South Sudan and the East African Community: Creating the Foundation for Political and Economic Integration Through Agriculture and Women.… 33 Michael F

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Library of Congress: ISSN 2152-3908

Journal of Global Development and Peace Table of Contents

Foreword ….………………………………………………………………………………………… i

Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State………………………………………………...…….…….. 1 Maria Garrett

An Evaluation of Education as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conflict-Torn Regions..………...... 22 Brandon LaFavor

South Sudan and the East African Community: Creating the Foundation for Political and Economic Integration Through Agriculture and Women.… 33 Michael F. McCarthy

How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Education…….…………....….…… 51 Dr. Thomas Ward

Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Education…...……………………………………………..…………………… 58 Rebecca Witherington

CPIA Program Fact Sheets…………………………………………………………………………… 70

Foreword Dr. Thomas J Ward

Foreword

Thomas J. Ward

The year 2013 marks the fifth edition of the Journal of Global Development and Peace. The Journal was created with the intent of further awareness and inviting reflection on the extant delicate balance between the initiation of international projects aimed at addressing the manifold dimensions of social, political, economic and cultural progress vis- à-vis the inherent challenges due to the surge of development models that stem from Western models which, increasingly, face challenges when applied in milieus which do not embrace the social and cultural assumptions of the West. The challenges of this dynamic have not only informed the focus of our Journal; they also constitute the raison d’être of the University of Bridgeport’s College of Public and International Affairs, first graduate program, the Master of Arts in Global Development and Peace that we began in 2008. Since then we have added a Master of Arts in Global Media and Communica- tion Studies along with a Master of Arts in East Asian and Pacific Rim Studies. We have also created an undergraduate degree in Criminal Justice and Human Security and recently shifted our World Religions program’s focus to a Bachelor of Arts in Religion and Politics.

Along with additional graduate and undergraduate degree programs, we have added some new and very talented faculty that also can help to improve the quality of the Jour- nal. This includes Dr. Mohammed Al-Azdee who came to UB from Indiana University. Dr. Al-Azdee was born and raised in Iraq. During the Gulf War, he served as an imbed- ded reporter. He has written for USA Today, US News and World Report and for Reu- ters. He came to the United States as a Fulbright Fellow to the United States where he studied Journalism at Indiana University and earned his Ph.D. there. We should also mention Dr. Steven Hess who came to the University of Bridgeport from Miami Univer- sity where he earned his doctorate in Political Science. Dr. Hess served as a Peace Corps volunteer in China and during that time he developed proficiency in Mandarin as well as a keen interest in East Asian Affairs with a special interest in social movements and their impact in countries whose political systems are in transition from authoritarian to more democratic models. We were also pleased to welcome Dr. Riggs who completed his

i Journal of Global Development and Peace Foreword Thomas J Ward

Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania in Arabic and Islamic Studies and who developed a keen interest in the Middle East over several years. This was bolstered by his experience of living several years in Jordan and this was accompanied by significant stays in Lebanon and in North Africa. Dr. Riggs oversees our Religion and Politics program and works closely with Dr. Kim Setton, a senior faculty member who has a distinguished record of accomplishment in East Asian studies.

I am pleased to use this edition of the Journal of Global Development and Peace to in- form our readers that Dr. Dave Benjamin has been asked to assume new responsibilities with the Journal as Deputy Executive Editor, assisting me with overall supervision of the Journal and helping to move it to a new level. Dr. Benjamin is also to be congratulated for his role of overseeing the Human Rights section of the 2015 Annual Conference of the International Studies Association that will take place in New Orleans, Louisiana. Dr. Riggs has been asked to assume responsibility as Managing Editor of the Journal. Dr. Riggs has interesting plans, which we feel, will help to bring the Journal to the next level. I thank you for your patronage of the Journal. Our new faculty additions, I believe, will bring our publications to a new level. I thank you for following us and urge you to continue to do so.

