of Refuge...... 23 D. Wet Prairies...... 52 D. Environmental Education...... 24 1. What is a Wet Prairie?...... 52 1. Theme...... 24 2. Two Types of Wet Prairie...... 53 2. Topics...... 24 3. What are the Holes In Wet Prairies?...... 53 2 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

4. Plants of Wet Prairies...... 53 3. Ease of Dispersal Due to 5. Wildlife of Wet Prairies...... 54 Continuous Disturbance of Habitats...... 71 E. Sloughs...... 57 a. Solutions and Management...... 71 1. What is a Slough?...... 57 b. Monitoring...... 72 2. What Does a Slough Look Like?...... 57 c. Mapping...... 72 3. Plants of the Slough...... 58 d. Treatment...... 72 4. Wildlife of the Slough...... 59 e. What Can You Do to Help with Exotics?...... 72 F. Standards/Activities/Lessons...... 61 D. Impacts of Exotic Wildlife...... 73 1. Wetland Metaphors...... 61 1. Injuries Due to Exotic Wildlife...... 73 2. Animal Olympics...... 61 2. Direct Impacts on the Arthur R. Marshall 3. Patterns in Nature...... 62 Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge...... 74 E. Activities/Lessons...... 74 Chapter V: Endangered Species...... 63 1. Plants on Trial...... 74 A. What Does it Mean to Be Endangered?...... 63 2. Oh Deer!...... 75 1. Federal Endangered and Threatened Species...... 63 2. Florida Numerical Summary of Species...... 63 Chapter VII: Human Connection...... 76 3. Endangered and Threatened Species A. Symbiosis Defined...... 76 Specific to ARM Loxahatchee NWR...... 63 1. Health Defined as Relationship between Humans B. Factors of Species Endangerment...... 65 and Environments...... 76 1. Humans...... 65 a. How Do We Maintain Health?...... 76 a. Causes...... 65 b. Environmental Degradation Costs b. Solutions...... 65 to Our Health...... 76 C. What You Can Do to be Part of the Solution...... 65 c. Land Development Affects Health...... 76 D. Wildlife Laws and What They Mean...... 65 d. Pollution Affects Health...... 77 E. Activities/Lessons...... 66 e. Ecological Psychology – 1. I will Survive...... 66 Nature Deficit Disorder...... 78 2. And Then There were None...... 66 B. What Can You Do to Make a Positive Impact?...... 78 3. Bringing Art into the Classroom...... 66 1. Xeriscaping...... 78 2. Permaculture...... 78 Chapter VI: Exotics Invading South Florida and 3. Policies and CERP...... 80 Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge...... 67 C. Activities/Lessons...... 80 A. Flora and Fauna...... 67 1. Clean-up...... 80 1. Category I & II Flora...... 67 2. Native garden...... 80 2. Characteristics of Exotic Plants...... 67 3. Letter writing campaign...... 80 3. Fauna...... 68 4. Attend town meeting...... 80 B. How Exotics are Introduced into Non-Native Habitats.... 68 1. Intentional...... 68 Appendices: 2. Unintentional...... 69 I. Glossary of Terms...... 81 3. Escapees...... 70 II. Maps ...... 94 4. Natural Range of Expansion...... 70 III. Resources...... 98 C. Why Do Exotics Flourish in Florida?...... 70 IV. Works Cited...... 99 1. Subtropical Climate and Environment...... 70 V. Peg’s Reading List...... 100 2. Steady Supply of Animals...... 70 VI. Standards and Lessons/Activities ...... 102 3 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Rhythms of the Refuge A Guide for Educators Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge Dedication To the Tomorrow of our Boys and Girls

“There is no other Everglades in the world. They are, always have been, one of the unique regions of the earth, remote, never wholly known. Nothing anywhere else is like them: Their vast glittering openness, wider than the enormous visible round of the horizon, the racing free saltness and sweetness of their massive winds under the dazzling blue heights of space.”

“The Everglades: River of Grass” By: Marjory Stoneman Douglas 1947

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Welcome Educators

Thank you for choosing The Rhythms of the Refuge: A Guide As a result of using Rhythms of the Refuge: for Educators is designed to assist A Guide for Educators, students will be to use the environmental your students’ learning, discovery, and able to: enjoyment of the environment in the n Describe the unique contribution to education services provided hopes that they will become informed conservation both historically and by the Arthur R. Marshall citizens and responsible land stewards presently of Arthur R. Marshall who protect habitats and wildlife. Refuge Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge Loxahatchee National staff also welcomes formal partnerships in the local area, surrounding region, with schools and school districts and will and National Wildlife Refuge System. Wildlife Refuge (Refuge), be happy to assist you in these efforts. managed by the U.S. Fish n Use scientific methodology in order to This guide contains information about explore the environment: ask questions, and Wildlife Service. We are the Refuge’s history and habitats; hypothesize, collect data, analyze data, delighted that you are taking tips for organizing field experiences form conclusions. to the Refuge; a variety of educational the opportunity to enhance activities and lesson plans for before n Describe and apply basic ecological your group’s learning and after your visit correlated to the concepts, such as energy flow, Next Generation Florida Sunshine State community, diversity, change, experiences at the Refuge! Standards; Discovery Trunk Inventories interrelationships, cycles, and that educators can check out to use off- adaptation. site from the Refuge; service learning opportunities; glossary of terms, and n Describe the components and functions appendices with additional resource of a given habitat by observing, information – of which, all are adaptable counting, and describing the animals to every grade level and discipline. and plants in that habitat. The bold aqua words are all defined in the glossary to enhance your student’s n Explain the role of the National knowledge. Wildlife Refuge System in wildlife and habitat conservation. If this guide fulfills its purposes, your field experience will result in big n Make a land use and/or land grins, wind-blown hair, dirty hands, management decision in a role play happy memories, and a new and better situation and examine the consequences understanding of the Refuge, its wildlife, of that decision. and habitats. n Show how individuals can affect the We greatly look forward to seeing you at earth through their behaviors and the Refuge soon! Call 561/732 3684 and attitudes. ask for the Education Department.

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Acknowledgements

Special thanks to the following individuals n The Friends of the Arthur R. Marshall n The graphic art on the cover was who contributed their time and expertise Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge designed in 2010 “The Year of the toward improving environmental for their support of this project. Everglades” by 12th grade South Tech education at the Refuge. Academy student, Kenneth Henry. He n Members of the Loxahatchee submitted his art to the Palm Beach n The Refuge staff who contributed Education Council for their suggestions County Cultural Council – Everglades to the various drafts and reviews of and review of Rhythms of the Refuge: A Art Contest. chapters of Rhythms of the Refuge: A Guide for Educators. Guide for Educators, Mr. Henry’s art was chosen to be n Educators and administrators who one of the 30 pieces chosen from all Faye Pelosi (Palm Beach County contributed to the evaluation of the grade levels in Palm Beach County to Educator), environmental education manual and represent the best at the 25th Annual program. Everglades Coalition - the 30 student Cindy Bhebe (Santaluces High School) winners/representatives/ambassadors and n Educators who field tested or were shown around the county and supported field tests ofRhythms of the the Refuge was the first display stop. Wendy Casperson (Seminole Trails Refuge activities. Thank you again, Ken Henry for Elementary School) allowing your art to set the stage for n Jacob Tuttle, Assistant Refuge Refuge field trips of the future! for their extensive work on this guide Manager, and Rolf Olson, Project and “pulling it all together” correlating Leader of the Arthur R. Marshall n Compiled by Interpretive Specialist Rhythms of the Refuge: A Guide Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge Serena Rinker, Arthur R. Marshall for Educators to the Florida Next and Eric Gehring of Middlesex County, Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Generation Standards and making the NJ Parks and Recreation for their U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. manual a cohesive guidebook. review of the final draft ofRhythms of the Refuge: A Guide for Educators.

n Credit for the photographs and images are courtesy of

George Forrest,

Charles Slavens,

Lance Warley,

Wendy Casperson,

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Image Library.

Other charts, maps, and photographs are credited as noted, and the writers of this manual sincerely thank them.

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Chapter I Introduction to Established Conservation Systems

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service n To accomplish this mission, the 5. International Work In the United States, Federal agencies Service has a number of programs and The Service is also involved in play an important role in conservation. activities. Some of these programs and working on international treaties There are a number of Federal activities are: and agreements to promote long- government agencies involved in term conservation of natural protecting the environment including the 1. National Wildlife Refuge System resources. The treaties provide U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). The Service manages more than 565 sound biological advice as to how to Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuges and more implement these laws and treaties by National Wildlife Refuge (Refuge) is than 3,000 waterfowl production providing international leadership on part of this agency. Other agencies and areas across the United States and conservation issues. private groups also work to conserve its territories. As the land-base of the fish, wildlife, plants, and habitats, but Service, the Refuge System includes 6. Law Enforcement the (Service) is the only Federal agency over 150 million acres of lands and In its law enforcement role, Service whose primary responsibility relates to waters, and provides prime habitat staff investigate violations of national fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats. for fish, wildlife, and plants across the laws and international treaties country. related to wildlife, regulating n The mission of the U.S. Fish and wildlife trade, and help Americans Wildlife Service (Service) is: 2. Migratory Bird Conservation understand and obey wildlife Migratory birds cross state lines and protection laws. Working with others to conserve, international borders regularly, the only effective way to conserve these protect and enhance fish, wildlife, populations is through cooperation and plants and their habitats for the at a large scale. For this reason, the Service is the lead Federal agency continuing benefit of the American for managing migratory birds in the United States. people. 3. Fish Conservation and Restoration The Service helps restore fish populations that have been depleted due to over-fishing, pollution, or other habitat damage. A network of national fish hatcheries, fish technology centers, fish health centers, and fish and wildlife management assistance offices aid in fishery conservation.

4. Endangered Species Recovery The Service works to conserve and restore endangered and threatened species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. After identifying a particular species as threatened or endangered, Service staff develop recovery plans for those species, and sets up processes as dictated by the Endangered Species Act (1973).

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The National Wildlife Refuge System The National Wildlife Refuge System is truly unique because it is the world’s largest and most diverse collection of lands set aside specifically for wildlife. Today, there are more than 563 National Wildlife Refuges (NWR), covering over 150 million acres. There is a least one refuge in every state, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, the Johnson Atoll, the Midway Atoll, and several other Pacific islands (www.fws. gov).

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The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Wildlife Refuge System in Florida The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service areas in Florida include: the National Wildlife Refuge System, Fish Hatchery in Welaka; Law Enforcement Offices in Miami, Ft. Myers, Vero Beach, Groveland, Tampa, Jacksonville, Tallahassee; Ecological Services Offices in Vero Beach, Panama City, Jacksonville; a Realty Office in Jacksonville, and at Ding Darling NWR; a Fish Resource Coordination Office in Panama City; and Partner Program offices in Jacksonville, Naples, and Panama City.

Key ES - Ecological Services Office

LE - Law Enforcement Office

RE - Realty Office

- Fish Resource Coordination Office

- Fish Hatchery

- National Wildlife Refuge

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History

Several people Refuge administration and management contributions. Under his direction the were influential in and defended the integrity of Refuges Refuge System increased in size from 1.5 the development and the wildlife that inhabited them. million acres in the mid 1930’s to almost of the Refuge 29 million acres upon his retirement in System, which J.N. “Ding” Darling was a political 1961. began in 1903, cartoonist who created the Blue Goose when President symbol which is now the logo for the Thomas H Theodore National Wildlife Refuge System. Darling Beck (left), Roosevelt (left) was also the creator of the Federal Duck editor of established the Stamp which can be purchased by anyone Collier’s four-acre Pelican but especially hunters over the age of 16 Magazine, was Island in Florida and the money raised is used to purchase appointed the as a Federal Bird wetlands for the protection of wildlife chairman of Reservation. Pelican Island was the habitat. Since 1934 over $670 million has the Wildlife first Federal land set aside specifically to been raised and 5.2million acres have Restoration protect wildlife. In 1912, the National Elk been purchased for wildlife. committee Refuge was established in Wyoming; it by Roosevelt was the first unit to be called a “refuge.” Aldo Leopold along with From its modest beginnings in Florida, (left) was “Ding” Darling the National Wildlife Refuge System has appointed and Aldo Leopold. The purpose of this continued to grow. as the first committee was to acquire lands for Professor waterfowl, upland game, mammals, and While the Refuge System officially began of Game song, insectivorous, and ornamental in 1903, the foundations for protecting Management at birds. They prepared a report wildlife and land resources began long the University recommending that $50 million be before this date. In the mid-1800s, of Wisconsin- earmarked for the acquisition of such certain groups became more aware Madison lands and for habitat restoration. The of the importance of fish, wildlife, and (this was the committee also was under the direction of land resources. Scientists began to see first such the Secretaries of Agriculture, Interior, evidence of depleted natural resources, appointment). Leopold, by the late 1930’s and Commerce. as did hunters and anglers. These groups was the nation’s foremost expert on began to lobby Congress for protection of wildlife management and advocated for Mission the Nation’s resources. Interest increased the scientific use of wildlife habitats by The mission of the National in saving our Nation’s wild lands. both public and private areas. Leopold’s philosophy was that wildlife management Wildlife Refuge System is: to The so- was a technique for restoring and administer a national network called “Duck maintaining the environmental diversity of lands and waters for the Committee” of an area rather than creating an formed by abundance for hunters. conservation, management, and President where appropriate, restoration Franklin John Clark Salyer of the fish, wildlife, and plant Roosevelt II (left) was recruited in 1934 had by J.N.”Ding” resources of the United States for great impact Darling to oversee the benefit of present and future in redirecting the management of Refuge resources toward the protection the National Wildlife generations of Americans. of migratory birds. One of the committee Refuges. Salyer was members, J.N. “Ding” Darling (above) given a car to drive According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife went on to became Chief of the Biological since he was afraid Service website (www.fws.gov) most Survey which oversaw Refuges that same to fly and in the first six weeks of being Refuges were established for the year. In 1935, J. Clark Salyer II was on the job he had driven over 16,000 protection of migratory birds, especially sent around the United States to select miles and had drawn up plans for over waterfowl and are aligned along the four new refuge areas. Salyer is considered 600,000 acres of new refuge lands. He was major migratory bird flyways including by most to be “the father of the Refuge given the title “Father of the National the Pacific, Rocky Mountain, Mississippi, System.” For 31 years, he oversaw Wildlife Refuge System” for all of his and Atlantic. A smaller number of 10 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Refuges were established for special Wildlife Management Refuges. You reasons, such as protecting a particular National Wildlife Refuges are managed species including the National Elk Refuge by staff using a variety of management may meet it in Wyoming and Florida Panther National tools. These tools vary according to by the side of a Wildlife Refuge in Florida. However, the management goals, but can include road crossing the purpose of these refuges usually prescribed burning, mowing, water broadens to include the conservation of management, exotic plant and animal miles of flat the many other wildlife and plant species control, hunting, grazing, and agriculture. prairie in the found in the refuge habitats. These tools help to restore, maintain, and enhance fish, wildlife, and plant Middle West, Waterfowl Production Areas resources. or in the hot Waterfowl Production Areas (WPAs) provide critical habitat for waterfowl Recreation deserts of the Southwest. You may as well as other wildlife. WPAs became a Most Refuges are open to the public for meet it by some mountain lake, or part of the Refuge System in 1966. There wildlife-dependent recreation, as long are over 3,000 WPAs in the United States, as the recreation is compatible with the as you push your boat through the covering 668,000 acres. Most WPAs wildlife conservation mission and purpose winding salty creeks of a coastal (almost 95 percent of them) are located in of the Refuge. Activities can include marsh. Whenever you meet this North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, Wisconsin, and Montana. Many WPAs wildlife photography, environmental sign, respect it. It means that the are in prairie wetlands called prairie education, and interpretation. Also, many land behind the sign has been potholes (prairie potholes region is Refuges now have handicapped accessible an area of the northern Great Plains facilities. The availability of these dedicated by the American people with mid and tall-grass prairies that recreational activities allows visitors to to preserving, for themselves contain thousands of shallow wetlands enjoy and appreciate National Wildlife known as potholes). These wetlands are Refuges and understand their importance and their children, as much of often temporary and may not be wet to conservation. our native wildlife as can be throughout the year, but they provide critical habitat for wildlife on the prairie Blue Goose Symbol retained along with our modern landscape. of National Wildlife civilization.Wild creatures, like Refuges men, must have a place to live. As The passage of The blue goose is the Migratory the symbol of the civilization creates cities, builds Bird Hunting National Wildlife highways, and drains marshes, it and Conservation Refuge System. If Stamp Act (“Duck you see the blue takes away, little by little, the land Stamp” Act) goose, then you’re that is suitable for their space in 1934 helped near a vital refuge. provide the money needed to buy land for living dwindles, the wildlife for Refuges; ninety-eight cents of every Rachel Carson was a scientist and chief populations themselves decline. dollar are used to purchase wetlands. editor for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife One third of America’s threatened Service from 1939-1952. She wrote the Refuges resist this trend by saving species make refuges their home. Under following essay in 1948 as an introduction some areas from encroachment, this act, duck hunters are required to to the series, “Conservation in Action,” a and by preserving in them, or buy the Federal Duck Stamp, thereby collection of narratives about refuges and supporting the Refuge System through the Refuge System: restoring where necessary, the the acquisition of land. The act also opened up parts of the Refuge System for conditions that wild things need hunting. In the same year, the passage If you travel much in the wilder in order to live. of the Fish and Wildlife Coordination sections of our country, sooner Act authorized federal water resources agencies to acquire land in order to or later you are likely to meet protect and enhance fish and wildlife. the sign of the flying goose – the emblem of the National Wildlife 11 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

National Wildlife Refuge System Timeline

1869 Congress designates the Pribilof Islands in Alaska as a national reservation for the protection of fur seals; authority was placed with the Department of Treasury. 1871 Congress established the US Commission on Fish and Fisheries with Spencer Fullerton Baird as the Commissioner. This commission was the first to become concerned with the natural resources conservation and was affiliated with the Smithsonian. This Committee was directed to study the decline of food fish of the seacoasts and lakes of the U.S. 1872 Yellowstone National Park was created by an Act of Congress. The Secretary of the Interior was responsible for the managing of the park and the prevention of the wanton destruction and commercial taking of wildlife and fish. 1885 George Bird Grinnell proposed an organization for the protection of birds called, The Audubon Society. 1887 Boone and Crocket Club is founded by Theodore Roosevelt, George Bird Grinnell and others to help stop the loss of the U.S.’s natural resources and protect and conserve wildlife habitat. 1899 Industrialist Edward H Harriman invited scientists on an all-expense paid trip to Alaska to study wildlife and habitat. Many of these areas became National Wildlife Refuges 80 years later. 1900 The Lacey Act became the first Federal law that protected game prohibited interstate shipment of illegally taken wildlife and the importation of species. 1903 Beginning of the National Wildlife Refuge System - President Theodore Roosevelt established Pelican Island (Florida) as the first bird sanctuary. During his term, he created 51 bird reservations and four big game preserves. 1918 The Migratory Bird Treaty Act between the U.S. and Great Britain (Canada) became the foundation for future legislation; greatly expands the System. 1934 President Franklin D. Roosevelt convened a committee to determine how to save waterfowl during the Dust Bowl era. Conservationist Aldo Leopold, cartoonist J.N. “Ding” Darling, and publisher Thomas Beck suggested a “Duck Stamp” act to raise funds for acquiring wetland habitat. Congress passed the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act (“Duck Stamp” Act). 1935- “Ding” Darling, head of the U.S. Biological Survey (the predecessor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) sent 1936 biologist J. Clark Salyer II to locate prime wetlands nationwide. The 600,000 acres that were eventually purchased became more than 50 Refuges, including Red Rock Lake (Montana) for trumpeter swans and Agassiz (Minnesota) for waterfowl. 1940 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service formed as part of Department of the Interior. 1951 Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge established on June 8th the 216th NWR. 1962 In the early 1960’s, United States citizens were becoming more interested in outdoor recreation. The Refuge Recreation Act opened up Refuges for more recreational uses, including education. The major stipulation of this act was that recreation could not interfere with the primary goals of the Refuge. 1966 The National Wildlife Refuge System Act was passed. It included measures to preserve ecosystems for endangered species, perpetuate migratory bird species, preserve natural diversity, and create public appreciation for wildlife protection. 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act adds almost 54 million acres to the Refuge System in that state. 1986 With Public Law 99-615 President Ronald Reagan renamed the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge to Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge. 1997 National Wildlife Refuge Improvement Act legally establishes the conservation of fish, wildlife, and plants as the mission of the Refuge System. As established by the act, the mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System is to administer a national network of lands and waters for the conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant resources of the United States for the benefit of present and future generations of Americans. The act also gives priority to certain wildlife-dependent recreational uses on Refuges so long as they are compatible with the purposes of the refuge and the mission of the Refuge System. These uses are hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, wildlife photography, environmental education, and interpretation. 2003 NWR System celebrates its centennial.

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Example of Timeline 1872 First National Park established Yellowstone National Park was established. 1891 First National Forest established The Yellowstone Timberland Reserve (now part of Shoshone and Teton National Forests) was established by Benjamin Harrison. 1903 First National Wildlife Refuge established Standards President Theodore Roosevelt establishes Pelican Island as the first Math National Wildlife Refuge. During his term, he created 51 bird reservations I can investigate patterns of association. and four big game preserves. English Language Arts (ELA) 1905- Refuges for big game animals were established I can determine the main idea or essential 1912 First refuges for big game animals were Wichita Mountains (OK)-1905; message through inferring, paraphrasing, National Bison Range (MT)-1908; National Elk Refuge (WY)-1912. summarizing, and identifying relevant 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty Act details. The Migratory Bird Act between the U.S. and Great Britain (for Canada) Science became the foundation for the legislation that would greatly expand the I can recognize that scientists who make refuge system. contributions to scientific knowledge come 1924 Upper Mississippi National Wildlife Refuge established from all kinds of backgrounds and possess First refuge designated for wildlife and fish; also the first to allow hunting. varied talents, interests, and goals. Izaak Walton League Founder Will Dilg was instrumental in the effort, after his son drowned in the river. History and Civics I can utilize timelines to identify the time 1929 Migratory Bird Conservation Act sequence of historical data. I can analyze The Migratory Bird Conservation Act authorized the Interior Secretary how images, symbols, objects, cartoons, to acquire areas for migratory birds with approval by the Migratory Bird graphs, charts, maps, and artwork may Commission. be used to interpret the significance of 1934 Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act time periods and events from the past. President Franklin D. Roosevelt convened a committee to determine how to save waterfowl during the Dust Bowl era. Aldo Leopold, JN “Ding” Darling Art and publisher Thomas Beck suggested a “duck stamp” to raise funds for I can identify examples in which artists acquiring funds for wetland habitat. have created works based on cultural and life experiences. 1936 J. Clark Salyer identifies prime wetlands for acquisition “Ding” Darling assigned Salyer to identify prime wetlands nationwide. The Activities/Lessons 600,000 acres he purchased became over 50 refuges, including Red Rock National Wildlife Refuge System Lakes (MT) for Trumpeter Swans and Agassiz (MN) for waterfowl. Timeline Matchup from Okefenokee 1940 Conservation in Action Booklets NWR curriculum Service scientist Rachel Carson wrote a series of Conservation in Action (for students grades 3 and up) booklets examining wildlife and habitats on refuges. Materials: Timeline from Chapter I 1939- Refuge lands open to oil and gas drilling or example timeline below. Scissors, 1945 Interior Secretary opened refuge lands to oil and gas drilling and allowed envelopes. the Department of Defense to use Refuge lands for bombing practice. Activity: This will take about 1 class 1951 Loxahatchee Wildlife Refuge established period. Prior to class, cut the timeline Under the authority of the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929, into strips and cut the date off of each Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge was established on June 8, 1951 in fact (keep an uncompromised copy as a license lease agreement with the Central and Southern Florida Flood your reference.) Put the date in one Control Project (now called the South Florida Water Management District). envelope and the fact in another. Hand 1958 Acquisition of Waterfowl Production Areas authorized each student an envelope. Students must The Duck Stamp Act was amended to authorize acquisition of small wetland match their fact with the appropriate “potholes” as Waterfowl Production Areas. The Service has acquired date. Once they have linked into these more than two million acres of wetland and grassland habitat from 28,000 groups of two, students must then landowners in eight north-central states. arrange themselves into chronological order as per the timeline. At the end of 1962 Refuge Recreation Act the activity. Each pair reads their date The Refuge Recreation Act (amended 1966) permitted “secondary and fact and students are moved to the recreational uses” on refuges where such activities do not conflict with correct places in the timeline as needed. refuges primary purposes, when there is money to administer them. If using example timeline, make sure content is taught so students have an understanding of specifics. 13 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Example of Timeline - continued Emblem Design Contest from Faye Pelosi (all grades) 1964 Land and Water Conservation Fund Act The Land and Water Conservation Act authorized funds from off-shore oil Materials: Chapter I information. leases to acquire wildlife habitat. Students may use any medium to produce 1964 National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act this creation. The National Wildlife Refuge System Refuge System Administration Act created the “compatibility” standard that secondary uses must be consistent Activity: This can be used as extra credit with the major purposes for which refuges are established. or a class assignment. Have students 1966 National Wildlife Refuge System Act create a new design to illustrate the The National Wildlife Refuge System Act included measures to preserve U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service emblem, ecosystems for endangered species, perpetuate migratory bird species, representing the agency. It should be an preserve natural diversity, and create public appreciation for wildlife. original idea much like the Blue Goose emblem was “Ding” Darling’s original 1969 Hobe Sound National Wildlife Refuge established creation. Student’s product can be Hobe Sound National Wildlife Refuge was established September 30, 1969 referenced for art contests with Arthur R through the generosity of conservation minded Jupiter Island residents to Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife protect the diminishing manatee and green sea turtle populations found in Refuge among others (see appendix the Intracoastal Waterway in Hobe Sound. resources for information on the Duck 1974 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service created Stamp Art Contest). The U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries responsibilities were reassigned to the newly created U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Conservation Jeopardy from Faye Pelosi (grades 2 through adult) 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act This act added almost 54 million acres to the Refuge System in Alaska. Materials: Individual white boards 1986 Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge name changed (which can be borrowed from the Refuge, Loxahatchee NWR name was changed to the Arthur Raymond Marshall The Marsh Trail Classroom Trunk) and Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge on November 6, 1986 by a law signed markers or plenty of blank paper and any by President Ronald Reagan. writing utensil, large white board. 1994 500th National Wildlife Refuge established Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge in West Virginia was established – Activity: This will take two class periods. it is the highest valley east of the Rocky Mountains. Class period 1: In small groups, students read the chapter and mark the text while they The teacher determines which group and also gets to choose the next category create (who, what, when, where, why, and goes first by any method. The first group and numerical points to incite the next how) questions and answers provided to go chooses a category and numerical question. Teachers can make a bonus from information within the chapter points; the teacher reads aloud the column offering lots of points and can and/or from researched materials. The question associated with that category use any information from the chapter for teacher compiles the best and most and level of rigor, all groups write (as bonus questions, definitions, etc… rigorous questions and answers from fast as they can) the answer and hold up each group and puts them into categories their board QUIETLY; whichever group that represent each sub-heading in the is first and correct then gets the points chapter.

Class period 2: Example of Jeopardy Before students arrive, the teacher U.S. Fish and National Wildlife The Blue Goose Wildlife creates a Jeopardy board on the master Wildlife Service Refuge System Management white board (see sample Jeopardy board at right), students get into groups that 5 5 5 5 are different from the ones they were in 10 10 10 10 during the previous period; each group gets a small white board and marker (or 15 15 15 15 paper and writing utensil). 20 20 20 20 14 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Chapter 2 Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge

The Refuge was originally named Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge. “In 1513, Spanish explorer Ponce de Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge Since the Refuge is the Everglades, it Leon names North America’s most because it was physiographically encompasses all ecological systems of the familiar appendage La Florida, or connected to the Loxahatchee River via Everglades: Cypress Swamp, Sawgrass “land of flowers.” He finds no streets of the Loxahatchee Slough. The connection Communities, Tree Islands, Wet gold, only the fierce and proudCalusa has since been dredged, filled, and Prairies, and Sloughs – all of which will Indians, who mortally wound him on a developed. Loxahatchee’s (the name be discussed at great length in Chapter subsequent visit. In 1545, thirteen-year- for “turtle” in the Mvskoke language is III. It has also been subject to the old Hernando d’Escalante Fonaneda, Loca. The correct spelling for “Turtle same historical influences as the entire shipwrecked en route from Spain to River” is Loca Hvtce. The Seminole and Everglades. Colombia, spends 17 years as a Calusa Mvskoke people speak the same language Indian captive. Although Fonaneda writes supposedly) name was changed in 1986. Everglades History that the Indians have “no gold, less silver, Evidence shows that the first people and less clothing,” they have nevertheless Then President Ronald Reagan renamed lived and thrived in Florida about 12,000 fashioned a high prehistoric culture along the Refuge the Arthur R. Marshall years ago when the last Ice Age ended. the edge of the Everglades building Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge They lived on the rich plant life and on oyster-shell islands and digging canals. (Refuge) to honor Arthur R. Marshall, Jr. the wide variety of animals that are still (1919-1985), an influential conservationist around today. In addition to the small In 1823, the word Everglades is coined in South Florida. Marshall was a marine mammals that we see now there were from the old English “glyde” or “glaed,” fisheries biologist for the U.S. Fish and also large mammals that are now extinct which means “opening in the forest.” Wildlife Service for 15 years, taught at like the saber tooth tiger, mastodon, giant On May 28, 1844, the first snail kite was two Florida universities, and served as a armadillo and the camel. Much of the collected in the Everglades for scientific Governing Board member for the South first people’s existence has been found purposes; it was shot near the headwaters Florida Wildlife Management District. through the discovery of their garbage of the Miami River, now present day He was instrumental in securing mounds which have been found across Miami International Airport. Florida protection for the Big Cypress National Florida and through the Everglades. became the 27th state in the Union with Preserve, Biscayne National Park, and a population of 70,000 in 1845.” (Audubon magazine, 8/2001) 15 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

“The Everglades is a freshwater marsh Historical Dates Affecting the Refuge that originally covered an area of about 1881 First drainage began in the Everglades nine million acres. Now the Everglades are an area of about 1.92 million acres. 1907 Everglades Drainage District created by Florida Legislature Lake Okeechobee, with its floor near 1917 Four canals dug: West Palm Beach, Hillsboro, New River, Miami (1750 sea level, occupies a 467,200 acre basin miles) that is almost centered between the east and west coast at the northern end of 1926 Hurricane killed an estimated 400 people around Lake Okeechobee the Everglades system. The Everglades 1928 Hurricane killed an estimated 2000 people around Lake Okeechobee was created by the sheet flow of water from the lake through a marsh that very 1929 Florida Legislature established Okeechobee Flood Control District gradually covered the limestone bottom 1930 Army Corps of Engineers and the state began enlarging levees around with a layer of peat.” (Lodge, 2004) Lake Okeechobee Beginning with the Swampland Act of 1934 Sugar Act created price supports 1845, and later the 1907 Everglades 1947-48 Hurricanes cause massive flooding (108 inches for the year total) Drainage Act, excessive drainage activities occurred in the Everglades 1949 Central and South Florida Flood Control District (C&SF) established to pave the way for agriculture and 1951 Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge established development. To meet the ever-increasing 1952-54 Eastern perimeter levee constructed 100 miles long (including L-40); water needs of agriculture and population S5A pump built expansion, three water storage areas called Water Conservation Areas 1, 1954-59 Many more levees constructed including L-7; S-6 pump built 2, and 3 were constructed by the U.S. 1960-63 Conservation areas made; L-39 enclosed refuge; Gates S-10A, C, and D Army Corps of Engineers in the 1940s. built Bounded by levees and connected by a series of canals, these areas were placed 1970s Significant shift to cattails showing along perimeter under the jurisdiction of what is now 1972 C&SF became South Florida Water Management District the South Florida Water Management District, a regional governmental agency 1978 Refuge designated as Outstanding Florida Waters of the State of Florida. 1986 With Public Law 99-615, President Ronald Reagan changed the Loxahatchee NWR name to Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National In 1951, a license agreement between Wildlife Refuge the Central and South Florida Flood Control District (now called the South 1987 SWIM Act passed by Florida Legislation Florida Water Management District) 1988 U.S. attorney filed suit in Federal court against the state of Florida for and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, polluting Arthur R Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge and under the authority of the Migratory Everglades National Park Bird Conservation Act, enabled the 1991 Federal and State governments made a Settlement Agreement establishment of the 141,324-acre Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge. 1992 Settlement Agreement signed in court as Consent Decree The Refuge is the only remnant of the 1993 Statement of Principles signed; Technical mediation group met northern Everglades in Palm Beach County, Florida. Most of the Refuge is 1994 Everglades Forever Act signed (May 3); Everglades Nutrient Removal encompassed by Water Conservation project began operation (August 18) Area 1, which is owned by the State of 1994 Construction began on STA 1E Florida and the South Florida Water Management District (District) and 1995 Modification to Consent Decree recommended by all signing parties is leased to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 1997 Construction began on STA 1W Service. 2002 License agreement renewed for another 50 years In addition to the lands leased from 2003 Loxahatchee Impoundment Landscape Assessment project inaugurated the District, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife in Management Compartment C impoundments 3 and 4 Service owns 2,550 acres to the east and west of the Refuge interior. This acreage 16 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

is sub-divided into four management compartments — A, B, C, Strazzulla Marsh, and the Cypress Swamp. In total, the Refuge currently includes 143,954 acres of northern Everglades’ habitat.

Culture and Archeology There are no known human settlements on Refuge lands. There was however, significant archaeological and cultural use on the lands surrounding the Refuge so it stands to reason that the Indians used the land as a way to cross the state and for hunting purposes.

The first settlers in what is now Palm Beach County and South Florida were Indian tribes such as the Tequesta (or Tekesta lived in present day Palm Beach, Broward and Miami-Dade Counties), Jaega/Jobe (lived between the Indian River and Southern Palm Beach County), Mayaimis (from the southwest side of Lake Okeechobee Basin), Ais (from Jupiter Inlet), and Calusa (from the Caloosahatchee River Region). The unique confluence of culture and circumstance which would become today’s Seminole Tribe of Florida can be traced back at least 12,000 years, say A map of Florida’s Lost Tribes, courtesy of Theodore Morris, www.floridalosttribes.com researchers. There is ample evidence that the Seminole people of today are cultural this Florida group thought of themselves U.S. settlement openly. U.S. officials, descendants of Native Americans who as yat’siminoli or “free people,” because angry that the Spaniards could not oust were living in the southeastern United for centuries their ancestors had resisted the English or control the Indians, were States at least that long ago. By the the attempts of the Spaniards to conquer particularly incensed by the protection time the Spaniards “discovered” Florida and convert them, as well as the attempts and shelter the Seminoles offered to (1513), this large territory held, perhaps, of the English to take their lands and African slaves. These freedom seekers 200,000 Seminole ancestors in hundreds use them as military pawns. Soon, white had been finding refuge in Spanish of tribes, all members of the Maskókî Americans would begin to call all of Florida for over a century, but the new linguistic family. the Indians in Florida by that name: U.S. government was determined to “Seminoles.” “Seminole” is a Creek stop this practice. In the late 1700s and When the Maskókî tribes in Alabama, word for a renegade or a runaway. The early 1800s, conflicts, skirmishes, and whom English speakers erroneously Creeks called them this because they ran ambushes erupted and racial hatred called “Creeks,” rose up against the white away and hid in the Everglades. Not in a flared into violence more and more settlers in the Creek War of 1813-14, the derogatory sense, just descriptive. frequently on the new frontier. brutal repression and disastrous treaty forced upon them by General Andrew But Spain could not afford enough When the military and political Jackson sent thousands of the most soldiers to patrol the long frontiers of opportunist, General Andrew Jackson, determined warriors and their families Florida. Its choice lands were openly brazenly marched across Florida’s migrating southward to take refuge in coveted by white settlers who regularly international boundaries to settle Spanish Florida. There, they joined the moved across its borders. English the “Indian problem,” he created an descendants of many other tribes whose war ships anchored off its Gulf coast international furor. Over a period of members had lived all across the Florida and English agents encouraged the several tumultuous years, he burned forests for thousands of years. The Seminoles, Creeks, and Mikisúkî to resist Indian towns, captured Africans, and Indians who constituted the nucleus of 17 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

hanged one Maskókî medicine man, so-called “five civilized tribes.” In 1838, William S. Harney, — who would later tell Francis, as well as two Englishmen whom the removal of the Muskogee Creeks and western tribes “The Great White Father he suspected of inciting the Indians. the Seminole had started 20 years earlier has sent me here to punish you!”— This series of events, which took place and lasted longer. These 20 years were learned his vicious Indian-fighting tactics between 1814 and 1818, is known as the awful, for the Muskogee Creeks who not in Florida. Winfield Scott, the only First Seminole War. only suffered through it, but also those commander of U.S. troops in Florida who fought against cultural genocide in to emerge with his reputation intact, And the conflicts did not end there; they the Creek War of 1813 – 1814, which led went on to reorganize the entire U.S. only escalated. Through the Treaty of up to the Removal. From 1825, when the military establishment on the “open field” Moultrie Creek (1823), the Treaty of first McIntosh party left through 1834, tactics that evolved from the Seminole Payne’s Landing (1832), and numerous the Creeks still literally fought against Wars. Today, students at U.S. military “talks” and meetings, U.S. Indian Agents the Removal itself. During this time they academies still study the hit-and-run sought to convince the Florida Indians had their land, homes and food stores tactics of the Seminoles. This was the to sell their cattle and pigs to the U.S. stolen from them; rape, murder, every first time in its history that U.S. soldiers government, return runaway slaves evil that the white Americans could fought a “guerrilla” war, one in which to their “rightful owners,” leave their do was done to them. It took over two the old “linear” tactics of the European ancient homelands in Florida, and move more years (through 1836) to complete military system were almost useless west of the Mississippi River to Arkansas the removal of over 20,000 Muskogee against warriors who moved in flexible Territory. In 1830, soon after Jackson (Creek) people. Just like that other event, formations, attacked and disappeared, the Indian fighter became Andrew however, the toll in human suffering was and used the very terrain as a weapon Jackson, the president of the United profound and the stain on the honor of against their enemies. The U.S. would States, he pushed through Congress a great nation, the United States, can not fight another such war until its troops an Indian Removal Act. With this Act, never be erased. The Seminole people - entered the tiny Southeast Asian nation the determination of the government men, women, and children, were hunted of Vietnam, more than a century later. to move Indians out of the Southeast with bloodhounds, rounded up like cattle, and open the land for white settlement and forced onto ships that carried them By May 10, 1842, when a frustrated became the official policy of the U.S., to New Orleans and up the Mississippi. President John Tyler ordered the end of and the willingness of the government Together with several hundred of the military actions against the Seminoles, to spend monies in support of military African ex-slaves who had fought with over $20 million had been spent, 1500 enforcement of this policy increased. them, they were then sent overland to American soldiers had died and still no Fort Gibson (Arkansas), and on to strange formal peace treaty had been signed. The clash that inevitably resulted from and inhospitable new lands where they At that time, it marked the most costly this policy finally began in 1835, and were attacked by other tribes, in a fierce military campaign in the young country’s the seven years that it lasted frame the competition for the scarce resources that history. And it wasn’t over yet. Thirteen last, the greatest, and arguably the most they all needed to survive. years later, a U.S. Army survey party - tragic years in the history of U.S.-Indian seeking the whereabouts of Abiaka and relations east of the Mississippi River. In addition to “Old Hickory,” as Jackson other Seminole groups - was attacked by Known to history as the Second Seminole had come to be known, an impressive list Seminole warriors under the command War, the U.S. government committed of U.S. military figures eventually joined of the colorful Billy Bowlegs. The nation almost $40,000,000 to the forced removal the fight to remove the Seminoles from invested its entire reserve into the of slightly more than 3,000 Maskókî men, Florida. Edmund P. Gaines, Zachary apprehension of the ambushers. women, and children from Florida to Taylor, Oliver O. Howard (“the Christian Oklahoma. This was the only Indian war General”), Richard Keith Call, and The eventual capture and deportation in U.S. history in which not only the U.S. Thomas S. Jesup, among many others, of Bowlegs ended aggressions between army but also the U.S. Navy and Marine would nearly ruin their reputations trying the Seminoles and the United States. Corps participated. Together with the to fight the Seminoles in a place that was Unlike their dealings with other Indian desultory Third Seminole War, a series of cold and wet in winter, and hot and wet tribes, however, the U.S. government skirmishes that took place between 1856 in summer; where only the Seminoles, could not force surrender from the and 1858, the United States spent much alligators, snakes, and mosquitoes knew Florida Seminoles. Historians estimate of the first half of the 19th century in how to survive; and where dysentery there may have been only a few hundred trying, unsuccessfully, to dislodge about and malaria were the primary rewards unconquered Seminole men, women and 5,000 Seminoles from Florida. for Herculean efforts. One white soldier children left - all hiding in the swamps wrote home that, “If the Devil owned and Everglades of South Florida. No The so-called “Trail of Tears” was not just both Hell and Florida, he would rent out chicanery, no offer of cattle, land, liquor a removal of the Cherokees, but all of the Florida and live in Hell!” or God, nothing could lure the last few 18 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

transfer of 20.3 million acres to the state of Florida for the purpose of drainage and reclamation. Out of the thirteen states that were part of the Swamplands Act, Florida had the most land. Much later, with the passages of the Everglades Drainage Act of 1907, excessive drainage activities occurred in the Everglades, paving the way for agriculture and development.

