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Home , Sangam period

Component-I (A) – Personal details:

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

Dr. Rita Chaudhuri Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta.

Dr.K.Mavali Rajan Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan.

Dr. Rita Chaudhuri Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta. .

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Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Paper Name Social and Cultural (From Earliest to 1707 A.D.)

Module Name / Title Society and Culture in the Sangam Age

Module Id IC / SCHI / 20

Pre requisites Understand the Early dynastic history of

Objectives To know about the social practices and cultural value of the Sangam age based on the literary evidences of the Sangam and post-Sangam period. The literature provides information regarding the people and their occupations, their life style, status of women, religious practices and other cultural aspects.

Keywords Sangam Age / Chera / Chola / Pandya

E-text (Quadrant-I) :

1. Introduction

The Sangam Age in Indian history witnessed the rapid development of literary works in the southern regions. The literature that was created during this time came to be known as . The great poets, writers, and other literary personality of this age have left behind invaluable accounts of political, social and cultural life of the people. Mostly literary sources help us to understand the society and culture of the Sangam age, which provides information regarding the classification of the people, caste system, various occupations, practice of slavery, dress and food habit, status of women, religious practices, education and other fine arts. During the Sangam Age, three empires viz. the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas were ruled in South of India. Though there were constant wars among the different kings for dominion of states and territory, they were all promoters of literature and other classical literary works. Under their rule, Indian art and culture flourished like anything.

2. Sources for the Study

The literatures are the primary sources for understanding the socio-cultural life of the people of Sangam age. The literatures of the Sangam age consists of the earliest Tamil literary works such as Tolkappiyam, the Ettutogai (), the Pattuppattu (), the Pandinenkilkanakku (Eight Minor works) and the Five Epics Silappathikaram, Manimegalai, Sivaga Sindamani, Valaiyapathy and . Thirukkural is also important literary work to understand the social and cultural life people of the post-Sangam period.

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Apart from the literatures the archaeological sources also help us to understand the historical past of the Sangam period. Archaeological excavations of the several sites in have yielded remnants from the Sangam era, such as different kinds of pottery, pottery with inscriptions, imported ceramic ware, industrial objects, brick structures, and spinning whorls. Techniques, such as paleography and carbon test have helped to establish the date of these items to the Sangam era. The excavated artifacts have provided evidence for existence of different socio-cultural activities mentioned in Sangam literatures.

3. Concept of Tinais

The early Tamil texts conveys a vivid idea about five types of ecological cultural regions namely kurunchi, mullai, marudam, neytal and palai (which is referred to as Aintinai, the five tinais) and each with its own distinct occupational pattern and corresponding forms of worship, customs and manners, and even performance for moods and forms in literature. The five Tinais also reflect the geographical and social characteristics of the early . It denotes the distinctive modes of behaviours, social and moral of the people of each physiographical region. The following descriptions give us vivid pictures on the five Tinais.

3.1. Kurunji

Among the five tinais, mentioned in the early , the Kurunji regions (mountainous and hilly tracts) were famous for slash and burn cultivation. The and Kanavar are mentioned as the inhabitants of the hilly tracts and forests and hunting, shifting cultivation and collecting honey from the trees were referred to as their main occupations. The women folk of the Kuravar were referred to as Koratti and Kuramakal. They generally lived in and around the hills in small settlement.

3.2. Mullai

The Mullai regions (forest pastoral tracts) were pastures, meadows, and scrublands, where shifting agriculture and animal husbandry were found. The pastoral groups referred to in literature as Ayar, Itaiyar and Kovalar. The Itaiyar of the Mullai regions in most cases, referred to the shepherd who had a flock of goats. From the literary texts of the early , we may surmise that these Mullai regions were peripheral to the Marutam lands. These tracts were regions of expanding agricultural activities and we find slow transition

3 from a pastoral to agrarian economy. Both Kurunji and Mullai regions had cultivable slopes, where shifting cultivation or slash and burn cultivations were found.

3.3. Marutam

The fertile agricultural tracts Marutam region were the main rice producing areas and the early Tamil kingdoms of the Sangam age viz. the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas lay in these areas. The inhabitants of the tracts were called Ulavar and Toluvar. There is also a reference to the Kalamar, Arinar. The Ulavar and Toluvar were those who ploughed, sowed, transplanted, and harvested. The fertility of the land, agricultural process and irrigation facilities in Marutam region are vividly portrayed in the early Tamil literature. They cultivated variety of agricultural products like paddy, sugarcane, mango, plantain, jack and other fruit- trees. Those who raised the sugarcane were employed mechanical contrivances to extract the juice from the sugarcane. The people of the region used to drink the juice of the sugarcane.