Thomas J. Ward serves as the University of Bridgeport’s Vice President for Internationalization and as Dean of the College of Public and International Affairs.

Journal of Global Development and Peace ii Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

Maria Garrett

Abstract

The article addresses the many social, political, and economic challenges in the reconstruction of Somalia as a war-torn state. Civil unrest and conflict have become mundane and the international policies forwarded to resolve the social and political reconstruction of the state are substituted by goals in gender equality, education, health, human consumption, and security. The disparity is that the global norm relies too heavily on implementing “best practices” to rebuild post-conflict states that legitimately, over time, fail to establish independent economic self-sufficiency, leading to both policy and state failure. I argue for innovative resolve alongside recent approaches and offer several reputable and contemporary advances to boost the economy in a manner that constructively fosters growth and independent state security, as required through the independent variable gap.

Biography Maria Garrett is a 4.0 Summa Cum Laude graduate of Everest College in Springfield, Missouri where she received her BA in Political Science. She was admitted into the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) Distinguished Scholar program where she pursues a Master’s degree in International Security and Intelligence Studies (ISIS) at Bellevue University in Bellevue, Nebraska. Ms. Garrett is a Military Intelli- gence Officer for the Missouri Army National Guard where she was rated the top 10% out of her peers and above center mass. She has contributed to peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations, humanitarian missions, and joint multinational strategic operations in NORTHCOM, SOUTHCOM, EUCOM, and CENCOM.

1 Journal of Global Development and Peace Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

Introduction after several decades of war and collapse, four different justice systems emerged: the judiciary Somalia is a war-torn state in repair. The con- structures that erected out of international ception of Somalia’s recently reclaimed sover- peace processes; xeer, a clan based traditional eignty, brand new constitution, and newly system; sharia courts, based on the Muslim reli- formed democratic polity inherited a rule of law gion; and ad hoc mechanisms derived from beset by secessionism, regionalism, and civil militia factions, civil society, and the private sec- strife from the polarization of Somali politics, tor that accumulated over time.3 which came entrenched in a state security crisis. A constitutional blueprint focusing on the polit- The complexity in Somalia’s judicial structure ical, social, and economic reconstruction of So- made establishing a legitimate governing body malia is set forth to create an atmosphere con- exhausting and non-existent, which created a ducive to gaining Somalia’s independence and state of lawlessness. It was not until recently, on establishing a legitimate rule of law. However, August 1, 2012, when Somalia regained interna- the TIS-Somalia, UNDP, CIMIC, and humani- tionally accepted state sovereignty. Somalia tarian aid efforts focus on the social and politi- formed an inclusive government by creating the cal reconstruction of the state, while economic Provisional Federal Constitution (PFC) setting restoration is being substituted by goals in gen- forth the legitimacy of the Federal Republic of der equality, education, health, human con- Somalia (FRS). The PFC was ratified by Soma- sumption, and security. The disparity is that the lia’s 825 National Constituent Assembly mem- global norm relies too heavily on implementing bers and approved by the United States, the “best practices” to rebuild post-conflict states United Nations, and the United Nations Securi- that legitimately, over time, fail to establish inde- ty Council as legitimate.4 The PFC sets forth to pendent economic self-sufficiency, leading to define Somalia as “A federal, sovereign, and both policy and state failure. democratic republic founded on inclusive representation of the people, a multiparty system Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War- and social justice.”5 Solidifying Somalia’s inde- Torn State pendent sovereignty was the election of the first president since the collapse in 1991, President Since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud.6 A constitutional the United Nations served as Somalia’s de-facto blueprint focusing on the social, political, and caretaker in the absence of a credible govern- economic reconstruction of Somalia was set ment in state affairs. For centuries, Somalia has forth to create an atmosphere conducive to been beset by secessionism, regionalism, and gaining Somalia’s independence and establish- civil strife from the polarization of Somali poli- ing a legitimate rule of law.7 The issue of con- tics.1 Over two dozen regional administrators tention is in addressing the civil unrest and and militia factions divided Somalian territories global network of conflict inherited in the after- into four primary groups: The Reconciliation math of Somalia’s war-torn state in a manner and Restoration Council (SRRC), the Transna- that provides Somalia with the tools to inde- tional Government (TNG), the Group of pendently restore a stable society.8 Eight, and the Republic of Somaliland.2 In addition to the polarization of Somalia’s politics,