In 1892, Henry Flagler visited Palm Beach and decided to build a large resort hotel, the Royal Poinciana, and extend the Florida East Coast Railroad to West Palm Beach from Jacksonville. These developments made Palm Beach the nation’s premier winter resort. Flagler Photo: Wendy J. Casperson considered the mainland area a perfect satellite location to service his resort from their perches of ambush deep in the Homesteading began in the late 1800’s, and a good place for his workers to live. wilderness. The U.S. declared the war with the majority of the settlers coming This area was incorporated as West Palm ended - though no peace treaty was ever to the area to set up a family farm. Beach in 1894. signed - and gave up. According to The Florida Homestead Act of 1862 Congress provided the transfer Other towns, such as Linton and Boynton The Florida survivors comprised at least of 160 acres of unoccupied land to each Beach, were established soon after West two main factions: Maskoki speakers homesteader upon payment of a nominal Palm Beach. The town of Linton was who lived near Lake Okeechobee and fee after five years of residence. Early founded in 1894 by William S. Linton, those who spoke the linguistically-related farmers found the soil to be highly the postmaster of Saginaw, Michigan. He Hitchiti tongue (also called Miccosukee productive and earned most of their and a friend purchased 160 acres of land or Seminole) and lived to the south. In income by growing vegetables for the and sold it in five-acre tracts through ads the remote environs of such uncharted northern winter market. in Michigan newspapers. In 1901, they Florida wilderness, the Seminoles renamed the town Delray Beach, after a remained, living in small traditional “During the 1870’s many northern Detroit suburb. camps of cypress frame/palmetto-thatch sportsmen, hunting in the Kissimmee chickees, isolated from Florida society River and Lake Okeechobee country, met Boynton Beach was founded in 1895 and the rest of the world until well into the Seminoles and found them courteous when Civil War officerMajor Nathan the 20th century . . . long after most but wary and non-cooperative. About S. Boynton built a 50-room resort hotel tribes had experienced assimilation, this time they also appeared regularly at on the beach. One year later the railroad religious conversion and cultural villages such as Miami, Fort Myers, Fort came through on its way to Miami which annihilation. Lauderdale, and Everglades to trade increased the population in the area. hides and plumes for guns, powder, dry (www.pbcgov.com) The descendants of these last few goods, and grocery staples.” (FWC, 1974) Indian resistors are the members of South Florida’s three Water Conservation today’s Seminole Tribe of Florida, the The late 1800’s also marked the beginning Areas (WCAs) are vast tracts of remnant Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida of the tourism industry. Transportation Everglades sawgrass marsh located and the unaffiliated Independent or improvements, particularly to the adjacent to Everglades National Park. Traditional Seminoles. (Seminole Tribe at railroad system by Henry Flagler Spanning 846,387 acres, the WCAs semtribe.com) provided easier access to the area. Hotels serve multiple water resource and to serve tourists were constructed, along environmental purposes, including The next settlers arrived in 1860 when with the first winter homes for seasonal flood control, water supply and habitat the Jupiter Lighthouse was built to aid residents. for South Florida’s plant and animal sailors navigating the Atlantic Ocean. communities. Construction of the (www.pbcgov.com) In 1850, Congress passes the three Water Conservation Areas was Swamplands Act, which authorized the authorized by the U.S. Congress in 1948 19 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

as part of legislation creating the massive Africa’s west bulge. A map of ancient recent age), layered over the ancient public works system that provides flood North America would have lacked a basement of African origin. To the east, control and water supply for South prominent modern feature: Florida. The the plateau drops off abruptly into the Florida. A series of levees, along with land features that would have become Atlantic. Southward, it slopes gently to a associated water control structures, Florida, was then the bulge of the African “rim” occupied by the Florida Keys and separate the wetlands in the WCAs from Coast of Gondwanaland. (Lodge, pg 21). then also drops off quickly into the deep agricultural and urban areas of South trough known as the Straits of Florida, Florida. Managing water levels in this In the millions of years that followed, which is located between Cuba and vast area — 58 times larger than the North America slowly approached Florida and carries the Florida Current island of Manhattan — is a responsibility Gondwanaland, narrowing the Iapetus (otherwise known at the Gulf Stream, or of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Ocean (the ocean that was between the simply “the Stream.”) To the west, the continents) until the land masses collided plateau slopes gradually far out into the Influences about 300 million years ago. The collision Gulf of Mexico before receding into deep Location created the Appalachian Mountains as water. South of Lake Okeechobee, this The Refuge is located in Palm Beach it fused North America’s east coast with plateau is so flat that only the direction County, Florida. Located on the Africa’s west bulge, just north of South of water flow can indicate which way is southeast coast, Palm Beach County America’s position, and locked Florida’s downhill. is the largest of Florida’s sixty-seven terrain deep in the interior of the giant counties. The county’s 2,268 square miles continent that was formed. Geologists Climate and Weather include 245 square miles of surface water, called that supercontinent Pangaea. Located in the subtropical region of making it the largest county east of the (Lodge, pg 21). south Florida, the Refuge’s climate is Mississippi River. The Refuge lies west of hot and humid most of the year and the U.S. Highway 441/State Road 7 and south After a long period of quiet, Pangaea winters are mild. In general, there are of U.S. Highway 80/Southern Blvd, 15 began to tremble with volcanic activity two seasons — wet and dry. The wet miles west of the Atlantic Ocean. that centered near Florida. Volcanic season occurs from late May to late eruptions added massive igneous October. The Refuge receives some of The area east of the Refuge is a mosaic rock, transforming Florida’s earlier the highest amounts of rainfall in South of winter vegetable farms known as the sedimentary terrain. The upheaval Florida (Gleason et al., 1975). While East Coast Buffer Area and housing continued, and about 180 million years annual rainfall ranges from 40 to 83 developments; further to the east are the ago (Jurassic period) it began forcing inches, about 60 inches is typical. More Palm Beaches and an unbroken chain North America to rift from Pangaea, than one-half of the rainfall for the year of communities extending southward giving violent birth to the North Atlantic occurs between June and September in to Miami. The Everglades Agricultural Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf the form of thunderstorms. Hurricane Area (EAA), which includes large sugar of Mexico. In the new configuration, Irene’s (1999) and Hurricane Wilma’s cane plantations, winter vegetable, however, the shallow marine terrain (2005) path have come directly over the sod farms, and cattle ranches, is to the of Florida, the Bahamas, and parts of Refuge, however, numerous hurricanes west and northwest of the Refuge. To southern Georgia and Alabama was and tropical storms have skirted it. Large the south and southwest of the Refuge welded to the North American continent. rainfall events occur primarily during the lie Water Conservation Areas 2 and (Lodge, pg 22). months of August to November. 3, and Everglades National Park. The Florida Everglades represent the largest The shallow marine environment of the During the dry season, November to contiguous freshwater marsh in the entire youthful Florida platform produced May, rain falls during the cold fronts world. (Riley) (See page 23 in this chapter sediments rapidly. The sediments later which average about seven per month for a map of the Refuge.) formed thick sequences of different types from December through March, but of limestone rocks and related carbonate the amount is significantly less than Geology rocks. It is about 135 million years old during the wet season. Winds prevail “It could be called an accident of (lower Cretaceous time) and now lies out of the southeast and the average geography that the Florida peninsula 11,000 feet beneath the Big Cypress relative humidity is 75 percent. While extends from North America’s temperate Swamp and western Everglades. air temperatures at the Refuge have climate to the edge of the Caribbean ranged from 20°F to 101°F, the mean tropics. The predecessors of the As a result of its long submerged history, summer temperature and mean modern continents of Africa and South the Florida peninsula is now a broad winter temperature are 56°F and 89°F, America were connected as parts of the platform (Floridan Plateau) built of respectively. The combination of humidity supercontinent called Gondwanaland stable sedimentary rocks (primarily and temperature causes heat indices to by geologists, joined below what is now limestones ranging from ancient to very range from 105°- 110°F in the summer. 20 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Since the eastern edge of the Refuge is feeding, roosting and nesting habitats and insects to keep them in check, rapidly located within 12 miles of the Atlantic for many birds, mammals, reptiles expand, forming dense forests or thickets Ocean, temperatures are moderated. The and amphibians. There are at least which are undesirable to humans and temperatures also are moderated by the 63 imperiled species (per CCP) known wildlife. surface water of the Everglades. (Lox to occur or could occur on the Refuge. CCP, pg 19). These species are listed as Federal or Adjacent proposed development is State threatened and endangered species, a potential threat to the ecological The following Historical Climate Data species of special concern, species of communities of the Refuge. Examples 1971-2006 for the City of West Palm Beach management concern, or listed by the of adjacent development that have weather station is provided by the Convention of International Trade in been proposed including mining in the Southeast Regional Climate Center: Endangered Species (CITIES) and will Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), be discussed in Chapter V. The Service power plants, wind farm, a landfill, a Annual Normal 83.2 has primary responsibility for federally golf course, an amphitheater, and a Maximum Temperature Fahrenheit listed species. However, in many cases housing development. The potential Annual Normal 67.4 many of the animals and plants occupy negative impacts to the Refuge differ Minimum Temperature Fahrenheit the same or similar habitat. In managing depending on the nature of the proposed federally listed species, state and other development. Hottest Year 1942: 106 listed species benefit as well. Fahrenheit Human Management Coldest Year 1942: 5 Environmental and Approximately 300,000 people visit the Fahrenheit Wildlife Management Refuge annually. Priority recreational Coldest Month January A variety of management programs opportunities include hunting, fishing, enhance wildlife habitats at the Refuge. wildlife observation, nature photography, Hottest Month July There are four major concerns that interpretation, and environmental Annual Normal 61.39 inches Refuge staff has in with respect to habitat education. Visitors enjoy a number of Precipitation - degraded hydropattern, poor water facilities including the visitor center, quality, exotic plants, exotic animals, Marsh Trail, Cypress Swamp Boardwalk, Highest Precipitation September: urban development in adjacent areas - fishing pier, canoe/kayak trail, bike trail, Month 8.35 inches any one of which could compromise the viewing areas, platforms, kiosks, and Average Yearly 62.33 inches future of the Refuge. more. Precipitation Hydropattern refers to the depth of Visitors often ask why most of the Refuge Wettest month September the water, the distribution of the water, is “closed.” Roughly, 30,000 acres is Driest month February the seasonal timing of water, and the open to public access. It is important to Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National flow of water. Good water quality is understand that wild animals need wild Wildlife Refuge has maintained its own critical to achieving Refuge objectives places to live that are undisturbed by weather station since 1990 and sends its and those of the Everglade’s ecosystem humans, and the Refuge provides such daily data to the National Weather Service in restoration. To achieve effective water a sanctuary. As a result, an abundance Miami. management, the Refuge relies upon and diversity of wildlife is found here, developing progressive partnerships with in particular species which are sensitive Management the National Park Service, Army Corps of to human disturbance, including nesting The Refuge plays an important role in Engineers, and the South Florida Water Everglades snail kites and nesting bald conservation on multiple geographic Management District. eagles. If the Refuge were completely levels. At 143,954 acres in size, the open to recreation, there would be Refuge is an important part of the overall Another management effort is controlling damage to the many species that call the Everglades ecosystem. Everglades invasive exotic plants. Serious threats Refuge home and the viewing would be National Park which lies directly to native plant communities and wildlife limited. southwest of the Refuge has been habitats (entire South Florida ecosystem) recognized as a Wetland of International include the invasive exotic plants, such as Fire Importance by the Ramsar Convention, melaleuca (Melaleuca quinquenervis), Prior to the arrival of European settlers, the only international treaty dedicated to old world climbing fern (Lygodium large scale wildfires were common the protection of an ecosystem. microphyllium), Brazilian pepper occurrences throughout Florida’s (Shinus terebinthifolius), and Australian peninsula especially during drought Everglades National Park and the Refuge pine (Casuarina equisetifolia). These years. These wildfires, usually started by contain wetlands which provide important alien plants, lacking natural predators lightning, helped to form the vegetative 21 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

communities throughout Florida, both inland, the ‘Glades, and coastal such as the pine flatwoods and sand pine and oak scrub. The mangrove community was the exception and rarely, if ever, burned. Plants and animals became adapted to natural fire occurrence.

The combination of fire and flow of water helped create the unique mosaic habitat found in the Everglades. Vast expanses of sawgrass burned with interface (where human population and wildlife species dependent upon fire- great intensity while higher elevated property abut wild or protected lands) adapted communities. Some wildlife habitats surrounded by water, such as can and do result in the loss of personal may be killed in prescribed burns, but bayheads and tree islands, under all property due to the amount of underbrush several factors combine to limit losses but extremely dry conditions, survived that is present and not cleared from when compared to uncontrolled wildfires. these wildfires. Deeper water areas such around homes as a buffer. Prescribed burns are usually small, less as wet prairies and sloughs typically did intense, slower spreading, and generally not carry fire and when they did, they Mans’ thoughtless introduction of create a mosaic pattern of burned and burned with much lower intensity as they invasive, exotic plants, such as melaleuca unburned fuels. usually remained somewhat wet. Under and old world climbing fern, has had a extremely dry conditions, the soil, also detrimental effect on when or where fires Unburned areas serve as refugia for known as peat or muck, would inevitably can be used as a resource management slower moving wildlife such as small burn. This would have probably led to tool. Melaleuca leaves contain oils which rodents and reptiles. Birds can simply the formation of inland pools or ponds, as are extremely volatile which increases just fly to a more desirable location. fires burned through to the underlying fire behavior and intensity. The resultant Factors such as wind speed and direction, limestone, which would have benefitted fire kills native vegetation and prepares relative humidity, temperature, fuel alligators, fish, wading birds, and the soil bed for the rapid spread of moisture and fuel type, and drought index waterfowl. melaleuca seeds and the replacement of are all important factors to address prior native vegetation. to conducting a prescribed burn. Fire is When European settlers first penetrated an integral part of Florida; without fire, the South Florida wilderness, they Old world climbing fern can carry fires unique plants and animals associated with encountered Native Americans using into the crowns of native pines and these ecosystems maintained by fire are fire for a variety of purposes and they cypress causing significant damage and lost forever. would later adopt some of the same pieces of the fern can break off and drift practices. Native Americans used fire to with thermals increasing the potential Benefits of prescribed fire burn away dense vegetation and to drive for spot fires. Drainage of the ‘Glades management include the following: game during a hunt. They also noted that has increased the potential for damaging Restores and maintains fire-dependent ‘game’ was more plentiful and healthier muck fires. Dry muck or peat can be fully communities; reduces chances of after a fire event. Prior to and before consumed during extreme fire conditions, destructive wildfires; reduces invasion there was game enforcement, early which can burn for weeks; this can lead by hardwood species; perpetuates fire- ‘Gladesmen’ often used the practice to changes in the Everglades vegetative adapted flora and fauna; cycles nutrients; of night burning to drive and flush the community. Tree islands, normally controls disease; opens scenic vistas; white-tailed deer for hunting. protected from fire because they are protect the urban interface and private usually surrounded by water, may in landowner from destructive wildfires; Large scale settlement, drainage and turn be susceptible to damaging wildfires target hazardous fuel loadings to lessen manipulation of water levels in the and may take years to fully recover. In the potential for wildfire, or may aim at Everglades that occurred in the early 20th addition, they may be subject to invasion habitat restoration for endangered or century adversely affected fire occurrence by exotic plants. threatened species such as restoring an in South Florida. Humans have early successional habitats and vegetative fragmented, developed, and over drained Today, natural area resource managers community in sand pine or oak scrub to the Everglades. This led to a significant and wildlife biologists have adopted benefit eastern indigo and diamondback accumulation of fuels over time, which the use of “prescribed fire” as a rattle snakes, gopher tortoises, as well as a allowed wildfires to become more intense key management tool to manipulate multitude of other indigenous species that and destructive. Fires near the urban vegetative communities and benefit are live in and around the Refuge. 22 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge Public Use and Refuge Area Map

Imagery based on Palm Beach County 2006 Aerial photographs. Published August 11, 2008. Red lines = 2008 roads 23 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Environmental Education Environmental Education (EE) is a crucial tool in modern natural resource management, improving people’s understanding of ecological systems and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conservation efforts. The importance of environmental education in the Refuge System is underscored by the fact that it is one of the priority wildlife-dependent recreational activities supported by the National Wildlife Refuge Improvement Act of 1997. To provide guidance to Service staff on EE, national policy Photo: Wendy Casperson - Students from Banyan Creek Elementary is currently being developed on environmental education: The Theme and each Topic, Objectives, to the ecosystem and its water supply. and Methodology are correlated to the The Refuge has been actively battling …a process designed to develop a Next Generation Florida’s Sunshine State the worst invasive exotic plant problem Standards in all of South Florida- and among the citizenry that has the awareness, Theme worst in the National Wildlife Refuge concerns, knowledge, attitudes, The theme encompasses teaching System. an understanding and appreciation skills, motivation, and commitment of the Everglades ecosystem, the n Everglades Habitats: Each of the Refuge’s five habitat to work toward solutions of Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Program (CERP), Refuge ecology, and ecosystems will be discussed along current environmental problems the human influence on ecosystems of the with the flora and fauna of each Everglades. This theme was developed ecosystem. Wildlife management tools and the prevention of new ones. by Refuge staff and its partners to be such as inventory and monitoring, Environmental education within incorporated into all aspects of Visitor prescribed fire, and enhancing the Services and academic programs. native biodiversity and integrity of the the National Wildlife Refuge Refuge will also be highlighted. System incorporates on-site, off-site, Topics n Water: n Everglades History and the Arthur and distance learning materials, This message addresses information R. Marshall Loxahatchee NWR: activities, programs, and products, on water quality, water quantity, The Social Science connection to the water distribution and water timing, cultural and political history of the that address the audience’s course of including the amount of water entering Everglades and the Refuge is vital in understanding our human connection, study, the Refuge System’s mission, the Refuge, the locations to which the water flows when it enters the Refuge, problems and solutions, to our Earth. and the management purposes of the and the seasonality of water flow. Objectives refuge. (FWS policy, 2004) n Endangered and Invasive Species: As a result of using Rhythms of the The Refuge offers protection for many Refuge: A Guide for Educators, students Environmental understanding will be able to: develops as people are presented with of the species that are considered imperiled, Federal or state threatened, opportunities to learn throughout their n Describe the unique contribution to lifetime. As people learn about the species of concern and endangered on the Refuge by offering areas for conservation both historically and environment, they often progress through presently of the Refuge in the local different stages of understanding: roosting, nesting, feeding areas and habitat for them to live. There are at area, surrounding region, and National awareness, knowledge, skills, values, and Wildlife Refuge System. participation. Rhythms of the Refuge: A least 63 imperiled species listed that make or could make the Refuge home. Guide for Educators seeks to help build n Use scientific methodology in order to an aware, knowledgeable, skilled, and explore the environment: ask questions, Invasive (exotic, non-native) plants active Everglades citizenry that values hypothesize, collect data, analyze data, and animals are a tremendous threat and protects the Refuge. form conclusions. 24 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

n Describe and apply basic ecological Science Background Reading concepts, such as energy flow, I can discuss, compare, and negotiate Fire Adaptations community, diversity, change, methods used, results obtained, and All living things have developed traits in interrelationships, cycles, and explanations among groups of students response to their environments. These adaptation. conducting the same investigation. traits are called adaptations. Adaptations are physical features or behaviors that n Describe the components and functions History and Civics help a plant or animal survive and make of a given habitat by observing, I can examine key elements and peoples the most of its habitat. Plants and animals counting, and describing the animals in Florida history as they relate to United that live in a fire dependent ecosystem and plants in that habitat. States history. have adaptations that allow them to survive and recover after a fire has n Explain the role of the National Art passed. Wildlife Refuge System in wildlife and I can use critical-thinking skills for habitat conservation. various contexts to develop, refine, and Plants Can’t Run reflect on a theme. In the face of fire, plants can’t run, fly, n Make a land use and/or land creep, or crawl away. Because plants are management decision in a role plan Lessons/Activities rooted in place, they must have special situation and examine the consequences Fire Adaptations from Fire in adaptations to help them survive fire. of that decision. One way for a plant to survive a fire is Southern Ecosystems curriculum to insulate itself from the heat of the (grades 3-12) n Show how individuals can affect the flames. This insulation is especially Materials: The influences: fire section important for big trees, because they earth through their behaviors and of Chapter II Arthur R. Marshall attitudes. can’t afford to burn down to the ground Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge and start growing all over again like and plants and wildlife section of each Methodology smaller plants. The bark of fire-adapted Chapter IV Everglades Ecosystem in pine trees such as longleaf pine, slash The messages and general objectives addition to any supplemental resources expressed in the framework above are pine, and loblolly pine —­ is thicker than needed (some included within this guide’s the bark of pine trees not adapted to best supported by a combination of appendices). Paper and writing utensil. instructional methods including outdoor survive fires. This adaptation of thick bark protects southern pines from the investigations, indoor demonstrations, Activity: Students list plants and animals outdoor demonstrations, presentations, heat of most fires. Small woody shrubs that live in the Everglades while teacher have thin bark, and herbaceous plants teacher-guided research, individual records on the board. Students help reflection, and service learning projects. such as grasses and wildflowers have no teacher label which plants and animals bark at all. Instead of depending on thick Indoor presentations can currently would survive in fire and next to each, include distance education opportunities bark for protection, these plants use the write how they would survive (what is soil to insulate their roots from the fire. offered in partnership with the National their adaptation?) Teachers can also add Conservation Training Center. The upper parts of these shrubs and in comparison/contrast to ask students plants may burn up completely in a fire, which animals would not be able to but the underground parts survive below Standards survive or escape during fire and why the soil. These plants send up new green Math (adaptations they lack). Lastly, students growth, called shoots, from underground I can describe and compare measureable confirm or disprove their category list roots, bulbs, or rhizomes after the fire has attributes. choices – the teacher gives each student passed. one of the plants or animals on the board ELA to look up in this manual or supplemental Some plants protect their buds with I can plan and develop a topic: organize resource (including the internet). The layers of foliage as an adaptive strategy ideas, concepts, and information following class period, students present to survive a fire. Longleaf pines have this using strategies such as definition, their findings that confirm or disprove adaptive strategy—a thick cluster of juicy classification, comparison/contrast, the list from the previous class period. green pine needles, which is important and cause/effect; including formatting, Extend this activity to discuss survival of to protect the buds of the young longleaf graphs, and multimedia when useful to the most well-adapted in students’ own pine for future tree growth. aiding comprehension. lives, their own adaptations to hardships or “fires.”

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Another strategy of plants is to produce go up high in trees to escape the flames. Step 2: Explain that each student will seeds after a fire. Because fire clears out Mice, rats, snake, and lizards also escape play the role of a carbon atom and walk undergrowth in the forest, plants that in the relatively cool soil. Many reptiles through the carbon cycle between the produce seeds right after a fire have an and small mammals hide in the burrow reservoirs. Hand one starter card to advantage of growing with more sun, of the gopher tortoise, who is sometimes each student. For the ocean and forest more nutrients from the fresh ash left called the “innkeeper” of the pine forest. reservoirs, divide the starter cards as behind by the fire, and less competition The burrows often reach 10 or more feet evenly as you can among the students. from other plants. For example, only a underground and can be 40 feet long, so Students will move to the appropriate couple of months after a fire, wiregrass they are insulated by earth and remain station based on the card they receive. can cover the forest floor with new shoots cool during a fire. Wetland creatures The starter cards designate the status of and tall, wheat-like flowers! Wiregrass such as turtles and amphibians will seek each carbon atom at each station at the is a tall sandhill grass that responds shelter under water. Birds can fly away beginning of the activity only. especially well to spring fires, the time from the fire, though some birds are of year that lightning naturally started attracted to the fire to feed on insects as Step 3: Tell students to discard their fires in the past. Some types of pines they escape the flames! starter cards, draw a process card from have pine cones that open after a fire. the stack at the station, and then read These serotinous cones are held closed Sometimes young birds and other small and follow its instructions (either stay by a sticky resin that melts at high animals may not be able to escape a fire. in place or move to one of the other temperatures. The heat of a fire opens Many studies have been done about this stations). To keep the activity orderly, the cones and allows the seeds to escape. because people are concerned about follow these two instructions: Sand pines and pond pines are two types animals. Even though some small animals of southern pines that have serotinous may die, scientists have shown that fire 1. Students should place their process cones. improves the habitat and the remaining cards at the bottom of the stack animals will thrive and make new nests. before they move. Where Do Animals Go? Even though a few individuals are lost, Animals have many behaviors that help the habitat as a whole is better off after 2. Students should only move when them avoid getting burned in a fire. For the fire so the animal populations will given an agreed-upon signal so that example, animals can hide from a fire in grow. everyone moves at the same time. many different kinds of places. Larger animals such as deer, bear, and fox will Fires reduce the numbers of many pest Step 4: Make sure all students are in walk or run away from a fire. Wildfires in insects, such as ticks, chiggers, and pine the appropriate place at the end of the southern pine forests usually move slowly, beetles. Some insects, however, seem to first round before announcing that each so most animals can simply walk away, thrive after a fire. Ant populations are student should draw a card and go again. though some wildfires can move very more numerous in burned areas than In other words, repeat Step 3. quickly. in unburned areas, probably because the increase sunlight on the ground Step 5: Repeat Step 3 three to five Most prescribed fires (also called means more food for the ants. Ants are times until you are comfortable that the controlled burns) that are set by land known to play an important role in pine students understand the following points: managers’ move even more slowly across forest ecosystems and are a major food the landscape than wildfires. The average source for the endangered red-cockaded n The total amount of carbon on earth is human walks faster than the speed of a woodpecker. finite. prescribed fire moving across the forest floor and even most small animals can Fire and the Carbon Cycle from Fire n Carbon moves through different phases easily escape slow-moving prescribed in Southern Ecosystems curriculum of its cycle, always remaining as a form burns. Materials: The fire section in Chapter of carbon. II, internet or library resources, school Animals that are not able to walk fast textbook. (Grades 6-12) n Reservoirs represent carbon stores enough to escape a fire sometimes hide within the cycle. in underground burrows or in low, moist Activity: places. Insects will hide under the leaf Step 1: Through a combination of class n litter or duff at the top of the soil or under Fossil fuels, when removed from the discussion and background reading, make ground and burned, put carbon from the bark of a pine tree. Since the heat sure the students have a basic conceptual from a fire rises upward, temperatures the ground into the air as carbon understanding of the carbon cycle and of dioxide, thus increasing the amount of are not intensely hot just a centimeter the process in which they will participate. under the soil. Some insects and birds CO2 in the atmosphere. 26 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Source: Dickinson College COP15 Course Student Blog n As the world population increases, it is In the carbon cycle, there is a regular However, an increase in greenhouse expected that more fossil fuels will be exchange of carbon between plants, gases can trap additional heat in the burned resulting in more CO2 in the animals, the ocean, and the atmosphere. atmosphere resulting in increased atmosphere. Plants absorb carbon as carbon dioxide temperatures. from the atmosphere and transform it Hold a brief class discussion on these into plant food through the process of When plants and animals die, points before moving on to the next part photosynthesis. Animals absorb carbon decomposition usually releases the of the activity. into their bodies by eating plants or other carbon held in their bodies back into the animals for energy and growth. Both atmosphere. Sometimes decomposition Background: plants and animals release carbon dioxide cannot occur due to a lack of oxygen Carbon is the basic building block of life. into the atmosphere through respiration (e.g., something is buried in mud), which All living organisms need carbon to create (also known as breathing in animals). causes carbon to remain in the ground the molecules that form their bodies and become fossil fuel (e.g., coal or oil) (proteins, carbohydrates, fats, etc.). The Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas (one over many millions of years. In the total amount of carbon on earth remains of the gases that helps trap heat within carbon cycle, as in other cycles, there are constant and is exchanged between living our atmosphere). Greenhouse gases are reservoirs where carbon is held. Carbon and nonliving things through the carbon important because they keep the planet moves between these reservoirs. The cycle. warm enough to sustain life on earth. major reservoirs are the atmosphere, the 27 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

ocean, some rock formations, and large expanses of forests. When a reservoir is disturbed, carbon is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Burning fossil fuels (e.g., coal and oil) takes carbon from the ground and puts it into the atmosphere.

Forest fires do the same thing, since the wood in trees represents a large store of carbon. When a forest burns, carbon is released from the plant material in the form of ash and carbon dioxide.

Background Reading Source: State of Washington, Department of Ecology What is the Role of Fire in the Carbon Cycle? forests grow, the plants transform carbon Scientists believe that increased Everything on earth is composed dioxide from the air into plant material temperatures may also have additional of almost 100 naturally occurring through the process of photosynthesis. climatic impacts around the globe such elements. About 30 of these elements The carbon atoms that become part of the as changes in wind and rain patterns. are important to the existence of life plant stay within the plant until the plant Scientists who study climate change as we know it. All elements exist in one dies. examine the potential sources and of three interchangeable states: solid, impacts of increased greenhouse gases liquid, and gas. As elements change state For this reason, forests are often in the atmosphere. In the southeastern and combine or separate into different considered reservoirs or sinks for carbon, United States, many areas were once molecules, they behave in a cyclic because they can absorb large amounts of vegetated by the southern pine ecosystem fashion. In other words, they change in a carbon from the atmosphere and hold it that was dominated by longleaf pine and predictable way that repeats itself over for long periods of time. When the plants wiregrass. This ecosystem burned every and over again. There is a finite amount of die, their carbon content is released back 1–3 years. Under natural conditions, each of these elements that has remained into the atmosphere by the actions of these fires would normally be caused constant since the earth first formed. insects, fungi, and bacteria. When oxygen by lightning during the growing season is not available to these decomposers, the between March and June of each year. Carbon is one of the elements that is plant material can become trapped in the essential to life and has a cycle that we earth and, over millions of years, it forms Pines, grasses, wildflowers, saw can easily describe. Fire plays a pivotal fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural palmetto, and various oaks are important role in this cycle. As a solid, carbon gas (also considered carbon reservoirs). components of these communities. forms the molecular backbone of organic Deforestation and large forest fires When fires occur at natural intervals, molecules (e.g., proteins, carbohydrates, are two ways that forest plants die and dead vegetation (such as pine needles, and fats), which are the primary building release carbon dioxide back into the branches, and wood) is burned, but larger blocks of living organisms. In its gaseous atmosphere. plants and trees are able to survive. The state, carbon can bond with oxygen to fire essentially cleans up the forest of form carbon dioxide, also known as CO2 When a forest burns, carbon is released fuel. When fire regularly occurs, the dead (two atoms of oxygen and one atom of from the plant material in the form debris does not have a chance to build up. carbon). of ash and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas because it Due to people’s fear of fire, fire Carbon dioxide is what all living things is one of the gases that helps trap heat suppression became the dominant policy exhale and is a naturally occurring gas in within our atmosphere. Greenhouse in the United States in the 1940s and our atmosphere. Carbon dioxide can also gases are important as they keep the lasted well into the 1990s. When fire is dissolve in water (it is used to make soda) planet warm enough to sustain life on suppressed in fire-adapted ecosystems, allowing carbon to also exist in a liquid earth. An increase in greenhouse gases, fuels build up (examples are pine needles, state. Trees and other forest plants are however, can trap additional heat in dense growth of shrubs, and fallen largely made up of molecules containing the atmosphere resulting in increased trees and dead wood). Then, when a carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. As temperatures. This is called global fire does happen, it can be very severe, warming. killing trees, other plants, and wildlife. 28 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

This occurred in 1998 in Florida when Activity Cards there were thousands of out-of-control catastrophic wildfires. The intense heat from a catastrophic wildfire can damage the ecosystem by cooking the upper layers Fossil Fuel Reservoir Atmosphere Reservoir of the soil and by slowing down healthy regrowth of the forest after the fire. Coal Carbon Dioxide in the Air

Today, fire is seen by land managers and many others as a positive force, and is encouraged under controlled conditions with highly trained personnel in a process called prescribed (or controlled) burning. Ocean Reservoir Forest Reservoir Prescribed burns are used to maintain the health of a fire-dependent ecosystem Phytoplankton Plant—Tree or Shrub and to restore a natural fire cycle to areas where fire has been suppressed. Prescribed burns are implemented by teams of highly trained staff to mimic the natural fire regime of a plant community. Ocean Reservoir Forest Reservoir For example, about two million acres in Animal—Herbivore or Animal—Herbivore or Florida are treated with prescribed fire Carnivore Carnivore each year. Each of the three different types of wildland fires release carbon into the atmosphere: prescribed fire, wildfire, and wildland fire use.

However, prescribed fires and wildland fire use provide benefits to fire-adapted Ocean Reservoir Forest Reservoir ecosystems and are less intense, which Decomposer Decomposer allows trees and many plants to survive. After these fires, there is rapid regrowth of grasses, flowers, low-growing shrubs, and pine tree seedlings. The new plants quickly begin reabsorbing carbon back wildfires, particularly in areas where Activity Cards from the atmosphere. there are heavy fuel buildups, are usually Starting Cards for Activity Part 1: damaging to the ecosystem and can The Carbon Cycle On the other hand, wildfires are difficult contribute large quantities of carbon Print enough cards so that each student to control and difficult for ecosystems dioxide to the atmosphere. Prescribed has one to start the activity. Hand one to recover from—trees are killed and fire, on the other hand, mimics a natural card to each student. Students will move regrowth of the forest is much slower. fire regime, is carefully planned and to the appropriate reservoir station based Forests with heavy fuel loads contribute conducted to minimize impacts to on the card they receive. to the occurrence of catastrophic wildfires ecosystems, produces much less smoke and store a large quantity of carbon, than a wildfire, and helps to maintain Process Cards for Activity 1: which is sent into the atmosphere by a wildlife-friendly and healthy forests. In The Carbon Cycle fire. Catastrophic wildfires are viewed short, prescribed fire is safer, cheaper, Print and cut out 16 cards (two sheets as contributors to climate change. When and better for the ecosystem than the of each) for each reservoir station. For considering the impact of forest fires alternative, wildfire. example, place all of the cards that say on the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a mixed stack at the atmosphere, it is important to weigh atmosphere station. the benefits and impacts that fires have on ecosystems and the atmosphere. Southern pine ecosystems are naturally very flammable, so it is not a question of if a fire will happen, but when. Catastrophic 29 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Process Cards Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere Your carbon atom is taken up Your carbon atom is taken up Your carbon atom is taken up from the atmosphere by a tree, from the atmosphere by a tree, from the atmosphere by a tree, shrub, or wildflower through the shrub, or wildflower through the shrub, or wildflower through the process of photosynthesis. process of photosynthesis. process of photosynthesis.Go to the Go to the forest. Go to the forest. forest. Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere Your carbon atom is taken up Your carbon atom is taken up Your carbon atom is taken up from the atmosphere by a tree, from the atmosphere by phytoplankton from the atmosphere by shrub, or wildflower through the in the ocean through the phytoplankton in the ocean through process of photosynthesis. process of photosynthesis. the process of photosynthesis. Go to the forest. Go to the ocean. Go to the ocean. Atmosphere Atmosphere Forest Your carbon atom is taken up from Your carbon atom is taken up from Your carbon atom is in a plant or the atmosphere by phytoplankton the atmosphere by phytoplankton animal that has died and is taken up in the ocean through the in the ocean through the by a forest decomposer (fungi or process of photosynthesis. process of photosynthesis. bacteria). Remain in the forest Go to the ocean. Go to the ocean. as a decomposer. Forest Forest Forest Your carbon atom is in a plant, Your carbon atom is respired Your carbon atom is respired animal, or decomposer that has died back to the atmosphere back to the atmosphere and is buried through sedimentation by a plant, animal, or decomposer. by a plant, animal, or decomposer. to become coal (a fossil fuel). Go to the atmosphere. Go to the atmosphere. Go to fossil fuels. Forest Forest Forest Your carbon atom is eaten by an Your carbon atom is eaten by an Your carbon atom is in a plant, animal (an herbivore eats a plant animal (an herbivore eats a plant animal, or decomposer and or a carnivore eats another animal). or a carnivore eats another animal). is used for its growth. Remain in the forest Remain in the forest Remain in the forest. as an herbivore. as an herbivore. Forest Fossil Fuels Fossil Fuels Your carbon atom is in a plant, You are burned as coal You are burned as coal animal, or decomposer (after millions of years) (after millions of years) and is used for its growth. and go to the atmosphere. and go to the atmosphere. Remain in the forest. Fossil Fuels Fossil Fuels Fossil Fuels Remain as coal in the fossil fuels. Remain as coal in the fossil fuels. Remain as coal in the fossil fuels. (Fossil fuels can remain in the (Fossil fuels can remain in the (Fossil fuels can remain in the ground for millions of years.) ground for millions of years.) ground for millions of years.) Fossil Fuels Ocean Ocean You are burned as coal Your carbon atom is in a plant or Your carbon atom is in an ocean (after millions of years) animal that has died and is taken up plant or animal that has died and is and go to the atmosphere. by an ocean decomposer (fungi or buried through sedimentation to bacteria). Remain in the ocean become coal (a fossil fuel). as a decomposer. Go to fossil fuels. 30 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Ocean Your carbon atom is respired back to the atmosphere by phytoplankton. Go to the atmosphere.

Ocean Your carbon atom is respired back to the atmosphere by phytoplankton. Go to the atmosphere.

Ocean Your carbon atom is eaten by an animal (an herbivore eats a plant or a carnivore eats another animal). Remain in the ocean as an herbivore.

Ocean Photo: USFWS Your carbon atom is eaten by an animal (an herbivore eats a plant or Using Art to show understanding of a carnivore eats another animal). how fire helps the Everglades: Remain in the ocean Materials: The fire section in Chapter II, internet or library resources, school as an herbivore. textbook (grades K-12), one piece large Ocean white drawing paper and crayons or colored pencils (older students might Your carbon atom is in want to try colored chalks). a phytoplankton and is used for its growth. Activity: This will take two-three class Remain in the ocean. periods depending on the speed of your students. Give students the large white paper folded into four sections evenly Ocean across page (so that they are tall and Your carbon atom is in thin). Label each section (A. Before fire; B. During fire; C. Right after fire; D. Six a phytoplankton and is used months after fire). On back students can for its growth. explain in own words how the fire changed Remain in the ocean. the environment.

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Chapter III Water is Our Treasure to the Balance of Life

Water distribution and water timing, including the amount of water entering the Refuge, the locations in the Refuge to which the water flows, when the water enters the Refuge, and the seasonality of water flow is vital to the balance of the Everglades ecosystem.

Water and the Refuge At the northern end of the Everglades lays the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge (Refuge), the largest and most pristine remaining part of the Northern Everglades. The Refuge is comprised of 143, 954 acres of Everglades’ habitat. The 400-acre cypress swamp, located in the Headquarters Area, is the largest remaining section of the strand that once stretched from Lake Okeechobee to Ft. Lauderdale.