3.4. Neytal

The Neytal was the coastal region. Fishing was the natural occupation of the people of the region. The Paratavar / Valainar was inhabitants of the littoral tracts of Neytal. These Paratavar (fishermen) are portrayed in the poems as living in small settlements, which are said to be noisy and stinking of fish as the shores of the high areas. The other social groups of the Neytal tract were the Umanar who were manufacturers and traders of salt. The people of Neytal took pork and liquor. Toddy shops were located near the quarters of the Paratavar. It would appear that in the Neytal there was a greater measure of urbanization than the other regions.

3.5. Palai

The Palai was a sandy and try region. Martial groups like Maravar, Malavar and Eyinar were the inhabitants of the region. The Maravar or Malavar performed diverse activities like robbing, fighting, and killing wayfarers, who passed through their tracts, fighting for chiefs and lifting cattle or recovering stolen cattle. Another martial group mentioned in the early texts is the Mallar. They are the warriors with immense strength who fight bravely. The inhabitants lived in huts covered with the leaves of the date palm. They used big ponds from which they and their pet animals could have water.

The Aintinai is also divided into two broad division viz. kalavu, pre-marital love and karpu, which may be described as post- marital love of the married couple. The Kurunji was the region specially fitted for the raise of the kalavu pattern of love. The emergence of this relationship in Kurunji is described by many poets of Sangam age. The corresponding uripporul of Palai tinai is ‘pirital’ or separation. But it is remarkable that separation of lovers was a phenomenon which occurred not only in Palai, but in Neytal, Mullai and Marutam as well. The characteristic feature of the uripporul of Mullai is ‘iruttal’, which denotes the state of expectation of the partner’s arrival. ‘Irangal’, denoting the sorrowful state, is the uripporul of Neytal. The Marutam stands on a different footing in respect of uripporul. Here it is ‘udal’ or petty quarrel which appears in the midst of love.

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3.6. Agam and

On the basis of the theme of the Sangam literary text the ancient Tamil poetry has been classified in to two; Agam and Puram, which deals with love and external affairs of the Sangam people. The war poems (Puram) were called Purattinai, which mostly deals about the exterior life style of the heroes. The love poems (Agam) were called Agattinai, mostly deals with the love and affection of the family and pre-marital life of the heroes.

4. Caste System

In dealing with any society and culture, the study of social structure is of vital importance, for it enables us to know how the various units of the society, interacted with one another, particularly within the frame work of caste and religion. The social structure of India in general and of the Tamilnadu in particular was and still very much is, based on caste system, which had come down from very early times.

4.1. Four- Fold Division of Sangam Society

The Varna based organization of society is not clearly discernible in the Tamil regions. The ancient text of Tamils the Tolkappiyam in a section refers to four-fold division of society. It was influenced by the northern Brahmanical ideas regarding the four-fold division and tried to apply the concept to Tamilakam though with the deference. The four-fold division referred to in Tolkappiyam seems to have been an occupational division or an attempt to fit into the four-fold Varna framework of the major occupational groups. In Tamilakam there is no one correspondence with Vedic-Brahmanic concept of Varna. However, the four-fold social classification had little application to ancient Tamil society.

Radhika Rajamani argues that at this point it would be relevant to take into account two poems of Purananuru highlighting a four-fold division. One poem mentions four pals or orders but states that people from the lower orders could rise to the higher ones by the education suggestive of social mobility. Another poem of the Purananuru mentions four kutis namely Tudiyan, Panan, Paraiyan and Kadampan and only one god worthy of being worshiped with paddy strewn before him, namely, hero stone. There are misconceptions in the interpretation of this poem. Scholars like K.A.Nilakanta Sastri and K.K.Pillai have equated four kutis with four castes. K.A.Nilakanta Sastri goes on to say that “these castes and their worship were of very great antiquity, perhaps survivals from pre-Aryan times”. Therefore, Varna, is an ideology or framework for social hierarchy/stratification had not taken root in Tamilakam in the early phase.