Journal of Global Development and Peace 2 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

Civil Unrest: A Stakeholders Agenda asylum rose by one fifth, exceeding 400,000, since 2003. The most favored states of refuge According to the Funding for Peace (FFP) state are the United States, France, Germany, and index (2013), Somalia ranks as the number one Italy. In 2012, over 294,000 Somalian refugees failed state in the world.9 The systematic culture flooded the camps in the surrounding states of of lawlessness left civil society restless. For dec- Kenya and Ethiopia and displaced over one ades the people of Somalia were no longer million civilians in the Horn of Africa.11 The stakeholders in their own interests or state refugee crisis in Somalia is staggering. The only economy. They were not afforded any legal other crises that forced over one million refu- tender, title, or guarantee of expropriation, nor gees to flee their homes was during the Afghan- could they predict any positive change for their istan and Iraqi conflicts. future, based off past failed attempts to establish a legitimate rule of law. Their past, present, The journey for a refugee presents consequenc- and future were stripped from them without es with life-threatening situations. According to the foreseeability of their state legitimately de- the United Nations Office on Drugs and fending their lot. The only motivation that Crime,12 thousands of men, women, and chil- drove this civil unrest was survival.10 dren fall victim to human traffickers. Often times this victimization occurs during the illegal transit period from one destination to another. With thousands of people illegally migrating across borders, they fall prey to the smuggling ring of human trafficking. The option to remain at home is equally unsavory. Roughly 1.5 million refugees in Somalia live in sub-condition refugee camps. Over one third of Somalia’s 7.5 million population are living in forced displace- ment.13 The civil resentment and extreme dis- Poverty and conflict also contributed to civil satisfaction with the state’s prior weak code of unrest. Thousands of people each year aban- justice, fickle democracies, and lack of security doned Somalia and shifted their attention to- manifests into populist movements or recruit- ward a thriving proposition across borders in ment into criminal groups. It will not be until one of the thirty-four Organization for Eco- civil society has a social, political, and economic nomic Cooperation and Development stake in the game, before a clear resuscitation of (OECD) countries in search for asylum. The the state will begin.14 OECD mission to its member countries and elsewhere is to promote the social well-being of Network of Global Conflict: The Porous people and governments around the world. Dilemma This social well-being provides hope for the Somalian people in flight but consequently Failed transitional states, such as Somalia, that floods the international community with fleeing exhibit corruption, poverty, and conflict are refugees. According to the OECD (2013), im- placed in a vacuum that represents a downward migration flows to OECD countries seeking spiral towards the expansion of anarchy with