Typical Everglades’ vegetation of tree Photo: Wendy Casperson islands ranging in size from less than one acre to over 300 acres comprises of its associated flora and fauna. As a Water Quality approximately 85 percent of the Refuge. result, the Refuge shares a footprint with Although the Refuge was designated The other 15 percent of the habitats the 141,324-acre Water Conservation an Outstanding Florida Water in 1978, include wet prairies, sloughs, and Area 1 (WCA 1), which is defined by which affords it greater water quality sawgrass marshes. The tree islands are a 57-mile levee and associated inside protection, the surrounding land use one of the features that best characterize borrow canal. The Refuge additionally makes it a challenge to protect the water the Refuge. South and Southwest of the consists of approximately 2,550 acres in quality of the Refuge. Water levels in Refuge are the other large remaining fee title, owned by the USFWS, which is WCA 1 are managed following a schedule portions of Everglades: Water subdivided into five compartments that developed by the COE and managed in Conservation Areas 2 and 3, Big Cypress can be managed separately: A, B, C, coordination with the SFWMD. National Preserve, Miccosukee Indian and the cypress swamp units are located Reservation, and Everglades National on the east side of the Refuge in the The schedule was designed to achieve the Park. Northwest of the Refuge is the Headquarters Area; D is on the western following objectives: (1) maintain water 700,000-acre Everglades Agricultural boundary, just north of the confluence of storage capacity on the Refuge during Area (EAA), which includes large sugar the L-7 and L-39 canals. the hurricane season; (2) store water for cane farms, winter vegetables and sod irrigating nearby cropland during the farms, and cattle ranches. Immediately The limestone bottom of the vast fall, winter, and early spring; (3) prevent east of the Refuge lies a conglomerate of freshwater marsh that makes up the saltwater intrusion into the Biscayne urban communities. Refuge interior is covered with a layer aquifer by storing water for release into of peat varying from 7 to 12 feet thick. coastal canal systems during the fall, The Refuge is part of a large freshwater The underlying aquifer provides water winter, and spring; (4) maintain the health storage area connected by a series to nearby coastal communities. The L-40 of Refuge vegetation types by flooding of canals and levees built by the U.S. canal and levee defines the perimeter of all wetlands during the summer and fall; Army Corps of Engineers (COE). An the Refuge (and WCA 1). and (5) enhance feeding opportunities agreement between South Florida Water for waterfowl and wading birds by Management District (SFWMD) and the The two major sources of water for WCA lowering water levels in the spring so U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 1 are rainfall (58 percent), and the S-5A, that water is concentrated in sloughs and in 1951 enabled the establishment of G-251, G-310 and G-6 pump station at shallow ponds during the nesting season. the Refuge under the Migratory Bird Twenty-Mile Bend (40 percent) (CCP). Historically, such fish as tarpon and Conservation Act of 1929 for the purpose Refuge water sources other than rainfall mullet used the area, but the presence of of protecting and managing the unique originate from drained agricultural and/ water control structures has long since Northern Everglades habitat and all or urban lands. restricted this access. 32 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

The Water Quality Problem sheet flow, which is a natural part of the The natural Everglades were a balanced High nutrient runoff from urban and Everglades. There are more complex ecosystem that required little in the agricultural lands is one of the most repercussions as well such as the exotic way of nutrients to keep it healthy. Low serious issues facing the Refuge. This plants and animals that move in and growth rates, low primary productivity, water allows undesirable imbalances in thrive in our tropical climate. and high dissolved oxygen levels the ecosystem and will be addressed in characterize the historic oligotrophic detail below. Mercury is also a major After much investigation, scientists Everglades. When excess nutrients water quality issue that has been well- concluded that the cattail expansion was are added, such as phosphorus and documented in the Everglades system. primarily caused by excess phosphorus nitrogen, the growth rates of some plants The primary source of mercury in the entering the Refuge via the pump inputs are accelerated, primary productivity Greater Everglades is atmospheric of phosphorus-laden water from the increases, dissolved oxygen levels deposition. However, sulfur originating agricultural lands to the north via the decrease, and the system becomes in the EAA is a known factor in mercury S-5A pump station, agricultural lands to eutrophic. Eutrophication is a sign bioavailability. The impacts and sources of the west via the S-6 pump station, and of aging in many aquatic systems – sulfur and mercury are being investigated urban areas to the east via the Acme increased rates of eutrophication signal by multiple agencies including SFWMD, 1 and Acme 2 pump stations. Due to speeded-up aging. The Everglades is a United States Geological Survey (USGS), the high level of connectivity between young system, formed only 5,000 years United States Environmental Protection the water in the perimeter canals and ago. Yet the aging process is occurring Agency (USEPA), Florida Department the water in the interior marsh, these too fast. The nutrient that is causing Environmental Protection (FDEP), phosphorus inputs were able to flow deep the significant damage is phosphorous, as well as independent/contracted into the Refuge promoting the spread because this element is a limiting factor researchers at institutions such as and dominance of cattail. The most recent – that is, it is the nutrient normally found Louisiana State University. Yet another vegetative survey, completed in 2004, in such small amounts that it governs how issue is pesticides in agricultural runoff, revealed that cattail now covers over the system grows. Nitrogen is naturally although little is known about their 13,500 acres in the Refuge. abundant and does not normally limit the effects specifically onaquatic organisms system. in the Refuge and remaining Everglades. Cattails are the most visible effect of the nutrient imbalance. However, many In the natural system (pre-drainage), In the late 1970’s, managers at the detrimental changes in the abundance the nutrients entered into the system Refuge began to notice a change in the and diversity of algae, diatoms, desmids, primarily from upstream runoff during vegetation around the canals that they and other microorganisms have already high water events and wildlife inputs. associated with water quality; cattails occurred by the time the cattail problem Now, however, the canals transport high were growing densely in large areas that is evident. Changes such as these – nutrient runoff water from the farmlands should have been mostly sawgrass. In the starting at the bottom of the food chain – but as it navigates through the canals its natural Everglades, cattails (Typha spp.) eventually work their way up to effects at potency is diminished but still makes an are native, but they grow in small clumps higher trophic levels. impact. around concentrations of natural nutrient inputs, such as alligator holes and bird A healthy Everglades system supports The Solution roosts. A large dense stand of cattail a wide variety of aquatic algae. Many of The Federal government sued the State causes many problems to the naturally- these algal species form communities of Florida in 1988 for violation of the occurring wildlife and plants. collectively known as periphyton. These federal Clean Water Act and various communities can grow in various forms intergovernmental agreements. This For instance, it is too dense for waterfowl, including surface or benthic mats or lawsuit was based on the expanding otters, fish, and other animals to ‘sweaters’ that coat submerged stems and front of nutrient enrichment and cattail maneuver through. It also prevents plants. These assemblages both feed and dominance in natural areas downstream sunlight from penetrating in the water, shelter small fish and invertebrates that of agricultural and urban discharges. A where the aquatic plants need it for are crucial prey species of the Everglades Settlement Agreement was reached photosynthesis. In addition, it has about food web. Unlike the better-known in this case in 1991 and a Consent one-fifth the lifespan of sawgrass, so pond scum scenario of polluted ponds Decree was issued in 1992, putting the it dies faster, leaving a mass of rotting and lakes, periphyton is essential for Settlement Agreement terms into a court vegetation. The lack of photosynthesis the health of the Everglades. However, order. The State of Florida passed the and the rotting cattail create a disastrous periphyton communities typical of the Everglades Forever Act in 1994, which lack of dissolved oxygen, which fish historical Everglades can only thrive in put the terms of the Consent Decree into and aquatic invertebrates require. The low nutrient, or oligotrophic conditions. state law. density of the vegetation also impedes 33 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

The parties to the Settlement Agreement STA 1W loads are being reduced, most n Purchase locally grown fruits and include the Refuge, Everglades National of the total phosphorus flow-weighted vegetables to support our farmers in Park managed by the National Park mean concentrations discharged to the area where you live. Service (NPS), COE, SFWMD, and the Refuge in 2014 were above concentrations n Compost your kitchen waste and use it FDEP. The plaintiff (the United States) identified to be protective of the Refuge. for your plants instead of fertilizer. is represented by the United States Department of Justice. There are many In September 2004, STA 1E was n Pick up your animals waste so it doesn’t interested parties in the case, including brought on-line to treat a portion of go into the water drainage system. the water originally directed to STA agricultural entities, environmental What the Future Holds groups, local governments, and the 1W as well as new urban stormwater runoff from the C 51 basin. STA 1E In spite of the efforts being made by the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida. construction of the STAs, in reduced The case is currently active in the Court contains approximately 4,994 acres of effective treatment area arranged water pollution to the Refuge, it will take of Chief U.S. District Judge Federico many more years to see the results of the Moreno, who appointed a Special Master in a total of eight cells in three flow- ways, discharging into the L 40 Canal improved water quality. In the interim, John M. Barkett to assist with the tons of phosphorus will enter the Refuge. complex technical and legal issues of the through pump station S 362. In 2014, the total phosphorus flow weighted mean Refuge staff will continue to make every litigation. Among other requirements, effort to protect the water entering the the Consent Decree (amended in 2001) concentration and total phosphorus load discharged to the Refuge from STA 1E Refuge by supporting the Settlement required the State of Florida to construct Agreement and other laws. and operate 345,000 acres of constructed was lower than the concentration and wetlands (Stormwater Treatment load delivered to STA 1E. Although STA Standards Areas or STAs) to remove nutrients from 1E loads are being reduced, as in STA Math agricultural runoff and implement a best 1W the total phosphorus flow-weighted I can create equations that describe management practices (BPM) program mean concentrations discharged to the numbers or relationships. in the EAA. Refuge in 2014 were above discharge concentrations identified to be protective ELA BMPs are agricultural and urban of the Refuge. I can analysis cause and effect management practices that aim to reduce relationships. excess nutrients and other pollutants What Can You Do To Help? from entering vulnerable water bodies. You have made an important step by Science These practices include guidelines on reading this and seeking out information I can analysis and explain the parts of the the storage, application, and disposal of on the water quality problems of the energy/water cycle. I can understand the pesticides and fertilizers. Farmers in the Refuge and the entire Florida Everglades concept of adaptation/diversity. EAA are required by the Consent Decree Ecosystem. Besides a national treasure, to reduce phosphorus discharges from the Everglades supply much of the History/Civics agricultural lands by at least 25 percent. drinking water for South Floridians. I can understand the judicial process as Data collected to date show that this Please help by: seen through a federal vs. state lawsuit. target is currently being achieved. n Conserving and reusing water (rain Art Currently, two STAs (STA 1East and barrels...). I can investigate the use of technology STA 1West) treat agricultural and n Refrain from using toxic household and other resources to inspire art-making urban discharges before water enters materials that leach into the surface decisions. the Refuge. A portion of STA 1W began and ground water. Lessons/Activities discharging into the Refuge in 1994 n Use natural cleaning products for Water Quality Testing from (then called the Everglades Nutrient reducing the pest population and use Backpacklab.com by Hanna Removal Project) and the facility became biodegradable soaps. Materials: Test kits, paper and writing fully operational in the latter half of utensils. (Water test kits provided by the 2000. STA 1W contains approximately n Contact local, state, and Federal Refuge can be borrowed for any water 6,544 acres of effective treatment area legislators by email/mail about the need quality testing lessons conducted within arranged in a total of eight cells in three to protect the waters of the Everglades Refuge boundaries. Refuge water test kits flow-ways. In 2014, the total phosphorus for the benefit of current and future come with complete instructions for use). flow-weighted mean concentration and generations of people and wildlife. You can also visit a water treatment plant. total phosphorus load discharged to the n Support farmers’ efforts to practice Refuge from STA 1W were approximately more than the required Best Activity: Find out where your local water seven times lower than the concentration Management Practices. comes from. Find the local water quality and load delivered to STA 1W. Although report, which comes out annually through 34 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

the local municipality. Test your school whether natural or man-made. The drink – capillary action). Let students retention pond, water fountains, etc… aeration of water can be caused by wind investigate the cross-section cut of the Record what is found in the quality of the (creating waves), rapids, waterfalls, celery for colored dots indicating the water and list why each element is there ground water discharge or other forms water-filled channels. (intentional vs. unintentional or naturally of running water. Man-made causes occurring), the effects each element has of aeration vary from an aquarium air **This can also be done with a carnation. on plants and animals, including humans, pump to a hand-turned waterwheel to You can split the stem from the bottom and compare these findings to the water a large dam. (fondriest/environmental to the flower into four parts with each quality report provided by your local measurements website). part of the stem in a different color of municipality. food coloring. The flower will end up four Salinity: Salinity, the amount of salts different colors. Or, place a coffee stirrer Background Information: Good water dissolved in water, is crucial to the across the rim of a plastic cup filled 1/2 quality is essential for the survival of existence of organisms that exist in full of water. Tape a strip of filter paper organisms living in an aquatic habitat. It either a freshwater or saltwater habitat. to the stirrer marked with an ink line is also vital for human consumption and Where a freshwater river meets seawater (from a washable black marker). Tip of safe water recreation. Various elements can be defined as an estuary but also as filter paper should just barely touch the are tested to ensure the safety of the brackish water. Some of the organisms water. Observe the progression of water aquatic environment. These include pH, that live in an estuary are extremely climbing up filter paper. This also shows temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity, sensitive to a change in salinity of their capillary action. turbidity and other nutrient components. water environment. Since the Refuge is a freshwater marsh there is very little Now that the water is clean, the pH: the concentration of hydrogen ions salinity in the water. second part of this will develop student in solution. The pH is measured on a understanding of plant and water scale from 0 to 14. On the scale from 0 to Turbidity: Turbidity is the cloudiness functioning together for flow. Set up 6 is acidic and from 8 to 14 is basic. In the of the water. It determines how much the wooden plank and fake grass mat at center of the scale, 7, is neutral. The pH sunlight from the sun can filter through an angle with the tin pans underneath is an important factor in the survival of to the aquatic plants and microorganisms to catch water flow. (Discuss with many aquatic organisms. underneath the surface that capture the students what the grass and wood sun’s energy and conduct photosynthesis. represent, predict how the water will Temperature: Temperature is not a A byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen flow differently and why – healthy vs. relevant gauge for water quality in released into the atmosphere that humans unhealthy wetlands). Students take the the Refuge. But, temperature can be and other organisms need for life. leftover water from celery jars – one important to a variety of wildlife and in front of each wetland, and pour the plants. Discharges of heated waters Plants vs. Pollutants “Run-Off” water down to see which flows faster from water treatment plants and other Race from the Wonder of Wetlands (discuss significance of water flow speed manufacturing facilities can increase the Curriculum and reference the Kissimmee River temperature and change the types of Materials: Chapter IV Everglades channeling and the current restoration organisms that flourish in a particular Ecosystem and Chapter III Water is Our project undoing that damage). Lastly, body of water. Treasure to Balance Life, celery (pre- have students state which plants they Dissolved Oxygen: Dissolved oxygen cut lengthwise), 1qt glass jars with food would use to slow water flow in the is necessary to many forms of life coloring, water, a plank of wood, an old unhealthy wetland. fake grass doormat, and something to including fish, invertebrates, bacteria and Background Information: The following plants. These organisms use oxygen in prop the doormat up at an angle, and two tin pans the size of the doormat. is a list of dominant plants in a healthy respiration, similar to organisms on land. wetland: Fish and crustaceans obtain oxygen for Activity: This will take at least two class Common water hyacinth, giant respiration through their gills, while plant periods. Have students investigate which leather fern, alligator weed, Florida life and phytoplankton require dissolved Everglades plants would, due to their bladderwort, common duckweed, maiden oxygen for respiration when there is no adaptations, be best at treating water for cane, southern cattail light for photosynthesis. The amount quality. Label each jar with the name of Extension: (Grades 3-12) Students of dissolved oxygen needed varies from the specific Everglades plant great for discuss what characteristics would make creature to creature. Dissolved oxygen water filtering. Fill jars ½ way with water a plant successful in slowing the water enters water through the air or as a plant and maximum four drops of food coloring, flow in a healthy wetland. Students then byproduct. From the air, oxygen can place the celery into the colored water research the plants on the list and discuss slowly diffuse across the water’s surface over night (explain to students how plants in small groups which three they would from the surrounding atmosphere, or absorb pollutants with the water they be mixed in quickly through aeration, recommend to plant in a healthy wetland. 35 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Chapter IV Everglades Ecosystem

The Everglades is an ecosystem that is a delicate, interconnected tapestry of various habitats. Each habitat depends on the pristine preservation of the land, creatures, and water in order to sustain such a rich substantial, yet fragile treasure of North America. The Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge (Refuge) is the only unspoiled portion of Florida’s northern Everglades.

Swamps are like no other landscape. All swamps are wetlands, but not all wetlands are swamps. Swamps don’t Cypress Boardwalk at Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee Wildlife Refuge necessarily have huge mountains or vistas Photo: Wendy Casperson that stretch out for miles. In their own subtle way, swamps are their own special nine species of vines, one type of sedge, Cypress seedlings rely on a complex place (Richardson 34). For the purposes 14 species of ferns, seven species of set of circumstances to germinate and of this chapter, we are talking specifically bromeliads, and three species of lichens mature. Male and female cones appear about the cypress swamp at the Refuge. (CCP, Appendix K). on the same tree and mature from December through March, a period that What is a Swamp? Why is it called a Cypress Swamp? coincides with Florida’s dry season and Swamp is a word that resists precise One should not lose sight of the tree that the subsequent lowering of water levels definition. Sometimes defined as a gives the cypress swamp its name. The throughout various cypress swamps tree-studded wetland and other times cypress tree is a deciduous conifer. One in South Florida, including the Refuge as a tract of wet, spongy land saturated of its closest relatives is the California cypress swamp. Ideally, when a cypress and often partially or intermittently redwood or Giant sequoia. Cypress is not seed falls, there will be enough water so covered with water, a swamp is not only old in the sense that the wood is long that the seed can remain immersed from always easily separated from a marsh. lasting, but it has a fossil history dating one to three months, thereby allowing Seasonal flooding and the presence of back thousands of years (Dennis). water to penetrate its thick outer coating trees, therefore, are two of the best clues (Ripple 26). Cypress seeds can float in distinguishing a swamp from a marsh Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and remain alive underwater for up to (Dennis). is a dominant canopy species. This a year; however, they cannot germinate species needs water, not necessarily underwater and so must eventually On the eastern edge of the Refuge is to germinate new seedlings, but to settle into moist soil. After a seedling a 400-acre cypress swamp community reduce competition from other trees has poked its way up through the peat which is composed of pond cypress that can’t tolerate much standing water. and soggy mat of decaying leaves and trees, pond apple, myrsine, lichens Whether Bald and Pond Cypress’ needles, it must grow quickly to prevent and ferns such as giant leather, sword, (Taxodium ascendens) are separate being flooded when water levels rise shield, strap, royal, resurrection and species or merely different varieties of during the raining season (Ripple 28). swamp ferns. The moist microclimate Bald Cypress remains a hot topic among Cypress seedlings won’t survive if they of the cypress swamp also provides for a taxonomists, but there are enough are too dry or too wet, but once they have profusion of epiphytes (air plants), such differences in branch structure, foliage, matured they will survive both flooding as cardinal, giant reflexed, and twisted bark, and seedlings to fuel the debate for and droughts. wild pine and Spanish moss. This cypress some time to come. swamp is the largest remaining remnant In regards to the Cypress, the question of the community on the east side of Generally pond cypress can be concerning the function of knees has the Everglades. This cypress swamp’s distinguished from bald cypress by their intrigued people for many years. There former range extended from Lake needles, which are scale-like and point have been many speculations as to their Okeechobee through Palm Beach and upward, unlike those of the bald cypress, function or functions. Knees were first northern Broward counties, south to Fort which are feather-like and lie flat on the thought to act as breathing organs to Lauderdale (Lodge 1994). The cypress plane of the branches. Both mature bald secure oxygen for the root system. swamp in the Refuge includes 20 species and pond cypress develops buttresses of Correlation of the height of knees to the of trees and shrubs, 20 species of herbs, various sizes and shapes (Ripple). flooding regime, including the question of 36 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

gas exchange, has been introduced as a Roots use touch sensitivity to find function. It has been suggested that they their way downward through the soil, assist in trapping soil and debris around moving away from objects like stones the root system. A proposed function in their path. This is called negative was that the knees add strength to the thigmatropism, since they move away root system. Storage of starch has been from the object that touches them. attributed as another function of these Climbing vines with tendrils actually structures. In addition, many researchers reach out and grow toward the touch of believe the knees may support the trees a pole or string, their tendrils eventually and aerate their root system. Bald and coiling around the object and using it Pond Cypress’ appear to grow well as a support to grow on. This is called without knees as with them (Ripple). positive thigmatropism. The coiling is caused by the sides of the tendril growing History and Conservation at different rates. (National Gardening In the 1890’s, lumber barons from the Association) Red maple North started moving into the South and began exploring the swamps for timber As has already been discussed, most (Acer rubrum) is a deciduous, fast resources. Cypress is a rot-resistant plants and trees (vegetation) in a cypress growing tree with the widest north to wood and was highly prized for use in swamp are the types that don’t mind south range of any tree native to the East the furniture and building trade. Early having wet feet. Many of these species coast of the USA. It can reach 50 feet tall. on many people felt that swamps were a are also competing with the cypress trees Its leaves are three to five inches with place of danger and very unhealthy, but for space, sunlight, and nutrients (food). three prominent lobes; two lesser lobes that view changed toward the beginning In the Refuge’s cypress swamp, the other may occur. The leaf margins lack teeth. of the 19th century when Americans trees include pond apple and red maple. The flowers occur in the spring and are began to see these wetlands as places tiny and red. The fruit is only found on to see wildlife and enjoy some form of female trees and is red, winged and it recreation. Americans used their voices to matures to a light brown. help save their cypress swamps but there was much resistance from the lumber industry. Some of the biggest and the best swamps were saved; others unfortunately were flooded by dams, filled in, cut, channelized, or drained (Dennis). This is why the Refuge is a second growth Cypress Swamp – the only first growth Cypress Swamp near Palm Beach County is Barley Barber Swamp in Martin Pond apple County, which is owned by FPL. (Annona glabra) also known as custard apple (Annona reticulate) is a small Plants of the Cypress Swamp evergreen native to American Tropics and The cypress swamp is an ideal location South Florida, usually growing to between Elderberry to study how plants grow and respond to 12 and 20 feet tall, sometimes reaching stimuli in the environment. A response 40 feet, the trunk is short with a swollen (Sambucus canadensis) is a shrub or to stimuli by plants is called a tropism, base. The leaves are four to six inches small tree reaching nine to 26 feet tall; which comes from the Greek word long, bright green, smooth, leathery, it has white foliage; the fruit is dark meaning “turn.” Plant tropisms that are oval shaped with a pointed tip and a purple to black and produces in grouping easy to observe include heliotropism rounded base. Flowers borne in spring clusters during the fall. The fruit is edible (response to the sun), geotropism or are creamy white or greenish-white with and can be made into jelly, dye, and wine. gravitropism (response to gravity) and red markings and very thick petals. Fruit The leaves and inner bark can be used thigmatropism (response to touch). is ripe in late summer, edible but not very as an insecticide. However, other parts Different parts of plants can respond tasty (like cotton), smooth, four to five of the plant are poisonous, including the to touch. Some leaves, like those of the inches green/yellow skinned (looking like unripe fruit. sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) located a hard apple), ripe when it is the color of as a ground cover in front of the visitor a nectarine or peach with brown bean-like center will close when you touch them. seeds imbedded in the pulp. 37 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

(Osmunda regalis) From a distance, this common large fern looks like a fern, but up close, its widely spaced, oblong leaflets (fronds) make it look like a locust tree. It can grow to six feet or more. It is pale green and has its spores on single stem with separate branches above the leaves. Very regal indeed.

Giant leather fern (Acrostichum danaeaefolium) This fern is the largest of the ferns in the swamp Hottentot fern with its leaves reaching 12 feet long. When the fern reproduces, the underside (Thelypteris interrupta) Leaves (fronds) of the leaves are covered with brown are shiny on top and dark green never spores that feel like leather or suede dull and never with hairs. They are making it easy to understand how the spaced distinctly and are tough. The plant got its name. fronds can reach 30 to 50 inches tall Swamp fern and are usually ¾8 inch to ½ inch wide, (Blechnum serrulatum) The spores (sori) leaflets (pinnules) are widely lobed and form two brown lines down the center pointed tips on leaflet (pinna) especially midrib of the underside of the leaf. These noticeable on the tail at the top of the leaflets (pinnules) are very pointy at the frond. Spores (sori) form a continuous tip. The leaflets (pinnules) are opposite on meandering line along the edge of the each side of the main stem and a medium leaflet and much closer to the margins to darker green color. then to the midvein.

Sword fern

(Nephrolepis exaltata) This fern’s spores (sori) are in a round case on the outer edge of the underside of this lightly fringed leaf (pinnule). The leaflets are alternate on the stem and a light green color.

Strap fern Resurrection fern (Campyloneurum phyllitidis) The long (Polypodium polypodioides) This fern swordlike leaves of this fern do not seem is an airplant and gets its name because to qualify it for the fern family. It grows it can survive long periods of drought by in clumps on logs and trees to as much as curling up and appearing dead. When 36 inches long. The upper side of the leaf just a little water is present, the fern (frond) is scattered with small bumps in a will uncurl and reopen, appearing to mirror image of the sori (spore) pattern resurrect. Thus this fern comes to life. on the underneath side. The spores (sori) The leathery evergreen leaves (fronds) appear as small dots in two rows between are between four and 12 inches long. each major vein scattered throughout the The leaves (fronds) are made of small, Royal fern underside of the frond. rounded, oblong blades. The spores (sori) 38 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

are on the underneath side of the leaflet (pinnule) in a pattern of a line of one rounded case on the outer edge of the oblong blade.

Air plants (Epiphytes) Air plants grow on the trunks and branches of trees. Sometimes these plants make the trees look like they are full of bird nests. Each air plant is a tiny Reflexed wild pine Water fern self- contained habitat. These plants use their host for support only, catching their (Tillandsia balbisiana) This air plant is (Salvinia minima) If you look in the own water from the rain and debris (from much smaller than its cousin, the Cardinal water, you will see this fern. It is the the wind) for food. wild pine, listed above. Having just a few larger of the two ferns that make its leaflets bending back on itself with one home in the water. The fern leaf is round small red-colored bract, it has the same in shape and several fern leaves are flower of purple, yellow, or sometimes clumped together to form a strand of fern white in color. leaves. There are tiny hairs that stick up on the top of the leaf. The size of the leaf is about ½ inch in diameter.

Spanish moss Cardinal wild pine (Tillandsia usneoides) This moss has an (Tillandsia fasciculata) This air plant is unusual growth form and is actually in the air plant bromeliad family. So, it’s not Duckweed a member of the bromeliad family. Many air plants, like the cardinal wild pine, Spanish, nor a moss. It is typically gray (Lemna minor) Duckweed is the smallest look like pineapple tops and are, in fact, to green gray in color and has a string flowering plant known to man. This related to pineapples. Wild pines sit on of small plants attached by a stem. The angiosperm has three small leaflets the side of the tree, usually in the crook flowers appear very small and white in that combine to form a three sided leaf. of where a branch and the trunk meet. the crook of the stem. Look up into the There are between one and two tendrils Its leaves may exceed three feet long and canopy of the cypress trees to see this hanging down into the water that keep the bracts are usually bright red with the plant hanging from the tree branches. this angiosperm afloat. Each plant is conspicuous small flower that is purple, approximately ¼ inch in size. yellow or sometimes white in color. 39 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

to the Arctic and Antarctic, and from sea (Flavoparmelia caperata) This is one of level to the highest mountain tops. They the most common of foliose lichens, these grow most abundantly where rainwater have leafy lobes, which spread out in a washes over stone. Crustose or crusty horizontal layer over the surface. The lichens grow flat and grow close to the structure of foliose lichen would show a surface of rocks and close to the barks of sandwich of fungal layer with an algal trees. Foliose or leafy lichens have broad mat in the middle. Small rootlets called lobes and grow on rocks, trees, and the rhizines attach the lichen to the substrate. ground (even on desert sands). Fruticose or shrubby lichen are slender and branched. They are often seen hanging from trees. Lichens Most of the trees in the cypress swamp look like someone used a spray can of paint on their trunks. Dabs and splotches, some peeling, of gray, white, even light red are found on nearly every trunk or branch. They are lichens (pronounced likens), a symbiotic association between alga and fungus.

Lichens are compound organisms, sometimes called tiny ecosystems, made up of two, or even three, very different Old man’s beard partners, none of which are plants. The dominant partner is fungus, living (Usnea strigosa) This fruticose or symbiotically with a colony of alga or shrubby lichen is green in color and cyanobacterium – sometimes both. The grows on the sides of trees in clumps. alga and/or the cyanobacterium supply It is very delicate in nature and looks food, by photosynthesis to the fungus, extremely fragile. It is wispy and looks while the fungus supplies moisture, Baton rouge (or red stick) like an old man’s beard. minerals, and protection to its partners. (Cryptothecia rubrocincta) This (The alga photosynthesizes and provides Wildlife of the Cypress Swamp crustose lichen is pale red lichen seen some nutrients to the fungus, which in Vertebrates scattered on the trunks of the cypress turn provides skeletal protection and a This term refers to animals that possess trees. It sometimes has a white ring water-trapper for the alga.) a backbone, such as humans. Mammals, around it. The red color comes from its birds, snakes, fish, and lizards are all symbiont; instead of a green alga, it is a animals that fit in this category. All of the Lichens are the first organism to appear photosynthetic purple bacterium. on rock surfaces where they begin the following animals have been seen in the formation of soil and pave the way for cypress swamp at the Refuge. Various plants to grow. It is said that there are conditions will make it more or less likely over 30,000 kinds of lichens. They range that you will see these animals in the in color from gray to green, red, pink, swamp at any given time on any given yellow, orange, and black. They are used day. A couple of the conditions include: for dyes, perfume stabilizers, and they nocturnal (active at night) vs. diurnal furnish the food for caribou in the arctic (active during the day) and the amount region. of water in the swamp at any given time. Each visit to the swamp will be a different The role of lichens in plant succession and experience and sometimes observational the colonization of the earth is dramatic skills in spotting evidence of wildlife and of great importance. They have presence are a tremendous teaching tool. invaded all parts of the world, from the warm tropics (like the cypress swamp) Common greenshield 40 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Nine-banded armadillo River otter (Dasypus novemcinctus) The nine- Carolina wren (Lutra canadensis) Otters are mammals banded long-nosed armadillo (and (Thryothorus ludovicianus) This small that live the majority of their life under colloquially as the poor man’s pig or bird has a huge voice, and you may never water. They do come onto dry land, but poverty pig), extensive burrowers, weigh see him or her, but you will hear them. are more comfortable in the water where 12 to 22 pounds. Head and body length It is cinnamon-red in color and has a they find their food, socialize, and play. is 15 to 23 inches, which combined with large collection of songs similar to a They can hold their breath for up to four the five to 19 inch tail for a total length Mockingbird (Florida’s state bird). They minutes of underwater swimming. Their of 20 to 42 inches and stands six to 10 can be found year round in dense, thick fur is so thick that they really don’t get inches tall. The outer shell is composed of brush covered places, like the Refuge wet to the skin. ossified dermal scutes covered by non- cypress swamp. Wrens love insects for overlapping, keratinized epidermal scales, dinner and have a bill shaped just right to which are connected by flexible bands of capture their prey. skin. It is an insectivorous animal, feeding chiefly on ants, termites, and other small invertebrates. Nine-banded armadillos are solitary, largely nocturnal animals that come out to forage around dusk.

Eastern gray squirrel

(Sciurus carolinensis) With their big bushy tails the Eastern gray squirrel is a Water moccasin (Florida Cottonmouth) common resident in the swamp. They also have longer ears, shorter tails than their (Agkistrodon piscivorus) This is probably northern counterparts and silver-tipped Pileated woodpecker the most feared snake in the cypress fur. They are important to the habitat in swamp. It is a venomous (meaning a toxic the swamp because they bury nuts and (Dryocopus pileatus) This is the largest sting or bite) snake and has a triangle- Florida Oak acorns in the dirt and can woodpecker in North America. It shaped head with a dark colored eye line retrieve them by smell. Many a new tree has a red crest and black body with a through its eyes. As they age, they get or forest has re-sprouted because the white stripe on its face and down its darker in color. It gets its name from the squirrel forgot where they left their food neck. It was the inspiration for Woody interior of its mouth, which looks like from a couple months or a year ago. Woodpecker. The knocking on trees and cotton. While swimming in the water, the loud ringing calls give this bird away. cottonmouths keep their head up high.

41 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Green anole Everglades rat snake (Anolis carolinensis) This native anole (Elaphe obsolete rossalleni) This snake is approximately six to seven inches long Cuban treefrog matures to be the size of four to six feet of which is about ½ tail. The color is most long, sometimes seven feet in length, often lime green but can turn to brown (Osteopilus septentrionalis) This frog making it one of the longest snakes in but take a while to switch color so are is an amphibian native to the Caribbean North America. Hatchlings have gray not true chameleons. Their throat fan region of the Western Hemisphere. Its blotches on them and as they mature (dewlap) is bright pink in color. wide diet and ability to thrive amongst the color changes from orange to red. humans has made it a highly invasive They are good climbers and may be species with established colonies in the found coiled in the treetops. They are Everglades. They range in size from active when the temperature suits their three to 5.5 inches and vary in color activities. They are good swimmers, from olive-brown and bronze to gray or but only venture into the water when grayish-white and typically don’t have necessary. sticky toes. A nocturnal, tree-dwelling frog, it is known to eat almost anything that will fit in its mouth and can mate year-round. This frog is taking over the native range of the green treefrog and is competing for a niche in the swamp.

Green treefrog (Hyla cinerea) This frog reaches a bit more than two inches in length and can change color from bright green to dull Southeastern five-lined skink green. It is one of the noisier frogs in the rain frog category because it mostly sings Mosquitofish (Eumeces inexpectatus) This moderately in inclement weather. They have blobby, large lizard measures between five to sticky toes that help them cling to the (Gambusia holbrooki) Mosquitofish are 8.5 inches long and has short legs and a underside of leaves. native to southern and eastern portions of streamlined body. Coloring is generally the United States. They were originally gray, brown, and black background introduced into California in 1922 with five white or yellowish stripes (two and have been the most effective non- on each side and one down the center insecticidal or non-chemical method of of the back). The skink is often found controlling mosquitoes in over 80 years. underneath logs or under tree bark. It is They breed throughout the summer and often referred to as “scorpions” not due give birth to live young that are ready to a sting but scientists speculate that it to eat mosquito larvae within minutes. tastes bad to predators (http://srelherp. They get to approximately three inches uga.edu) 42 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

in size and can eat mosquito larvae as (Tibicen linnei) These insects have large (Anax junius) This dragonfly is so named fast as the larvae hatches from eggs, as eyes that are wide apart on the head. after its resemblance to a darning-needle. many as 100 a day. This fish can live two Their wings are usually transparent and The Green Darner is one of the most to three years. well-veined. They live in temperate to common and abundant dragonfly species tropical climates. They are one of the throughout North America. It is well most recognized insects due to their known for its great migration distance acoustic talents and in fact the name from the northern United States south cicada means “buzzer” in Latin. They into Texas and Mexico. It is one of the achieve this noise by rubbing their large largest dragonflies in existence. Males wings back and forth on top of their back. grow to three inches in length with a wingspan of up to 3.1 inches. Females oviposit (to deposit or lay eggs, especially by means of an ovipositor which in certain female insects is an organ at the end of Sailfin molly the abdomen, which eggs are deposited.) in aquatic vegetation, eggs laid beneath (Poecilia latipinna) Commonly found in the water surface. Nymphs are aquatic shallow surface waters or can be found carnivores, feeding on insects, tadpoles, under floating vegetation. This fish is and small fish. Adult darners catch tolerant to low levels of oxygen as it insects on the wing, including ant royalty, can exploit the thin film of oxygen rich moths, mosquitoes, and flies. surface water with its upturned mouth, and so is able to survive in oxygen Sawgrass Communities depleted habitats. This fish is oblong with What is Sawgrass? a small head and the dorsal fin flattened Sawgrass is so named because it has with a small, upturned mouth. The body spiny, serrated leaf blades that resemble is light gray with several rows of spots a saw. The sawgrass community (25 along the sides and back. Sailfin mollys percent land coverage) is characterized can reach five inches long. by the saw-edged sedge that dominates Spiny Orb-weaver spider this type of habitat. Yes, sawgrass Invertebrates (Cladium jamaicense) is not a grass, (Gasteracantha cancriformis) This term refers to animals without a but a sedge. It is named for the sharp, This spider is the most colorful and backbone, such as insects. Earthworms upward pointing teeth that line each edge recognizable spiders in Florida. The and spiders are also invertebrates. The of the leaf’s stiff V cross section. Sedges dorsum (back) of the abdomen is white following animals have been documented have edges, as the saying explains. to have been seen in the cypress swamp with black spots and large red spines on at the Refuge. the margins. The webs of these spiders typically contain tufts of silk, which may Sawgrass may grow in solid stands, prevent birds from flying into the webs. mosaics or interspersed with other species such as wax myrtle and dahoon holly. Sawgrass areas often border tree islands, separating them from the wet prairie. Once its highly perishable seedlings become established, sawgrass is a very tough plant, well adapted to the rigors of the Everglades, and most of its subsequent reproduction is by lateral spread of its prolific root-like rhizomes that spread underground and can form a thick often impenetrable concentration. This plant can grow to heights of nine feet. The flowers are found on tall, rusty- brown spikes (stems) that are up to three feet long and tower above the leaves. Common green darner Its principal enemies are soil fire during Cicadas drought, multi-year flooding deeper 43 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

How Does the Sawgrass Community Develop? Sawgrass communities are areas overwhelmingly dominated by sawgrass, with little other conspicuous vegetation. Spacing of the plants grades from sparse to dense. Dense tall sawgrass originally covered most to the northern Everglades in an unbroken expanse called the “sawgrass plain.” There it grew to over nine feet tall in deep, peat soils. than about a foot, and fire followed by Most of the sawgrass plain area is now rising water. The last of these conditions in agriculture, mainly sugarcane, but eliminates the oxygen supply to the roots, Wax myrtle some tall sawgrass remains in northern causing suffocation. As each sawgrass Everglades conservation areas, like the (Myrica cerifera) This tree is also clum matures, the older outer leaves die, Refuge. In the central and southern referred to as southern bayberry. It is a and their conducting tissues become air Everglades, sawgrass communities fairly hardy evergreen tree growing to tubes – tiny straws – that carry oxygen typically occurs in patches; its stature is 40 feet tall, usually shrubby, trunk up to to the roots, which live in an oxygen- not so tall (usually three to five feet), and one feet in diameter, often growing in a deprived environment when the soil is several other marsh species may occur leaning position. Smooth, silver-gray bark flooded. While sawgrass is recovering in together with the sawgrass. is marked with small corky splotches. the month or so after a burn, the roots The wax from the berries is used in are dependent on this oxygen supply, The average hydroperiod for sawgrass the manufacture of fragrant bayberry which would be cut off by flooding over candles. The leaves are about four inches the dead leaves. The implication to water- communities are about ten months, but ranges from less than six months to long, two inches wide at the center with level management is obvious for dealing margin coarsely notched from the widest with too much or too little sawgrass. nearly continuous flooding, and typical wet-season depths range from one to part to the pointed tip, lower margin one-and-a-half feet. The deeper water smooth to a tapering base, aromatic when On its tougher side, essentially nothing and longer hydroperiod support taller, crushed, bright green, stiff, thin but eats sawgrass, although the abundant, denser sawgrass, with the drier end of leathery with orange spots on underside. late summer seeds are an important food the range supporting more open, sparse The flowers are small, yellowish-green for ducks (Lodge). growths. Dense sawgrass, especially, catkins borne in spring, male and female harbors little animal life, but is one of the blossoms always are on separate trees. habitats where alligators build their nests The fruit is in clusters of bluish-gray wax (Lodge). covered berries that form along the stem in the winter. Plants of the Sawgrass Communities In addition to sawgrass (a sedge) other plants that occur in the sawgrass community are swamp ferns and sword ferns (see Cypress Swamp for description). As was mentioned in the narrative, two main tree species might be found in the sawgrass community (marsh).

Dahoon holly

44 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

(Ilex cassine) This is a small evergreen Wildlife of the Sawgrass Communities tree growing to 30 feet tall. It has a Vertebrates smooth bark that is grayish white. The In the previous Cypress Swamp leaves are narrow, glossy, leathery, section, vertebrate and invertebrate two to four inches long, frequently, but animals were discussed. Please refer not always toothed and downy on the to those definitions while discussing underside. Flowers occur in the spring sawgrass communities’ wildlife with and are white. The fruit on female trees your students. The following are all in are small, one seeded, red berry clusters the vertebrate category, but there are that are visible in the fall. The berries many invertebrates that are found in are attractive to birds. This is the true this habitat such as dragonflies, cicadas, Least bittern Florida holly and is often confused with spiders, mosquitos, banded mystery the invasive, non-native Brazilian pepper. snails, bromeliad beetles, European (Ixobrychus exilis) This secretive marsh honeybees, crayfish, giant ramshorn bird stands 11 inches to 14 inches tall snails, red fire ants, love bugs, Mexican and is very small, thin, and furtive and elongate twig ants, apple snails and straddles reeds. There is a large buff velvet ants. wing patch that is lacking in rails. There is also a very rare dark chestnut color patch. The voice is a song that is low, muted coo-coo-coo and can be heard in the marsh.

Flat sedge (Cyperus odoratus) Flat sedge grows from four to 30 inches tall. It may have only a few leaves rising from the base, and a few loose sheaths. Leaves are about ½ inch wide and may be as long as Marsh rice rat the plant. The base of the inflorescence (Oryzomys palustris) This rat is a semi (a group or cluster of flowers arranged Sora on a stem or specifically the part of the aquatic North American rodent. It weighs shoot or seed plants where flowers are between 1.4 to 2.8 ounces and is a medium (Porzana carolina) This little secretive formed) has three to ten conspicuous leaf- sized rodent (length can be between 8.9 marsh bird stands only between eight to like bracts. The bracts are about ½ inch inches to 12 inches long and with the tail 9¾ inches tall. The adult is a small plump wide and can be much longer than the length between 4.3 inches to 6.1 inches gray-brown rail with a black patch on the inflorescence. The inflorescence may be long) that resembles a common brown or face and throat. This bird also has a short from one to eighteen inches long. It has black rat. The upper parts are generally yellow bill. The short cocked tail reveals several small bottlebrush-like clusters of gray-brown, but reddish in many Florida white or buff undertail. The voice is a spikelets. populations. Their fur is thick and short. long, high, squealing whinny descending The feet show several specializations for and slowing at the end KO-WEEeee-e- life in the water. When rice rats swim, e-e-e-e, ee, ee given by both sexes; high air is trapped in the fur, which increases clear, sharp whistled kooEE (Sibley). buoyancy and reduces heat loss. The skull is large and flattened and is short at the front. This rat is nocturnal (active at night) and nests in sawgrass and has a diverse diet of plants, fungi and a variety of animals. It in turn becomes prey for animals such as the barn owl. 45 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

highly aquatic and inhabits areas with Invertebrates dense vegetation where it lives within the submerged roots. Here it finds its favorite prey, crayfish. This snake does not constrict its prey like many other species do, but rather it uses coils of its body to hold the prey while swallowing it alive. Juveniles may also feed on aquatic invertebrates such as dragonfly larvae. Breeding occurs in the spring; the young are born alive. Everglades racer (Coluber constrictor paludicola) The Everglades racer differs from the brown- Halloween pennant chinned racer primarily in coloration. Look for it along canals, at pond edge and (Celithemis eponina) This dragonfly has in shrubby fields. Average adult size is been described as looking very similar to 20 to 56 inches long. Adult color typically a butterfly. Its wings are orange-yellow is slate gray, but many specimens are in color, though its markings are dark brownish-gray, bluish, or greenish. The Golden shiner brown, not black as is commonly believed; chin and throat are white. The belly is the entirely orange-yellow wings with grayish to uniform black. The body is (Notemigonus crysoleucas) is in the carp dark brown bands are what has given slender and the scales are smooth, and family of fish and is native to eastern it its Halloween common name and its there are 17 dorsal scale rows at midbody. North America. It can grow from three typical position of being perched at the tip The pupil is round. Juvenile color is gray to five inches long. The body is deep- of a weed stalk, waving in the breeze like with distinct reddish brown blotches bodied. The back is dark green or olive in a pennant contributes to the remainder fading into a solid-colored tail. color and the belly is silvery white. The of its common name. The young has sides are golden in larger fish but silver yellow markings, including a stripe on its in smaller ones. The anal fin is large and back, and adult males develop pale red has eight to 19 rays, while the dorsal fin markings, particularly on the face, though has eight rays. The mouth is small and females will occasionally get these red upturned. Golden shiners prefer quiet markings too. Halloween pennants are waters and do better in clear water with approximately 1.5 inches in size. They dense mats of vegetation. feed on other insects and they are able to fly in rain and strong wind. On hot days, it will often shade its thorax using its wings.