Even though the Aryan influence had penetrated into Tamilnadu as early as the Sangam Age itself; for we find references to the four-fold caste system in the Sangam literature. The Tolkappiyam, oldest work of Sangam age in a section speaks of a four- fold division of society namely antanar, arasar, vanikar and velalar. Tolkappiyar considers the first three antanar (Brahmins), arasar (king), vanikar (Vaisyas) as irupirappalar (dvijas or twice born) and they were alone entitle to wear the sacred thread (punul). These four fold division of Tolkappiyam seems to have been an occupational division or an attempt to fit into the four fold Varna framework the major occupational groups. It was influenced by the northern Brahmanical ideas regarding the four fold division and tried to apply the concept to Tamilakam though with a difference.

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In the four-fold division the antanar (Brahmins) as a group are described in the early Tamil literature as an educated class reciting the Vedas (marai), those who expert in marai (Veda) called as maraiyon and occasionally performing velvi or sacrifices. Tolkappiyar says the antanar wear punul, the sacred thread carry the karaham (the vessel containing holy water for ceremonial ablution), the mukkol. The antanar, were considered the community of seers, ascetics, priests. Next to the antanar the arasar (king) referred to as ruling groups comprising the ventar, and non velir chieftains.

The vanikar (merchants) is mentioned as the third in the four-fold order. The velalar (peasants) is mentioned as the fourth one. This four-fold social division of the early Tamil country cannot be said to have corresponded the Varna system of the early India. The arasar, the vanikar and the velalar do not clearly correspond to the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the Sudras of the Aryan caste system. The velalas of the Tamil country were not the Sudras of north India, although they are mentioned as the fourth category.

We can also find references to a division between uyantor/melor (higher one) and keelor (lower one) in Tolkappiyam seems to have crystallized. The idea of dvija or twice born is used only for the Brahmins, who are referred to by the term irupirappalan (twice born) in the Sangam texts. Besides, there are quite a few references to the low born such an ilicinan or ilipirappalan (low born) in the early texts. The people who were considered low born were the drummers (Tudiyan, and Paraiyas). The Pulaiya was also considered low born presumably an account of their menial work and their involvement in funerary rites.

Essentially, the four-fold division referred to in the early texts seems to be an occupational division. The Purananuru mentions about the names of four castes like those of Tudiyan, Panan, Paraiyan and Kadamban. Pattupattu also mentions the four-fold division of Kuthar, Panar, Porunan and Virali.

5. Slavery

Slavery, a practice found at different times in most part of the world, was generally an enforced servitude. In this slave system the master had ownership right over the slaves. In the medieval serfdom an element of slavery can be found. Slavery was a non-voluntary system of personal relations resting wholly upon force. The element of force or compulsion was inherent in the system of slavery.

There was no means of knowing the exact terms of the employment of slave labourers in early history of Tamil country. It is presumable that they were distinct from slaves about whom references is found in some of the Sangam classics such as Tolkappiyam and Thirukkural where the term ‘adimai’ meaning slaves occurs, probably, as distinguished from independent labourers ‘adiyor’, who were engaged for specific services. It is learnt that king Karikalan, the famous Chola monarch of the Ist century A.D., brought back after a victorious campaign in Ceylon, a number of prisoners of war whom compelled to perform forced labour for raising the banks of river Kaveri. This is, however, only an example for penal servitude and an instance of meeting quickly the need for more and cheap labourers by force of arms. S. Manickam states that “It is true that we do not have unassailable and positive evidences to establish whether or not slavery and slave market existed in the ancient Tamilagam”.

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Practice of slavery did exist in India and so Tamilakam of the Sangam times and the pre- Pallava period cannot be exceptions. As a matter of fact the available literary sources, though scanty, clearly point to the existence of slavery. As part of a patriarchal system, these slaves performed services in menial or semi-menial capacities. This position, however, drastically changed after the Pallava, Pandya period which witnessed the emergence of a formidable state system. The more elaborate Pallava and Chola states disarmed suppressed and exploited the so called Sudras and the panchamas and eventually reduced them to the status of serfs and slaves respectively.

Even though some historians like Kanakasabai Pillai are of the view that there was no slavery in ancient Tamilakam. N. Subrahmanian states that we have no positive evidence to prove that slavery as an institution comparable to the ancient Greek or Roman forms of slavery existed in the Tamilakam of the Sangam age. We have no reference to entitle as to conclude that human beings were sold and purchased in any market. V, Kanakasabai says, “slavery was even unknown amongst the Tamils and this is strong evidence of their superior civilization in this early period”.