3 Journal of Global Development and Peace Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State sporadic governed areas. With a history of ver- made Somalia a free economic zone and the satile criminal organizations, a weak rule of law, hub for transnational smuggling.19 slow democratic relief, and large quantities of undocumented cash from drug trafficking, So- Somalia: A Call for Unity to Secure the Rule malia became the recipe for a breeding ground of Law of armed groups. International terrorist organizations, insurgencies, and militias seek fragile It is not fallible to directly associate Somalia’s and lawless territories to provide an umbrella of civil unrest and network of global conflict with- protection.15 Somalia is the home to the terror- in the problematic constraints of Somalia’s prior ist organization Al-Shabaab and has frequent lack of government and weak rule of law. As visits from Al-Qaeda. With guerilla style tactics, noted, the conception of Somalia’s recently re- Al-Shabaab sets out to overthrow the state’s claimed sovereignty, brand new constitution, sovereignty and weaken the newly formed frag- and newly formed democratic polity inherited a ile Somali government in pursuit of their own rule of law beset by secessionism, regionalism, social and political agendas.16 Often times Al- and civil strife from the polarization of Somali Qaeda uses urban cities as prominent areas for politics, which came entrenched in a state secu- resettlement, resupply, recruitment, and an op- rity crisis.20 As Somalia faces complex challeng- erations base for coordinated attacks in their es in maintaining territorial sovereignty, reviving holy war against America and other anti-Islamic civil society, and establishing security and jus- states.17 Somalia is strategically located on the tice, globalization in the 21st century has beck- shores of the Indian Ocean and acts as a safe oned for a response from the international passageway from Africa to the Middle East, community to act in favor of supporting Soma- preferably through Yemen, with its well- lia’s motivation to gain independence and estab- traveled trade and fishing routes. Due to the lish a legitimate rule of law by supporting the lawlessness that precedes a newly formed sov- Transition Initiative Stabilization Somalia (TIS- ereign state, borders are not yet completely se- Somalia) and the United Nations Development cure and there is great dysfunction in the state’s Program (UNDP). law enforcement. Al-Qaeda and Al-Shabaab can easily enter the country and travel to and TIS Somalia: Civil Society’s Stake in the from each destination with just a boat ride Game away.18 The TIS-Somalia is an initiative developed un- In the meantime, a complex and flexible net- der the United States Agency for International work of interstate and intrastate conflict spreads Development (USAID). The focus is on the across the globe. The expeditious design of fi- resuscitation of civil society with a goal to foster nancial transactions and high-tech transporta- good governance, support economic restoration, made dispensable through globalization, tion, and reduce the appeal for corruption and has created a platform for a global criminal en- extremism. As civil unrest plagues the state, the terprise in Somalia. The smuggling of humans, TIS-Somalia provides citizens hope with a qual- arms, antiquities, precious metals, and stones itative degree of personal self-worth. It allows throughout Somalia, coupled with the fast de- citizens to regain their independence by becom- livery in mass quantity by boat or plane, has ing a fundamental asset in the decision-making

Journal of Global Development and Peace 4 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

process for community projects. The TIS- tricts were encased in civil war and primarily Somalia simply provides civil society with a concerned with their own survival and individu- stake in their livelihood and ownership in their al interests. Now, in Mogadishu alone peace own growth as a community and as a nation.21 committees and authorities from over 16 districts work together as a single entity with the Ownership is a primary element in the resusci- Transition Federal Government (TFG) officials tation of civil society. It is the psychological in developing communal interests and activities. makeup that is necessary in solidifying a per- The TFG received an appropriation of $9.5 son’s organizational commitment. When peo- million to support the TIS-Somalia reconstruc- ple invest their time, labor, and knowledge into tion projects. As the activities continue, new community development projects, they tend to lighting systems were used to promote security, exercise personal control over the sustainment over 23,436 metric tons of junk and garbage and success of those projects. Extending own- were removed from the streets, and several ership of projects to the people of the commu- schools were built that they now call Dan Guud, nities also mediates the relationship between translated into English as “common good.” civil society, the community members, and the Over 1,095 community workers were gainfully governing bodies of the state.22 The TIS- employed to include almost five hundred prior Somalia provides a community with the oppor- clan militia members, young prisoners, and pri- tunity to collaborate together as a single entity or Al-Shabaab recruits. The TIS-Somalia is also and select projects significant to the needs of in support of rehabilitating the disadvantaged the people in that community. A project is then young back into society by providing alternative contracted and constructed under the supervi- options as a means to deter aggression or crimi- sion and participation of the locals from the nal activity.25 inception of the project to its completion.23 UNDP: Global Rule of Law in Action As of August 2013 the TIS-Somalia has integrated government officials, civil society mem- The UNDP Global Rule of Law Programme bers, and public sector representatives in the understands that Somalia’s ability to regain so- construction of over 450 small grant activities cial and political recovery is directly related to its worth over an estimated $38 million. The build- ability to enforce state security and provide a ing projects include water facilities, street lights, legitimate legal system with transparency and playgrounds, schools, and the restoration of accountability. This understanding signals the government offices, roads, and markets. The UNDP to address Somalia’s network of global USAID TIS-Somalia has over 20 Strategic conflict and weak rule of law. Both security and Planned Workshop facilities located all across justice are two necessary elements in defeating Somalia, from the northwest in Somaliland, to criminal armed groups, trafficking, and human the northeast in Puntland, down to the south rights violations that plague the state.26 from Mogadishu to Kismayo.24 Although the terrorist group Al-Shabaab was The TIS-Somalia projects join districts together weakened by the African Union (AU) military in a way that transitions from clanism to neigh- campaign, sought by a two-pronged United borhoods. For over two decades, Somalia’s dis- States (U.S.) policy in recent years, it continues