Tree Islands Striped crayfish snake What Comprises a Tree Island? The northern portion of the Refuge (Regina alleni) Average adult size is 14 is characterized by thousands of tree to 20 inches long, record is 26 inches. islands that range from less than one Adults are glossy brown with three acre to more than 300 acres. There is inconspicuous darker stripes, one along approximately 20 percent of the Refuge the center and one on each side of the interior covered with tree islands. The Marsh killifish back. The lower sides are yellowish-tan. term tree island is often used to depict The belly is normally uniform yellowish, (Fundulus confluentus) This freshwater the island-like appearance of a patch but can be reddish-orange with a darker fish has distinct dark bands on the side of forest in an Everglades marsh. The smudge to a well-defined row of spots. (dark bands for females and juveniles, island part of the term is its superficial The head appears small relative to light bands for males). It has a rounded resemblance. Several forested plant the body. The scales are smooth, but caudal fin. The fish has a large black spot communities occur as tree islands in the keeled above the cloaca. There are on the end of the dorsal fin. The dorsal Everglades. Wetland shrubs and trees 19 dorsal scale rows at mid-body. The fin starts directly above the start of the found throughout the region’s swamps pupil is round. Juveniles are similar to anal fin. All fins are speckled. This fish is occur on all Everglades tree islands. In adults. The striped crayfish snake is important in the control of mosquitoes. addition, those tree islands having ground 46 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

rising above ordinary flooding elevation Once established, generations of tree support upland tree species that only islands can produce many layers of roots, survive in aerobic (unsaturated) soils. twigs, branches, and leaves and become a Most of the wetland vegetation species woody peat, called Gandy peat. This type are temperate, North American origin, of peat is more resistant and less prone and are common in swamps throughout to decay and thus, tree islands elevations the southeast (Lodge). stay above the surrounding marsh as more peat accumulates (Lodge). Tree islands occur both in peatlands of the Everglades mainstream and in The formation process of tree islands peripheral marl prairies of the southern at the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee and southeastern Everglades. Those in National Wildlife Refuge has only the peatlands are the most numerous and recently been discovered. Certain have received the most attention. Today, and otters, and roosting and nesting tree islands in the Refuge are huge most peatland tree islands are in the locations for many birds, notably compared to the rounded pop-up tree Northeastern Everglades (the Refuge) Everglades snail kites, anhingas, and islands. Strand islands are relatively and in the Shark River Slough (in wading birds. Abundant evidence also narrow but generally elongated. Their Everglades National Park). In both areas, shows that Native Americans used the configuration is similar to large sawgrass the tree islands are part of the ridge- high ground on tree islands through a ridges (sometimes called “strands”) in and-slough landscape. However, ridge- long history (see Chapter II). Without ridge-and-slough areas. While they are and-slough landscape was historically tree islands, marsh habitat would have fixed in location, they do not have the contiguous between Arthur R. Marshall far less value to an ecosystem, especially characteristic teardrop shape of fixed Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge where they support wading bird tree islands. The layers of peat in strand and Shark River Slough. Damaging rookeries and colonies along with other islands are Gandy peat with a layer of hydrology, both too wet and too dry with wildlife. sawgrass peat (Everglades peat), with attendant soil fires, have caused a major no relationship to the topography of loss of tree islands in the Everglades Their survival depends on a balance the underlying rock surface, which is (Lodge). between fire and water levels, and covered by seven to eleven feet of peat. alligator activity may also be important. Thus, it is apparent that they evolved For most people familiar with the During drought conditions, alligators from sawgrass strands by shrub invasion. Everglades, the different kinds of wallow out circular deep water refugia, The abundance of slough habitat at the tree islands are recognized for their called alligator holes. Wind-blown Refuge helps protect them from fire, appearance, related to the kinds of tree herbaceous seeds germinate on the which would inhibit or eliminate shrub that dominate them regardless of how exposed peat and eventually woody invasion. Several hundred of these low, they were formed. Many of the tree vegetation grows on the edges and wet, strand tree islands exist in the islands at the Refuge are referred to creates a tree island with a doughnut Refuge, the only part of the Everglades as “bayheads.” Bayheads are by far shape. Alligator holes are very important where they occur. Like pop-up tree the most common type of tree islands. aquatic refugia during the dry season islands, strand islands are thought to They are named for swamp bay (widely and are sources for fish and other aquatic be much younger than the Everglades called red bay) but may often contain organisms’ population reestablishment (Lodge). other species that superficially resemble after summer rain rehydrates the swamp bay, such as sweetbay. In fact, ecosystem (Lodge). Plants of Tree Islands swamp bay many not even dominate a As stated earlier, tree islands at the bayhead. A good example is the strand How did Tree Islands Begin? Refuge are typically composed of an type tree island at the Refuge, which are In its early history the Everglades was overstory of red bay and dahoon holly typically composed of an overstory of nearly devoid of tree islands. Tree islands with wax myrtle, buttonbush and redbay and dahoon holly with wax myrtle, of the Everglades peatlands have mainly cocoplum comprising a dense midstory buttonbush and cocoplum comprising a formed by three processes. and numerous ferns in the understory. dense midstory and numerous ferns in Since dahoon holly and Southern the understory (Lodge). They may form on a: bayberry (wax myrtle) have been described in previous habitats, Red Bay n “fixed” high point of rock Why are Tree Islands Significant? will be introduced here. In the Everglades, tree islands provide n peat “pop-up” nesting sites for turtles and alligators, n sawgrass “strand” protective cover for wildlife such as deer 47 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

(Ficus aurea) This is a common name (Ipomoea alba) This flower is sometimes for a number of tropical plant species, just called moonflower or moon vine, is a including some banyans. They all share species of night-blooming morning glory. a common “strangling” growth habit It is a perennial herbaceous vine growing that is found in many species, specifically to a height of 16 ½ feet to 98 ½ feet tall ficus. This growth habit is an adaptation with twining stems. The leaves are entire for growing in dark forests, where light or three-lobed 1 1/3 inches to 5 1/3 inches competition is intense. The strangler fig long with a 1 1/3 inch to 7 7/8 inch long starts life as a air plant (epiphyte) when stem. The flowers are fragrant, white their seeds are bird-dispensed and grow or pink and large (3 1/3 to 5 1/8 inches) their roots downward and envelope the diameter. The flowers open quickly in host tree, while also growing up to reach the evening and last through the night, sunlight. remaining open until touched by the morning sun.

Red bay (Persea borbonia) This tree with its evergreen aromatic leathery leaves, dark blue fruit hanging on into winter, and reddish bark is a jewel among trees. This Buttonbush, credit Paul Cooper Morning glory tree can be expected to grow to reach 45 feet tall, but can reach a maximum of 75 (Cephalanthus occidentalis) This is a (Ipomoea sagittate) Most morning glory feet tall. The average stem diameter is somewhat course deciduous shrub that flowers curl up and close during the warm one to 2.5 feet with four feet in diameter reaches from six to 12 feet tall and four to parts of the day, and are fully open in maximum. Redbay is moderately tolerant eight feet for the diameter of its spread. the morning, thus their name. It is a fast of salt and intolerant of fire. But, fire does It blooms in June and the flowers are growing annual vine that can grow up to help stimulate seed germination. tiny, tubular, five lobed, fragrant white 15 feet tall and cover a wide area very in color. The flowers appear in dense, quickly. The pure blue bell-shaped flower spherical, long-stalked flower heads. Long is the most common and the flowers live projecting styles give the flower heads a for one day only. It is closely related to distinctively pincushion-like appearance. sweet potato. Ping pong size flower heads are attractive to bees and butterflies. The buttonbush can grow in water or moist soil.

Strangler fig Golden polypody Moonflower vine 48 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Golden Polypody (Phlebodium aureum), (Tillandsia setacea) This perennial this epiphytic fern native to tropical and epiphytic wetland plant is found in and subtropical regions of the Americas marshes and swamps in central and south extends north to Florida, where it grows Florida. It blooms in the summer and in swamps. It is a rhizomatous fern, with has stiff tufts of clustered silverly-scaled, the creeping rhizome 5/16 inch to 5/8 inch very long, narrow needle-like leaves and (rarely 1 3/16 inches) in diameter, densely is an evergreen. The flowers are reddish covered in the golden-brown scales that spikes which form six inch masses. It give the species its name. The fronds flowers from June to September. are large and pinnatifid (deeply lobed), from 11 – 51 inches long and 4 – 19 inches Wildlife of Tree Islands broad, with up to 35 pinnae; they vary in Vertebrates color from bright green to glaucous green In the Cypress Swamp section, and have undulate margins. Several vertebrate and invertebrate animals Bobcat round sori run along each side of the were discussed. Please refer to those pinna midrib, and the minute spores are definitions while discussing tree island (Lynx rufus) Bobcats have a gray to wind-dispersed. The fronds are semi- wildlife with your students. The following brown coat, whiskered face, black-tufted evergreen or briefly deciduous in areas are all in the vertebrate category, but ears, and resembles the other species with a marked dry season. there are many invertebrates that are of the mid-sized Lynx genus. It has found in this habitat. distinctive black bars on its forelegs and a black-tipped, stubby tail, from which it derives its name. Though the bobcat prefers rabbits and hares, it will hunt anything from insects and small rodents to deer. They are territorial and largely solitary, although there is some overlap in home ranges. Adult males range from 20 to 30 pounds; females range about 13 to 21 pounds. The bobcat is crepuscular: it keeps on the move from three hours before sunset until about midnight and then again from before dawn until three hours after sunrise. Widespread maiden fern (Thelypteris kunthii) This is the common Marsh rabbit name for Southern shield fern, is a (Sylvilagus palustris) The marsh rabbit deciduous perennial fern growing to is a small cottontail rabbit found in sandy a height of 24 to 36 inches. The fronds islands, marshes and swamps. Adults are long arching, trianguler, bright sea from the Florida peninsula typically green fronds; pinnate pinnatified blade; weigh around 2.2 to 2.6 pounds with a very hairy on upper and lower surface; total length up to 17 inches displaying sori have rounded indusial and are borne darker and redder colors (cinnamon- along the midvein of pinna lobes. rufous). A strong swimmer found only near regions of water, they feed on leaves and bulbs of marsh plants including cattails, rushes, and grasses. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) This mammal, also known as the whitetail, is a medium- sized deer native to the United States. The deer’s coat is a reddish-brown in the spring and summer and turns to Southern needleleaf a grey-brown throughout the fall and 49 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

winter. The deer can be recognized by the (Eudocimus albus) Adults are 25 ½ characteristic white underside to its tail. inches tall with a 37 1/3 inch wingspan. It will raise its tail when it is alarmed to They have all-white plumage except flag the other deer. The average size is for black wingtips (visible in flight) and larger further away from the Equator. reddish bills and legs. The red bill blends White-tailed deer from the tropics and into the face of breeding birds; non- the Florida Keys are markedly smaller- breeding birds show a pink to red face. It bodied than temperate populations, occurs in marshy wetlands and pools near averaging 77 to 110 pounds, with an the coast. Its diet consists of various fish, occasional adult female as small as 55 frogs and other water creatures, as well pounds. as insects and small reptiles.

Little blue heron (Egretta caerulea) This is a small heron, about 24 inches long, with a 40 inch wingspan, and weighs 0.72 pounds. It is a medium-large, long-legged, heron with a long pointed blue or grayish bill with a black tip. Breeding adult birds have blue-grey plumage except for the head and neck, which are purplish and have long blue filamentous plumes (located on the back of the head as seen in the picture). The Little blue heron legs and Great blue heron Anhinga feet are dark blue. This heron stalks its (Ardea herodias) This is a large wading prey methodically in shallow water, often (Anhinga anhinga) Sometimes called bird common near the shores of open running as it does so. It eats fish, frogs, snakebird, darter, American darter, water and in wetlands with a head-to-tail crustaceans, small rodents and insects. or water turkey, is a water bird of the length of 36 to 55 inches, a wingspan of warmer parts of the Americas. The word 66 to 79 inches, and a weight of 4.4 to 8 “anhinga” comes from the Brazilian Tupi pounds. Notable features include slaty language and means devil bird or snake flight feathers, red-brown thighs, and a bird. This bird resembles the cormorant paired red-brown and black stripe up the with an average body length of 35 inches, flanks; the neck is rusty-gray, with black a wingspan of 45 inches, and a weight of and white streaking down the front; the 48 ounces. It is a dark-plumaged piscivore head is paler, with a nearly white face, with a very long neck, and often swims and a pair of black plumes running from with only the neck above water. just above the eye to the back of the head. Primary food is small fish, though it is also known to opportunistically feed on a wide range of shrimp, crabs, aquatic insects, rodents, other small mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and small birds. Herons locate their food by sight and usually swallow it whole.

White ibis Florida snapping turtle 50 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

(Chelydra serpentina osceola) This catesbeiana). They grow to a length of territorial turtle is related to the common 3.25 to 5.5 inches. This species gets its snapping turtle with jaws strong enough common name from the call that males to bite off a finger. It is only found in use to attract females, which sounds Florida and Georgia, can grow to 17 somewhat like a pig’s grunt. Its pig-like inches long and weigh 45 pounds. Its grunt can be heard during the warm tail is almost as long as his shell and it months of the year. Almost entirely has saw-edges along the top of the tail. aquatic, they are found predominantly on The shell also has rough points down the the edges of lakes, or in cypress swamps middle. The shell is tan to dark brown and marshes heavy with vegetation. They and may have green algae growing on it. feed nocturnally on crayfish, but like most They eat water bugs, fish, lizards, small frogs, they will consume almost anything birds, mice, plants, and even dead animals Southern black racer they can swallow, including insects, fish, and live in ponds under the shadows. and other frogs. They don’t like to rest in the sun like (Coluber constrictor priapus) One of most turtles, they dig into the mud on the the more common subspecies of non- bottom of the pond with only their eyes venomous snakes in the Southern U.S., and nose showing. these snakes are quite active during the day, which increases the chance of sightings. Usually thin with a jet black dorsal side with a grey belly and white chin. They are quite fast, giving rise to the name racer. When cornered it will fight—its tiny sharp teeth can deliver a painful but non-venomous bite. Adult racers are solid black but juveniles are a blotched gray and reddish brown. Most Southern leopard frog racers are 24 to 55 inches in length and rarely exceed 70 inches. They will eat (Rana sphenocephala) Mostly aquatic, almost any animal they can overpower, it is generally green or light brown in including, rodents, frogs, toads, and color, with dark brown or black blotching lizards. (that is the origin of their common name). Dusky pygmy rattlesnake They grow to 3½ inches in length and (Sisturus miliarius barbouri) The most have a pointed snout. They are excellent common venomous snake in Florida, and jumpers, and typically escape predation is responsible for more human snakebite by leaping into the water and swimming than any other snake. Known as the to the bottom. They are mostly nocturnal, ground rattler, the snake is grey in color and carnivorous, consuming almost any with black blotches all over its body, kind of insect they can catch and fit in including the underside. There is a series their mouth, as well as earthworms, of nearly circular black markings on the spiders and centipedes. middle of the back, with a dotted brick- red to orange line running right down the Invertebrates center of the back, between each black blotch. These snakes only attain a length of 2½ feet, but average around a foot in Pig frog length. Their small size and moderately mild venom keeps them from being a (Rana grylio) This frog is green or serious threat to human life, but the grey-green in color, with brown or black bite is still extremely painful. The rattle blotching. They have fully webbed feet, sounds like an insect buzzing. They eat a sharply pointed nose, and a large ear lizards, amphibians, and rodents. tympanum. They are easily mistaken for various other species of the genus Rana which they share geographic range with, including the bullfrog (Rana Giant swallowtail 51 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

(Heliconius charitonius) Zebra (Anartia jatrophae guantanamo) This heliconian, is a species of butterfly and butterfly has a wing span of two to 2 3/4 was declared the official butterfly for inches. Males patrol and occasionally the state of Florida in the United States perch to find females. Eggs are laid singly in 1996. The caterpillar feeds on Yellow near the host plant or under its leaves. Passionflower Passiflora( lutea), Corky- Eggs are pale yellow, laid on various stemmed Passionflower Passiflora( host plants including ruellia and water suberosa), and Two-flower Passionflower hyssop. Caterpillars are black and spiny, (Passiflora biflora). The adults are with silver spots. Chrysalis is green, and unusual among butterflies in that they eat darkens with age. The white peacock flies pollen as well as sip nectar. Adults roost year-round except in very cold weather. (Papilio cresphontes) With a wingspan in groups of up to 70, and return to the It lives in open fields near swampy areas, of about 3.9 to 6.3 inches, it is the largest same roost each evening. ponds and streams and feeds on Spanish butterfly in Canada and the United needle. States. The body and wings are dark brown to black with yellow bands. There Wet Prairies is a yellow eye in each wing tail. The What is a Wet Prairie? abdomen has bands of yellow along In contrast to sloughs, wet prairies with the previously mentioned brown. have shallower water levels and are The mature caterpillar resembles characterized by short emergent plants bird droppings to deter predators, if other than sawgrass, such as beakrushes that doesn’t work they use their red and spikerushes. They only superficially osmeterium (a protrusible glandular resemble prairie habitats of the Great process of swallowtail larvae that Plains. The term wet prairie is not emits a disagreeable odor for defensive standardized in the Everglades literature purposes). Older instars take on the and has been applied to two distinct appearance of a small snake with a communities. fake head and eyes; it is mostly seen in deciduous forest and citrus orchards where they are considered pests.

In general, the term wet prairie has been used in such a wide range of contexts as to lead to confusion by non-experts. The simplest solution is to follow the definition of wet prairie used by Olmsted and Loope (1984) and recognize that wetlands with shorter hydroperiods (typically one to three months but could be up to six months) and shallower maximum levels of flooding (saturated soils up to about 11.8 inches) are wet prairies. In common, these communities have lower and less dense vegetation than sawgrass communities, providing more open water for aquatic animals. Zebra White peacock 52 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Two Types of Wet Prairies Plants of Wet Prairies The first type of wet prairie is the (Rhynchospora inundata) Inundated marl prairie and is further south in beakrush, perennial sedge of oligotrophic the Everglades ecosystem than the wetland habitats with fluctuating water Refuge. The second type of wet prairie levels, requires periods of both inundation is a deeper-water marsh community and drawdown to maintain population that occurs on peat soil and has a long health. It flowers and spreads when hydroperiod and lower plant diversity. flooded, but the seeds germinate only in Maidencane, Tracy’s beaksedge or a dry environment. Its stem is triangular spikerush usually dominate. Wet prairies in cross-section and reaches as tall as 39 are the most prevalent vegetative inches though usually not more than 23 community (approximately 50 percent inches. Leaves are slender, erect, and flat land coverage) in much of the central or slightly rolled inward and the major and eastern portions of the Refuge ones originate at the base of the stem. and generally found between sawgrass The flower is diffusely branched and can Pickerelweed marshes and sloughs. This important be 4 to 9 inches. It has a distinctively vegetative community type provides prey open appearance because the spikelets (Pontederia cordata) Pickerelweed for wading birds and the Everglades grow in small, loose clusters of 2 to 6 or typically grows to about two to three feet snail kite in the form of fish, aquatic are occasionally solitary. Its seeds are tall. Its leaves are large, up to five inches invertebrates, such as prawns, and apple eaten by ducks. wide, and are usually twice as long. Leaf snails which require permanent water. shapes are variable, but are usually lance- (Lodge, 1994 and 2004) shaped. The easiest way to recognize pickerelweed is by its spike of violet-blue What Are the Holes in Wet Prairies? flowers. Sometimes the flowers are white. It is a prolific grower that can cover large One early describer of the wet prairie areas. Pontederia cordata blooms from said they had more holes than solid spring to summer. ground (Dade County 1979). These numerous solution holes are in direct contact with the underlying aquifer and serve as vital refugia for aquatic and semi-aquatic species during seasonal drying down of water levels. These refugia became concentrated with fish, Spikerush amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, and are preferred foraging areas for (Eleocharis Spp) In general, spikerushes a wide range of wading birds as water are small perennial plants (although levels are dropping. some reach heights of four feet) and are often confused with the smaller species of rushes, grasses, or sedges. Slender spike rush can grow completely underwater and appear as a submerged plant. Stems are unbranched with sheaths around the base but can be round, square, or Whisk-fern flattened depending on the species. All (Psilotum nudum) A whisk fern has spike rushes have small fruiting spikes water and food conducting tissues at the tips of the stem. Submerged but lacks true leaves and roots. portions of all aquatic plants provide Photosynthesis occurs in the aerial habitats for many micro and macro stems, and water and mineral absorption invertebrates. These invertebrates in occurs in the horizontal underground turn are used as food by fish and other rootlike stems (rhizomes), which receive wildlife species (e.g. amphibians, reptiles, water and nutrients from fungi through ducks, etc.). After aquatic plants die, a mycorrhizal association. There are two their decomposition by bacteria and fungi phases in the life cycle of a whisk fern. Inundated beakrush provides food (called detritus) for many The large asexual plants (sporophytes) aquatic invertebrates. produce spores that develop into 53 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

very small colorless sexual plants (Himantopus mexicanus) The black- cere are yellow or orange. The immature (gametophytes), which are similar to necked stilt is a locally abundant is similar to adult female, but the crown rhizomes in overall appearance. Eggs and shorebird of American wetlands and is streaked. It flies slowly with its head sperm are produced in special structures coastlines. Adults have long pink legs facing downwards, looking for its main on their surfaces. Union of these gametes and a long thin black bill. They are white food, the large apple snails. For this initiates the second sporophyte phase. below and have black wings and backs. reason, it is considered a molluscivore. It In nature, the plants mostly grow as The tail is white with some grey banding. nests in a bush or on the ground, laying epiphytes (living on other plants). A continuous area of black extends three to four eggs. from the back along the hindneck to the Wildlife of Wet Prairies head. There, it forms a cap covering the Vertebrates entire head from the top to just below eye-level, with the exception of the areas surrounding the bill and a small white spot above the eye. Males have a greenish gloss to the back and wings, particularly in the breeding season. This is less pronounced or absent in females, which have a brown tinge to these areas instead. Otherwise, the sexes look alike. The black-necked stilt forages by probing and gleaning primarily in mudflats and lakeshores, but also in very Florida mottled duck shallow waters near shores. It seeks out a range of aquatic invertebrates – Fulvous whistling duck (Anas fulvigula) The mottled duck is mainly crustaceans and other arthropods, a non-migratory, close relative of the mollusks, small fish and tadpoles. mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Mottled (Dendrocygna bicolor) The Fulvous ducks are large and brown in color but whistling duck is 19 to 21 inches long. It appear very dark when viewed at a has a long grey bill, long head and longish distance. Mottled ducks are darker than legs, buff head and under parts, a dark female mallards, but slightly lighter in crown, and dark grey back and wings. color than black ducks. Approximately 40 The tail and wing patches are chestnut, percent of the mottled duck’s diet consists and there is a white crescent on the upper of animal matter such as insects, snails, tail which is visible in flight. All plumages mollusks, crayfish and small fish. The are similar, except that juveniles have less remainder of its diet is composed of grass contrasted flank and tail coloration. seeds, stems, roots, seeds of other marsh plants, and bayberries.

Everglades snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis) The Everglades snail kite is an endangered species. Snail kites can grow up to 18 inches long with a 47 inch wingspan. They have long, broad, rounded wings. It is short-tailed, with a white rump and undertail coverts. The dark, deeply hooked beak is an adaptation to its diet. The adult male has dark blue-gray plumage with darker flight Florida mud turtle Black-necked Stilt feathers. The legs and cere are red. The adult female has dark brown upperparts and heavily streaked pale underparts. She has a whitish face with darker areas behind and above the eye. The legs and 54 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

(Kinosternon subrubrum steindachneri) yellow with grey spots and a yellow lined (Nerodia taxispilota) Average adult The shell of the Florida mud turtle is carapace. Juveniles also have yellow and size is 30 to 55 inches, record is 69.5 usually smooth and dark brown or olive. orange markings on the head and a gray inches. Adults are light tan with darker Mud turtles are easily distinguishable plastron. These marking disappear as it squarish brown blotches on the back. from similar musk turtles by looking ages, although adults sometimes show Dark squarish markings extend upwards at the underside of the plastron. Mud traces of the markings. The Florida from the belly onto the sides of the body turtles have a large plastron with two softshell is highly carnivorous, consuming between the dorsal blotches. The belly moveable hinges. The head of the Florida fish, frogs and other amphibians, insects, is light-colored with darker blotches mud turtle is often spotted but lacks the duck hatchlings and crustaceans. and half moons. It feeds on fish, frogs, yellow or white stripes of the striped and carrion. It is live-bearing, with up mud turtles and common musk turtle. to 60 young being recorded. The seven Young mud turtles tend to be darker to 11 inch newborns emerge from June- than the older individuals and hatchlings October. have reddish or orange blotches on the plastron. This turtle is semi-aquatic and hence spends more time on land than many other turtles. Any shallow waterway serves as an ideal environment, including streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and marshes; they have a distinct tolerance to brackish water. Mud turtles Florida green water snake are even found in temporary wetlands, burrowing into the mud when the wetland (Nerodia cyclopion floridana) Adults dries. Typically found in the intertidal average from 30 to 55 inches, record 74 zone at the water’s edge at a mean inches. Adults are thick bodied and may distance from sea level of 112 feet. Mud be greenish, brownish, or orangish, with Giant marine toad turtles feed on a wide variety of aquatic no real distinctive markings other than organisms and also eat aquatic plants. dark speckling. The belly is unpatterned (Bufo marinus) Giant marine toad, also but light-colored, with a faint pattern known as the giant neotropical toad or beneath the tail. The head is large, with cane toad, is a large, terrestrial true a scale between the eye and the scales toad. Adults average 3.9 to 5.9 inches in on the upper lip. Like all other water length; the largest recorded specimen snakes, the Florida green water snake weighed 5.8 pounds with a length of 15 is commonly mistaken for the venomous inches from snout to vent. The Giant cottonmouth. The cottonmouth is usually marine toad has poison glands, and the darker and will typically open its mouth tadpoles are highly toxic to most animals as a warning display, showing the bright if ingested. It has a diet of both living and white interior of its mouth. The Florida dead matter. As a result of its voracious Florida softshell green water snake feeds on frogs, appetite, the Giant marine toad has been tadpoles, salamanders, and fish. introduced to many regions of the Pacific (Apalone ferox) The Florida softshell and the Caribbean islands as a method of turtle is a species of softshell turtle native agricultural pest control. These toads are to the eastern United States and typically considered an exotic species as they are has a dark brown to olive green, leathery taking the place of our native toads and carapace with a white or cream colored frogs. underside, which provides the turtle with effective protection from some predators. They have a long neck, an elongated head, with a long snorkel-like nose. Juveniles have dark blotching, which fades as they age. They grow to a large size, from 6 to 30 inches, the largest of all the species in the genus Apalone. Females are larger with males only reaching Brown water snake about 14 inches. The juveniles are olive- 55 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

(Coryphaeschna ingens) The Regal darner dragonfly is a member of the family Aeschnidae. Darners are among the largest and fastest-flying North American dragonflies, 2 ¼ to 4 ¾ inches long. These brilliant blue, green, or brown insects have large, clear wings spanning up to 5 7/8 inches. Their hemispherical compound eyes meet on top of the head. The larva of this dragonfly is 2 ½ inches long, has a very flat lower lip, with no grasping bristles on the side, and Oak toad relatively short legs. (Bufo quercicus) Oak toads range in Four-spotted pennant size from 3/4 to 1 5/16 inches. Ground color varies from light gray to almost (Brachymesia gravida) This dragonfly black. These tiny toads may be very dark species perches conspicuously on tips when they are cold, but become brightly of twigs in true pennant fashion. Looks colored and well patterned with paired, like a slaty skimmer with a black light-edged dark dorsal spots when spot in each wing and white stigmas. warm. The distinguishing character for Sporadically reported from Cape May Oak toads (no matter what color they and Cumberland counties along the coast; are) is a light middorsal stripe that may it also occurs across Delaware Bay in be white, cream, yellow, or orange. There brackish marshes. Look not only for the are also generally 4 or 5 pairs of black or four brown wing spots, but also for the brown spots on the back of the toad. white pterostigma (a cell in the outer wing of insects which is often thickened Invertebrates Eastern lubber grasshopper or colored and stands out from other (Romalea microptera) This is the most cells) on each wing. Legs in this species distinctive grasshopper species in the are black. southeastern United States. It is well known both for its size and its unique coloration. They start as newborns the size of a pinky nail and grow to four inches long. The wings offer little help with mobility for they are rarely more than half the length of the abdomen. This species is incapable of flight and can jump only short distances. The lubber is quite clumsy and slow in movement and travels by feebly walking and crawling over land. In Latin, the word means clumsy. They exist throughout the year in Florida with their numbers dwindling during the fall and winter period. Bowfin (Amia calva) Bowfins are an order of primitive ray-finned fish. The most distinctive characteristic of the Bowfin is its very long dorsal fin consisting of 145 to 250 rays, and running from mid- back to the base of the tail. The caudal Regal darner fin is a single lobe, though double lobed. They can grow up to 43 inches in length, and weigh 21.5 pounds. The bowfin is 56 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

an indiscriminate predator that readily (Cyprinodon variegatus) Sheepshead What is a Slough? preys on a broad variety of arthropod minnows are generally about 1.8 inches Sloughs (pronounced SLOOs) are the and vertebrate prey, from insects, long, the longest on record was 3.7 inches. deepest of the natural marsh communities crawfish, fish and frogs. Bowfins are Their distinguishing characteristics in the Everglades. They are the main found throughout eastern North America, include silver, tubby bodies, one dorsal avenues of water flow through the typically in slow-moving backwaters, (back) and one anal fin (fin closest to Everglades. The current remains canals and ox-bow lakes. When the tail), and no lateral line. This fish can leisurely, moving about 100’ a day. During oxygen level is low (as often happens in live in water so shallow that it may be the rainy season, water depths in sloughs still waters), the bowfin can rise to the the only species there. They can survive may exceed three feet, with the annual surface and gulp air into its swim bladder, in water that has been deprived of average depth about one foot. The hydro which is lined with blood vessels and can oxygen by gulping air at the water’s period is approximately 11 months, serve as a lung. surface. Sheepshead minnows can be making it ideal habitat for aquatic plants. found in freshwater as well as saltwater. Like the longer hydro period type of the Sheepshead minnows are an important wet prairie, sloughs occur over peat soil link in the coastal food chain. Their diet and support an abundance of fish and consists of plant material, algae, detritus aquatic invertebrates. (decomposing dead/animal matter), mosquitoes and smaller fish. The dominant vegetation includes submerged and floating aquatic plants such as blatterwort, white water lily, floating heart, and spatterdock. Because of their long hydro period and scarce Seminole killifish fuel (little standing vegetation), sloughs seldom if ever burn, and thus act as (Fundulus seminolis) Seminole killifish natural firebreaks in the Everglades. are an endemic Florida species. Seminole Some areas of slough vegetation originate killifish are small, olive green, cylindrical Swamp darter where soil fires reduced elevations, fish with a rounded caudal fin. They have forming patches that have a long hydro faint vertical bars on their sides and small (Etheostoma fusiforme) Swamp darters period (Lodge). longitudinal streaks. They can grow up are small torpedo shaped fish with a to 8 inches long. Killifish spawn in April split dorsal fin and flat caudal fin. They What Does a Slough Look Like? or May, but spawning may continue are green to brown in color with three Where sloughs are extensive, the throughout the summer. They feed or four black spots across the caudal fin. landscape is typically dotted with tree primarily on small insects and crustaceans, They can grow to about 3.5 inches in total islands and contains patches of sawgrass and tend to inhabit near the bottom. They length. They spawn in the early spring. marsh, often as elongated strips. This are important forage fish and are valued They are predacious fish feeding on live configuration is called ridge-and-slough in the bait fish industry. animals, primarily small aquatic insects landscape, with sawgrass on elevated and crustaceans. “ridges” (relative to the foot-deep sloughs). Tree islands are on yet higher Sloughs ground. Sloughs have deeper water and hold water longer than other Everglades habitats discussed above. The slough may vary in depth from a few inches to two feet or more. Along with alligator holes, the deeper sloughs provide an important source of water during the dry season. As you have seen, each habitat has a distinct group of plants which distinguishes it from the others. The slough is characterized more by a lack Sheepshead minnow of plants. White water lily and floating heart are found here but little other vegetation can be seen above the water’s surface (Lodge).

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Plants of the Slough (Nymphoides peltata) Yellow floating (Utricularia Spp) The bladderworts heart was introduced as an ornamental received this name because of tiny aquatic plant from Eastern Asia. It is bladder-like structures on their branched a floating-leaved plant and is generally underwater leaves. (The wort part of somewhat larger than America’s native the name comes from old English, when floating hearts. Its flower is yellow. It has wort meant plant). These bladders are adventitious roots along an underwater actually small vacuum traps which catch stem. tiny aquatic animals. The tiny traps are oval, with a membranous door at one end. Small trigger hairs surround the door that secretes a sweet lure; when an animal comes near the trigger hairs, White water lily the door snaps open for a fraction of a second, sucking the animal inside the (Nymphaea odorata) The white water bladder. Once trapped inside, the plant lily is a perennial plant that often forms absorbs the animal’s nutrients using dense colonies. The leaves arise on digestive juices. Due to their ability flexible stalks from large thick rhizomes. to ‘eat’ animals, bladderworts can live The leaves are more round than heart- in nutrient poor, rather acidic, boggy shaped, bright green, 6 to 12 inches conditions. Bladderworts are free- in diameter with the slit about 1/3 the floating plants, but usually go unnoticed length of the leaf. Leaves usually float Spatterdock due to their habit of hanging out near the on the water’s surface. Flowers arise bottom in shallow areas. They usually (Nuphar lutea) Spatterdock (or yellow on separate stalks; have brilliant white attract attention in spring and summer pond lily) is a large plant whose leaves petals (25 or more per flower) with yellow when they float to the surface to send are often floating; however, submersed centers. The flowers may float or stick up shoots of small, attractive, yellow and immersed leaves are common. above the water and each opens in the snapdragon like flowers. Spatterdock commonly occurs in ponds, morning and closes in the afternoon. lakes and sluggish streams and blooms The flowers are very fragrant. White from spring to summer. Spatterdock water lily can spread from seeds or the has large heart-shaped leaves, usually rhizomes. with wavy margins. Spatterdock floating leaves are attached to long, stout stems Submerged portions of all aquatic plants which arise from large, spongy rhizomes. provide habitats for many micro and Spatterdock submersed leaves are very macro invertebrates. These invertebrates thin, attached at the bottom rhizomes. in turn are used as food by fish and other Spatterdock flowers are yellow and wildlife species (e.g. amphibians, reptiles, “half-opened” at or above the water ducks, etc). After aquatic plants die, surface. Flowers are attached to thick their decompostion by bacteria and fungi round stems that are often 6 feet long. provides food (called “detritus”) for many Spatterdock may be confused with white aquatic invertebrates. Deer, muskrat, water lily, Nymphaea species. nutria and other rodents will consume the Fanwort or chara leaves and rhizomes of white water lily, while the seeds are eaten by ducks. (Cabomba caroliniana) Fanwort is a multi-branched submerged perennial plant except for a few small (½ – 1¼ inches long) alternately arranged elongated floating leaves. The submerged leaves are opposite, attached by a single petiole, but above the petiole form a finely divided “fan-shaped” leaf. Fanwort has a small (½ to ¾ inch diameter) white to pink flower which arises from the tip of the stem and stands slightly Blatterwort Floating heart above the water’s surface. Submerged 58 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

portions of all aquatic plants provide habitats for many micro and macro invertebrates. These invertebrates in turn are used as food by fish and other wildlife species (e.g. amphibians, reptiles, ducks, etc.). After aquatic plants die, their decomposition by bacteria and fungi provides food (called “detritus”) for many aquatic invertebrates. Fanwort has little known direct food value to wildlife. (http://aquaplant.tamu.edu)

Wildlife of the Slough

Osprey Red-shouldered hawk (Pandion haliaetus) The osprey (Buteo lineatus) The Red-shouldered sometimes known as the sea hawk or hawk is a medium-sized hawk. Males fish eagle is a diurnal, fish-eating bird are 17 to 23 inches long, weigh about of prey. It is a large raptor, reaching 24 1.2 pounds and have a wingspan of 38 inches in length with a 6.5 foot wingspan. inches. Females are slightly larger at 19 It is brown on the upperparts and to 24 inches in length, a weight of about predominantly grayish on the head and 1.5 pounds and a wingspan of about 42 under parts, with a black eye patch and inches. Adults have a brownish head, wings. a reddish chest, and a pale belly with Wood storks reddish bars. Their tail, which is quite (Mycteria americana) The wood stork The Osprey is particularly well adapted long by buteo standards, is marked with is on the threatened species list and a to this diet, with reversible outer toes, narrow white bars. The red shoulder is species of special concern in Florida. The sharp spicules on the underside of the visible when the bird is perched as seen adult is a large bird 33–45 inches tall and toes, closable nostrils to keep out water in the image above. These hawks’ upper 58 to 71 inch wingspan. Males typically during dives, and backwards-facing areas are dark with pale spots and they weigh 5.5 to 7.3 pounds; females weigh scales on the talons which act as barbs have long yellow legs. Western birds may 4.4 to 6.2 pounds, although large birds to help hold its catch. Occasionally, the appear redder while Florida birds are are up to 10 pounds. It appears all white Osprey may prey on rodents, rabbits, generally paler. The wings of adults are on the ground, with blackish-gray legs snakes, amphibians, other birds, and more heavily barred on the upper side. and pink feet. In flight, the trailing edge small reptiles. It has evolved specialized of the wings is black. The head is dark physical characteristics and exhibits Juvenile Red-shouldered hawks are brown with a bald, black face, and the unique behavior to assist in hunting and most likely to be confused with juvenile thick down curved bill is dusky yellow. catching prey. Despite its propensity to Broad-winged hawks, but can be Juvenile birds are a duller version of the nest near water, the Osprey is not a sea- distinguished by their long tail, crescent- adult, generally browner on the neck, eagle. Fish make up 99% of the Osprey’s like wing markings, and a more flapping, and with a paler bill. Walking slowly and diet. It typically takes fish weighing five accipiter-like flight style. This bird is steadily in shallow water up to its belly; it to 10 ounces and about 10 to 14 inches in often confused with the Red-tailed hawk, seeks prey, which, like that of most of its length, but the weight can range from two another species of hawk. Prey can include relatives, consists of fish, frogs and large to 68 ounces. Ospreys have vision that amphibians, reptiles (especially small insects. It catches fish by holding its bill is well adapted to detecting underwater snakes), small birds, and large insects. open in the water until a fish is detected. objects from the air. Prey is first sighted During winters, they sometimes prey on when the Osprey is 32 to 130 feet above birds commonly found at bird feeders. the water, after which the bird hovers momentarily then plunges feet first into the water.

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snake darkens with age. Their belly is creamy yellow with wormlike red or black markings. Scales are keeled and there are 23 to 27 dorsal scale rows at midbody. The pupil is round. A dark stripe extends from the eye to the angle of the jaw. Juveniles have very clear red or black crossbands on light background.