6. Position of Women

Women in early Tamilakam seem to have performed diverse roles such as involved in production process, as housewives and as poetess, singers and dancers. Mostly the role of the women was subordinate and dependent on the economic milieu. The Brahmanical concepts of the ideal women as chaste wife and mother are noticed in early Tamil texts. As a mother, daughter and wife they played vital role in the family life of human society.

There was no statement of legal and social equality between the sexes in the Sangam age. We can understand clearly that the duties of woman in society are different from those of the man. The Tolkappiyar says that while it is desirable that in an ideal marriage, man and woman shall be equal to each other in beauty and attainments, wealth, manners, etc.

Tolkappiyar further states that a woman is guarded by the three great feminine virtues, accam, nanam and madam. A woman’s innate fear of hurt to her modes is accam. Shyness and dissociation with anything that is incompatible with womanhood is nanam and feigning ignorance even though a woman may be a repository of learning is madam.

The Tolkappiyam also portray the basic qualities of man and woman. A verse from Kuruntogai exhibits the true dependent position of women in the age of Sangam. A woman will always yearn for the graces of her husband even though he might be cruel to her, as the child clings to the mother calling ‘amma’, ‘amma’ even when the mother beats the child.

Women were expert in various fine arts, equally challengeable with men folk. The women of the Sangam age were given training in literature (iyal), music (isai) and drama (nadagam). The Sangam works bear ample evidence to fact that many women had distinguished themselves in the art of music. The education received by woman was different from that imparted to men. The preliminary instruction, a girl receives from her friend and foster- mother blossoms into full fledged knowledge in iyal, isai, nadagam even before she outgrows the adolescence. More than fifty women have been ranked among the Sangam poets who were well versed in the literary fields. Kakkaippadiniyar has contributed two works on prosody namely Kakkaippadiniyam and Siru-Kakkaippadiniyam.

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The women of the warrior community were mentioned in Purananuru as ‘mudinmahalir’ who did not belong to this normal category of woman. We do not hear of woman participating in warfare in the Sangam age. But we find from interesting evidences in Purananuru regarding the extraordinary bravery and intrepidity displayed by women during the war times. A brave misfortunate lady even after the loss of her brother and husband sent her only son with the spear to fight the enemies. It is noted here that the famous poet who has given an account of this fearless act of a Tamil mother is none other than Okkur Masaththiyar, a woman poet of the Sangam age.

Women have been glorified in Tamil literature as the lamp of home. And a woman always had spoken of along with her chastity. We have references to a good woman who distinguished for her divine virtue of chastity, has acquired additional consideration by begetting a good child which shines like lamp in the house. Women are always referred to as ‘mangala mahalir’, maniayal, illal, vasaiyil mahalir, melliyal mahalir, and seyilai mahalir. There are no comparative male appellations such as illan, maniavan or mania mudhalvan. They are also described as exemplary women whom even Arundadhi worshipped as goddess. With the growing Aryan influence in Tamil country, the position of women suffered. Remarriage of widow was generally not favoured.

6.1. Marriage

The Tolkappiyam states that marriage as a sacrament attended with rituals was established in the Tamil country by the Aryans. The earliest Dharmasastras mention eight forms of marriages. These eight forms are mentioned in the Tolkappiyam and other works, and much ingenuity is spent in appropriating them into Tamil forms. The Tamils had also names of unilateral love (kaikkilai) and improper love (perundinai) in early historic periods.

The Sangam text discusses the three patterns of marriage of early Tamils. The first was secret love and courtship which led to marriage. The second was winning a girl’s through a bull-fight. The third method was the arranged marriage or settlement by the relatives of the respective bride and bridegroom, often through the payment of the bride prince. The auspicious time for the wedding was believed to be the period approaching the harvest season. It was also the season when the Vengai tree blossomed, a feature considered auspicious for the celebration of marriage in early days. There is no yogna, no purohit and no tying of tali. This is the simple form adopted by the early Tamils. But soon the Aryan influence becomes noticeable for in the Kalittogai, the reference to the Brahmin priest appears, and there is also the mention of the bride and bridegroom circumambulating the sacrificial fire.