5 Journal of Global Development and Peace Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State to be a primary concern as a threat to Somalia’s was set up in pursuit of piracy leaders and finan- territorial sovereignty and security. The insur- ciers by the Netherlands and the United King- gency group influences several areas in the dom.30 In order to maintain this security, justice southern and central portions of the state and must be present. vigilantly pursues control of Mogadishu with bombings, deadly raids, and kidnappings.27 In Strengthening Somalia’s justice system is a key response to this security dilemma, the United component in enforcing security and building a Nations Security Council (UNSC), led by the transparent and accountable rule of law. The United Kingdom (UK), expanded Resolution UNDP conducts open dialogue with civil or- 2036, which transformed the African Union ganizations, police officers, prosecutors, and Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) from peace- elected officials for the purpose of building fair keeping to peace enforcement. This transfor- and equitable legal institutions. Within one year, mation allows AMISOM troops to pursue of- an estimated 2,905 police officers were trained fensive operations against the threat of terror- and Police Advisory Committees were formed. ism rather than remain in a defensive position, These Police Advisory Committees were set up as was previously only authorized under peace- to train, mentor, and monitor police and prison keeping operations. The budget was doubled staff members on human rights, gender, and with an appropriation of $550 million dollars treatment of prisoners. The UNDP Global and authorized troop strength was raised to Rule of Law also responds to gender violence, 17,731 personnel. The 2036 Resolution defines reduces armed conflict, strengthens citizen se- the mission for Somalian troops to take all nec- curity, builds efficient legal institutions, and im- essary means to eliminate the threat and present proves citizen’s access to justice. A fair justice conditions favorable to support the legitimacy system is paramount in protecting human of Somalia’s governance and rule of law. This rights, providing reparations for victims, prose- mission also extends to criminal maritime oper- cuting criminal violations, and promoting social ations in the Indian Ocean against trafficking and political development.31 and piracy.28 Somalia: Jump Start in the Right Place As previously noted, globalization has increased the widespread nature of movement, logistics, There is no question that the reconstruction financial transfers, and communication that ca- appropriated under the TIS-Somalia and the ters to the survivability and reach of trafficking UNDP are instrumental in keeping Somalia on and piracy.29 The 2036 Resolution to fight mari- the right track toward the social and political time trafficking and piracy off the shores of So- revitalization of the state and, in turn, places malia welcomed support from many countries. reputable programs in place to respond to civil Mauritius, Seychelles, and Tanzania agreed to unrest and the global network of conflict. As imprison pirates, while bi-lateral donors such as the TIS-Somalia and UNDP focus on educa- Japan and Denmark worked on maritime safety tion, infrastructure, and security, there is also a and security through information sharing. The need to address the people’s basic human con- Seychelles Coast Guard was provided $15 mil- sumption. Focus on improving security and lion from the United Arab Emirates to establishing a legitimate rule of law means more strengthen its fleet and an intelligence center than integrating civil and government institu-

Journal of Global Development and Peace 6 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

tions together and building a justice system; it sition to their proper venues through the Civil also means providing civil society with the re- Military Cooperation (CIMIC), while encourag- sources to survive.32 ing international donor support.