American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) The Peninsula cooter American alligator has a large, slightly rounded body, with thick limbs, a broad (Pseudemys floridana peninsularis) head, and a very powerful tail. Adult They grow up to 15 inches. The full dark alligators generally have a green, olive, spots on the underside of the marginal brown, gray, or nearly black color with help to distinguish it from Pseudemys a creamy white underside. Algae-laden floridana floridana, which has spots with waters produce greener skin, while tannic light colored centers. The cooter is mainly Largemouth bass acid from overhanging trees can often herbivorous and inhabits lakes, sloughs, produce darker skin. Juvenile alligators ponds, slow-flowing streams, and other (Micropterus salmoides floridanus) The have a striped pattern for camouflage still bodies of water with soft bottoms and largemouth is the largest member of that they lose as they mature. Adult male abundant aquatic vegetation. However, the sunfish family. It generally has light alligators are typically 11.2 to 14.5 feet in it can be found in high densities in some greenish to brownish sides with a dark length, though rarely exceeding 14 feet, Florida spring runs, usually in heavily lateral line which tends to break into while adult females average 8.2 to 9.8 vegetated areas with little flow. This blotches towards the tail. Often confused feet. Average body weights are reported species is active year-round and spends a with smallmouth and spotted bass, it is from 270 to 800 pounds, with the larger large portion of the day basking on logs. easily distinguishable because the upper old males exceeding 1,000 pounds. jaw extends beyond the rear edge of the eye. Also, its first and second dorsal fins American alligators have the strongest are almost separated by an obvious deep bite of any living animal, measured at dip, and there are no scales on the soft- up to 2,125 (pound force) in laboratory rayed second dorsal fin or on the anal conditions. fin. Two are recognized: the northern largemouth (M. s. salmoides) and the American alligators are less susceptible Florida largemouth (M. s. floridanus). to cold than American crocodiles. Unlike The two look much the same, but the the American crocodile, which would Florida largemouth has 69 to 73 scales quickly succumb to the cold and drown in along the lateral line compared to the water of 45 °F, an alligator can survive in northern largemouth’s 59 to 65 scales. such temperatures for some time without Florida bass grow to trophy size more apparent discomfort. Alligators eat fish, Florida banded water snake readily than northern largemouth in birds, turtles, snakes, mammals, and warm waters. Originally, the Florida amphibians. Some adult alligators take (Nerodia fasciata pictiventris) Adults largemouth was found only in peninsular a larger variety of prey ranging from a average from 24 to 42 inches. The Florida, but they have been stocked snake or turtle to a bird and moderate record is 62.5 inches. Stout bodied in several other states including Texas sized mammals like a raccoon or deer. snake with broad black, brown, or red and California. Males seldom exceed 16 The gizzards (stomachs) of alligators crossbands over most of its body. The inches, while females frequently surpass often contain gastroliths. The function lighter narrower bands are tan, gray, or 22 inches. of these stones is to grind up food in the reddish and may contain a dark spot on stomach and help with digestion. the side. The light bands may be broken by a black strip down the middle of the back. Crossbands may be obscured as 60 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

grows to a maximum overall length of Activities/Lessons approximately 16 inches. Wetland Metaphors from Project WILD (grades 2-12) Materials: Chapter IV Everglades Ecosystems, bag filled with – sponge, pillow, bar soap, egg beater, sieve, paper coffee filter, antacid (TUMS) tablets, box of cereal, bottle of water, baby rattle Longnose gar (bag with all of contents can be borrowed from Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee (Lepisosteus osseus) The longnose gar National Wildlife Refuge), paper and ranges in length from 24 to 72 inches writing utensil. and weighs 1.1 to 7.7 pounds; the world record is 50.31 pounds, caught in Trinity Activity: This takes about 30 minutes. River, Texas in 1954; Fish Base reports Begin by confirming student background a maximum size of 6.6 feet. Average knowledge of the definition of a metaphor. life span is 17 to 20 years. The snout is Have one student be the recorder. Allow elongated into a narrow beak containing students to pick an element from the bag, many large teeth. The gar has a long Black crappie think about what they have, and write body that is shaped like a cylinder, and a brainstorm list of how this element is covered with diamond-shape scales. It (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) The black metaphorically relates to the function has a long black streak across the body. crappie is a silvery-green to yellowish of a wetland using knowledge gained They usually are found near vegetation fish with large dorsal and anal fins of from this chapter. As students share, and occasionally in brackish waters. almost identical shape and size. The sides the recorder makes a chart showing the Young fish mainly feed on zooplankton are marked with black blotches which element and its metaphorical function while larger ones feed on small fish, frogs become more intense towards the back. as connected to wetlands (an example and crustaceans. They feed by stalking The dorsal, anal, and caudal fins also are of this is that an egg beater could be a their prey or lying in wait for it to come marked with rows of dark spots. Crappies tornado/hurricane that comes through within striking distance. have compressed bodies, small heads the wetlands or a sponge is the peat that and arched backs. It has a large mouth soaks up the water but still holds it in with an upper jaw extending under the the wetland). Students then confirm or eye. Primary food items are crustaceans, disprove their ideas, recorder writes the aquatic insects and small fish. Adults correct information next to the students’ mainly eat small fish, particularly open- claims. water forage fish, like threadfin shad. An extension of this is to have students write Haiku poems with visuals of their element and what each represents in wetlands.

Animal Olympics from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (K-12) Bluegill Materials: Must take place outdoors. Since this can be adapted to the (Lepomis macrochirus) The bluegill is schoolyard as well as the Refuge (animal a species of freshwater fish sometimes cards should refer to fauna found where referred to as bream, brim, or copper the activity is taking place), pictures, nose. Of the many types of sunfish markers, and paper. Teacher can make body shapes, the bluegill’s most notable groups or individuals, students just feature is the blue or black “ear.” Its cannot have the same animal. (Refuge has name, however comes from the bright 11 signs with Refuge animals which can blue edging visible on its gill rakers. be borrowed for this activity. Please call It can be distinguished from similar education department for a score sheet species by the (not always pronounced) for the Refuge Animal Olympics. ) vertical bars along its flanks. The bluegill 61 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Activity: This should take two class Florida panther Long periods to coordinate. The teacher should Jump: Florida panthers have students make game cards with can long jump up to 15 information and visuals about an animal feet vertically and 45 feet and its physical body movements on one horizontally. page– this animal should be researched from information within this chapter and Anhinga Still Pose: supplemental resources (teacher can Anhingas spread their allow students to choose their animal or wings to thermoregulate assign students an animal – it must be their body temperature. related to the habitat of the activity). Can a student spread their arms and hold the pose for Teacher assigns a recorder to track how two minutes? many students have the same physical capabilities as the animals. Begin in Marsh rabbit Run: Marsh alphabetical order. For example, the rabbits run in a zig zag student with the alligator goes first, holds pattern. up his/her paper showing the picture and physical capability fact of the animal (the Red-shoulder hawk high walk), the student then attempts Distance Spit: Red- to mimic the capability and the rest of shoulder hawk babies send the class tries one by one as well while their feces over the nest the recorder tracks how many students’ at a few days old. How far abilities can compare to the animals’. can a student spit?

Even children with disabilities can have River otter Gymnastics: an animal; the teacher should be sensitive River otters spin or twist to the child’s feelings and abilities. At while on the grass or in the the end, the top three students who water. physically match the same capabilities as the animals win the Gold, Silver, and Florida box turtle Curl: Bronze metals. Florida box turtles curl up in a ball at the sign of a Great blue heron Balance Beam: Great threat. Can a student hold blue herons can walk in a straight nine this pose for two minutes? inch stride. Extend this by discussing White-tail Deer High Jump: White- – are these students and animals the Activity: Students are shown photos tailed deer can jump 8½ feet straight into fittest? Do they have the best chance at of various types of patterns on man- the air. survival? made objects, or patterns made by man and take notes on the different Everglades snail kite Aerobatics: Male Extend this into a discussion on bullying types of patterns. Students are then to kites swoop, glide and dive to attract a students with disabilities or children who find examples of each in nature – take mate. Can a student perform a similar are different from themselves!!! a photo or draw it as a close-up, then aerobatic performance? present their findings to the class and Patterns in Nature, Can you Guess the class must categorize the type of American alligator High Walk: Who? from Emily Guerrieri (grades pattern, connect it to something man- American alligators keep their legs 3-12) made, and guess what the close-up is of. directly underneath themselves to walk. Materials: camera, camera phone, or Use the template of patterns from www. How many feet can a student high walk. drawing materials (teachers can use expandingheart.com small digital cameras and students can Osprey Dance: Male ospreys ‘sky dance’ pair up or they can borrow cameras from to attract a mate. Can a student sky the school). This activity must take place dance for five minutes? outdoors. 62 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Chapter V Endangered Species

This chapter is designed to introduce Federal Endangered and Threatened In October 2013, the U.S. Fish and students and teachers to endangered Species Listing Wildlife Service had 1,362 plant and and threatened species that live in animal species listed as endangered the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee Group Endangered Threatened and threatened in the United States. National Wildlife Refuge (Refuge) and That number is up from 581 in 1990. the Southeastern United States and will Plants 720 156 Unfortunately, this number increases hopefully encourage further research Mammals 71 20 each year. Even though extinction is a and discussions about other problems natural process, man has accelerated the and issues in this country and around the Birds 81 18 rate at which it occurs due to our need world. Reptiles and 35 37 for land and its resources in which the Amphibians plants and animals need to live. Scientists What Does it Mean to be Endangered? estimate that the number of species A plant or animal is endangered if it is Fish 83 71 lost each year will climb at a rate far in serious danger of becoming extinct Insects and 60 10 exceeding any in the last 65 million years. throughout all or much of its range. A Arachnids Even though we have had great success threatened species is likely to become with the American bald eagle, wood Total 1,050 312 endangered in the near future. A species stork and the American alligator there is listed as endangered or threatened U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish are always species that are being added through a formal legal process that and Wildlife Service, Endangered Species – and subtracted to the threatened and examines scientific evidence of the plant Environmental Conservation Online System endangered list every year (http://www. http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/pub/boxscore.do or animal’s habitat and the numbers of fws.gov/endangered/species/us-species. which are present from year to year. html). Once listed, a species receives Federal Numerical Summary of Species Listed by the State of Florida as protection from all activities that destroy For the most current Florida Fish and Federally-designated Endangered (FE) it or its habitat, and a plan is made for Wildlife Conservation Commission helping the species recover. Endangered and Threatened Official Federally-designated Threatened (FT) Species List please see (http://myfwc. Many students will be surprised to com/media/1515251/threatened_ learn that endangered and threatened Federally-designated Threatened because endangered_species.pdf). species may live and migrate close to of similarity of appearance [FT(S/A)] their homes. Visit the following three Endangered and Threatened Species websites for a list of the threatened and Federal non-essential experimental Specific to Arthur R. Marshall endangered species: population (FXN) Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge There are at least 63 imperiled species n http://www.freshfromflorida.com/ State-designated Threatened (ST) known to occur or could occur on Divisions-Offices/Florida-Forest- the Refuge. These species are listed Service/Our-Forests/Forest-Health/ State Species of Special Concern (SSC) as Federal or state threatened and Florida-Statewide-Endangered-and- endangered species, species of special Threatened-Plant-Conservation- Charts and information provided by concern, species of management Program/Florida-s-Federally-Listed- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation concern, or listed by the Convention Plant-Species Commission 2011 of International Trade in Endangered n http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/ esa/listed.htm Status Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals Invertebrates Total Designation n http://www.fws.gov/endangered FE 3 1 4 9 22 8 47 FT 2 1 6 4 1 6 20 Have your students learn about one or more species being threatened by FT(S/A) 0 0 1 0 0 3 4 extinction and report on these species FXN 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 during class. Individual awareness and action on a local level is important to the ST 3 0 7 5 3 1 19 survival of all the animals in this chapter. SSC 6 4 6 16 6 4 42 Total 14 6 24 35 32 22 133 63 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Species (CITES). The Service has (Rostrhamus sociabilis) in 2013, (Alligator mississippiensis) appears primary responsibility for federally listed volunteers observed the impoundments to be doing well on the Refuge. In species. By managing for federally listed and levee’s surrounding the Refuge for 1999, a long term survey was initiated species, state and other listed species snail kite activity. To request a complete to determine the abundance, nesting benefit as well. summary of their observations, please see success, and health of this species. the Refuge Interpretive Specialist Serena Alligators of all sizes were observed in Several species that fall under the Rinker. both survey routes, with larger alligators endangered species, threatened species, observed in the canal survey. Many or species of special concern are Surveys were performed by University pods of young of several size classes discussed below: of Florida researchers in the interior, were observed along the interior survey impoundments, and Lake Worth route indicating that alligator nesting Drainage District canal. One nest was is occurring on a regular basis in the initiated in the Refuge for the 2013 year; interior. Nests were located, opened, however it was not successful due to rapid and the eggs measured, counted, changes in the water regulation schedule and evaluated for viability. Tending contributing to poor foraging conditions. females were captured, marked, and The Everglades snail kite is a federally measurements were taken. Early endangered species. indications are that alligators in and around the Refuge appear to be in good condition. The American alligator is listed as a species of least concern.

Bald eagle Reddish egret (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) there are two (Egretta rufescena) This bird has been pairs of nesting bald eagles in the Refuge. rarely observed on the Refuge. The These majestic birds were taken off of reddish egret has been known to nest the Department of Interior’s endangered in the Boynton Beach area. The reddish species list on June 28, 2007, but are still egret is a state species of special concern. on the federally threatened list. These birds mate for life. Tropical curly-grass fern (Schizaea germanii) was found in 1972 by Taylor Alexander on tree islands near the airboat trail, but is now found in the Cypress Swamp near rotten tree stumps and decomposing litter. It likes areas that are wet/marshy areas and that are shady. The tropical curly grass fern is an endangered species.

American alligator Everglades snail kite 64 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Factors of Species Endangerment secondary institutions are conducting includes help in reproduction and the Humans research experiments daily at the transferring of animals between facilities Causes Refuge and you can be a part of any of (like zoos and aquariums) to keep the Today, most species become endangered them. For example: catching non-native gene pool as diverse as possible. The because of things people do that tree frogs, eradicating invasive plant FWS uses reintroduction of species into jeopardize the survival of a species such species, collecting water samples, etc… the animal’s historically native regions as: from habitats that are not as suitable for n Join a Service Learning Project like the species. n Turning habitat into farms, factories, YCC (Youth Conservation Corps) towns, roads, highways, dumps For example: there were 100 red wolves n Write letters to lawmakers about that were reintroduced into eastern n Poisoning habitats with pesticides and habitat preservation North Carolina to roam their native other pollutants range over 20 years ago. The project is Wildlife Laws and What They Mean called the Red Wolf Recovery Program n Introducing foreign species (exotics) The Federal government administers and counts are said to be between 90 – that compete with native ones for food the national program for endangered 110 red wolves as of today. or space species and is guided by laws that protect wildlife. The key legislation is www.fws.gov/redwolf/redwolfrecovery. n Exploiting a species for commercial or the Endangered Species Act of 1973. html recreational purposes This law provides for the listing of all classes of plants and animals that are Convention on International Trade Solutions close to extinction and gives them legal in Endangered Species of Wild n As stated by a Refuge biologist, “There protection. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Fauna and Flora (CITES): (1975) this is no substitute for getting children Service is responsible for protecting and international treaty, which was designed out in the wilds and letting them see conserving endangered wildlife on land or to protect plants and animals affected by and experience all that nature has to in fresh water, while the National Marine international trade, regulates the import offer. This is what they will remember.” Fisheries Service oversees marine and export of endangered and threatened Exposure and awareness is the main species. These agencies work with other plants and wildlife. Nations that sign key to the success of life on the planet. Federal and state government agencies, the treaty agree to restrict the trade of conservation organizations, businesses, certain species. (In 2011, 175 nations had n A recovery plan is a guide for and industry to try and ensure that signed) These restrictions depend on the identifying and solving problems endangered species recover and can be appendix each species is listed under. endangering a plant or animal. It might self-sustaining. call for preserving or cleaning the Appendix I includes species immediately habitat or it might require breeding an Endangered Species Act: (1973) this threatened with extinction. All shipments animal in captivity and releasing the comprehensive law was passed to of live and dead animals and plants, their young in areas where the species once protect plants and animals that are in parts, and any goods manufactured from lived. danger of becoming extinct. Species them must have two permits – one from that are officially listed as “threatened” the exporting country and one from the or “endangered” on the U.S. Fish and importing country. These permits are What Can You Do to be a Wildlife Service list are not allowed to be granted only for educational or scientific Part of the Solution? imported or exported; hunted, collected, purposes, and only if collection will not Get Involved! or harassed; transported across state or threaten the species. n Xeriscape, use Permaculture, Reduce, national lines for commerce; sold; or used Reuse, Recycle in any way without an authorized permit Appendix II includes species that are not from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. immediately threatened by extinction, but n Raise awareness of people around you Restrictions on trade and transport apply will be if their trade is not regulated. A about the plight of species and their to live and dead animals and plants, their permit from only the exporting country habitats. parts; and the products manufactured is required. It’s legal to use these species from them. in commercial trade, but only if it will not n Research Projects in Action – LILA threaten the species. (Loxahatchee Impoundment Landscape Protected species may be used only for Assessment), the University of Florida, the purposes of scientific research, public Appendix III includes species that are and Florida Atlantic University along education, exhibition in zoos, or efforts not covered by Appendices I and II, with many other secondary and post- that could help save the species. This but are endangered or threatened in a 65 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

country that needs international help Activities/Lessons population growth, everyone must turn in to protect them. An export permit must I Will Survive from U.S. Fish a slip.” When students only have two slips be issued by the country where it is in and Wildlife Service Region 4 EE left, they sit down and say, “I’m in big trouble. Manual (grades 1-12) trouble.” Graph the outcomes. Discuss Materials: Chapter V Endangered who is left and why. *Note: Nations belonging to CITES can Species, construction paper or poster take a “reservation” on certain species, board, scissors, markers, colored pencils Bringing Art into the Classroom which means they can exempt themselves – older students could make a power (grades 2-12) from CITES requirements. point presentation or poster using their Materials: large white poster board/foam computer skills in Microsoft Publisher. board, items found in natures such as; Lacy Act: (1900) This U.S. act prohibits leaves, pine cone parts, seeds, feathers, the taking, selling, buying, importing, Activity: Students can work in teams or rocks, sand, sticks, etc. This project can exporting, or transporting of any species individually. This will take a class period. be used as an at home project. (including rare plants and fish) that are Create a T chart – to the left side, list protected by any Federal, tribal and species chosen from the Florida Fish Activity: Assign the students a Florida state law. The act also makes it illegal and Wildlife Conservation Commission “At risk, Threatened, or Endangered” to import any species into the United Threatened and Endangered Official animal – could be mammal, bird, reptile States that may be harmful to people, Species List (one per group or one per depending on what you are studying. The agriculture or wildlife. It requires student), write the causes next to the students are to draw the outline of the that wildlife be transported humanely species, and then write solutions to the animal in pencil to fit the paper, making and be correctly identified. Its strict problem next to the cause. sure that they leave room for the animals penalties (up to $20,000 fine and/or five name and basic facts about it. They are years imprisonment) are often used to Lastly, have students create an then to use the natural product to fill in prosecute commercial traffickers. advertisement poster that persuades the outline so that the animal looks like audiences to be aware of their animals’ the animal in real life. Other Acts plight and take part in the solution Marine Mammal Protection Act: presented. Students present these Extension: If you are working on another (1972) protects taking or harming marine posters to the class. area of the world you can adapt this mammals in U.S. waters, or importing project to that area as well – for example: their body parts and products. (Marine And Then There were None from if you are working on Africa you could use mammals include polar bears, sea otters, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service animals like the Black Rhino, Cheetah, walruses, dugongs, manatees, whales, Region 4 EE Manual (grades 3-12) Leopard and the Mountain Zebra. seals, and sea lions.) Materials: list of causes from “T chart” created from I Will Survive activity, www.earthsendangered.com Migratory Bird Treaty Act: (1918) Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation protects migratory birds (including Commission Threatened and Endangered migratory and resident songbirds) Official Species List from Chapter V and restricts trade of their body parts, Endangered Species, tape, six slips of feathers, nests, eggs and products made paper per student. from them. Seasonal hunting is allowed for some ducks, geese, woodcocks, and Activity: Each student makes an “I AM” other migratory birds. card with the name of one species from the T chart. Students tape the “I AM” Eagle Protection Act: (1940) was passed card to their shirt, and then get into a to protect bald eagles and amended in circle. Teacher distributes the six slips of 1962 to include golden eagles. paper to each student (explain that each slip represents the population of millions of organisms).

Teacher reads the causes from the T chart and says, “Each time I read a cause that limits or reduces your chances of survival, put one of your slips on the floor in front of you. Whenever I say, human 66 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Chapter VI Exotics Invading South Florida and Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge

Over 40 new exotic species arrive into the diversity than native plant habitats. In United States monthly (www.myfwc.com), fact, the introduction of invasive exotic Florida being only second to Hawaii for plants is the second greatest threat to the most invasive exotic species problems biodiversity next to habitat destruction. in the United States. With populations of exotic plants and animals increasing daily Category I in Florida, coupled with habitat depletion, Plants are species that are currently a significant threat is posed to the invading and disrupting native plant integrity and biodiversity of all of South communities in Florida. Sixty-seven Florida’s ecosystems, including: pine percent (67%) of the Category I plants flatwoods, sand pine scrub, mangrove were introduced from the nursery communities, cypress swamps, the Arthur industry, fifteen percent (15%) are of R. Marshall Loxahatchee National unknown origin or were introduced Wildlife Refuge (Refuge) and the entire accidentally and the final eighteen Everglades ecosystem. percent (18%) were introduced as a help to the environment.

Category II Plants are species that have shown a potential to disrupt native plant communities. Research by Bob Pemberton has shown that the longer a plant was available in the nursery trade Melaleuca the greater the chance it has of becoming invasive. Plants sold for more than 20 (Melaleuca quinquenervia) was brought Columbian boa surrendered at Florida in to absorb and drain the water from Fish and Wildlife Conservation years have a 66% greater chance of becoming invasive (fleppc.org) the Everglades in order to create stable Commission Pet Amnesty Day ground for building and reduce mosquito Flora and Fauna Characteristics habitat with hopes of reducing malaria. Melaleuca invades all habitats found Flora Invasive exotic pest plants that allow within the Refuge including saw grass Flora relates to all plant life. Thousands them to effectively out-compete native marsh, tree islands, wet prairies, and of exotic plants have been introduced plants include: to Florida since the New World was sloughs, directly affecting the species which depend on these habitats for discovered. With its subtropical climate, n Rapid growth; South Florida provides an ideal situation nesting and foraging. for the growth and spread of these new n Ability to produce seeds at an early invasive exotics. Without their native age; predators or controls, or diseases to keep their populations in check, some of n Prolific and prodigious seed production; these introduced species rapidly expand forming dense monotypic forests and n Their ability to survive stressful events thickets which are undesirable to wildlife such as fire, drought, temperature throughout Florida. extremes, and herbicide treatments; Over 1,200 of these introduced plant n Ease of seed dispersal; species, 31% of all plant species documented in Florida, have become Old World climbing fern n naturalized in Florida, meaning they are Ability to rapidly colonize both successfully reproducing on their own disturbed and relatively pristine sites (Lygodium miscrophyllum) was (Wunderlin). Of these, one to four per such as the Refuge. introduced as an ornamental in the 1950s cent have become serious pests and are and is currently spreading across South currently replacing native plant habitats Florida at an alarming rate. This fern such as those found in the Everglades is particularly destructive to native tree ecosystem. This degraded habitat has islands found in the Everglades and is been proven to support less species also in the Refuge’s 400 acre Cypress 67 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Swamp. The fern effectively smothers Once established, it radically alters the Fauna native plants. It also has a nasty habit light, temperature, and soil chemistry Fauna relates to all wildlife. Florida, of ascending into the canopy of trees regimes of beach habitats, as it specifically South Florida, next to forming potential flame ladders which outcompetes and displaces native plant Hawaii, California, and Louisiana, is may carry fires into the crowns resulting species and destroys habitat for native home to more exotic wildlife species in eventual tree death. Small pieces of insects and other wildlife. The ground than any other region in the United fern material may break off during fires, below Australian pine trees becomes States. Approximately 26% of all resident drift with heat thermals, and start spot ecologically sterile and lacking in food mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fires. value for native wildlife. Unlike native and fish are non-native. In fact, South shrubbery, the thick, shallow roots of Florida harbors one of the largest exotic Australian pine make it much more animal communities in the world, and susceptible to blow-over during high these are represented by every animal wind events, leading to increased beach phylum (SFWMD, 2000). These exotic and dune erosion and interference with invaders prey on native wildlife, therefore the nesting activities of sea turtles. decreasing native numbers and the food Australian pine was introduced to Florida source for native predators; destroy in the late 1800’s and planted widely ecosystems, causing native species to for the purposes of ditch and canal lose vital space; they compete for food, stabilization, shade and lumber (NPS). water and shelter; introduce and spread diseases to which native species are not immune.

Examples:

n Cuban tree frog

n Swamp hens

n Sacred ibis

n Pythons and boas

Brazilian Pepper n Feral hogs (Schinus terebinthifolius) An evergreen Australian Pine shrub or tree, it was imported as an How Exotics are Introduced into ornamental in the 1840s. It forms dense Non-Native Habitats (Casuarinas equisetifolia) A deciduous thickets of tangled woody stems that Since no ecosystem in South Florida is tree with a soft, wispy, pine-like completely shades out and displaces exempt from man’s influence, the threat appearance that can grow to 100 feet native vegetation as it produces certain of exotic invader introduction by humans or more in height. It bears a superficial allelopathic agents, suppressing the remains high. There are four general resemblance to the conifer genus Pinus growth of other plants. Seeds spread types of pathways by which exotic because of its small, round, cone-like by consumption and deposition of the animals are introduced into South Florida fruits and its branchlets of scale-like fruit by wildlife; spread is enhanced by environments: Intentional, Unintentional, leaves that look like pine needles. decorative use of branches and fruit. Escapes, and Natural Range Expansion. Brazilian pepper is estimated to occupy Australian pine is fast-growing (5 to over 700,000 acres in central and south Intentional 10 feet per year). Dense thickets of Florida. Intentional introductions include stocking Australian pine displace native dune and of sport fish (peacock bass), stocking beach vegetation, including mangroves http://www.fleppc.org/ID_book/ of animals for ornamental reasons or and many other resident, beach-adapted Schinus%20terebinthifolius.pdf hunting (Japanese koi or goldfish, exotic species. The Australian pine’s roots are game mammals), dumping of live bait capable of producing nitrogen through by fisherman; releases of unwanted microbial associations; it can colonize pets by owners, or releases of unwanted nutrient-poor soils. animals by dealers; release of aquarium 68 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

organisms such as plants, fish, and (Rhinella marina) Giant cane toad was invertebrates and release of research released to control sugarcane beetles. animals for science and medicine which This species has since spread to urban includes release of exotic non-native areas and is a potential danger to insects, or animals to serve as biological small children and pets if handled, or control agents to control other exotic consumed. Its poison is fairly toxic. organisms (Goodyear, 2000). Some of Triploid grass carp these intentional introductions have been for beneficial purposes for the native (Ctenopharyngodon idella) Triploid grass environment; however, a few of these carp, a species of non-reproductive fish “beneficial, intentional introductions” were intentionally introduced to help reacted adversely and have had control the spread of the invasive exotic catastrophic affects. hydrilla plant in South Florida lakes and canals, and the program has achieved Examples of Beneficial great success. Intentional Introductions

Muscovy duck

Peacock bass (Cairina moschata) Muscovy ducks were intentionally released by the Florida Fish (Cichia ocellaris) The Peacock bass and Wildlife Conservation Commission was released by the Florida Fish and in the late 1960s to provide a huntable Wildlife Conservation Commission in resource. Established populations the early 1980s into select South Florida Melaleuca snout beetle soon began to breed with the native canals, which could provide sustainable populations and escaped domestic birds. populations. They provide an excellent (Oxyops vitiosa) Melaleuca Snout Beetle, They are now commonly seen in lakes in alternative sport fishery to the native was intentionally released to help reduce residential and retirement communities. largemouth bass. Canals became over- the spread of the exotic Australian populated with non-native forage fish melaleuca tree only after research was such as the spotted tilapia, another exotic conducted to show that it would pose no Unintentional fish species that was illegally introduced threat to native flora or agricultural cash Unintentional introductions consist for the aquarium trade. The peacock crops. primarily of “hitchhikers,” or those bass was stocked to help control and animals accidentally introduced with feed upon the spotted tilapia population. Examples of Injurious cargo shipments, ballast water releases, Peacock bass populations would in turn Intentional Introductions etc. International shipping has played be controlled by water temperatures, a huge role in the introduction of exotic in effect, limiting their populations to animals since the Spanish arrived in South Florida canals. The peacock bass Florida in the 1500s. Since inspections of fishery now provides millions of dollars to cargo at ports are minimal and generally the local economy through purchases of involve searches for illegal contraband licenses and associated fishing equipment. (drugs and guns) and illegal aliens rather Research has shown that peacock bass than for exotic animal species, the U.S. feed on different prey and at different Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. times of the day than native largemouth Department of Agriculture inspectors are bass. In effect, the peacock bass are only able to check a fraction of incoming filling a vacantniche . Research has shipments. shown that bass populations are stable or increasing in areas where the peacock bass has been stocked. Giant cane toad 69 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Examples of Injurious of exotic bird and mammal species Subtropical Climate and Environment Unintentional Introductions established in South Florida is believed South Florida is considered a “habitat to be from private collections, although island” (Goodyear, 2000) and is ideal many bird species, because of their flight for the spread and survival of exotic capability, escaped from Port Everglades animal species. Maximum temperatures and Miami International Airport. average in the low 80s, and minimum South Florida is susceptible to tropical temperatures that average in the low 60s weather disturbances such as hurricanes, and receive on average nearly 60 inches tornadoes, and tropical depressions. of precipitation per year. South Florida’s These catastrophic natural disasters climate is very similar to environments can greatly accelerate the spread of that support most of the imported exotic non-indigenous animal species. Many animals so this factor enhances their non-native animal species inadvertently ability to survive, and establish viable escaped captivity after their cages had reproducing populations. Asian tiger mosquito been destroyed, or damaged. For instance, Hurricane Andrew freed from secure Extreme weather conditions, such as (Aedes albopictus) Asian tiger mosquito, facilities hundreds of exotic animals extended freezes, may wipe out entire a carrier and agent for the spread of the species including fish, snakes, lizards, exotic animal populations, or help to eastern equine encephalitis virus, arrived birds, and mammals such as primates. contain their spread. South Florida’s via a shipment of tires from Japan. climate is also moderated by water Natural Range Expansion bodies to the north, east, and west which Natural immigration of non-native contribute to the nearly constant and fauna has occurred in South Florida favorable weather conditions. In fact, an but is not common. Excellent examples imaginary line exists to the north of Lake of natural range expansion include the Okeechobee which prevents the spread love bug from Texas, the coyote from the and existence of most exotic animal and northwestern U.S., and the cattle egret plant species to the north, but effectively from Africa to South America in 1877 ensures their survival to the south. It has and spread to the U.S. in 1941 (www. been debated that the issue of “global allaboutbirds.org). Populations of white- warming” may be contributing to the winged doves, native to the southwest spread of exotic plants and animal species were released by the Florida Fish and north of this line as the result of changes Wildlife Conservation Commission in the (warming) in temperatures. early 1960s as an upland game species for hunters. Specimens were released Steady Supply of Animals from private aviaries in Dade County There is a continuous, daily supply of as well. Their populations however, may animals entering South Florida due to the be enhanced by natural immigration of aquarium, pet industry and exotic animal individuals from Texas. The armadillo was trade, and aquaculture through ports of (Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus) thought to have arrived by natural range entry like Miami International Airport Black rat and Norway rat were expansion, but were later determined to and Port Everglades on flights and ships introduced to Florida via the shipping be intentional releases. from around the world. This, along with pathway. Both are considered as serious an ideal climate, has encouraged wildlife exotic pest problems. Why Do Exotics Flourish in Florida? importers and exotic animal breeders Several factors that contribute to the to locate in South Florida. This has Escapees successful establishment of exotic animals spawned, and contributed to a thriving, Importation of virtually all exotic animal in Florida include: catastrophic invasive industry, leading to endangerment of native species. species presents a risk for escape, and n Ideal climate escapes indeed often occur from facilities where these species are supposed to n Steady source of animals be confined. Exotic animals escape n from private residences, pet stores, Ease of dispersal aquaculture facilities, zoos, airports, entry n Continuous disturbance of habitats ports, tourist attractions, and research facilities. The source of the majority 70 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

throughout the United States can be intricate system of canals accelerated the traced to the aquarium trade industry. In influx of humans and development along addition, releases of exotic fish species the eastern corridor of the Everglades into local water bodies occurs frequently and resulted in the tremendous when owners and individuals tire of population growth in South Florida. The caring for them. remaining fragmented habitats have been altered by drainage and the natural Ease of Dispersal Due to Continuous hydrology has been severely impacted. Disturbance of Habitats Exotic animal species thrive in these Habitat destruction from human conditions and environmental stresses to habitation, agriculture and development, native wildlife may make native wildlife Prairie dog surrendered at Fish and favors the establishment of non- populations more susceptible to invasion Wildlife Conservation Commission Pet indigenous animal species. South by these intruders. Amnesty Day Florida’s human population and resultant habitat destruction continues to expand at Solutions and Management On average, 12,000 shipments of wildlife, an exponential rate. The majority of the An exotic eradication and management of which 85% are live animals, enter area bordering the historic Everglades program will rely on an integrated through the airport and port annually. has succumbed to urbanization. Many of exotic invader management program Tropical fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, the established exotic animal’s species are that utilizes all available tools to control and mammals represent the majority located near human population centers invasive/exotic species. Although an of importations (Goodyear, 2000). Most where they find suitable shelter, food, extraordinary amount of money is exotic animals found in the Everglades and breeding sites. Most natural habitats being slated for the restoration of can be traced to importation for the pet in South Florida have been severely the Everglades and its water quality, trade industry. The pet trade in South altered or fragmented, increasing this unique one-of-a-kind ecosystem Florida is highly profitable and the the susceptibility by exotic animals. may eventually be lost if the problem number of permits for the importation, Disturbed sites in general usually become of invasive pest plant and wildlife possession, and breeding of exotic prime sites for colonization by exotic management is not effectively and animal species continues to skyrocket animal species. Many species are locally continuously addressed. Without according to the Florida Fish and Wildlife distributed while others are much more continued treatment and increased Conservation Commission and can widespread. funding directed towards invasive plant be directly linked to the State’s ever- management, the Refuge and most of growing human population. The trade in Human modification of South Florida South Florida will continue to see native illegal wildlife is second only to the trade ecosystems: plant communities such as the Everglades in guns and drugs according to the U.S. become replaced by monocultures of Fish and Wildlife Service (Goodyear, n Land clearing one species of plant which will lead to 2000). habitat degradation and a decrease in n Hydrological alterations – canals, lakes, biodiversity. Florida’s aquaculture industry is the levees largest in the United States, exporting Plants: Over $5 billion per year is spent nearly $170 million in tropical fish and n Urbanization – drainage, dikes, and in the United States by local, state, and aquatic plants annually (U.S. Congress ditches Federal agencies to control invasive OTA, 1993). Aquaculture is the fastest exotic plants. In 2002, the License growing sector of Florida’s agriculture The vast, man-made network of inter- Agreement between the South Florida industry. More exotic fish are established Water Management District (SFWMD) in, cultured in, and shipped to and from connected canals and lakes throughout South Florida can accelerate the and the Refuge was renewed and Florida than nearly any other region included performance measures for the of the world (Goodyear, 2000). Most establishment, spread, and threat of exotic fish species throughout the control of exotic vegetation. Under those of the imported exotic fish species are performance measures, the Refuge’s destined for the pet or commercial trade Everglades ecosystem. Beginning in the early 1900s, and culminating in the goal is to achieve maintenance control of industries. Many of the exotic fish species melaleuca, Brazilian pepper, Australian present in South Florida habitats can be massive Everglades Central and South Florida Project of the 1940s, an expansive pine, and old world climbing fern by 2017. specifically traced to releases, whether In South Florida alone, local, state, and intentional or not, from commercial network of canals and levees were dredged in order to drain the Everglades Federal agencies have spent over $35 fish trade industries. Sixty-five percent million (http://pesticide.ifas.ufl.edu) in an of all exotic fish species now occurring for agriculture and human development by the Army Corps of Engineers. This effort to manage melaleuca since 1991. 71 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

No program currently exists in the Treatment United States to test if plants may Since 2002, the Service has been actively eventually pose a severe risk to native implementing treatment techniques to plant habitats. New Zealand and bring the four identified exotic plant Australia have successfully implemented species within maintenance control. exotic plant screening programs to Multiple treatments are required in a investigate potential plant problems single area and include aerial and ground prior to their sale or release, which would chemical application (pesticides), manual be productive for the United States of labor (using large machines, machetes- America to adopt. Even though thousands human power), prescribed burning, and of new plant species are arriving daily biological control (the use of animals such through ports along the Florida coast, as moths). In September, 2015, more than little legislation exists to prevent their and document coverage of exotic plant 407,314 acres have been treated. Brazilian introduction. Currently, only a select few infestation throughout South Florida. pepper and Australian pine are currently of these plants are prohibited from being The last SRF survey in August, 2015 under maintenance control. grown or sold in Florida or have been indicated about 73 percent of the Refuge listed on the Federal Noxious Weed List. was infested with old world climbing n The former treatment strategy for fern and melaleuca. Brazilian pepper old world climbing fern and melaleuca Monitoring and Australian pine were interspersed was to treat species individually and The root of the word monitoring means throughout the Refuge to a lesser degree. after one year for old world climbing to warn, and an essential purpose of fern and two years for melaleuca, monitoring is to raise a warning flag Since then, Aerial Sketch Mapping revisit and retreat the area again that the current course of action is technology has emerged and provides if any new growth was evident. not working. The Bureau of Land more accurate data about the presence of Prescribed burning and biological Management in a document entitled these invasive plants. Sketch mapping is control were incorporated into the Measuring and Monitoring Plant an aerial mapping technique that records control of the four identified species. Population define monitoring as the species, density of cover, and number Chemical applications were followed collection and analysis of repeated of acres per species. The method has by prescribed burning in certain areas observations or measurements to produced a more accurate map showing with successful results in removing evaluate changes in condition and where three of the top four species of seedlings. progress toward meeting a management concern are located, the number of acres objective. infested, and the density of cover of those n In 2014, the Refuge adopted a multi- acres. species simultaneous treatment Monitoring is a key part of what has been approach and has treated a total termed adaptive management, in which Due to the density of the vegetation of 8,000 acres combined old world monitoring measures progress toward which covers it, there is some level of climbing fern and melaleuca. or success at meeting an objective and inaccuracy in mapping old world climbing provides the evidence for management fern. The first aerial survey conducted n Since 2010, roughly 67,000 total acres change or continuation (Elzinga). by the South Florida Water Management have been treated using the old and In order to combat the spread and District (SFWMD) in 1993 revealed new approach. introduction of exotic plants, the Florida that old world climbing fern covered an Exotic Pest Plant Council (FLEPPC) estimated 25,000 acres in South Florida. What Can You Do to Help with Exotics? was established in 1984 to support the A 1997 survey revealed that the fern n Spread the word about exotic invading management of invasive exotic plants covered an estimated 107,000 acres, an plants and animals with the “Don’t Let in Florida’s natural areas by providing increase of 328%. Fern populations at it Loose” campaign. www.nps.goc.ever. a forum for the exchange of scientific, the Refuge were first noted in the late forteacher.dlil.html educational and technical information. 1980s. This is particularly disturbing The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council as only severe infestations can be n Wash your gear, bike, boat, shoes, is a non-profit organization and is not a documented during aerial surveillance anything that was in an area that, if not regulatory agency. and reconnaissance flights, and it is a fact cleaned, may carry exotics into native that small populations occur throughout habitats. Mapping the Refuge that are undetected during In the past, aerial Systematic these aerial plant surveys. n Attend Pet Amnesty Day with Arthur Reconnaissance Flights (SRF) was the R. Marshall Loxahatchee National technology most widely used to monitor Wildlife Refuge. 72 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

n Do not buy, breed, sell, or release any Preying upon native plants and which once composed much of the non-native plants or animals. animals: biomass of eastern hardwood forests, Many ground-nesting bird species and are important as a food source for n Hunt exotic invaders: plant and animal worldwide are extinct due to the humans and native wildlife. eradication. intentional, and unintentional, release of feral hogs, cats, dogs, and rats. n First detected in Georgia in 2002, n Remove exotics from your yard. For example: to counter this impact, Laurel wilt is a deadly disease of mongoose were released in Hawaii in redbay (Persea borbonia) and other n Volunteer to help remove exotics. the mid - 1900 century to help control tree species in the Laurel family rat populations in the sugar cane fields. (Lauraceae). The disease is caused However, since then, the mongoose by a fungus (Raffaelea lauricola) Impacts of population has grown to large numbers that is introduced into host trees without controlling the nocturnal rat by a non-native insect, the redbay Exotic Wildlife population and has greatly diminished ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus). Exotic wildlife, if they become the population of ground nesting birds. The avocado is perhaps the most established, can evolve into injurious Releases exacerbated the problem commercially valuable plant affected by environmental nightmares. as mongoose also began to prey upon laurel wilt. native bird species eggs. (Wikipedia) Injuries Due to Exotic Wildlife The introduction of the brown tree snake Hybridization with native wildlife Even though there are some benefits via ocean shipping has also led to the species: to exotic plants and animals, non-native extinction of many birds. Native wildlife species can be affected as wildlife most impacts native biotic the direct result of changes in the gene communities in a harmful way, damaging Transmission of disease to native pool which can alter or affect changes in natural ecosystems forever. Damages to plants and animals: native wildlife populations. Weakening of native wildlife and habitats is often of a n Introductions of non-indigenous wildlife the genetic viability of native animals can: subtle nature with the exception of feral can have devastating impacts on native affect habits; alter behavior, or fitness. hogs, whose rooting and widespread wildlife and plant populations. An Fitness as it relates to reproduction, damage to native plant communities is accidental release of a mosquito species mating and evolutionary theory. This easily noticed. in the 1880’s (www.parasiteandvectores. leads to decreased survivability of native com), a carrier of avian malaria wildlife while increasing survivability The general public does not realize the parasite, resulted in the death of many and establishment of the non-indigenous injurious impacts that exotic wildlife have native bird species. However, many species. on natural ecosystems, which include: of the non-native bird species were resistant to the parasite which in turn In Florida, and in areas adjacent to the n Habitat modification or alteration. increased their chance of survival and Refuge, feral populations of domestic establishment of the species in the mallard ducks threaten to breed with n Prey upon native plants and animals. United States. native mottled ducks. The Florida Fish Wildlife Conservation Commission is n Transmission of diseases to native n Humans are susceptible to a bacteria concerned with losing the genetic viability plants and animals. Chlamydophila psittaci (a lethal of the mottled duck as a species so the intracellular bacterial species that may Commission proposed legislation that n Hybridizing with native wildlife species. cause parrot fever in humans). It is prohibits the unauthorized or illegal transmitted both from handling pigeons release of captive-breed, feral, or free- n Competing for the same food and but mostly from their droppings. ranging mallards on any state or Federal shelter. Psittacosis is a serious disease but lands managed for wildlife strictly for rarely fatal (less than 1%). Pigeons are biological reasons, particularly the spread Habitat modification or alteration: also important vectors for different of avian diseases. In July 2004, this ruling Introduced feral hogs have modified species of the bacteria Salmonella. was passed as Florida code 68A-4.0052: entire plant communities through their (Wikipedia) possession and release of live mallards. feeding habits and soil disturbance. Some habitats have been modified to support n Introduction of the chestnut blight Competition for the same niche: a single plant species, thereby, reducing virus with the Asian chestnut tree Non-indigenous wildlife may impact species richness (Simberloff, 1997). varieties in 1904 (www.acf.org) resulted native populations indirectly by in the decimation of nearly the entire competing for the same niche. population of American chestnut trees, Intentional releases, for sentimental 73 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

purposes, of European starlings and The Refuge currently does not have the You may even be able to get a lawyer to the house (formerly English) sparrow biological staff to conduct comprehensive come assist with the research and with have directly contributed to the decline inventories or monitoring of exotic animal the trial process. of many native cavity-nesting bird species. Most of the biological research species, namely woodpeckers and and effort is being focused on issues Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee eastern bluebirds. The invaders are pertaining to the overall restoration of National Wildlife Refuge vs. Lygodium more aggressive and they easily displace the Everglades and implications to the Charge: Lygodium for attempted murder native species. European starlings Refuge, i.e., water quality, water timing in the first degree (by strangling) of also impact native cavity nesters by and delivery, and invasive exotic plants. cypress trees. leaving nest cavities in an unusable The impacts of invasive exotic plants are condition. Starlings are notorious poor of grave concern to Refuge management Crime Scene Location: N26º 32’ 53.523”, housekeepers. Fecal sacs of young are as is the isolated, subtle impacts of exotic W 80º 18’ 56.091” (latitude and longitude often left in the nest hole, and the nesting animal species. of Global Positioning System) interior material itself soon becomes infested with of the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee parasites, primarily mites. Starlings are Activities/Lessons National Wildlife Refuge. hardier than native species, and their Plants on Trial – from Hoosier nest sanitation habits ensure future National Forest curriculum (grades Plaintiff: Seaside Landscape Nursery of availability of nest holes. Starlings also 6-12) Delray Beach, Florida feed and damage important agricultural Materials: Robe and props to represent crops and contribute, by feeding on the the species within the chapter, and court Defendant: Lygodium miscrophyllum fruit, to the spread of invasive exotic appointments. (a.k.a. Old World climbing fern). plants such as Brazilian pepper. Activity: Teachers should make a Judge: Program Manager for the Direct Impacts on the Arthur R. Marshall team of prosecuting lawyers, defense Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge lawyers, jury, defendant plants and Commission. The majority of documentation of non- animals, a judge, court reporter, bailiff, indigenous wildlife on the Refuge consists witnesses. Research facts about an Prosecuting Attorney representing: of anecdotal sightings and references in exotic invader from the chapter and Invasive Species Biologist/Arthur R. monthly and annual reports, i.e., presence supplemental resources. Create a mock Marshall Loxahatchee Wildlife Refuge on the Refuge. Photographs of many of trial about a plant or animal invading a the exotic animal species can be found in habitat, convict or acquit and sentence Jury: Classmates the Refuge computer image files. the invader. For example - Lygodium has been apprehended for strangling Encroaching development along the Witnesses may include but are not Cypress and is on trial for attempted limited to: Eastern edge of the Refuge will more murder/extinction. Lygodium is being than likely lead to an increase in exotic prosecuted by the invasive species n Cypress boardwalk tour guide animal sightings. Public visitations to biologists at Arthur R. Marshall the Refuge currently total an estimated Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge; is n Environmental Protection Agency 300,000 per year, and this should being defended by a plant nursery, who biologist proportionately increase with continued introduced Lygodium as an ornamental in development. the 1950s, and the judge is Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, n Environmental Protection Agency Many of the documented exotic animal witnesses are employees and visitors, invasive species specialist species are carelessly released on the contractors… This trial, can last a week Refuge when individuals tire of caring including research, meetings, etc.... n Canadian tourists for them. Those documented animals include Cuban anole, Burmese pythons, Mock Trial Case for Activity #1: n Summer camp elementary students Nile monitor lizard, Monk parakeets, Extension: Give students the background Sacred ibis, Cane toad, Cuban tree frog, information or have them research the n Carpenter contracted to repair Lobate Lac Scale, Snakehead, Oscar, and information on the internet, along with boardwalk Mayan cichlid. Unfortunately, most of the the trial case simulation characters. Have general public is unaware of the impacts students construct a script for the trial n Interpretive specialist that these exotic species pose to native and include props (graphs, picture and plants and wildlife. valid evidence to support their points). n Native American from Seminole Indian Reservation 74 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Oh Deer – from Project WILD Extension: Students can construct a (grades 2-12) flow chart or picture story to depict Materials: Nothing is needed, but you the sequential variations in population should be outside. changes caused by limiting factors.