6.2. The Widow

The life of widow was very miserable. The sati (udankattai eruthal) or self-immolation on the husband’s funeral pyre was commonly prevalent among the Tamils. There are several evidences to the practice of sati in early history of Tamil society. The widow was subjected to several restrictions and embarrassment. There are several references in the Purananuru which advent to the practice of widows shaving off their locks of hair as a sign of mourning. This practice was in vogue only in the early Tamil society but not in the contemporary Aryan society of North.

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The widow had to discard all ornaments, including the tali or its nucleus as well as bangles which were distinctive symbols of the married woman. In food also they had some restriction. Women could not inherit property and therefore the widows were supported by their brothers, sons or other relatives. Widows who were destitute are said to have sometimes earned their living by spinning yarn.

6.3. Parattaiyar

The Sangam literature noticed the unholy practice of concubinage. The anthologies on love like Agananuru, Narrinai and Ainkurunuru reveal that in actual practice harlotry had become a well established institution in early Tamil society. During the period of pregnancy and confinement of the wife, the man was specially inclined to seek sexual indulgency with the Parattaiyar (harlots). Some men yielded to the amours of public women at all times.

There were two principal categories of Parattaiyars, first one known as ‘cheripparattai’ and other as ‘kadalpparattai’. The cheripparattai appears to have been a public harlot, while the kadalpparattai led a virtuous life, characterized by fidelity to the chosen person. Of the two classes the kadalpparattai occupied a higher social status than the cheripparattai. The cheripparattai were described as ‘vilai nala pendir’ and ‘podu mahalir’. Ilampuranar, the commentator of Tolkappiyam speaks of a class described as ‘kamakkilattiyar, the Parattaiyars for sexual pleasure. Married women zealously tried to protect their husband form the seduction of the Parattaiyars. The Parattaiyars were generally skilled in music and dance.

7. Customs and Practices

Family was the basic unity of any society. As married life was biological compulsion, lads and lasses took their life’s partner of their free choice. But it was discouraged when falsehood and cheating marred its solemnity. Later on marriages were arranged by parents and man and his wife came under wedlock in open ceremony in the presence of the elders and leaders of the village. Thus marriage ceremony became a public pronouncement of a private affair.

The birth of child was considered a blessing to make the purpose of family life full. Family thus made became the unit of society. Several families constituted a village (ur). The picture of the village varied according to the physiographical divisions, as occupations varied. Yet in all the villages there were common social behaviours and practices. They had uniform festivals and pastimes.

Hospitality was a welcome social practice. Guests were entertained. Relatives were treated as members connected to the family. They were welcomed and entertained well with a smiling face.

House warming, purification ceremony, puberty and marriage ceremonies were popular family ceremonies connected with family life. Erecting hero stones was a ceremony considered to respect the dead. Onam, Karthigai, Pongal, Thaineeradal, Pangunivilavu were popular celebrations and festivals among the people. In festival occasion the village elders and learned persons were given respective status. Every ceremony was preceded by lighting the lamp, called vilakketral.

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There were various kinds of past-time activities known to the Sangam people. The kings and other rich people listened to the songs and music. The Panar were professional singers and dancers who were very familiar in performing the traditional songs and dance of the Tamil country. People performed different kinds of kuthu. The Alliyakkuthu, Kuravaikkuttu were common and popular, which were performed by the kuthu performer during festival occasions.

Certain customs and notions prevailed during the Sangam age. The cawing of crow was considered a signal of arrival of guests. The cry of lizard was considered an ill omen. Dreams they believed, were advance readings of future events. They believed astrology. They were eager to read future events in advance.

7.1. Burial Practices

During the Sangam Age no single method was adopted for the disposal of the dead; both cremation and inhumation with or without urns are freely mentioned in the literary texts. A widow offered a rice ball to her dead husband on a blade of grass (darbha) and the Pulaiyan had a part to play in the funeral ritual. Various other rituals were performed during the death of the elders of family.

7.2. Common Beliefs

People of the Sangam age believed in spirits, ghosts, and demons. They believed that good and bad spirits moved about invisible. They considered battle field a haunt of spirits. Beliefs in animism were common among the village folks.

There was much faith in omens and astrology in early Tamil society. A woman with untidy hair was a bad omen. There were fortune tellers who plied a busy deal. The banyan and neem trees were considered to be the abode of gods, while eclipses were held to be the result of snakes eating up the sun and moon. Crows were believed to announce the arrival of guests, particularly the return of the absent husband to his lonely wife.