Activity: This game will happen over a Students can write an essay to describe process of four times to represent the the changes in chronological order. seasons/growing periods to show limiting factors that contribute to population Students can create a timeline to show fluctuation. Ask students the four things chronological order. needed to survive (food, water, shelter, space), divide the class equally in half and put them into a line facing away from one another 35 feet apart.

One line is the habitats, the other line is any native animal – students decide what they want to be (food, shelter, alligator, snail kite…) The habitat line makes symbols to represent what they are – food puts hands on stomach, shelter puts hands above head like a roof, water puts hands over mouth. The native animal line is told what to be (teacher secretly whispers to students which animals they are – first tell three to four students that they are an invasive; as the game progresses through seasons. Increase the number of students that represent invasives and decrease the number of students that represent natives so they can see competition for resources. Have the native animal line chose which habitat they need to hunt for (food, water, shelter, space). The teacher can limit the habitat line to reflect real-world problems like a drought.

To begin season 1, the habitat line makes their symbols and both lines turn to face one another and the animal line hunts for what they need and grabs it. Stop and show students how there are some animals who don’t have what they needed, so they die (turn them into invasives).

To begin season 2, limit the habitat line again (make students into parking lots or contaminated water, or a freeze) and add more invasives to the animal line, creating more competition for the natives. Continue the game through four seasons and graph how the invasives, natural population growth of natives, and habitat limitations strangle native species. 75 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Chapter VII Human Connection to Wetlands (Including our Everglades)

Symbiosis Defined of Epidemiology and Community The interaction of different biological Health, Dr. Jonas Bjork from the Lund University Hospital in Sweden study species in a close, often long-term has shown that a lack of neighborhood relationship that is equally beneficial recreational spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of to each species (www.merriam- personal satisfaction and higher levels webster.com). We must live in of obesity, linked to lower overall health and wellbeing. This suggests that the symbiosis with our environment; positive health benefits of natural space otherwise, we will continue to in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy and land use. see, with the degradation of the (Wikipedia) ecosystems’ health, the degradation of of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals, including human health as well. In the 1600’s, over 220 million acres of their background, lifestyle, and economic wetlands existed in the lower 48 states and social conditions; these are referred (Dahl and Johnson 1991). Since then, Health Defined as a Relationship to as determinants of health (Wikipedia). extensive losses have occurred, with Between Humans and Environments many of the original wetlands drained Health includes the relationship between: Key Factors Influencing Health and converted to farmland. Today, top functional performance of our body, n Income and societal status less than half of the nation’s original mind, and spirit, the air we breathe, our wetlands remain. Activities resulting in water, our food and our surroundings. n Social support networks wetlands loss and degradation include: The World Health Organization defined agriculture; commercial and residential health in its broader sense in 1946 as n Education and literacy development; road construction; “a state of complete physical, mental, impoundment; resource extraction; and social well-being and not merely n Employment/working conditions industrial siting, processes, and waste; the absence of disease or infirmity.” The dredge disposal; silviculture; and definition of a healthy environment within n Social environments mosquito control (USEPA 1994b; USEPA the context of the Florida Everglades n 1993a). The primary pollutants causing as is the same, connecting to human Physical environments degradation are sediment, nutrients, life as defined by the South Florida n Personal health practices pesticides, salinity, heavy metals, weeds, Water Management District in that: low dissolved oxygen, pH, and selenium “recognizing that a healthy ecosystem is n Healthy child development (USEPA 1994). vital to a healthy economy.” n Biology and genetics How Do We Maintain Health? The Main Activities that Cause The maintenance and promotion of n Health care services Wetland Impairment include: health is achieved through different n Hydrologic Alteration; combinations of physical, mental, and n Culture n Urbanization (including development); social well-being, together sometimes n Gender referred to as the health triangle. n Marinas/Boats; Systematic activities to prevent or cure Is Environmental Degradation a health problems and promote good health n Industry (including industrial in humans are undertaken by health Health Cost? development); care providers. Applications with regard The environment is often cited as to animal health are covered by the an important factor influencing the n Agriculture; veterinary sciences. The term healthy health status of individuals. This is also widely used in the context of includes characteristics of the natural n Silviculture/Timber Harvest; many types of non-living organizations environment, the built environment, and their impacts for the benefit of and the social environment. Factors n Mining; humans, such as in the sense of healthy such as clean water and air, adequate communities, cities, or environments. housing, and safe communities and n Atmospheric Deposition. roads all have been found to contribute In addition to health care interventions http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/ and a person’s surroundings, a number to good health, especially to the health of infants and children. In the Journal info/wetlands/wetloss.html 76 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Land Development Affects Health so then Congress passed laws to build Outdoor air pollution is estimated Evidence suggests that environmental flood control dams and levees to protect to be responsible each year for problems can have a substantial developers’ investments. Today over approximately 7,000,000 premature impact on human health (for example: half of our nation’s 215 million acres of deaths. Health problems linked to air degradation of an environment). wetlands have been destroyed and our pollution range from minor eye irritation Wetlands are unique and critical habitats drinking water are compromised along to upper respiratory symptoms, chronic that serve fish, wildlife, and man in every with our access to natural spaces. respiratory diseases such as asthma, connected way. They are characterized cardiovascular diseases, and lung by water, special soils and a vastly Many rivers and streams have been dug cancer. Some of these require hospital different plant community in various out and straightened to reduce floods. treatment, and may be fatal. How ecosystems. Healthy wetlands provide This process is called channelization and badly air pollution affects individuals habitat for a tremendous variety of fish usually destroys streamside habitat and will depend on the pollutant’s chemical and wildlife; their health is directly severely reduces the size and composition composition, its concentration in the air, connected to that of humans. To further of adjacent wildlife communities. For the length of exposure, the synergy with illustrate, bottomland hardwoods are example, nearly 40,772 acres or 78% of other air pollutants, as well as individual a wetland ecosystem that depends on the Kissimmee River basin marshland susceptibility. PM10 – tiny particulate water fluctuations to maintain their in Florida was drained. Fish populations matter (PM) small enough to be inhaled integrity and function. They serve as were severely reduced and water birds into the deepest part of the lung – is buffer zones between uplands and aquatic were reduced by 93% in the area. especially harmful to human health, as it systems by protecting water quality. They can substantially reduce life expectancy. greatly reduce flooding and erosion by Pollution Affects Health In 2030, premature deaths from lung diminishing the rate and volume of runoff Environmental degradation exerts cancer are projected to be multiplied into streams and rivers. They trap silt significant pressure on human health. by four, roughly 3.1 million. The OECD and filter out pollution, further protecting Exposure to air, water, and soil pollution, Environmental Outlook to 2030 also waterways. They also support a myriad to chemicals in the environment, or projects a six-fold increase in deaths of life. A bottomland hardwood forest can to noise, causes: cancer, respiratory, attributable to the decrease in the ozone support two to five times as many white- cardiovascular, and communicable layer by 2030 (www.who.int). tailed deer as a nearby upland zone. diseases, as well as poisoning and neuropsychiatric disorders in not only Outdoor air pollution-caused deaths As an example of this, the Environmental humans, but animals as well. (Sharma) – breakdown by disease: Protection Agency (EPA) states: Particularly vulnerable to environmental n 40% – ischemic heart disease two hundred years ago, magnificent pollution is: children, pregnant women, bottomland forests covered almost thirty the elderly and persons with pre-existing n 40% – stroke million acres across the Southeastern diseases. United States. Today, only about forty n 11% – chronic obstructive pulmonary percent of that area still supports these Examples of impacts of disease (COPD) productive and unique ecosystems. It is environmental pollution on health estimated that losses of these swamps include: n 6% - lung cancer reached rates as high as 431,000 acres n cancer (e.g. skin cancer from exposure per year from 1965 to 1975, largely due to UV radiation or leukemia resulting n 3% – acute lower respiratory infections to conversion to croplands, particularly from exposure to pesticides while still in children (World Health Org.) for soybeans. In some regions of the in the womb) lower Mississippi floodplain, only a very small percentage of original bottomland Health problems due to exposure n asthma (exacerbated by outdoor air hardwood forests remain. to harmful chemicals are well pollution) documented. For instance, concern has been raised about the link In 1849, 1850, and 1860 the United n birth defects (from drinking-water between exposure to chemicals such States Congress passed several acts that contaminants ingested by the pregnant as alkylphenols (used in detergents transferred 65 million Federal acres of mother) and pesticides) and disruption of the swamp and over flow lands to 15 states, hormonal system that regulates many mostly in the Mississippi Valley. This n of the body’s functions. Effects on land fell into the hands of developers neurodevelopmental disorders sperm motility, fetal growth rate, and who drained the water, cut the timber, (resulting from lead poisoning) (OECD) neurological functions of offspring have and converted the land to farms and been observed from human exposure other uses. Naturally, floods followed, 77 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

to PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyl) What Can You Do Permaculture and epidemiological studies suggest to Make a Positive Impact? Permaculture is the ecological design and exposure-related increases in cancers of n Get informed and get involved!!! ecological engineering, which develops the digestive system. PCBs were used sustainable human settlements and self- n Read your local newspaper and find out in coolants, insulating fluids, PVC, and maintained agriculture systems modeled about the environmental challenges in other products until their production from natural resources. Permaculture is a your neighborhood. was banned in most countries in the design system based on ethics and design 1970’s; even so they are still found in the n Write your elected officials and attend principles to guide efforts towards a environment. public meetings about issues - you elect sustainable future. them!! Poor water supply, sanitation and Permaculture ethics are: n hygiene (WSH). According to the Volunteer at a local nature center or n Care of the Earth Centers for Disease Control (CDC) there facility that you feel passionate about and learn about the challenges that face are many factors that relate to mortality n Fair Share of both children and adults. Improving that facility. the water quality and access to water for The Refuge is blessed by dedicated n Care of People developing countries as well as improved volunteers. About 100 people per sanitation requirements is helping to year generously donate their time and improve the lives of millions across The twelve permaculture principles talents to make the Refuge a better the world. Please see boxes below for are: place for people and wildlife. The more CDC information on water supply, n Observe and Interact Friends of the Arthur R. Marshall sanitation, and hygiene. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, n Catch and Store Energy a non-profit citizen group, also supports Ecological Psychology – the operations of the Refuge through n Obtain a Yield Nature Deficit Disorder their activities, fundraising, and As environmental health is degraded outreach advocacy. You are encouraged n Apply Self-Regulation by the above mentioned damaging to become a Friend! and destroying factors, human health and Accept Feedback degrades as well. Nature Deficit Disorder, n Use canvas bags at the grocery store as defined by Richard Louv in his instead of using plastic. Did you know it n Use and Value Renewable Resources groundbreaking 2005 book Last Child in takes 500-1,000 years for a plastic bag Services the Woods: Saving Our Children from to decompose? Nature-Deficit Disorder is “not a medical n Produce No Waste condition; it is a description of the human n Reduce-Reuse-Recycle costs of alienation from nature. This Xeriscaping n Design from Patterns to Details alienation damages children and shapes Xeriscaping is defined in Wikipedia adults, families, and communities. There as landscaping and gardening in ways n Integrate Rather than Segregate are solutions, though, and they’re right that reduce or eliminate the need for in our own backyards. Direct exposure to supplemental water from irrigation. n Use Small and Slow Solutions nature is essential for healthy childhood Xeriscaping is promoted in regions that development – physical, emotional, do not have easily accessible, plentiful, n Use and Value Diversity and spiritual. What’s more, nature or reliable supplies of fresh water, and is a potent therapy for depression, is gaining acceptance in other areas as n Use Edges and Value the Marginal obesity, and attention deficit disorder climate patterns shift. Using xeriscaping (ADD). Environmental-based education lessens the use of chemicals and provides n Creatively Use and Respond to Change dramatically improves standardized homes for native wildlife. If you love to test scores and grade point average and garden and love those flowers in your As humans, we should leave the develops skills in problem solving, critical yard, buy native plants from a nursery thinking, and decision making. Even environment as close as possible to its that specializes in native plants to South natural form, therefore leaving it as a creativity is stimulated by childhood Florida. experiences in nature.” benefit to environmental and human Check out the Florida Native Plant health. Society website for the Palm Beach County chapter listing (http://palmbeach. fnpschapters.org/). 78 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Access to WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) n Trachoma is the world’s leading cause of preventable n Worldwide, 780 million people do not have access to an blindness and results from poor hygiene and sanitation. improved water source Approximately 41 million people suffer from active trachoma and nearly 10 million people are visually n An estimated 2.5 billion people lack access to improved impaired or irreversibly blind as a result of trachoma. sanitation (more than 35% of the world’s population) Trachoma infection can be prevented through increased n According to the World Health Organization and UNICEF, facial cleanliness with soap and clean water, and improved regions with the lowest coverage of “improved” sanitation sanitation. in 2006 were sub-Saharan Africa (31%), Southern Asia Prevention (33%) and Eastern Asia (65%) n Water, sanitation and hygiene has the potential to prevent n In 2006, 7 out of 10 people without access to improved at least 9.1% of the global disease burden and 6.3% of all sanitation were rural inhabitants deaths 1.The impact of clean water technologies on public health in the U.S. is estimated to have had a rate of return n According to the United Nations and UNICEF, one in five of 23 to 1 for investments in water filtration and chlorination girls of primary-school age are not in school, compared to during the first half of the 20th century. one in six boys. One factor accounting for this difference is the lack of sanitation facilities for girls reaching puberty. n Water and sanitation interventions are cost effective across Girls are also more likely to be responsible for collecting all world regions. These interventions were demonstrated water for their family, making it difficult for them to to produce economic benefits ranging from US$ 5 to US$ 46 attend school during school hours. The installation of per US$ 1 invested. toilets and latrines may enable school children, especially n Improved water sources reduce diarrhea morbidity by 21%; menstruating girls, to further their education by remaining improved sanitation reduces diarrhea morbidity by 37.5%; in the school system. and the simple act of washing hands at critical times can Disease and Death reduce the number of diarrhea cases by as much as 35%. n An estimated 801,000 children younger than 5 years of Improvement of drinking-water quality, such as point-of- age perish from diarrhea each year, mostly in developing use disinfection, would lead to a 45% reduction of diarrhea countries. This amounts to 11% of the 7.6 million deaths episodes. of children under the age of five and means that about n In order to meet the United Nations’ Millennium 2,200 children are dying every day as a result of diarrheal Development Goal to halve the proportion of people without diseases. sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic n Worldwide, millions of people are infected with neglected sanitation by 2015: tropical diseases (NTDs), many of which are water and/ or hygiene-related, such as Guinea Worm Disease, Buruli l An estimated 784 million people will need to gain access Ulcer, Trachoma, and Schistosomiasis. These diseases are to an improved water source. most often found in places with unsafe drinking water, poor sanitation, and insufficient hygiene practices. l An estimated 173 million people on average per year will need to begin using improved sanitation facilities n Worldwide, soil-transmitted helminths infect more than (accounting for expected population growth). one billion people due to a lack of adequate sanitation. l n Guinea Worm Disease (GWD) is an extremely painful Even if the United Nations’ Millennium Development parasitic infection spread through contaminated drinking Goal for improved drinking water and basic sanitation is water. GWD is characterized by spaghetti-like worms reached by 2015, it will still leave: up to 1 meter in length slowly emerging from the human body through blisters on the skin anywhere on the body l An estimated 790 million people (11% of the world’s but usually on the lower legs or lower arms. Infection population) without access to an improved water supply. affects poor communities in remote parts of Africa that do not have safe water to drink. In 2012, 542 cases of Guinea l An estimated 1.8 billion people (25% of the world’s Worm Disease were reported. Most of those cases were population) without access to adequate sanitation. from Sudan (96%). http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/wash_statistics.html

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Policies and CERP The primary system includes about 1,000 Activities/Lessons In 1948, Congress authorized the Central miles of levees, 720 miles of canals, and n Beach or neighborhood clean-up and Southern Florida Project for Flood almost 200 water control structures. Control and Other Purposes (C&SF n Native wildlife school garden Project). This authorization represented The Central and Southern Florida the birth of water management in the (C&SF) Project legislation that passed n In a current newspaper, take an region. With implementation beginning in 1948 was south Florida’s existing environmentally relevant article and in the mid 1950’s, and the main features water management system. The write letters to law makers completed by the mid 1960’s, the water project provided water supply, water management program proved highly management and other benefits. Due n Attend a town council meeting or city beneficial to many human interests — to adverse effects the plan is now being commissioners meeting agriculture, water supply, and flood modified under the Comprehensive control — but not to wildlife residing in Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP). the Everglades ecosystem. CERP provides a framework and guide The C&SF Project had three main to restore, protect and preserve the components. water resources of central and southern n It established a perimeter levee Florida, including the Everglades. It through the eastern portion of the covers 16 counties over an 18,000-square- Everglades, blocking sheet flow so that mile area and centers on an update of lands farther east would be protected the Central & Southern Florida (C&SF) from direct Everglades flooding. This Project also known as the Restudy. levee severed the eastern 16% of the Everglades from its interior. The Plan was approved in the fall of 2000. It includes more than 60 elements, will n The C&SF Project designed a take more than 30 years to construct large area of northern Everglades, and the current estimate in Oct 2007 south of Lake Okeechobee, to be dollars is $11.9 billion for projects. managed for agriculture. Named the Water Resources Development Act Everglades Agriculture Area (EAA), it (WRDA 1992) provided the U.S. Army encompassed about 27% of the historic Corps of Engineers with the authority Everglades and was a major factor in to re-evaluate the C&SF Project and the economic justification of the C&SF to recommend improvements and Project. modifications to the project in order to restore the ecosystem. n Water conservation became the primary designated use for most of The goal of CERP is to capture fresh the remaining Everglades between the water that now flows unused to the EAA and Everglades National Park, Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico limited on the east by the eastern and redirect it to areas that need it most. perimeter levee and on the west by an The majority of the water will be devoted incomplete levee bordering the Big to environmental restoration, reviving Cypress Swamp. a dying ecosystem, the Everglades. The remaining water will benefit cities and The name of the Central and Southern farmers by enhancing water supplies for Florida Project for Flood Control and the south Florida economy. Other Purposes (C&SF Project) was changed to the South Florida Water Management District in 1972 by the Florida legislature (https://nicholas.duke. edu/wetland/csf.htm)

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Glossary of Terms

Abiotic Nonliving factor in an ecosystem, such as Altrical (Of a young bird or other animal) hatched or moisture, temperature, wind, sunlight, soil, and born in an undeveloped state and requiring minerals. care and feeding by the parents. Accipiter A hawk of a group distinguished by short, Amphibian Vertebrate that can live on land and in water. broad wings and relatively long legs, adapted Page 21 for fast flight in wooded country. Page 59 Anecdotal (Of an account) not necessarily true or reliable, Adaptations Inherited trait that is selected for over time because based on personal accounts rather because it allows organisms to better survive in than facts or research. Page 74 their environment. Page 25 Anting Is a self-anointing behavior during which birds Adjacent Human development that is adjacent to natural rub insects, usually ants, on their feathers and development spaces such as Refuges, National Parks, etc. skin. Page 21 Appalachian Appalachian Mountains, often called the Aerial Is the most efficient and economical method Mountains Appalachians, are a system of mountains in sketch of detecting and appraising recognizable pest eastern North America. The mountain range mapping damage over large remote forest areas. Prior elevation is 6,683’ and the area covered by to the use of aircraft, forest pest surveys were this mountain range is 737,000 square miles. conducted from vantage points such as ridges Page 20 and mountain tops. Page 72 Apple snail Pomacea paludosa (Ampullariidae) Family Aerobic Process that requires oxygen to occur. Page 47 of large freshwater snails, aquatic gastropod Air sacs Air-filled space that connects to a bird’s lungs, mollusks with a gill and an operculum. This aiding in breathing. snail is the primary food of the Everglades Snail Kite. It lays its pearl-white eggs on the Ais The Ais, or Ays were a tribe of Native leaves of water plants. Page 45 Americans who inhabited the Atlantic Coast of Florida. They ranged from present-day Aquaculture The rearing of aquatic animals or the Cape Canaveral to the St. Lucie Inlet, in the cultivation of aquatic plants for food. Page 71 present-day counties of Brevard, Indian River, Aquatic An aquatic plant or animal, typically one St. Lucie and northernmost Martin. They lived suitable for a pond. Page 33 in villages and towns along the shores of the great lagoon called Rio de Ais by the Spanish, Aquifer A body of permeable rock that can contain or and now called the Indian River. The name ‘Ais’ transmit groundwater. Page 53 is derived from a great Indian cacique (chief). Arachnid Terrestrial chelicerate, such as a spider. Little is known of the origins of the Ais, or of Page 63 their language. The Ais language has been tentatively assigned by some scholars to the Atmospheric The transfer of substances in air to surfaces, Muskogean language family. Page 17 Deposition including soil, vegetation, surface water, or indoor surfaces, by dry or wet processes. Albumen Egg white, or the protein contained in it. Page 33 Aldo (January 11, 1887 – April 21, 1948) Bald Taxodium distichum (Cupressaceae) A Leopold Aldo was an American author, scientist, Cypress deciduous North American conifer with ecologist, forester and environmentalist. Page 10 exposed buttress roots and ball-shaped cones, Algae Chlorophyta or green algae (Eukaryota) typically growing in swamps and on water (singular: alga) photosynthetic plantlike protists, margins. Page 36 tiny, non-seed bearing aquatic plant. Page 40 Beakrushs Rhynchospora (Cyperaceae) A sedge having Alkylphenols A derivative of phenol having one or more alkyl a tubercle like a beak crowning the fruit groups attached to the carbon ring. Page 77 Page 52 Alligator As the dry season approaches and water dries hole up from other areas within the Everglades, alligator holes retain water and become refuges to a variety of wildlife. Alligators prey on the animals that frequent gator holes in search of refuge, food, and water. Page 33 81 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Beck, Appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt to work Boynton, (June 23, 1837-May 27, 1911) Major Boynton Thomas on the Committee on Wild-Life Restoration Maj. N was a Michigan politician, inventor, hotel owner along with Ding Darling and Aldo Leopold to and a Civil War major who gave his name to acquire land for habitat restoration. One of the city of Boynton Beach. Page 19 the recommendations of the Beck Committee Brackish A mixing of fresh water and saltwater, this is was the establishment of the Migratory Bird Water water that has between 10 and 20 cups of salt in Hunting and Conservation Stamp or the “Duck every 1,000 cups of water measured, referred Stamp.” Page 10 to as 10 to 20 parts per 1,000. Page 35 Lake or pond bottom, where little to no Benthic Bromeliad (Bromeliaceae) A family of plant native to sunlight can reach. Zone tropical and subtropical America, typically Best Techniques, measures or structural controls having short stems with rosettes of stiff, Management used to manage the quantity and improve the usually spiny, leaves. Some kinds are epiphytic Practices quality of stormwater runoff. The goal is to (An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly reduce or eliminate the contaminants collected upon another plant, and derives its moisture by stormwater as it moves into streams and and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes rivers. Page 34 from debris accumulating around it, instead of the structure to which it is fastened), and many Big Cypress The freshwaters of the Swamp, essential to the are cultivated as houseplants. Page 36 Swamp health of the neighboring Everglades, support the rich marine estuaries along Florida’s Built Is a material, spatial and cultural product of southwest coast. This national preserve Environment human labor that combines physical elements managed by the National Park Service protects and energy in forms for living, working and over 729,000 acres. Page 20 playing. It has been defined as “the human- made space in which people live, work, and Biodiversity Variety of life within an area. Page 24 recreate on a day-to-day basis.” Page 76 Biome Regional or global community of organisms Buteo (Accipitridae) Any of the genus of hawks with characterized by the climate conditions and broad rounded wings relatively short tails, and plant communities that thrive there. soaring flight. Page 59 Biosphere All organisms and the part of Earth where Calusa Also called the Shell Indians, lived on the they exist. Indians sandy shores of the southwest coast of Florida. Biotic Living things, such as plants, animals, fungi, These Indians controlled most of south and bacteria. Page 73 Florida. They were the first Indians that the Biscayne Biscayne Aquifer, named after Biscayne Bay, Spanish established communication with, in Aquifer is a surficial aquifer. It is a shallow layer of the sixteenth century until the culture was highly permeable limestone under a portion of decimated in the second half of the eighteenth South Florida. The area it underlies includes century. Page 15 Broward County, Miami-Dade County, Monroe Camouflage Structural adaption that enables species to County, and Palm Beach County, a total of blend with their surroundings, allows a species about 4,000 square miles. Page 32 to avoid detection by predators. Page 60 Bladderwort Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) An aquatic Candidate Species that have been recommended for plant of north temperate regions with small Species listing as threatened or endangered. air-filled bladders that keep the plant afloat Dense covering formed by the uppermost and trap tiny animals that provide additional Canopy branches of trees. Page 36 nutrients. Page 35 Caribbean An arm of the western Atlantic Ocean bounded Bottomland Are one of the many important riparian Sea by the coasts of Central and South America Hardwoods ecosystems in the United States. The term and the West Indies. Page 20 ‘bottomland hardwoods’ was first used to describe deciduous hardwood forests of the Carnivore Organism that obtains energy by eating only southeastern U.S. that occurred on river animals. Page 43 floodplains. Page 77 Carrying The largest population that a particular Capacity environment can support.

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Carson, Rachel (May 27, 1907-April 14, 1964) Carson Consent An agreement or settlement to resolve a was an American marine biologist, U.S. Decree dispute between two parties without admission Fish and Wildlife Service employee, of guilt (in a criminal case) or liability (in a civil and conservationist whose book Silent case) and most often refers to such a type of Spring and other writings are credited settlement in the United States. Page 33 with advancing the global environmental Conservation The wise and careful use of our natural movement. Page 11 resources. Page 11 Typha (Typhaceae) A tall, reedlike marsh Cattail Consumer Are organisms of an ecological food chain that plant with straplike leaves and a dark brown, receive energy by consuming other organisms. velvety cylindrical head of numerous tiny These organisms are formally referred to as flowers. Page 33 heterotrophs, which include animals, bacteria Cere A fleshy, membranous covering of the base and fungus. of the upper mandible (beak) in some birds. Critical A specific geographic area that contains Page 54 Habitat features essential for the conservation of CERP Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan a threatened or endangered species and provides a framework and guide to restore, that may require special management and protect and preserve the water resources of protection. Page 11 central and southern Florida, including the Crustaceans (crustacea) Any of the aquatic arthropods, Everglades. It covers 16 counties over an such as lobsters, crabs, and shrimps, that has 18,000-square-mile area. Page 24 a segmented body, an exoskeleton, and paired, Channelization To straighten by means of a channel. The jointed limbs. Page 35 reconstruction of a natural waterway so Crustose (Of a lichen or alga) forming or resembling a as to flow in a different path; canalization. crust. Page 40 Page 77 C & SF The largest civil works project in the country. Light-absorbing pigment molecule in Chlorophyll Project Construction began the next year and photosynthetic organisms. continued over 20 years as the U.S. Army Citizenry A whole body of citizens. Page 24 Corps of Engineers built the massive flood control plumbing system stretching from just Clean Is the primary federal law in the United south of Orlando to Florida Bay. Page 80 Water Act States governing water pollution. It was established in 1972. Page 33 Cyano- (cyanobacterium) bacteria that can carry out bacterium photosynthesis. Page 40 Climate Average long-term weather pattern of a region. Page 20 Cypress Tree (cupressaceae) An evergreen coniferous tree with small, rounded, woody cones and flattened Clum A vertical stalk of leaves that a lay person shoots bearing small, scalelike leaves. Closest might call an individual plant of grasses or relative is California redwood. Page 36 sedges. Page 44 Tree that has adapted to winter temperatures Commensalism Ecological relationship in which one species Deciduous by dropping its leaves and going dormant receives a benefit but the other species is not during the cold season. Page 36 affected one way or another. Detritivore that breaks down organic matter Commercial As fishing in which the fish harvested, either Decomposer into simpler compounds, returning nutrients Fish Trade in whole or in part, are intended to enter back into an ecosystem. commerce or enter commerce through sale, barter or trade. Page 71 Degradation The condition or process of degrading or being degraded. Page 71 Competition Ecological relationship in which two organisms attempt to obtain the same Dendrology The scientific study of trees. resource. Page 36 Dependence The state of requiring something else for individual survival. Detritus Organic matter produced by the decomposition of organisms. Page 53 83 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Developers A person or thing that develops something. Endoskeleton Internal skeleton built of bone or cartilage. Example: a property developer. Page 77 Energy The capacity for work. Or the ability to do Ding Darling (October 21, 1876 – February 12, 1962) work, or produce change. Page 25 (JN) was an American cartoonist who won two Energy cycle The energy cycle for life is fueled by the Pulitzer Prizes. Jay Norwood “Ding” penned sun. The main end product for plants and some conservation cartoons and he was animals is the production of highly energetic an important figure in the conservation molecules. These molecules store enough movement. Page 10 immediately available energy to allow plants Dissolved Microscopic bubbles of gaseous oxygen (O2) and animals to do their necessary work. Oxygen that are mixed in water and available to Environmental Process that allows individuals to explore aquatic organisms for respiration—a critical Education environmental issues, engage in problem process for almost all organisms. Primary solving, and take action to improve the sources of DO include the atmosphere and environment. As a result, individuals develop aquatic plants. Page 33 a deeper understanding of environmental Diurnal Occurring or active during the daytime issues and have the skills to make informed rather than at night: diurnal animals. Page 40 and responsible decisions. Page 24 Diversity (Biological) the variability among living Environmental Scientific study supporting the practice of organisms from all sources including, inter Restoration ecological restoration, which is the practice alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic of renewing and restoring degraded, ecosystems and the ecological complexes of damaged, or destroyed ecosystems and which they are part; this includes diversity habitats in the environment by active human within species, between species and of intervention and action. Page 80 ecosystems. Page 21 Eradication The complete destruction of something. Dredged The process of digging up and removing Page 71 material from wetlands or from the bottoms Erosion Process of eroding or being eroded by wind, of waterways to clear them or make them water, or other natural agents. Page 68 deeper or wider. Page 15 Eutrophication Excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or Yearly period of low rainfall in the tropics. Dry season other body of water, frequently due to runoff The weather in the tropics is dominated by from the land, which causes a dense growth the tropical rain belt, which comes from the of plant life and death of animal life from northern to the southern tropics over the lack of oxygen. Page 33 course of the year. Page 36 Everglades A subtropical marshy region of Florida, Study of the interactions among living things Ecology south of Lake Okeechobee: contains the and their surroundings. Page 24 A.R.M. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Ecosystem Collection of organisms and non-living Refuge and Everglades National Park things, such as climate, soil, water, and rocks, established to preserve the flora and fauna in an area. Page 21 of the swamps. The area is approximately Ectotherm Organism that regulates its body 5,000 square miles. Page 15 temperature by exchanging heat with its Exoskeleton Hard outer structure, such as the shell environment. of an insect or crustacean, that provides Egg-tooth A hard white protuberance on the beak or protection and support for the organism. jaw of an embryo bird or reptile that is used Exotic Plant or animal species introduced into an for breaking out of the shell and is later lost. area where they do not occur. Page 21 Endangered Means a species is in danger of extinction. Exposure The state of being exposed to contact with something. Page 77 Endangered Of 1973 is a key legislation for both domestic Species Act and international conservation. The act aims Extinction Elimination of a species from Earth. to provide a framework to conserve and Page 63 protect endangered and threatened species Fauna The animals of a particular region, habitat, and their habitats. Page 7 or geological period. Page 22 84 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Federal Having or relating to a system of Flow- (FWMC) represents the total load for the government in which several states form a Weighted time period divided by the total discharge unity but remain independent in internal Mean for the time period. The ratio of FWMC to affairs. Page 7 Concentrations time-weighted mean concentration (TWMC) indicates whether a pollutant tends to Finfish The strict biological definition of a fish, increase in concentration as flow increases. above, is sometimes called a true fish. True If the FWMC>TWMC, that pollutant, on fish are also referred to as finfish or fin fish average, increases with increasing flow. to distinguish them from other aquatic life Page 34 harvested in fisheries or aquaculture. (Lichen) A foliose lichen is lichen with leafy First Growth 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the Foliose body parts, and which generally have a “skin” tree where fire is a frequent and natural on each side of the leafy lichen body part. occurrence whereas the Second Growth is a Page 40 forest or woodland area which has re-grown after a major disturbance such as fire, insect Fontaneda, He wrecked on Florida at age 13 and lived infestation, timber harvest or wind throw, Hernando with the Calusa Indians for 17 years. His until a long enough period has passed so that de Escalante accounts of living with the Calusa were the the effects of the disturbance are no longer first written about the Calusa Indians and evident. Page 37 how they lived. Page 15 Fisheries Industry or occupation devoted to the Food Chain Model that links organisms by their feeding catching, processing, or selling of fish, relationships. Page 57 shellfish, or other aquatic animals. Page 15 Fragmented To cause to break into pieces or fragments. Fixed (as in Fixed Tree Island) An origin of a tree Page 22 island involving a high spot of the rock base; Freshwater Water that does not contain a large amount a true island in the marsh. Page 47 of salt. Inland water, as ponds, lakes, or Flagler, Henry (January 2, 1830- May 20, 1913) Flagler streams, that is not salt. Origin of fresh was an American Industrialist and founder water. Page 16 of Standard Oil. He was also a key in the Fruticose Are the most three-dimensional lichen. development of the Atlantic coast of Florida They’re usually round in cross section and what became the Florida East Coast (terete), and most are branched. They can be Railway. Page 19 like little shrubs growing upward, or they can Fledge (Of a young bird) develop wing feathers that hang down in long strands. Page 40 are large enough for flight. Fungus (singular is Fungi) Any of a diverse group Flora Plants of a particular region, habitat, or of eukaryotic single-celled or multinucleate geological period. Page 22 organisms that live by decomposing and absorbing the organic material in which they Florida Exotic The mission is to support the management grow, comprising the mushrooms, molds, Pest Plant of invasive exotic plants in Florida’s natural mildews, smuts, rusts, and yeasts, and Council areas by providing a forum for the exchange classified in the kingdom Fungi. Page 40 of scientific, educational, and technical information. Page 72 Game Animals pursued and taken by sportsmen, such as wild meats designed for or served at Florida Keys A string of tropical islands stretching the table. Those species of animals. Page 22 about 120 miles off the state’s southern tip, between the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Gatroliths A small stone swallowed by a bird, reptile, or Mexico. Page 20 fish, to aid digestion in the gizzard. Page 60 Floridan Florida peninsula is a porous plateau of karst Geotropism The growth of the parts of plants with Plateau limestone sitting atop bedrock known as the respect to the force of gravity. The upward Florida Platform. Page 20 growth of plant shoots is an instance of negative geotropism; the downward growth of roots is positive geotropism. Page 37

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Gizzards A muscular, thick-walled part of a bird or Humus The organic component of soil, formed reptile’s stomach for grinding food, typically by the decomposition of leaves and other with grit. Page 60 plant material by soil microorganisms. Gladesmen Defined by FIU Professor Laura A. Ogden Hydropattern Refers to the depth of the water, the in Swamplife as poor rural whites whose distribution of the water, the seasonal ancestors settled in southern Florida in the timing of water, and the flow of water. mid-nineteenth century and who subsist Page 21 largely through commercial hunting and Hydroperiod The seasonal pattern of the water level fishing and through small-scale agriculture that results from the combination of the and their connections with the land, flora, water budget and the storage capacity of and fauna of the Everglades. Page 22 the wetland. The water budget is a term Gondwanaland Gondwanaland is the ancient supercontinent applied to the net of the inflows, all the that incorporated present-day South water flowing into, and outflows, all the America, Africa, Arabia, Madagascar, India, water flowing out of, a wetland. Page 44 Australia, and Antarctica. Page 20 Iapetus Ocean An ocean that existed in the Gravitropism Growth of plants in response to gravity; plant Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic eras of the stems grow upward, against gravity, and roots geologic timescale. This ocean was situated grow toward the gravitational pull. Page 37 in the southern hemisphere, between the paleocontinents of Laurentia, Baltica and Ground Water Found underground in the cracks and spaces Avalonia. Page 20 in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of Immigration Movement of individuals into a population. soil, sand and rocks called aquifers. Page 34 Page 70 Gulf of Mexico An ocean basin largely surrounded by the Importation Something that is imported from abroad: North American continent. It is bounded an imported commodity or article. Page 70 on the northeast, north, and northwest by Indicator Species whose presence in an ecosystem the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the Species gives clues about the condition of that southwest and south by Mexico, and on the ecosystem. southeast by Cuba. Page 20 Injurious Causing or likely to cause damage or Combined biotic and abiotic factors found in Habitat harm. Page 73 the area where an organism lives. Page 26 Innate Behavior that is not learned through The process in which natural habitat is Habitat experience. Destruction rendered functionally unable to support the species present. In this process, the Insects Insecta (Arthropods) A class of organisms that previously used the site are invertebrates that have an exoskeleton, a displaced or destroyed, reducing biodiversity. three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, Page 67 compound eyes and one pair of antennae. Page 43 Habitat Island Process by which part of an organism’s preferred habitat range becomes Instinct Inborn pattern of behavior that is inaccessible. This then creates an island or characteristic of a species. fragmentation of the habitat. Page 70 Interdependence Inter means “between,” so it’s the Heliotropism The directional growth of a plant in response dependence between plants and animals. to sunlight. Page 37 Inter- The way in which each of two or more Herbivore Organism that eats only plants. relationships things is related to the other or others. Page 25 Homesteading A lifestyle of self-sufficiency. It is characterized by subsistence agriculture, Invasive Plant Plant tending to spread prolifically and home preservation of foodstuffs, and it undesirably or harmfully. Page 71 may or may not also involve the small scale Invertebrate Animal without a backbone. Page 33 production of textiles, clothing, and craftwork for household use or sale. Page 19

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Jaega/Jobe (Also Jega, Xega, Jaece, Geiga) These Linton, (February 4, 1856-November 22, 1927) Linton Indians Indians were a tribe that lived along the William S. was born and raised in Michigan where he Florida coast near present day Martin and was a politician. Linton and Swinton came to Palm Beach County at the time of initial Florida looking for an opportunity to invest European contact, and until the 18th century. in what was the unsettled frontier. They The Jaegas were hunter/gatherers and their purchased land and settled what is now the diets consisted mainly of fish, shellfish, sea area of Delray and Boynton Beach. Page 19 turtles, deer and raccoon as well as wild Lower The younger of two epochs into which this plants. Page 17 Cretaceous period is divided in the geologic timescale. Jurassic The Jurassic Period (213 to 144 million years Period The Cretaceous is named after the white Period ago) is the second of three periods during the limestone known as chalk which occurs Mesozoic Era. It is preceded by the Triassic widely in northern France and is seen in the Period and it is followed by the Cretaceous white cliffs of south-eastern England, and Period. Page 20 which dates from this time. Page 20 Keystone Organism that has an unusually large effect Loxahatchee (Seminole for river of turtles) is a 7.6 mile Species on its ecosystem. So named for the wedge- River river near the southeast coast of Florida. It shaped piece at the summit of an arch, is a National Wild and Scenic River, one of regarded as holding the other pieces in place. only two in the state, and received its federal designation on May 17, 1985. Page 15 Knees A term used in the biology of trees to (Cypress) describe the distinctive structures forming Mammal Endothermic organism that has hair, above the roots of a cypress tree. Their mammary glands, bones in the ear that allow function is unknown, but they are generally for hearing, and a jaw for chewing food. seen on trees growing in swamps. Page 36 Page 15 Larvae Distinct juvenile form many animals undergo Marl Prairie One type of wet prairie occurring on thin before metamorphosis into adults. Animals calcitic soil (marl) over limestone bedrock, with indirect development such as insects, which may be exposed as jagged, up to amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a foot-tall projections called pinnacle rock or larval phase of their life cycle. Page 42 dissolved below the surface into pockets called solution holes. Page 53 Leaf A flattened structure of a higher plant, typically green and bladelike, that is attached Mayaimis (Also referred to as Ais or Ays) A tribe of to a stem directly or via a stalk. Leaves Native Americans who inhabited the Atlantic are the main organs of photosynthesis and Coast of Florida. They ranged from present- transpiration. Page 37 day Cape Canaveral to the St. Lucie Inlet, in the present-day counties of Brevard, Indian Legislation Laws, considered collectively. Page 65 River, St. Lucie and northernmost Martin. Levee An embankment built to prevent the overflow Page 17 of a body of water. Page 16 Melaleuca An Australian shrub or tree that bears spikes Lichen Fungus that grows symbiotically with algae, of flowers. Some kinds are a source of timber resulting in a composite organism that grows or medicinal oil. Page 21 on rocks or tree trunks. Page 36 Microclimate Climate of a specific location within a larger Limestone A hard sedimentary rock, composed mainly area. Page 37 of calcium carbonate or dolomite, used (Of an animal, typically a bird or fish) Move as building material and in the making of Migrate from one region or habitat to another, cement. Page 16 especially regularly according to the seasons. Limiting Factor Environmental factor that limits the growth Page 63 and size of a population. Page 33 Mimicry The close external resemblance of an animal or plant (or part of one) to another animal, plant, or inanimate object. Migration Seasonal movement of animals from one region to another. Page 43 87 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Mobbing (Of a group of birds or mammals) Surround Non- Natural resource that is used more quickly and attack (a predator or other source of renewable than it can be formed. threat) in order to drive it off. Resource Molt (Of an animal) Shed old feathers, hair, or skin, North Atlantic The northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, or an old shell, to make way for a new growth. Ocean extending from the equator to the Arctic Monocultures The cultivation of a single crop in a given area. Ocean. Page 20 Page 71 Nutrients Substance that provides nourishment Mosaic Fire is manipulated to create a mosaic of essential for growth and the maintenance of Pattern patches representative of a range of fire life. Page 33 histories to generate differences across space Nymphs An immature form of an insect that does not and time. Page 22 change greatly as it grows, e.g., a dragonfly, Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) Species of freshwater mayfly, or locust. Page 43 fish, also known commonly, if ambiguously, as Oak Scrub Areas that have thick stands of evergreen simply mosquitofish or by its generic name. oaks in small patches on shallow depressions Page 42 or slight hills. These forests are distinct Mutualism Ecological relationship between two species from their surrounding habitats, which are in which each species gets a benefit from the often dominated by longleaf pine. On mesic interaction. sites, common species are southern live oak (Quercus virginiana) Fagaceae, sand laurel Natural Natural event such as a flood, earthquake, or oak (Quercus hemisphaerica) Fagaceae, Disasters hurricane that causes great damage or loss of and American persimmon (Diospyros life. Page 70 virginiana) Ebenaceae. Page 22 Natural Means all living and non-living things that are Old World (Lygodium microphyllum) Lygodiaceae Environment naturally on Earth. In a narrow sense, it is an Climbing Fern climbing fern originating in tropical Africa, environment that is not influenced by people. South East Asia, Melanesia and Australia. It Page 76 is an invasive weed in Florida and Alabama Natural Materials or substances such as minerals, where it invades open forest and wetland Resource forests, water, and fertile land that occur in areas. Page 22 nature and can be used for economic gain. Oligotrophic An oligotroph is an organism that can live in Page 24 an environment that offers very low levels of Naturalized Establish (a plant or animal) so that it lives nutrients. Page 33 wild in a region where it is not indigenous. Omnivore Organism that eats both plants and animals. Page 67 Ornithology The scientific study of birds. Nesting Sites Locations (of a bird or other animal) used to build a nest. Page 47 Outstanding Rivers, lakes and other water features Florida Waters designated by the Florida Department of New World One of the names used for the Western (OFW) Environmental Protection (DEP) under Hemisphere, specifically the Americas authority of Section 403.061 (27), Florida (including nearby islands such as those of the Statutes as worthy of special protection Caribbean and Bermuda). Page 67 because of their natural attributes. OFW Niche Specific area where an organism inhabits. have special restrictions on any new Page 69 activities that would lower water quality or otherwise degrade the body of water. OFW Nocturnal Done, occurring, or active at night. Page 40 designation has been applied to all bodies of Non- Member(s) (i.e. individual, group, or water in National Wildlife Refuges. Page 16 indigenous population) of a species that enters Ozone Layer A layer in the earth’s stratosphere at an an ecosystem outside of its historic or altitude of about 6.2 miles (10 km) containing native range. Most of the non-indigenous a high concentration of ozone, which absorbs introductions are a result of human activities most of the ultraviolet radiation reaching the since the European colonization of North earth from the sun. Page 77 America. Page 71 88 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Palmate Leaf Resembling a hand with the fingers spread Pesticides A substance used for destroying insects or as in having lobes radiating from a common other organisms harmful to cultivated plants point. or to animals. Page 33 Palm Beach A county located in the state of Florida. As of Photosynthesis Process by which light energy is converted to County the 2010 census, the population was 1,320,134, chemical energy, produces sugar and oxygen making it the third-most populous county in from carbon dioxide and water. Page 27 Florida. The largest city and county seat is Pinate leaf Resembling a feather in having parts or West Palm Beach. Page 20 branches arranged on each side of a common Pangaea Or “Pangea” was a supercontinent that axis. existed during the late Paleozoic and early Pine A pine woodland in a low-lying region having Mesozoic eras. It formed approximately 300 Flatwoods little drainage. This is a moderately cold million years ago and then began to break tolerant plant community. Page 22 apart after about 100 million years. Page 20 Plastron The underneath part of a turtle shell. Page 55 Parasite An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits by deriving Plumage A bird’s feathers collectively. Page 50 nutrients at the host’s expense. Page 73 Pollution The presence in or introduction into the Parasitism Ecological relationship in which one organism environment of a substance or thing that has benefits by harming another organism. harmful or poisonous effects. Page 34 Particulate An air pollution term for a mixture of solid Ponce de Was a Spanish explorer and conquistador. He Matter particles and liquid droplets found in the air. León, Juan became the first Governor of Puerto Rico by The pollutant comes in a variety of sizes and appointment of the Spanish crown. He led the can be composed of many types of materials first European expedition to Florida. Page 15 and chemicals. Page 77 Pond Cypress (Taxodium ascendens) Deciduous coniferous PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is a group tree native to ponds and wetlands of the of organic compounds used in the manufacture southeast United States, having scale-like of plastics, as lubricants, and dielectric fluids leaves and roundish cones. Page 36 in transformers, in protective coating for Pop-Up Islands occurring in sloughs where lily roots wood, metal and concrete, and in adhesives, and rhizomes forming peat fill with mostly wire coating and so forth. Page 78 methane gas and become buoyant, tears free Plant Is a collection or association of plant species and “pops up.” Page 47 Community within a designated geographical unit, Populations All of the individuals of a species that live in which forms a relatively uniform patch, the same area. Page 7 distinguishable from neighboring patches of different vegetation types. Page 77 Prairie Is an area of the northern Great Plains and Potholes midgrass and tallgrass prairies that contains Peat A highly organic material found in marshy or thousands of shallow wetlands known as damp regions, composed of partially decayed potholes. Page 11 vegetable matter. Page 22 Precocial (Of a young bird or other animal) hatched or Peripheral Outlying extensive, level or slightly born in an advanced state and able to feed Marl Prairies undulating, mostly treeless tract of calcium itself almost immediately. carbonate or lime-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and Predator An animal that lives by capturing other silt land. Page 47 animals for food. Page 21 Periphyton A combination of algae microbes, and Preen (Of a bird) straighten and clean its feathers detritus that is a base of the food chain of the with its beak. freshwater community in the Everglades. Preservation A process of saving something in its natural Page 33 state. Page 36 Permaculture The development of agricultural ecosystems intended to be sustainable and self-sufficient. Page 65

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Prescribed Is the knowledgeable and controlled Roosevelt, (October 27, 1858- January 6, 1919) often Fire application of fire to a specific land area to President referred to by his initials TR, was an accomplish planned resource management Theodore American statesman, author, explorer, objectives. These fires are managed in such a soldier, naturalist, and historian who way as to minimize the emission of smoke and served as the 26th President of the United maximize the benefits to the site. Page 22 States. He is remembered for his foreign policy, corporate reforms and ecological Prey An animal that is hunted and killed by another preservation. Roosevelt won the Nobel for food. Page 33 Peace Prize for his part in ending the Russo- Primary First or highest in rank or importance, chief, Japanese War. Page 10 principal. Page 7 Roosting (Of a bird or bat) settle or congregate for Principles A fundamental truth or proposition that rest or sleep. Page 21 serves as the foundation for a system of The part of a plant that attaches it to belief or behavior or for a chain of reasoning. Roots the ground or to a support, typically Page 78 underground, conveying water and Ramsar Wetland of International Importance, nourishment to the rest of the plant via Convention called the Ramsar Convention, is an numerous branches and fibers. Page 37 intergovernmental treaty that provides (Sabal palmetto) Sabal is a genus of New the framework for national action and Sabal palm World palms, many of the species being international cooperation for the conservation known as palmetto, a loanword from the and wise use of wetlands and their resources. Spanish language. It is Florida’s state tree. Page 21 Is the movement of saline water into Range Distribution of a species is the geographical Saltwater freshwater aquifers, which can lead to area within which that species can be found. Intrusion contamination of drinking water sources Within that range, dispersion is variation in and other consequences. Saltwater intrusion local density. Page 36 occurs naturally to some degree in most Recycle Convert (waste) into reusable material. coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic Page 78 connection between groundwater and Refugia An area where special environmental seawater. Page 32 circumstances have enabled a species or Salyer II, J. (August 16, 1902 – August 16, 1966) Salyer a community of species to survive after Clark was an educator in Parsons, Kansas before extinction in surrounding areas. Page 22 taking a position with the Iowa Fish and Reptile Ectotherm that is covered with dry scales, Game Commission in 1933. He was later breathes with lungs, and reproduces by laying name “Father of the National Wildlife eggs. Page 21 Refuge System” because under his direction the Refuge system grew from 1.5 million Restoration The action of returning something to a former acres to 29 million acres over his tenure. owner, place, or condition. Page 21 Page 10 Ridge and A landscape is composed of a parallel Sanctuary A place of refuge or safety, i.e. a nature Slough arrangement of rather evenly spaced preserve. Page 21 sawgrass ridges and open water sloughs characterized by aquatic vegetation and Sand Pine (Pinus clausa) A pine common along the generally the year-round presence of water coast of Florida and Alabama with smooth above the soil surface. Page 47 bark, leaves in pairs, and spiny-tipped cones. Page 22 Rookies Breeding colony of birds, typically seen as a collection of bird nests high in a clump of Saprophyte A plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives trees. Page 47 on dead or decaying organic matter. Sawgrass (Cladium) A sedge with spiny-edged leaves. Page 43 Scat Wildlife feces.

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Second Woodland growth that replaces harvested or Solution Holes Rain water is less likely to erode the Growth burned virgin forest. Page 37 limestone to form solution holes—smaller versions of sinkholes that do not intersect Sedge A grasslike plant with triangular stems and with the water table. In this formation the inconspicuous flowers, growing typically in beds are generally impermeable. Page 53 wet ground. Sedges are widely distributed throughout temperate and cold regions. Species A class of individuals having some common Page 43 characteristics or qualities; distinct sort or kind. In biology the major subdivision of a Sediment Matter that settles to the bottom of a liquid, genus or subgenus. Page 72 dregs. Page 20 Spikerush (Eleocharis palustris) Is a native, perennial, Seedlings A young plant, especially one raised from seed warm season sedge. Page 52 and not from a cutting. Page 36 Stormwater Is water from rain or melting show that “runs Seminole A member of any of the groups of American Runoff off” across the land instead of seeping into Indians Indians that emigrated to Florida from the ground. Generally speaking, stormwater Georgia and Alabama in the 18th and 19th is rain that washes off driveways, parking centuries and that are now located in southern lots, roads, yards, rooftops, and other hard Florida and Oklahoma. Page 15 surfaces. Page 34 Serrated Leaf Having or forming a row of small, sharp, Storm water treatment areas are constructed projections resembling the teeth of a saw. Stormwater wetlands that remove excess nutrients. Having a saw-toothed edge or margin notched Treatment Page 34 with toothlike projections. Page 43 Areas Or Florida Straits is a strait located south- Settlement This agreement contains a fundamental Straits of southeast of the North American mainland, Agreement commitment by all parties to achieve the Florida generally accepted to be between the Gulf of water quality and water quantity needed to Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean, and between preserve and restore the unique flora and the Florida Keys and Cuba. Page 20 fauna of the Park and Refuge. Thus, the Agreement broadly requires the SFWMD Strand Tree Are characterized by having a uniform and DEP to take such action as is necessary Island plant community along the north-south to achieve all state water quality standards in axis; therefore lacking the zonation that the Park and Refuge. Page 33 characterizes fixed tree islands. Page 47 Simple Leaf A leaf whose blade is not divided to the midrib Subsidence A natural process that involves sinking of the even though lobed — compare compound leaf. earth. In the marsh, land is sinking about one inch every three years. Slough An area of deepest water in the Everglades and provides an important source of water Subtropical Relating to the regions of the Earth during the dry season. Page 15 bordering on the tropics, just north of the Tropic of Cancer or just south of the Tropic Social Social context, sociocultural context, or of Capricorn. Subtropical regions are the Environment milieu, refers to the immediate physical and warmest parts of the two Temperate Zones. social setting in which people live or in which Page 20 something happens or develops. It includes the culture that the individual was educated or Successional Sequence of biotic changes that regenerate a lives in, and the people and institutions with damaged community or start a community in whom they interact. Page 76 a previously uninhabited area. Page 22 Song Typically a song is defined as a relatively Supplemental Something added to complete a thing, make structured vocalization produced while up for a deficiency, or extend or strengthen attracting a mate or defending a territory. the whole. Page 78 Calls tend to be shorter, less rhythmic sounds Susceptibility The state or fact of being likely or liable to be used to communicate a nearby threat or an influenced or harmed by a particular thing. individual’s location. Page 45 Page 77 Is a member of the perching bird family. Songbirds Sustainable Able to be maintained at a certain rate or Page 66 level. Page 78

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Swamp This is a low, wet, forested area. Page 36 Tree Islands They range in size from a few square miles to 300 acres or more and rise as much as three Symbiosis Ecological relationship between members feet above the surrounding marsh. They are of at least two different species that live in a needed retreat from the watery and open direct contact with one another. environment of the Everglades. They provide Symbiotic Having an interdependent relationship. food and shelter for wildlife. Page 22 Page 40 Triassic Period Is a geologic period and system that extends Symbiotic A close, prolonged association between two from roughly 252.17 to 0.2 million years ago, Relationship or more different organisms of different an interval of 51.04 million years. It is the species that may, but does not necessarily, first period of the Mesozoic Era, and lies benefit each member. between the Permian and Jurassic periods. Synergy The interaction or cooperation of two or Both the start and end of the period are more organizations, substances, or other marked by major extinction events. agents to produce a combined effect greater Tropism Movement or growth of a plant in response than the sum of their separate effects. to an environmental stimulus. Page 37 Page 77 Urban Interface Refers to the zone of transition between Systematic A scientific method in wildlife survey for unoccupied land and human development. Reconnaissance assessing the distribution and abundance Communities that are within 0.5 miles Flights of wild animals. The method involves (0.80 km) of the zone may also be included. systematic or random flight lines (transects) These lands and communities adjacent to over the target area at a constant height and surrounded by wildlands are at risk of above ground, with at least one observer wildfires. Page 22 recording wildlife in a calibrated strip on at Is a word for becoming more like a city. least one side of the aircraft. Page 72 Urbanization When populations of people grow, the Taxonomists A biologist who groups organisms into population of a place may spill over from city categories. Page 36 to nearby areas. This is called urbanization. Temperate Of, relating to, or denoting a region or climate Maybe tall apartment buildings spring up characterized by mild temperatures. Page 20 on what had been the outskirts of town, bringing more people there to live and work. Temperature A temperature is a numerical measure of hot Page 71 and cold. Its measurement is by detection of heat radiation, particle velocity, kinetic Vertebrate Animal with an internal segmented energy, or most commonly, by the bulk backbone. Page 40 behavior of a thermometric material. Page 22 Volunteers A person who freely offers to take part in an Tequesta Were a small peaceful tribe. They were enterprise or undertake a task. Page 78 Indians one of the first tribes in South Florida and Wading Birds A long-legged bird, such as a crane, heron, they settled near Biscayne Bay in present or stork, that frequents shallow water, day Miami. The Tequesta Indians were especially in search of food. Page 32 hunter/gatherers and relied mainly on fish, South Florida’s three (WCAs) are vast shellfish, nuts, and berries for food. The Water tracts of remnant Everglades sawgrass men caught shark, sailfish, sea cows and Conservation marsh located adjacent to Everglades porpoises in the local waters. Page 17 Areas 1, 2, 3 National Park. Spanning 846,387 acres, the Thigmotropism Is a movement in which a plant moves WCAs serve multiple water resource and or grows in response to touch or contact environmental purposes, including flood stimuli. Page 37 control, water supply and habitat for South Threatened Species are those likely to become endangered Florida’s plant and animal communities. within the “foreseeable future.” Page 11 Renowned for their clean water, unique landscape and birds and wildlife, the WCAs Total (TP) is the form of analysis typically cited are popular for recreational activities such as Phosphorus as an effluent parameter for municipal and fishing, hunting and bird watching. Page 16 industrial wastewater treatment plants. Page 34 92 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Water Cycle The cycle of processes by which water Xeriscape Landscaping and gardening that reduces or circulates between the earth’s oceans, eliminates the need for supplemental water. atmosphere, and land, involving precipitation Page 65 as rain and snow, drainage in streams and rivers, and return to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration. Page 34 Waterfowl Ducks, geese, or other large aquatic birds, especially when regarded as game. Page 10 Weather The state of the atmosphere at a place and time as regards heat, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc. Page 21 Wet Dry Florida experiences seasons that differ Seasons from most of the remainder of the country. Rather than the four seasons of winter, spring, summer and fall, Florida exhibits a distinct Wet (warm) Season and Dry (cooler) Season. This duality of seasons is similar to the Monsoon or Wet-Dry climates that other regions of the world experience. The Wet Season is typically considered to begin in the latter part of May and resembles “summer” across much of the remainder of the country. Though it does not rain every day during the summer, the frequency of rainfall usually begins to increase in late May. The Dry Season usually begins in October as the first synoptic scale cold front brings drier and slightly cooler air into the area. Tropical systems, additional fronts and gale centers can bring periods of heavy rain through November, but the frequency of rain almost always decreases after the first significant frontal passage. Page 20 Wetlands Areas that, at least periodically, have waterlogged soils or are covered with a relatively shallow layer of water. Wetlands support plant and animals that are adapted to living in a watery environment. Bogs, freshwater marshes, freshwater swamps, and the Everglades are examples of wetlands. Page 11 Wet Prairie Have shallower water levels and are characterized by short emergent plants other than sawgrass, such as beakrushes and spikerushes. Page 52 Wildfires A large, destructive fire that spreads quickly over woodland or brush. Page 21 Wildlife A place that provides food, shelter, and Refuge protection for the organisms that live or migrate there. Page 10

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Maps

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Refuge Headquarters Area

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Resources

Barley Barber Swamp — first growth educational programs and exhibits on the Florida Native Plant Society Cypress Swamp www.barleybarber.org refuge. Many of the agencies listed below P.O. Box 278 tours and school group by Treasured will provide additional resources and Melbourne, FL 32902-0278 Lands Foundation 772/647 9074 materials such as posters, coloring books, 321/271 6702 and additional resource material. Also, [email protected] An Activity Guide for Teachers: all states have a department of natural Everglades National Park, National Park resources or a fish and game commission Project H.O.M.E. Service that will have materials available for that New Hampshire Fish and Game state. They are listed in the phone book 2 Hazen Drive The Florida State Museum under state governments. Concord, NH 03301 Homestead, FL 33030 Project Learning Tree U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service An Educator Guide to St. Mark’s National The American Forest Council 1875 Century Blvd. Wildlife Refuge, St. Mark’s NWR 1250 Connecticut Avenue, NW Atlanta, GA 30345 Washington, D.C. 20036 http://permacultureprinciples.com U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Project WILD/Aquatic WILD 345 Courtland Street The South Florida Water Management Council for Environmental Education Atlanta, GA 30303 District (District) and the U.S. Army 5555 Morningside, Suite 212 Corps of Engineers (COE) are partners Houston, TX 77005 National Park Service in the Comprehensive Everglades 713/520 1936 [email protected] 75 Spring Street, SW Room 1094 Restoration Program – the restoration Atlanta, GA 30303 program to clean up the Everglades. Education Section Ecological Society of Read and learn on their website http:// American Institute of Ecosystem Studies U.S. Forest Service www.evergladesrestoration.org/. P.O. Box AB 1720 Peachtree Road Millbrook, NY 12545 Atlanta, GA 30367 Project WILD/Aquatic WILD Council for Environmental Education Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation National Wildlife Refuge System 5555 Morningside, Suite 212 Commission 5275 Leesburg Pike Houston, TX 77005 Nongame Education Program Falls Church, VA 22041-3803 Phone: 713/520 1936 620 South Meridian Street Email: [email protected] Tallahassee, FL 32399-1600 Department of Wildlife and Range Services http://refuges.fws.gov Florida Urban Wildlife Extension 118 Newins-Zeigler Hall Specialist Florida Department of University of Florida http://www.fws.gov/refuge/arm_ Environmental Protection South East Gainesville, FL 32611 Loxahatchee Florida Sub-District 400 N. Congress Avenue Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation http://raws.wrh.noaa.gov/roman/ West Palm Beach, FL 33401 Commission 8535 Northlake Blvd. http://gacc.nifc.gov/sacc/predictive/ Florida Parks and Monuments West Palm Beach, FL 33412 weather/weather.htm Association 10 Parachute Key #51 Homestead FL 33034-6735 http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ A Guide to Environmental Education for The Friends of the Arthur R. Marshall National Wildlife Refuges and Fish Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge Hatcheries in the Southeast Region, https://loxahatcheefriends.com/ has U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 4, available for sale a number of excellent Atlanta, GA 30303 reference books on the Everglades and its native flora and fauna. These items may be purchased at the Refuge Visitor Center during operating hours. Funds generated through sales are used for 98 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Works Cited

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1990s). http://www.acf.org. American Chestnut Langdon, O. Gordon (1958). Silvical A Guide to Environmental Education Foundation. 2015 Characteristics of Baldcypress. U.S. for National Wildlife Refuges and Fish Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Hatcheries in the Southeast Region, U.S. http://www.allaboutbirds.org. Cornell Fish and Wildlife Service, Region Four. Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University. Laroche, Francois B. (Ed.) (1999). Copyright 2011 Melaleuca Management Plan. Florida U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1990s). An Exotic Pest Plant Council. Educator Guide to St. Mark’s National http://aquaplant.tamu.edu. Texas A & M Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife University. 2015 Levin, Ted. (2001, August). A New Day Service, St. Mark’s National Wildlife Dawns in the Everglades. Audubon. http://www.fleppc.org. Florida Exotic Pest Pg 36 - 63. Refuge. Plant Council. 2015 Behler, John L. and King, F. Wayne. (1992). Lodge, Thomas E. (2004). The Everglades http://www.fleppc.org/ID_book/Schinus%20 Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem The Audubon Society Field Guide to North terebinthifolius.pdf., Center for Invasive American Reptiles & Amphibians. New First and Second Edition. CRC Press Species and Ecosystem Health, University LLC. York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. of Georgia, January 2015. Bell, C. Ritchie and Taylor, Bryan J. (1982). Olmsted, I.C. and Loope, L.L. (1984). Plant http://www.fondriest.com/environmental- Communities of Everglades National Park Florida Wildflowers and Roadside Plants. measurements/ Chapel Hill, NC: Laurel Hill Press. in Environments of South Florida: Present Fondriest Environmental Inc. 2015 and Past II. P.J. Gleason (Ed.), Miami Bransilver, Connie and Richardson, Larry http://www.garden.org/. Geological Survey. W. (2000). Florida’s Unsung Wilderness: National Gardening Association. 2015 The Swamps. Westcliffe Publishers, Inc. Peterson, Roger Tory; Alden, P. and Sill, S. http://www.merriam-webster.com. An (1982). A Field Guide to the Birds Coloring Conant, Roger and Joseph Williams. (1991). Encyclopedia Britannica Company. 2015 Book. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Reptiles and Amphibians. Houghton Company. Mifflin Co. http://www.floridalosttribes.com/. Theodore Morris. A Map of Florida’s Lost Tribes Purvis, William (2000). Lichens. Davis, John H. Jr., Ph.D, (1943). The Smithsonian Institution Press. Natural Features of Southern Florida: https://nicholas.duke.edu/wetland/. Especially the Vegetation, and the Duke University Wetlands Center. 2015 Riley, Laura; Riley, William (1 January Everglades. State of Florida, Department of 2005). Nature’s Strongholds: The World’s Conservation, Florida Geological Survey. http://www.oecd-library.org/. Great Wildlife Reserves. Princeton OECD (Organization for Economic University. Dennis, John V. (1988). The Great Cypress Co-operation and Development) Swamps. Louisiana State University Press. Environmental Outlook to 2030. OECD Ripple, Jeff (1992). Big Cypress Swamp Publishing, Paris. March 2008 and the Ten Thousand Islands Eastern Elzinga, Caryl L. Ph.D. et all, Salzer, America’s Last Great Wilderness. Daniel W., Willoughby, John W. (1998). http://pesticide.ifas.ufl.edu. University of University of South Carolina Press. MEASURING & MONITORING Plant Florida, Institute of Food and Agriculture Populations BLM Technical Reference Sciences. 2007 Simberloff, Daniel (1997). Flagships, 1730-1 BLM/RS/ST-98/005+1730 Bureau Umbrellas, Keystones: Is Single Species of Land Management, National Business http://semtribe.com/. Seminole Tribe of Management Passé in the Landscape Era? Center BC-650B, P.O. Box 25047 Florida. 2015 Biological Conservation, Elsevier Science Ltd. Denver, Colorado 80225-0047 http://www.who.int. World Health National Park Service (1990). Everglades Organization. 2015 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (1964). Rare and Endangered Fish and Wildlife Activity Guide for Teachers, National Park https://saferenvironment.wordpress. Service, Everglades National Park. of the United States. Washington, U.S. com/ Partha Das Sharma (P.D.Sharma) Government Printing Office. Ferriter, Amy, Bodle, Mike; Goodyear, is Graduate (B.Tech – Hons.) in Mining Carole; and Thayer, Dan (2001). Chapter Engineering from IIT, Kharagpur, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1999). South 14: Exotic Species in the Everglades in 2001 India (1979) Weblog on “Keeping World Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan. Everglades Consolidated Report, South Environment Safer and Greener,” Ecological Services Office, U.S. Fish and Florida Water Management District. Degradation of Global Environment Affects Wildlife Service. Human Health to a Large Extent. April 21, Hoyer, M.V. and Canfield, D.E., Jr. (1994). 2009 Wunderlin, Richard P. and Hansen, Bruce Handbook of Common Freshwater Fish in F. (1998). Guide to the Vascular Plants of Florida Lakes. University of Florida. Florida. University Press of Florida.

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Peg’s List of “Great Florida Reads!” Compiled by Margaret McPherson and copyrighted in 2002 Publisher and Year added by FWS

Douglas, Marjory Stoneman (1947) The Will, Laurence E. (1978) A Cracker Reference Everglades: River of Grass. Rinehart & History of Okeechobee. Great Outdoors Morris, Allen (2007) The Florida Company. Publishing Company. Handbook. Peninsular Publishing.

Douglas, Marjory Stoneman (1967) Wright, E. Lynn (2010) More than Gannon, Michael, Editor (2012) The New Florida: The Long Frontier. Harper & Petticoats- Remarkable Florida Women. Florida History. University Press of Row. Morris Book Publishing LLC. Florida.

Douglas, Marjory Stoneman and Porter, Kenneth Wiggins (2013) The Fernald, Edward A and Patton, Donald J. Rothchild, John (1988) Voice of The River. Black Seminoles. University of Florida. (1984) Water Resources Atlas of Florida. Pineapple Press. Florida State University of Science & Exley, Sheck (1994) Caverns Measureless Public Affairs. Brookfield, Charles M. and Griswold, to Man. Cave Books. Oliver (1960) They Call It TROPICAL. Florida Water Management Districts The Data Press. Work, Deborah (2001) My Soul is (2002) Florida Waters – A Water a Witness: A History of Black Ft. Resource Manual. Florida’s Five Water Collins, LeRoy (1971) Forerunners Lauderdale. Donning Company. Management Districts, Tallahassee. Courageous: Stories of Frontier Florida. Colcade Publishers. Belleville, Bill (2011) River of Lakes- A Milanich, Jerald T. (1998) Florida’s Journey of Florida’s St. John’s River. Indians and the Invasions From Europe. VanDoren, Mark, Editor (1998) Travels of University of Georgia Press. University Press of Florida. William Bartrum by William Bartrum. Yale University Press, Inc. Burt, Al (1997) Al Burt’s Florida: Hann, John H. (1996) The History of Snowbirds, Sand Castles, and Self – the Timucua Indians Missions. Florida Non-Fiction Rising Crackers. University Press of Museum of Natural History. Carr, Archie (1996) A Naturalist in Florida. Florida: A Celebration of Eden. Yale Mahon, John K. (1991) History of University Press. Burt, Al (2008). Tropic of Cracker, the Second Seminole War 1835-1842. University of Florida. University of Florida. Cerulean, Susan (2002) Everglades. Milkweed Editions. Rudloe, Jake (1980) The Living Dock. Drobney, Jeffery A. (1997) Lumbermen Peninsular Publishing Company. and Log Sawyers. Mercer University Kennedy, Stetson (2009) Palmetto Press. Country. Florida Historical Society Rudloe, Jake (2004) The Wilderness Press. Coast: Adventures of a Gulf Coast Blakely, Arch Fredric (1973) The Florida Naturalist. Great Outdoors Publishing Phosphate Industry, A History of the Brown, Loren G. (1993) Totch: A Life in Company. Development and Use of a Vital Mineral. The Everglades. University of Florida. Harvard University Press. Hollis, Tim (1999) Dixie Before Disney: Simmons, Glen and Ogden, Laura 100 Years of Roadside Fun. University Mann, Maybelle (1999) Art in Florida: (2010) Gladesmen: Gator Hunters, Press of Mississippi. 1564 – 1945. Pineapple Press. Moonshiners, and Skiffers. University of Florida. Huie, William Bradford (1956) Ruby Robinson, G.B; Kesselheim, Alan S.; McCollum in the Swannee Jail. Dutton. Robinson, S.C.; and Higgins, Susan West, Patsy (1998) The Enduring H. (1996) Discover a Watershed: The Seminoles: From Alligator Wrestling to McPhee, John (2011) Oranges. Macmillan. Everglades. Watercourse, Montana State Ecotourism. University Press of Florida. University. McCally, David (2000) The Everglades – West, Patsy (2001) A Seminole Legend- An Environmental History. University The Life of Betty Mae Tiger Jumper. of Florida. University of Florida.

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Literature and/or Fiction Rainey, John Calvin (1997) The Thang General Environmental Reads Pratt, Theodore (1993) The Barefoot That Ate My Granddaddy’s Dog. Wilson, Edward O. (1994) Naturalist. Mailman. Florida Classics Library. 50th Pineapple Press, Inc. Island Press. Anniversary Edition. [compiled by] Bruce, Annette J. and Leopold, Aldo (1949) A Sand County Smith, Patrick D. (1984) A Land Brooks, Stephen J. (2001) Sandspun Almanac. Oxford University Press, Inc. Remembered. Pineapple Press. – Florida Tales by Florida Tellers. Pineapple Press, Inc. Carson, Rachel (1962) Silent Spring. Rawlings, Marjorie Kinnan (1938) The Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Yearling. Simon and Schuster. Jumper, Betty Mae and Gallagher, Peter, illustrated by LaBree, Guy (1994) Legend Rawlings, Marjorie Kinnan (1935) Golden of the Seminoles As Told by Betty Mae Apples. Amereon, Limited. Jumper. Pineapple Press, Inc.

Rawlings, Marjorie Kinnan (1953) Cross Gramling, Lee (1996) Ghosts of the Green Creek. Booklassic. Swamp. Pineapple Press, Inc.

Hurston, Zora Neal (1979) “I Like Hospital, Carolina and Cantera, Jorge Myself When I Am Laughing”: A Zora (1996) A Century of Cuban Writers in Neale Hurston Reader. Feminist Press of Florida: Selected Prose and Poetry. City University of New York. Pineapple Press, Inc.

Hurston, Zora Neal (1937) Their Eyes Children’s Literature Were Watching God. University of Illinois DiCamillo, Kate (2000) Because of Winn Press. Dixie. Candlewick Press.

Hurston, Zora Neal (1948) Seraph on the Bruce, Annette (1996) Tellable Cracker Suwannee. Harper Collins. Tales. Pineapple Press, Inc.

Matthiessen, Peter (1990) Killing Mr. Poetry Watson. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Jones, Jane Anderson (1995) Florida in Group. Poetry: A History of the Imagination. Pineapple Press, Inc. Matthiessen, Peter (1997) Lost Man’s River. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Edited by Davis, Jack Emerson (2002) Group. The Wild Brim – Early Poems and Ponderings of Marjory Stoneman White, Randy Wayne (1993) The Man Douglas. University Press of Florida. Who Invented Florida. Macmillan. Blanding, Don (1941- reprinted 1999) White, Randy Wayne (2003) Everglades. Floridays. Peninsula Press. Penguin Group.

Hiaasen, Carl (1986) Tourist Season. G.P. Putnam & Sons, Inc.

Orleans, Susan (1998) The Orchid Thief. Random House Publishing Group.

MacDonald, John D. (written between 1964 – 1985) The Various Travis McGee Series. Random House Publishing Group.