7.3. Food Habits

The diet of the early Tamils was not very different from that of modern times. Rice was then as even afterwards, the stable food of the Tamils. The early Tamils seem to have used boiled rice. There are several references to the use of other grains like maize and millet. The people of Kurunji region ate cooked millet and used for made of millet in making cakes. Pulses like kollu, kadalai and velei are found mentioned. The hunters of the Kurunji region frequently helped themselves to meat obtained through their hunt. The people also consumed varieties of fishes. The Paratavar took cooked rice mixed with a soup of Aiyilai fish flavoured by the addition of tamarind. Fish naturally played a prominent part in the diet of the Paratavar rich and poor. Similarly milk products formed important items of the dietary of the cowherds and shepherds of the Mullai region.

Various vegetables were used by the people. Mangoes, jack fruits, bananas, coconuts, and other delicious fruits were taken such or mixed with honey, milk or sugar. Nellikkani was popular. The naval, Palmyra fruit, gooseberry and ripe tamarind were also popular, particularly among the poor. Among the accessories the cooked rice, slices of pomegranate

10 fruit, spiced with pepper powder and fried in ghee are said to have been used. A kind of gruel made out of rice, dhal and milk was prepared and consumed as food.

7.4. Dress and Ornaments

The people of Sangam age used different kind of dress materials. Barks of trees, plaited leaves as well as cotton and silk clothe used as dress. Generally men wore two cloths of cotton, one around the waist and the other, the upper cloth, thrown over shoulders. It is clear that some clothes worn were woven of fine cotton; and the excellent texture of the clothes has been commented by several poets of the Sangam age. There are many references in the Sangam classics to the Kalingam cloth. Rich ladies wore Kalingam which was a famous variety of fine cotton. Silk, too is found mentioned in several places.

A special attention was paid to the dressing of the hair, particularly by the women. There are several poems in the Sangam classics which speak of women having their sweet-smelling hair done into a handsome knot. Many girls had their hair done into five plaits namely kulal, alagam, kondai, paniccai, and tanjai. After marriage the plaits gave place to a coiffure, known commonly as ‘kondai’. Beautiful flowers like jasmine, lily and even margosa flowers were worn by the women of all categories.

Tamils of the Sangam age showed a great desire for ornaments like all Indian societies. They used various kinds of ornaments. The ornaments were made of gold, silver, precious stones and shells. Girls and women had a craze for ornaments. Thoyyakam, Pullakam, Kulai, Punkuli, rings, chain, thodi and anklet were their important ornaments. All the married women wear tali, which was the symbol of marriage. Malai they wore on neck. Thodi was the armlet. They used bracelet and Mekalai was the waist ornament. Anklet was called Silambu; it was the important ornament for nubile girls. Before marriage it was removed in a ceremony called Silambukkazhinonbu during Sangam age. Kundalam was the ear ring for men. Kazhal was a bangle like ornament worn by heroes. Waist thread was in common use.

8. Education

The importance of education was realized by the Tamils. There was a lofty conception of education from the very early times of the Sangam era. The Tamil term ‘kalvi’ corresponds to the universal connotations of the word education which means drawing out of a child’s latent potentialities. The large body of poems produced by nearly five hundred poets and scholars belonging to different classes of people during the Sangam age indicates that education must have had a fairly wide popularity. Upper strata of the society like the king, priests and merchants but even peasants, , Maravars and shepherds had the facility of learning.

Thiruvalluvar laid special emphasis on the value of acquiring knowledge through listening to the wise. Knowledge received through the ear was considered even superior to mere book learning. An exposition on the value of learning is provided by Thiruvalluvar in chapters 40 to 43 of his illustrious Kural. A few of his important precepts may be noticed here: “The learned alone are said to posses’ eyes, while in respect of the unlettered, they (the eyes) are but sores”. (Kural: 393) “Knowledge is the weapon which saves one from evil; it forms a rampart which cannot be destroyed by the foe”. (Kural: 421) “The learned posses everything; while the unlettered are really poor even if they have riches”. (Kural: 430) From the above

11 descriptions we can understand the importance of education in the development of human society.

There were many women literary personality in early Tamil society. , Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaippadiniar were the popular women poetess contributed much for the Tamil literature. Among the women Perungoppendu, Pari Mahalir was poetesses of extra-ordinary merit. Women from the hunter, watcher and potter classes were learned. Poetess Kakkaippadiniar composed an excellent work on prosody. It is to be pointed out that education was common for all, men and women, rich and poor, kings and commoners, high and low born. The Sangam poets and whose poems are practically the only worthwhile source of information for knowledge of the Sangam. The poets played a very prominent role in the social life of the people. They were a source of education and performed functions of admiring as well as instructive nature. The poets took their efforts and succeeded in easing frictions in society.