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Standards and Lessons/Activities

These additional lesson plans Chapter I: Introduction to Established align all activities to each Conservation Systems n Math: I can investigate patterns of chapter and the national association. core disciplines, and the n ELA: I can determine the main idea or Next Generation Florida essential message through inferring, Sunshine State and Common paraphrasing, summarizing, and identifying relevant details. Core standards. Each chapter n Science: I can recognize that scientists and activity is adaptable who make contributions to scientific to indoor, outdoor, field trip knowledge come from all kinds of backgrounds and possess varied experiences and all grade talents, interests, and goals. levels. If you would like more n History/Civics: I can utilize timelines to activities and lessons or identify the time sequence of historical data. I can analyze how images, to have someone model the symbols, objects, cartoons, graphs, lessons/activities with you, charts, maps, and artwork may be used to interpret the significance of time or illustrate how to adapt the periods and events from the past. information and activities to n Art: I can identify examples in which a certain grade level/student artists have created works based on cultural and life experiences. group, please contact the Chapter II: ARM Loxahatchee NWR Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee NWR and ask for the education n Math: I can describe and compare measurable attributes. department. n ELA: I can plan and develop a topic; organize ideas, concepts, and information, using strategies such as definition, classification, comparison/ contrast, and cause/effect; include formatting, graphics, and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension.

n Science: Discuss, compare, and negotiate methods used, results obtained, and explanations among groups of students conducting the same investigation.

n History/Civics: Examine key events and peoples in Florida history as they relate to United States history.

n Art: Use critical-thinking skills for various contexts to develop, refine, and reflect on a theme. 102 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Lesson Title: Food Chain 3) Distinguish between Producers (Photosynthesis—the process by which (plants—which use the sun’s energy green plants convert carbon dioxide and Lesson from the A.R.M. to produce food); Consumers (primary water into simple sugar in the presence of Loxahatchee NWR consumers—plant eating animals--- chlorophyll). Grade level: Grades Kindergarten and Up secondary consumers—animals which eat the primary consumers, etc.), (or Main Lesson Student Target Benchmark an organism that eats mostly flesh by (completed during visit with Refuge SC.3.L.17.2 (Recognize that plants use catching other organisms or by eating educators) energy from the sun, air, and water to particles or organic matter such as make their own food.) Procedure/Activity: Review with the plants); and Decomposers (an organism students that each plant or animal is SC.4.L.17.2 (Explain that animals, that returns components of organic connected in some way to other plants including humans, cannot make their own matter to ecological cycles by feeding and animals. Show the students pictures food and that when animals eat plants or on and breaking down dead plants and of various plants and animals found other animals, the energy stored in the animals). on the Refuge. Divide the large group food source is passed to them.) Materials for Pre & Post Lessons into smaller walk groups. Hand out the observation worksheet. After walking SC.4.L.17.3 (Trace the flow of energy n Vocabulary: food chain, producer, through one of the various habitats on the from the Sun as it is transferred along consumer, decomposer, photosynthesis, Refuge reassemble into a large group, but the food chain through the producers to energy, humus, food web. keep the smaller groups intact within the the consumers.) n Materials: pictures of animals larger group. Hand out the Food Chain LAFS.3.RI.2.4 (Determine the meaning and plants found on the Refuge, worksheet. Instruct each of the groups to of general academic and domain-specific Observation sheet, Food Chain come up with at least one food chain based words and phrases in a text relevant to a worksheet on the plants and animals they either grade 3 topic or subject area.) observed or saw pictures of in the Refuge. Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson LAFS.3.SL.1.2 (Determine the main (completed in classroom before visiting) Discussion: ideas and supporting details of a text read Have the students in each group share aloud or information presented in diverse Overview: Food chains begin with plants their food chains with the larger group. media and formats, including visually, that can make their own food through quantitatively, and orally.) photosynthesis, using the sun’s energy. Post-visit Reflection Lesson Consumers in turn, eat these plants and (completed in classroom after visiting) LAFS.3.SL.1.3 (Ask and answer then each other. The process continues n Have students add animal pictures to until organisms break down the dead questions about information from a their food chains, cut them out and plants and animals at the top of the speaker, offering appropriate elaboration make mobiles from them. and detail.) food chain by eating them. The latter, the decomposers, return it to the soil as n Have students investigate food chains LAFS.3.SL.2.4 (Report on a topic or humus. Humus contains nutrients that from other habitats such as pine text, tell a story, or recount an experience plants need to grow. flatwoods or coastal communities. with appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details, speaking clearly at an Background Information: Only plants Assessment understandable pace.) can produce their own food with the help Review Objectives: Using the students’ of the sun’s energy. Plants are called (corrected if necessary) food chain Lesson Objectives producers, and they begin the food chain. worksheets, have them label each plant/ After completing this activity, students Primary consumers are plant eating animal producer, consumer or decomposer. will be able to: animals, and secondary consumers eat Attachments the primary consumers. Decomposers 1) Describe a simple food chain (A (Request from education department) finish the cycle and return the dead sequence of living organisms in an materials to the soil. There can be many n Vocabulary List ecological community in which members food chains happening at the same time of one level feed on those in the level n Organisms Graphic so a food web displays these chains that below it and in turn are eaten by those in are interconnected. Ask the students, n Food Chains of the Everglades Graphic the level above them.) using a KWL chart, what they know n Student Food Chains of the Everglades 2) Give an example of a simple food chain about how plants and animals depend on Graphic (clover->grasshoppers->frogs->snakes- each other for what they eat. Using their n Food Web Graphic >hawks.) answers, begin to explain the concepts of photosynthesis and food chains. n Observational Data Sheet 103 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Chapter III: Water problems using information presented in Procedure/Activity: Students will be n Math: Create equations that describe scaled bar graphs.) split into small groups. Given clipboards, numbers or relationships picture guide sheets, data sheets, and Lesson Objectives binoculars, students will walk through n ELA: I can analyze cause and effect After completing this activity, students the Cypress Swamp or Marsh Trail. They relationships will be able to: will check off the presence and if possible, n Science: I can analyze and explain the 1) Define a wetland. (An area often amounts of plant, animal or resource parts of the water cycle flooded or soaked with water.) found. (Science, Mathematics) Discussion: n History/Civics: I can understand the 2) Describe how wetlands are identified. After returning to the group judicial process as seen through a (By the types of plants, trees, water in area; students will choose a group federal vs. state lawsuit them.) spokesperson to report to the larger n Art: I can investigate the use of 3) Explain the difference between a group on the results of their Wetlands technology and other resources to swamp and a marsh. (Swamp is forested, Walk. Students will be asked to discuss inspire art-making decisions marsh has few trees.) how they chose to split up the activities necessary to work as a team in order Lesson Title: General 4) Identify why wetlands are important. to get and keep their data. (Spotters, Wetlands Lesson from the (Fisheries, flood control, recreation, Recorders.) Students will evaluate the plants make up the bottom of the food success of their data collection and A.R.M. Loxahatchee NWR chain, clean and remove chemicals from collaboration as part of their report. Grade level: Grades 3 and Up our drinking water.) Post-visit Reflection Lesson Student Target Benchmark Materials for Pre & Post Lessons (completed in classroom after visiting) SC.3.L.14.1 (Describe structures in n Vocabulary: Wetland, Marsh, Swamp, n plants and their roles in food production, Teachers can keep data sheets for Food Chain, frequency, acre, nutrients, students to graph and compare results. support, water and nutrient transport, always/often and reproduction.) (Mathematics) n Materials: Picture guide worksheets, n Students can begin their own nature SC.3.L.14.2 (Investigate and describe clipboards, data worksheets, pencils, journals by classifying plants and how plants respond to stimuli (heat, light, and binoculars. animals that they saw and designing gravity), such as the way plant stems Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson covers for their journals. (Science, Art) grow toward light and their roots grow (completed in classroom before visiting) downward in response to gravity.) n Students can build a food chain using Overview: A little over 11 million acres the plants and animals observed on SC.4.N.1.2 (Compare the observations of Florida are wetlands. They can be their walk. (Science) made by different groups using multiple marshes, swamps, ponds, and wet tools and seek reasons to explain the Assessment prairies. Bodies of water, like rivers differences across groups.) Review Objectives: Ask the students and lakes are not considered wetlands to review what plants and animals were LAFS.3.SL.1.1 (Engage effectively in because they are always flooded. Florida predominate in the wetlands they observed. a range of collaborative discussions contains 20% of all the remaining See if the students can describe the (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) wetlands in the entire country. Plants difference between a swamp and a marsh with diverse partners on grade 3 topics have adapted or changed to grow in the based on the animals and plants that they and texts, building on others’ ideas and wet/dry conditions found in a wetland. saw or heard about from the other students. expressing their own clearly.) With teacher prompts, if necessary, students Background Information: Using a large can begin to answer the question of what LAFS.3.SL.2.4 (Report on a topic or text, pad or whiteboard, the teacher will ask functions wetlands serve for the animals tell a story, or recount an experience the students what they already know and plants that they observed. with appropriate facts and relevant, about wetlands and what wetlands do to descriptive details, speaking clearly at an keep our water clean, our habitat safe for Attachments understandable pace.) fish, animals and plant life, and why that (Request from education department) is important. MAFS.3.MD.2.3 (Draw a scaled n Vocabulary List picture graph and a scaled bar graph Main Lesson n Cypress Swamp Graphic to represent a data set with several (completed during visit with Refuge categories. Solve one- and two-step educators) n Marsh Trail Graphic “how many more” and “how many less” n Data Collection Sheet 104 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Lesson Title: KOE Lesson Objectives Background Information After completing this activity, students Have students read Chapter 1 - The Vital (Kissimmee-Okeechobee- will be able to: Essence from Discover A Watershed: Everglades) Lesson from the The Everglades You may choose to A.R.M. Loxahatchee NWR 1) List where the Everglades get its have your students read individually Grade level: Grades 3 and Up water. Describe the historical flow of or in teams. Or you may choose to read water from the Kissimmee Chain of selected paragraphs from the chapter Student Target Benchmark Lakes, Kissimmee River, through Lake to the students. Have your students SC.4.E.6.3 (Recognize that humans need Okeechobee and down to Florida Bay. determine a central idea of a text and how resources found on Earth and that these it is conveyed through particular details; are either renewable or nonrenewable.) 2) Name three other competitors for that provide a summary of the text distinct water and to explain how water coming from personal opinions or judgments. SC.4.E.6.6 (Identify resources available in into the Everglades has been changed. Florida (water, phosphate, oil, limestone, Articulate some of the reasons why that Previous to the activity planned, explain silicon, wind, and solar energy.) flow has been interrupted (agriculture, to the students how the Everglades is development, population growth). supplied with water. Display the piece SC.3.P.8.2 (Measure and compare the or picture of limestone for student mass and volume of solids and liquids.) observation, while explaining its water- 3) Explain why freshwater in South bearing capabilities. CCSS.ELA.Literacy.5.RI.1 (Quote Florida is not an unlimited resource. accurately from a text when explaining Use the map of South Florida to review what the text says explicitly and when Materials for Pre & Post Lessons the concept of the original water flow drawing inferences from the text.) n Vocabulary: Aquifer, limestone, from the Kissimmee River Basin, to Lake CCSS.ELA.Literacy.RI.6.2 (Determine Kissimmee Chain of Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, through the Everglades, a central idea of a text and how it is Okeechobee, drought, periphyton. into the Gulf of Mexico, and on to the conveyed through particular details; coral reefs or Dry Tortugas. Compare provide a summary of the text distinct n Materials: Chapter 1 - The Vital this to the altered water flow due to from personal opinions or judgments.) Essence from Discover A Watershed: humans. Using the map on page 14 of The Everglades by South Florida Water read Chapter 1 - The Vital Essence from CCSS.ELA.Literacy.RI.8.6 (Determine Management District, Two large identical Discover A Watershed: The Everglades an author’s point of view or purpose Sponges (preferably 8-10” long and 2” by South Florida Water Management in a text and analyze how the author thick); Large container of water; Three District have your students solve real- acknowledges and responds to conflicting pans to hold water; Two ID cards labeled, world and mathematical problems evidence or viewpoints.) “Historic Everglades” and “Everglades involving area, volume and surface area Today”; Four ID cards labeled: “farmer,” of the various water supply sources. CCSS.Math Content.6.NS.C.8 (Solve “developer,” “population of South real-world and mathematical problems Florida,” and “Everglades”; Masking Main Lesson by graphing points in all four quadrants tape; Map of South Florida; Piece of (completed during visit with Refuge of the coordinate plane. Include use of limestone or picture of limestone. educators) coordinates and absolute value to find distances between points with the same first coordinate or the same second Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson Procedure/Activity: coordinate.) (completed in classroom before visiting) 1. About a day or so before the activity, explain to your students how the CCSS.Math Content.7.G.B.6 (Solve Overview: The Everglades depends on Everglades are supplied with water. real-world and mathematical problems water from rainfall and drainage from Display the piece of limestone for involving area, volume and surface area the Kissimmee River Basin and Lake student observation, while explaining of two- and three-dimensional objects Okeechobee. Before people settled in its water-bearing capabilities. composed of triangles, quadrilaterals, South Florida, the water that spilled polygons, cubes, and right prisms.) over the lake’s southern edge flowed 2. Use the map of south Florida to review southward through the Everglades. original water flow from the Kissimmee In the late 1800s, people began to Chain of Lakes to Lake Okeechobee to build canals and levees to control this Florida Bay and the altered water flow water flow for human needs. Now, the due to man. Point out the four canals: Everglades compete with humans for West Palm Beach canal, Hillsboro canal, water. New River canal, and the Miami canal. 105 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

3. Appoint four volunteers to represent 12. Compare the two pans of water. What of the narrative. Have your students “the Everglades,” “farming interests,” is left for the Everglades? graph the statistics from 1996 (when “developers,” and “the human this curriculum was published) and the population of South Florida.” Discussion: current year and compare the changes. Can the water be saved? Is there enough Discuss the changes. 4. Identify each volunteer with a label. for everyone? What effect does reduced water have on Everglades plants and n Hold a debate about current water 5. Immerse one sponge in one pan of animals? Ask a student to read the last issues related to the Everglades water until it is saturated. Let it paragraph of Chapter 1 - The Vital ecosystem. represent the original, unaltered Essence from Discover A Watershed: Everglades in the wet season. The Everglades. Hold a discussion on the Assessment Label that pan. It has received an concept of the last two sentences: “In Review objectives from the beginning of uninterrupted flow of water. Ask the the Everglades there is “water, water, the lesson. In writing or in discussion, students where the water originates. everywhere…” but too many living things have students demonstrate that they have needing to ‘drink’ from the river. In met each objective. 6. Ask the “Everglades” volunteer to this ecosystem, water is clearly the vital squeeze the sponge over the pan to essence.” Attachments show how much water the Everglades (Request from Refuge education can hold. Put the sponge back in the Post-visit Reflection Lesson department) water. (completed in classroom after visiting) n Vocabulary list 7. Immerse the second sponge in a second n Have students investigate how to pan of water until it is saturated. conserve water in their homes or n Chapter 1 - The Vital Essence from school, and in their neighborhoods. Discover A Watershed: The Everglades 8. Ask the students how the water flow by South Florida Water Management has been changed by people and for n Have students investigate what District what purposes water is diverted away agencies in the State of Florida are from the Everglades. Tell students that charged with dealing with the current n Map of 1913 Phytogeographic Map of they are going to take water from the flow of water through the Everglades. South Florida Everglades, just as others do. n Using the last paragraph of the n Two large identical sponges 9. Let the “farmer” give one squeeze to first section of Chapter 1 - The Vital the sponge, allowing some of the water Essence from Discover A Watershed: n Large container of water to squeeze out into another pan. Pass The Everglades. On page 6 that begins the sponge to the “developer” and let with Florida is synonymous with…. n Three pans to hold water him/her squeeze. What do they do with have your students solve real-world and the water? They divert it, or drain it mathematical problems involving area, n Masking tape into the ocean to make the land dry volume and surface area of the area enough for planting and developing. mentioned in this paragraph. n Piece of limestone or a picture of limestone 10. Pass the sponge to the “population n Using graph paper as a grid and the of south Florida” for a squeeze into 1913 Phytogeographic Map of South n Map of the geologic story of South another pan. What do people use the Florida, have your students solve Florida water for? real-world and mathematical problems involving estimates of the surface area n Map of KOE system with major canals 11. Let the “Everglades” give the last of each of the vegetative areas of the identified squeeze from the sponge into pan 2. map. The remaining water squeezed from n Placards for Historic Everglades, the sponge into the second empty n Using the section of Chapter 1 - The Everglades Today, Everglades, Farmer, pan represents the water left for the Vital Essence from Discover A Developer, Population of South Florida Everglades after humans have diverted Watershed: The Everglades. On page much of the water for their own use. 10 called What’s It Worth, have your students research current year totals for all the statistics listed in this section 106 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Lesson Title: Adaptation 3) Use field guides to identify organisms Raptors (hawks, eagles, falcons, based on their observations. accipiters, and owls) have strong feet and Everywhere Lesson from the sharp talons to help them catch and kill A.R.M. Loxahatchee NWR 4) Identify organisms correctly based on prey. Grade level: Grades 3 and Up the descriptions of adaptations given by others. Plants can also adapt to a particular Student Target Benchmark environment. Cypress trees spend 3/4 of SC.5.L.15.1 (Describe how, when the Materials for Pre & Post Lessons the year in water. Therefore, the buttress environment changes, differences n Vocabulary: adaptation, amphibians, base stabilizes this tree. Wax myrtle trees between individuals allow some plants behavior, crustaceans, environment, give off a fragrance that native Americans and animals to survive and reproduce habitat, hibernate, invertebrate, larvae, said kept mosquitoes away. while others die or move to new locations) marsh, raptor, species, submerged vegetation, willow, coco plum, wax Discuss the difference between specialists SC.4.N.1.2 (Compare the observations myrtle, pickerelweed, and duck potato. and generalists using the following made by different groups using multiple examples of raptors found on the Refuge. tools and seek reasons to explain the n Copies of Student Page-”Adaptations Example of a specialist: The snail kite differences across groups) Everywhere.” Binoculars, magnifying lives in freshwater marshes in warm glasses, field guides, clipboards, and climates. Its diet is almost exclusively SC.3.N.1.1 (Raise questions about pencils. apple snails (genus Pomacea). The kite’s the natural world, investigate them curved beak is pointed, which is used individually and in teams through free ex- to extract the snail from its shell. Apple ploration and systematic investigations, Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson (completed in classroom before visiting) snails are most abundant in alkaline and generate appropriate explanations (basic) waters that have a good supply based on those explorations.) of submerged vegetation and dissolved Overview: An adaptation is defined as oxygen. SC.4.L.16.3 (Recognize that animal a trait or characteristic that helps a plant or animal survive in its habitat. An behaviors may be shaped by heredity and Example of a generalist: The red-tailed learning.) adaptation can relate to the behavior, anatomy, and/or physiology of an hawk is found in almost all of North organism. Consequently, an adaptation America. The red-tailed hawk has a wide SC.4.N.1.6 (Keep records that tolerance for different habitats. Its diet describe observations made, carefully could be viewed as a “tool” a plant or animal possesses that helps it survive includes birds, reptiles, amphibians, distinguishing actual observations invertebrates, and small mammals. from ideas and inferences about the and reproduce. The very fact that an observations.) adaptation helps an organism survive under certain environmental conditions Main Lesson (completed during visit with Refuge LAFS.4.RI.2.4 (Determine the meaning means an adaptation is also a limitation. educators) of general academic and domain-specific For example, a plant that is adapted to words or phrases in a text relevant to a wet tropical conditions cannot survive in grade 4 topic or subject area.) a desert. Specialists versus generalists: Procedure/Activity: Students will be Some organisms are highly adapted to divided into teams of two. They will be given a worksheet, binoculars, and LAFS.4.L.3.4 (Determine or clarify a specific environment while others are magnifying glasses. Provide each pair the meaning of unknown and multiple- found in a variety of environments. An with a field guide appropriate for what meaning words and phrases based on organism that is adapted to a specific and they will be able to observe with their grade 4 reading and content, choosing narrow set of conditions is considered a observation tool. flexibly from a range of strategies.) specialist. Other organisms are able to live in a variety of environments and are called generalists. Explain to the students that they Lesson Objectives will be taking turns observing and After completing this activity, students Background Information: Review the recording. The student with the will be able to: concept of Adaptations with the students. binoculars, or magnifying glass should Consider these adaptations: locate a particular animal/plant with 1) Define and apply the terms adaptation, their observation tool. The observer specialist, and generalist using examples 1) Birds that swim (ducks) often have should then describe the behavior of specific animals. webbed feet that they use as paddles in and appearance of their animal/plant order to move through the water. to their partner while their partner 2) Use binoculars correctly. 107 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

records the information. For example, n Have students write their own if they are describing a mallard, they definition of the term adaptation and might tell their partner that the animal give examples of adaptations (animal is swimming in the water, has feathers or plant) that they have seen on the on its body, webbed feet, a green head, Refuge. etc. The observer should make at least five observations (see “Adaptations n Point out an animal to the students. Everywhere” worksheet). When the Have them make basic observations observer thinks he/she has sufficiently about the animal and identify it using described the animal/plant (or the their field guides. animal has moved away), the observer and recorder should read through the Assessment descriptions and discuss why they think Review Objectives from the beginning of the listed aspects of appearance and the Lesson. behavior help an animal/plant survive. For example, a mallard’s webbed feet Attachments help it to swim. (Request from Refuge education Older students may take this farther department) and explain that the webbed feet that help mallards swim also allow them n Vocabulary List to find food because their swimming ability gets them in another habitat type. n Adaptations Everywhere page Having discussed the animal’s/plant’s adaptations, they can use what they have n Adaptations Graphic learned to try to identify the species using a field guide. If they identify it, they n Bird Adaptations Graphic can write their answer in the margin of the Student Page. Chapter IV: Everglades Ecosystem n Math: I can classify objects and Discussion: Bring the pairs back create data about the objects within together into the larger group. Have classifications. each team describe to the group the adaptations of one of the animals/plants n ELA: I can construct definitions and they observed. The other students should classifications through the use of try to guess the animal or plant from the figurative and descriptive language and descriptions of its adaptations. explain how these strategies impact meaning. Post-visit Reflection Lesson (completed in classroom after visiting) n Science: Compare and contrast adaptations displayed by animals and n Have students “design” a creature plants that enable them to survive in that is perfectly adapted for a certain different environments such as life habitat or is adapted to live in many cycles variations, animal behaviors and different habitats. The creature could physical characteristics. be a mammal, bird, fish, plant, insect, amphibian, reptile, or a new “type” of organism. Have them draw the n History/Civics: I can analyze creature or build a model of it. environmental impacts due to political, economic, and social changes. n Describe the behavior and appearance of different animals to the students. n Art: Identify objects from everyday life Ask them to try to describe the that have been designed and created characteristics of the habitat in which using artistic skills. the animal lives. How is the animal adapted to that habitat? 108 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Lesson Title: Alligator Hole 3) Explain why the alligator is sometimes Main Lesson called the “Keeper of the Everglades” (completed during visit with Refuge Ecodrama Lesson from the (provides water for other animals). educators) A.R.M. Loxahatchee NWR — Adapted from Everglades Materials for Pre & Post Lessons Procedure/Activity: 1) Choose a National Park Educator n Vocabulary: habitat, interrelationships, volunteer to be the alligator. Assign wet/dry season, adaptations, hydrology, about one third of the group to be fish Materials symbiosis, mutualism, commensalism, and another one third to be birds. The Grade level: Grades 2 and Up and parasitism. remaining one third should include a snake, a frog, an otter, a deer, a bobcat Student Target Benchmark n Materials: cards illustrating Alligator, and a panther. (Note: Some duplicate SC.3.L.15.1 (Classify animals into Fish, Birds, Snake, Frog, Otter, Bobcat, cards will need to be made to reach the major groups [mammals, birds, reptiles, Deer. number of cards required for the activity.) amphibians, fish, arthropods, vertebrates (Note: panthers have not been seen on and invertebrates, those having live the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee births and those which lay eggs] Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson (completed in classroom before visiting) National Wildlife Refuge in recent years according to their physical characteristics but were historically found here.) and behaviors.) Overview: There are two hydrological 2) Ask the students to act out the SC.5.E.7.5 (Recognize that some of the seasons in South Florida: the wet and the dry season. During the wet season (May- following: During the dry season a huge weather-related differences, such as alligator digs a hole to hold water using temperature and humidity, are found November) rain falls almost every day and the surface water levels rise. Wildlife his/her strong tail and legs. She uproots among different environments, such as grass and excavates mud, slashing with swamps, deserts, and mountains.) is found throughout the Everglades. During the dry season (December-April), her powerful tail, digging with her legs, and carrying away debris in her mouth. SC.4.L.17.4 (Recognize ways plants and there is less rain and the surface water The alligator continues to work on her animals, including humans, can impact levels fall. Wildlife becomes concentrated hole while she lives there, deepening it, the environment.) in areas where water remains. widening it and keeping it free of debris. Background Information: Alligator Gator holes are often the only source of LAFS.5.SL.1.1 (Engage effectively water for wildlife during the dry season. in a range of collaborative discussions holes become one of the few remaining wet habitats for wildlife to use during The first to seek out the water are fish [one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led] who swim their way to the gator hole with diverse partners on grade 5 topics the dry season. Alligators like all living things, need water to survive. The (FISH SWIM IN). The fish are happy and texts, building on others’ ideas and now that they have found water, even expressing their own clearly.) alligators powerful tail, jaws, and feet are used to keep a pool of water open though it is smaller and a gator is near. throughout the dry season. Wildlife Although the alligator will eat some of TH.5.S.2.1 (Collaborate with others to the fish (have gator tag one or two who create productions and solve challenges.) gathers at these “gator holes.” The alligator will consume (eat) some of the will die), it is their only hope for survival. animals while the remaining animals have Next the BIRDS FLY to the gator hole. DA.5.O.3.1 (Practice movements, steps, Here they find fish to eat (choose a bird pantomime, and gestures as a means of gotten the water they need. An alligator hole is an example of an interrelationship. to eat a fish). REPTILES such as snakes, communicating ideas or intent without and AMPHIBIANS like frogs slither, using words.) Introduce the concepts of Symbiosis—a relationship of mutual benefit or hop, and swim to the gator hole. Finally, dependence. Mutualism—both organisms MAMMALS seek out the freshwater Lesson Objectives benefit. Commensalism—one organism provided by the gator hole: otters slide in After completing this activity, students benefits and the other is not affected in to drink and fish, deer eat grass nearby will be able to: any manner. Parasitism—one organism and come for a drink, bobcat and maybe benefits and the other is harmed. even a lone panther hides in ambush 1) Describe the wet/dry season of the nearby in search of a meal and then a Everglades/South Florida (more/less visit to the gator hole for a drink. Now rain, dates). EVERYONE is in the gator hole. What does the alligator provide for wildlife? 2) Explain why alligators dig a “gator (Water) What does the wildlife provide hole” during the dry season (need for for the gator? (Food) water). 109 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Discussion: Reassemble the groups of students. Ask the students why the alligator is called the “Keeper of the Everglades.” Ask how this is an inter-relationship. Ask the students to explain why certain fish, bird, or frogs got eaten. (Too close to the predator, away from the pack, etc.) Can this be extrapolated into the real Everglades habitat? Ask why the Florida panther might not be seen in the Refuge in present day. Discuss how the concepts of symbiosis function in the gator hole.

Post-visit Reflection Lesson (completed in classroom after visiting) n Have students discuss the characteristics of Birds, Fish, Reptiles, Mammals and Amphibians. Then have them choose from picture cards or a list of specific animals. Let them identify which animal be-longs in which group. n Have the students make food webs using at least one of the animals in the narrative game.

Assessment Ask the students how the seasons of rain and dry are connected with an alligator digging an alligator hole. What does the name “Keeper of the Everglades” refer to?

Attachments (Request from Refuge education department) n Vocabulary List n Cards illustrating Alligator, Fish, Birds, Snake, Frog, Otter, Bobcat, Deer

110 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Lesson Title: Butterfly Watch Materials for Pre & Post Lessons and describe them. Instruct the students n Vocabulary: habitat, food chain, to make a sketch of their butterfly and Lesson from the A.R.M. pollinate, prey, life cycle, egg, larvae, note the colors and wing patterns. Loxahatchee NWR caterpillar, chrysalis, wing, nectar. Grade level: Grades 2 and Up Review the following rules with the n Materials: Pictures of the anatomy of students before beginning the activity: Student Target Benchmark the adult butterfly. Pictures of the life Stay on the trails. Do not wildly chase SC.2.L.17.1 (Compare and contrast cycle stages of a butterfly. Pictures of the butterflies. Be careful of the plants the basic needs that all living things, various species of butterflies that will and the other students. Do not touch the including humans, have for survival.) be studied in the field. Data sheets for butterflies. After a specific period of time; recording data, pencils, and clipboards. bring the students together in one large SC.2.L.17.2 (Recognize and explain that (Students are not permitted to net group. living things are found all over Earth, but butterflies on a USFWS Refuge. They each is only able to live in habitats that will need to identify the butterfly by Discussion: Once students are again meet its basic needs.) observation alone). together in a large group, have them report their results for the type of SC.2.L.16.1 (Observe and describe major data they collected. Ask what their stages in the life cycles of plants and Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson (completed in classroom before visiting) experience in the field was including the animals, including birds and butterflies.) ease or difficulty in collecting data and SC.4.L.17.2 (Explain that animals, Overview: Butterflies are extremely completing their sketch on the clipboard. important for many reasons. They are an including humans, cannot make their own Post-visit Reflection Lesson food and that when animals eat plants or indicator species as to the health of an (completed in classroom after visiting) other animals, the energy stored in the ecosystem. They are prey food for many food source is passed to them.) birds, bats, and other animals making n Students can transcribe their data onto them a vital part of the food chain. They clean data sheets and draw bar graphs LAFS.3.RI.2.4 (Determine the meaning have aesthetic value contributing to comparing their data collection results of general academic and domain-specific the enjoyment and health of people. with another student. words and phrases in a text relevant to a Butterflies have an economic role to grade 3 topic or subject area.) play in terms of nature tourism and the n Students can draw their butterfly pollination of our food supply. wing pattern and color from memory MAFS.3.MD.2.3 (Draw a scaled picture and include it in their ongoing nature graph and a scaled bar graph to represent Background Information: Students will journals. a data set with several categories. Solve be asked to share what they already know n Students can use a different art about butterflies. Teacher will use the one- and two-step “how many more” medium such as paints or pastels to KWL method to list what the students and “how many less” problems using draw their butterfly wing patterns. information presented in scaled bar say. Teacher will pass out the Butterfly graphs.) Life Cycle Sheet and pictures of the Assessment Anatomy of the Butterfly and have the Review Objectives: Ask the students to VA.3.S.2.In.a (Follow sequential students compare it with the information review with the proper terminology and procedures and techniques to achieve an they already have on the KWL chart. sequence the life cycle of the butterfly. artistic goal.) Main Lesson Review the parts of the adult butterfly. Have them turn in their field sheets for VA.3.S.2.Su.a (Use a variety of visual art (completed during visit with Refuge review which should include both data tools and media.) educators) requested and a sketch of the color and Lesson Objectives Procedure/Activity: Proceed to one wing pattern of their assigned butterfly. After completing this activity, students of the Refuge Butterfly Gardens and will be able to: divide the students into groups. Hand Attachments out the butterfly pictures, data sheets, (Request from Refuge education 1) List the body parts of a butterfly and department) the sequence of their life cycle. clipboards, and pencils. Instruct the students on which data to collect. Some n Vocabulary List 2) Observe and take data on at least one possibilities include the number of their n Life Cycle of a Butterfly Sheet butterfly and their food plants in the field. butterfly seen or the number of different types of plants their butterfly stops to n Butterfly Anatomy Sheet 3) Draw and accurately color the wing feed on. Students can identify the plants n Butterfly Field Journal/Data Sheet pattern of their assigned butterfly. by the signs near them in the garden. If they are not labeled, students can sketch n Butterfly and Wildflower guides 111 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Lesson Title: Lichens Lesson crustose, fruticose, foliose, mutualism, Discussion: Have each group share their parasitism, commensalism. results with the larger group. Use the from the A.R.M. Loxahatchee following questions to tabulate the results NWR (Adapted from The n Materials: hand lenses, clipboards, of the groups. What kinds of surfaces did Schoolyard Wildlife Activity pictures of typical foliose, crustose and the lichens appear to grow on? Did they fruticose lichens on worksheets, lichen grow on living or non-living surfaces? Did Guide) field journal/data sheet, symbiotic Grade level: Grades 3 and Up they seem to grow more in sunlight or relationship sheet in shade. Were they growing near to the Student Target Benchmark Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson ground or away from the ground. Did the SC.3.L.17.2 (Recognize that plants use (completed in classroom before visiting) lichens seem to grow more in moist areas energy from the Sun, air, and water to or dry areas? How many different colors make their own food.) Overview: Lichens can grow in a variety of lichens were found? What was the most of different environmental conditions common type? Was there a difference in SC.4.L.17.2 (Explain that animals, and on a wide range of living and non- the amount of lichens found near the road including humans, cannot make their own living surfaces. They are most commonly or parking lot and the amount of lichens food and that when animals eat plants or found growing on rocks or wood. Many found in more secluded areas? other animals, the energy stored in the lichens are found in shady, moist areas, food source is passed to them.) but most prefer lots of sunlight and Post-visit Reflection Lesson (completed in classroom after visiting) SC.5.N.1.6 (Recognize and explain the moderate amounts of moisture. Although lichens can withstand a variety of difference between personal opinion/ n Have the students graph the results of interpretation and verified observation.) extreme environmental conditions, leafy and shrubby lichens are very sensitive their lichen stroll using the data from MAFS.5.MD.2 (Represent and interpret to pollution; especially sulfur dioxide their worksheets. data.) from car exhaust and smoke. Hence, the number of lichens near a street is usually n Have students investigate if other LAFS.5.RI.3.7 (Draw on information less than the number of lichens in less habitats; such as pine flatwoods, their from multiple print or digital sources, polluted areas. schoolyard, or coastal environments demonstrating the ability to locate an contain as many lichens and types of answer to a question quickly or to solve a Background Information: Lichen is lichens as the same size as defined area problem efficiently.) really a combination of two different they walked through at the Refuge. kinds of organisms living together. LAFS.5.RI.3.9 (Integrate information Lichens are composed of both fungi from several texts on the same topic in Assessment and algae and both types of organisms Review objectives from the beginning of order to write or speak about the subject benefit from the presence of the other knowledgeably.) the lesson. In writing or in discussion, (mutualism). (To contrast the relationship or using lesson materials, have students Lesson Objectives of mutualism, give examples of both demonstrate that they have met each After completing this activity, students parasitism and commensalism). Fungi objective. will be able to: benefits from getting food from the algae. An alga, as a plant, synthesizes its sugars Attachments 1) Define the two organisms that make up through photosynthesis. In turn, the (Request from Refuge education a lichen. algae get protection from the weather department) and a safer environment to grow in. 2) Identify the three major lichens found n Vocabulary List in the Cypress Swamp, (Crustose— Main Lesson crusty, Fruticose—shrubby, and Foliose— (completed during visit with Refuge staff) n Pictures of Foliose, Crustose, Fruticose leafy) lichen Procedure/Activity: Divide the students 3) Identify the relationship that algae and up into small groups. Give them the n Lichen field journal/data sheet fungi, as lichens, have with each other materials and review the worksheets. n Symbiotic relationship sheet (mutualism—they benefit each other) Have them note how many different types of lichens they can find. Remind students 4) Identify and classify the environmental not to touch the lichens or remove them conditions that foster the growth of from the surfaces in which they find lichens them. Have the groups go into at least Materials for Pre & Post Lessons two habitats in the Refuge. n Vocabulary: algae, fungus, lichen, 112 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Lesson Title: Butterfly c. Plants to lay their eggs on Garden, and Cypress Swamp). Ask students to note if any of these habitats Habitat Lesson from the 4) List at least 2 reasons why butterflies would be considered prime butterfly A.R.M. Loxahatchee NWR are important and why it would be habitats and if so, why. Students can be Grade level: Grades 2 and Up necessary to keep their habitats from given clipboards, pencils and a worksheet being degraded. (Health value— along with butterfly identification guides Student Target Benchmark enjoyment, physical exercise, economic to identify any butterflies that they come SC.2.L.16.1 (Observe and describe major value—tourism, ecosystem value—part of across. stages in the life cycles of plants and the food chain, prey for birds, indicators animals, including beans and butterflies.) of a healthy environment, educational, Discussion: Have the small groups join SC.4.L.17.2 (Explain that animals, migration.) together into one large group. Ask the including humans, cannot make their own students to share their field notes and food and that when animals eat plants or Materials for Pre & Post Lessons findings. See if there was any difference other animals, the energy stored in the n Vocabulary: habitat, eggs, larvae, in the richness of the different habitats food source is passed to them.) caterpillar, pupa, chrysalis, proboscis, in terms of the amount of butterflies seen emergence. in each area. If so, elicit ideas from the SC.3.L.15.Su.1 (Sort common animals by students as to why the differences may be observable characteristics.) n Materials: Butterfly Life Cycle sheet, found. SC.3.N.1.1 (Raise questions about Butterfly Anatomy Sheet, pictures of the natural world, investigate them various different habitats, clipboards, Post-visit Reflection Lesson individually and in teams through free pencils and paper, butterfly and (completed in classroom after visiting) exploration and systematic investigations, wildflower identification guides. and generate appropriate explanations n Contrast and compare the parts of a based on those explorations.) Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson butterfly’s body with those of a spider. (completed in classroom before visiting) LAFS.3.RI.2.4 (Determine the meaning n Contrast and compare butterfly of general academic and domain-specific Overview: All living things need a place characteristics with those of a moth. words and phrases in a text relevant to a to live where they have water, shelter, grade 3 topic or subject area.) food, the right climate and the ability to n Research the difference between a chrysalis and a cocoon. LAFS.3.SL.2.4 (Report on a topic or mate/reproduce. This is a habitat. Using butterflies, we can illustrate to students text, tell a story, or recount an experience Assessment with appropriate facts and relevant, the importance of habitat and habitat maintenance. Review Objectives: Have the students fill descriptive details, speaking clearly at an out blank review sheets for butterfly body understandable pace.) Background Information: Using the parts and life cycle. After participating Lesson Objectives KWL model, have the students share in the activity, see if the students can After completing this activity, students what they know about butterflies in come up with any new reasons for the will be able to: general and their life cycle. After passing importance of butterflies. Compare out both the Butterfly Life Cycle sheet other animals and their habitat needs to 1) List the body parts of a butterfly and and Butterfly Anatomy sheet return to butterflies. the sequence of their life cycle. (Eggs, the KWL chart to revise, if necessary. Larvae, Caterpillar, Chrysalis, Pupa, Discuss with the students the meaning Attachments Proboscis, Emergence) of the word habitat. Compare different (Request from Refuge education habitats and animals and discuss what department) 2) Define the word habitat. (A place in their same and differing needs might be. which individuals of a particular species n Vocabulary List can usually be found. A habitat contains Main Lesson all the things that are needed to survive) (completed during visit with Refuge n Life Cycle of a Butterfly Sheet educators) 3) List 3 things that make good butterfly n Butterfly Anatomy Sheet habitat. Procedure/Activity: Split the large group n Refuge Habitat Picture Sheet in at least three smaller groups. Explain a. Lots of flowers to the students that they will be going to n Butterfly and Wildflower Guides three different habitats (Marsh, Butterfly b. Other butterflies to mate with 113 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Lesson Title: Cypress Swamp 5) Name at least 2 types of animals and listen. Taking their Cypress Swamp found in the Cypress Swamp (bobcat, sheet, make notes of how many plants/ Lesson from the A.R.M. woodpeckers, owls, snakes, anoles). animals they can see which correspond Loxahatchee NWR to their worksheet. Ask if there are any Grade level: Grades 3 and Up 6) Place different animals and plants in questions. After the silent observation, the area of the Cypress Swamp where have students share back some examples. Student Target Benchmark they would most likely be found. Begin to point out plants/animals in the SC.5.L.17.1 (Compare and contrast immediate area. Next have the students adaptations displayed by animals and Materials for Pre & Post Lessons n Vocabulary: wetland, swamp, marsh, take out their forest division (Cypress plants that enable them to survive in Swamp Diagram) worksheet. Ask them different environments such as life cycle forest, cypress, canopy, understory, shrub layer, forest floor, ferns, habitat, to match the plants that they are now variations, animal behaviors, and physical familiar with to the division on the characteristics.) air plants, epiphytes, bromeliads, willow, adaptations. worksheet. LAFS.5.RI.3.7 (Draw on information from multiple print or digital sources, n Materials: Plant/Animal Cypress Discussion: demonstrating the ability to locate an Swamp Sheet, Observational Data Either in small groups or when the answer to a question quickly or to solve a Sheet, map of South Florida, Cypress groups come together, have the students problem efficiently.) Swamp Diagram Sheet, and one large list as many descriptors as they can poster of the layers, photos of 10-12 (dark, moist, smelly, etc.) to describe the LAFS.5.RI.3.9 (Integrate information Cypress Swamp. from several texts on the same topic in different animals and plants of the Cypress Swamp, binoculars, clipboards, order to write or speak about the subject Post-visit Reflection Lesson knowledgeably.) pencils. (completed in classroom after visiting) LAFS.5.SL.2.4 (Report on a topic or text Pre-visit Warm-up Lesson or present an opinion, sequencing ideas (completed in classroom before visiting) n Have the students further research a logically and using appropriate facts and plant or animal they saw in the Cypress relevant, descriptive details to support Overview: At one time a huge strand of Swamp and present the information to main ideas or themes; speak clearly at an cypress swamp stood on the eastern edge the class as a whole. understandable pace.) of the Everglades extending from Lake n Have the students collect pictures of VA.5.H.3 (Enduring Understanding 3: Okeechobee south to Ft. Lauderdale. All that remains of this strand in Palm Beach a plant or animal they observed in the Connections among the arts and other Cypress Swamp. Make a class collage disciplines strengthen learning and the County is a 400 acre stand in the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National or have them begin a nature journal ability to transfer knowledge and skills to with the pictures. and from other fields.) Wildlife Refuge. Lesson Objectives Background Information: Explain to Assessment After completing this activity, students the students the original extension of the Review objectives from the beginning of will be able to: cypress swamp. Ask the students what the lesson. In writing or in discussion, factors most likely led to the swamp being or using lesson materials, have students 1) Describe what type of wetland a cut down. Review the parts of the swamp demonstrate that they have met each Cypress Swamp is. (forested). and the animals/plants most likely to be objective. 2) Name the parts of a swamp/forest. found there. (Canopy, Emergent, Swamp Floor, Attachments Understory). Main Lesson (Request from Refuge education (completed during visit with Refuge department) 3) Describe what kind adaptations the educators) n Vocabulary List plants and animals have needed to make to live in the habitat of the cypress Procedure/Activity: Divide the large n Plant/Animal Cypress Swamp Graphic swamp. (The Swamp is a cool, shady, group of students into three small Sheet moist environment). groups. Have each group of students n Observational Data Sheet walk to one of the three large areas on 4) Name at least 2 types of trees and n Map of South Florida the boardwalk of the cypress swamp. plants found in the Cypress Swamp. n Cypress Swamp Diagram Sheet (ferns, air plants aka epiphytes, Instruct the students to participate in bromeliads, cypress trees, willows, etc.). 3 minutes of silence. Ask them to look 114 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Chapter V: n History/Civics: Analyze the effects of Endangered Species transportation, trade, communication, n Math: I can reason quantitatively and science, and technology on the use units to solve problems. preservation and diffusion of culture. n ELA: I can organize, synthesize, n Art: Apply the critical-thinking and analyze, and evaluate the validity and problem-solving skills used in various reliability of information from multiple medium of art to develop creative sources (including primary and solutions for real-life issues. secondary sources) to draw conclusions using a variety of techniques, and Chapter VII: correctly used standardized citations. Human Connection n Math: Use probability to evaluate n Science: Define a problem, use outcomes of decisions. appropriate reference materials to support scientific understanding, plan n ELA: I can integrate and evaluate and carry out scientific investigation multiple sources of information of various types, such as systematic presented in diverse formats and media observations or experiments, identify in order to address a question or solve a variables, collect and organize data, problem. interpret data in charts, tables, and graphs, analyze information, make n Science: Identify and investigate predictions, and defend conclusions. the general functions of the major systems of the human body (digestive, n History/Civics: I can identify respiratory, circulatory, reproductive, ways citizens can make a positive excretory, immune, nervous, and contribution in their community. musculoskeletal) and describe ways these systems interact with each other n Art: Research and report technological to maintain homeostasis. developments to identify influences on society. n History/Civics: I can identify group and individual actions of citizens that Chapter VI: demonstrate civility, cooperation, Exotics Invading South Florida and volunteerism, and other civic virtues. ARM Loxahatchee NWR n Math: I can make inferences and justify n Art: Create personally meaningful conclusions from sample surveys, works of art to document and experiments, and observational studies. explain ideas about local and global communities. n ELA: I can present claims and findings by sequencing ideas logically in a focused and coherent manner using pertinent descriptions, facts, and details to accentuate the main idea. I will use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. n Science: Describe how, when the environment changes, differences between individuals allow some plants and animals to survive and reproduce while others die or move to new locations.

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