9. Religion

Sangam literature presents religious concepts and practices of different stages of early Tamils. The primitive religious ideas and practices, pre Aryan ideas, Aryan elements and the thoughts and notions of new religions are embedded in the Sangam classics. The practice of worshipping the dead by offerings was bestowed by the Sangam people. These practice came from the belief that the spirit lives even after death. They had also practice of erecting hero stone (veerakkal) and memorial stone (nadukal) in early days. These stones were worshipped by the villagers as well as wayfarers.

Veerakkal

Early Tamil work Tolkappiyam provides the names of the deities and methods of worship in the physiographical units: Kurunji, Mullai, Marudam, Neytal and Palai. Accordingly Seyon was the chief god in Kurunji land, Mayon the chief god in Mullai, Vendan the chief god in Marutam, Varuna in Neytal and Korravai in Palai land. Commentators equated Vendan to god Indra. Kottravai (Sakti), Siva, Muruga and (Mayavan) were the chief deities worshipped by the Sangam people. Lord Thirumal was called Mayon or Mayavan and Nediyon, the chief deities of shepherded folks in Mullai region.

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The chief god of the Sangam age was Murugan. He is also known as in several other names such as Subramaniya, Skanda, Karthikeya, Seyon, etc. He was the popular deity of the Tamils He was called the god of the hill. According to Tolkappiyam lord Murugan was the chief god of the Vettuvar, the people of hilly region. The girls from the Vettuva community acted as the priestess. Later it was done by Velan. They made offerings with animal sacrifices. The culminating point of worship was marked by ‘velan veriyadal’, the term stands for the dance of Velan in frenzy. It was supposed that he had divine influence. Sangan text Thirumurugattruppadai gives a graphic picture of Muruga worship.

Remains of Subramanya (Murugan) Temple of Sangam Period

Other gods such as Siva, Indra, Varuna, Kubera, Yama, Tirumala, Balaram, etc. were also known to the people of Sangam age. They performed different rituals and sacrifices to the gods and goddesses. Apart from performing different rituals the people also built several temples for different gods.

Worship of mother goddess was also in practice, which was in different forms. The mother goddess was generally known as Kottravai. The Kottravai worship was a very ancient form of worship of mother goddess. She was considered the consort of Sivasakti, representing cosmic energy. During the period of Tolkappiyam She was mostly worshipped in the desert and forest regions. She was considered a goddess of war.

Brahmanism began to make its inroads into south India with kings performing Vedic sacrifices and higher classes adopting worship of Vedic Gods. Buddhism and Jainism also began to spreading, though Brahmanism occupied the prime place in priestly and higher classes. At the same time worship of various indigenous gods continued among the common people and the tribes.

10. Fine Arts

Various fine arts were very popular in the Sangam age. Poetry, music and dancing were quite popular among the Sangam people. The poets were men and women drawn from all classes of society; and were often rewarded generously. The royal courts were also enlivened by roving bands of musicians followed by women who danced to the accompaniment of music. Prominent among these were the Panar and Viraliyar who moved about the country in companies carrying with them all sorts of quaint instruments. They

13 seem to have been the representatives of primitive tribal groups who preserved the folk traditions of an earlier age.

Sangam Age Rock Painting Discovered

During the Sangam period music and dancing were highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of various types are described and included many kinds of yal and varieties of drums. Viralis sometimes danced at night by torch-light and particular dance poses of the hands are mentioned by names as in the Natyasastra of Bharata.

11. Summary

The age of the Sangam in the extreme south India was one of cultural transformation. At the turn of the first century B.C. south India moved from pre-historic into historic period. During this period, the three dynasties namely, the Chera, the Chola and the Pandyas were ruled and played crucial role in the development of culture and society. The literatures of the age give vivid picture of the social and cultural life of the people. For the Tamils, this Sangam age was the period of evolution from total chieftainship to kingdoms. Hence, during this age, a more complex politico-economic structure had developed. However, much more significant was the fact that south India was absorbed into the cultural development of the sub- continent, which was taking place at the time. Thus, the Sangam age constituted a glorious era in the history of southern India.

The Sangam Age

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