Basic Survival: The Need for Consumption Civil Military Cooperation (CIMIC): Re- The international community adopted best directing Humanitarian Aid

For decades, humanitarian aid was the single greatest point of contention that undermined international efforts to build security or conduct effective counterterrorism operations in Soma- lia. When the international community attempt- ed to build up security, humanitarian aid re- sourced the opposition to tear it down.37 The benefit aid was squandered and used by the terrorist organization Al-Shabaab as a resource of supply, a tool of leverage against the mal- practices to broaden the focus from effective nourished Somalian population, and a means to security forums to providing civil society with overthrow politicization efforts for stabilization. basic needs for human survival. An adequate The lack of accountability and the easy access to consumption log for humanitarian aid consists shipments of food, medical supplies, and equip- of a minimum requirement for food, shelter, ment catered to the vulnerability of humanitari- water, and medical care.33 A basic need for hu- an aid.38 As a response and in order to attain man consumption is a dominant necessity fol- control and secure humanitarian aid flow into lowing the humanitarian crisis left in the after- the country and starve out Al-Shabaab, the math of Somalia’s decades of war, conflict, and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) drought. According to the Regional Bureau for created the Civil Military Cooperation. CIMIC East and Central Africa, Somalia experienced is a comprehensive approach that integrates three major food shortages in the years 2006, civil-military relations and operations in support 2008, and 2011, with the latter being escalated of force protection and civil affairs.39 This inte- into an emergency crisis.34 An estimated gration includes the cooperation between the 258,000 men, women, and children died from United Nations (UN), the government of So- starvation and the UN made an official declara- malia, non-governmental organizations tion of famine.35 The newly sovereign govern- (NGO), and private organizations. Some of the ment of Somalia inherited a state that under- major interventions to attain control of humani- went a famine caused from food shortages and tarian aid include refugee camp security, civil- dealt with the Islamist terrorist group Al- military escorts for humanitarian convoys, corri- Shabaab, hindering access to humanitarian dors to famine zones, emergency relief and dis- aid.36 As Somalia rebirthed a new political sys- aster guidelines, and peacekeeping operations.40 tem and governing body, the UN began crisis Although CIMIC is predominantly land based, intervention addressing food shortages that re- it also conducts maritime and air operations directed humanitarian aid away from the oppo- focusing on anti-piracy, disaster relief, counter

7 Journal of Global Development and Peace Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State proliferation, embargo control, and emergency Somalia’s Poverty: A Dividing Point for response. All of which, land, sea, and air opera- Growth or Failure tions, re-direct humanitarian aid to their proper venue and eliminates the previous diversion As Somalia and the international community and vulnerability that made it possible for So- invest in The New Deal Plan to jump start So- malia to fall into an officially declared famine.41 malia, it is important to address the dividing Now more international donors are willing to point for Somalia’s independent growth or state support Somalia’s humanitarian relief. Accord- failure. Demand for fresh perspectives on eco- ing to the financial tracking service for global nomic recovery to reduce Somalia’s poverty is humanitarian aid flows, as of October 11, 2013, high. Poverty reduction is at the forefront of twenty five state actors and various donors do- discussions and remains a primary goal for the nated and pledged over $523 million toward United Nations.46 However, as illustrated in the transitional shelters for internally displaced per- TIS-Somalia, UNDP, and CIMIC initiatives, as sons (IDP), nutrition and food security, acute well as the humanitarian aid appropriations, malnutrition treatment, child and maternal care, poverty reduction is substituted by social and humanitarian air services, clean water accessibil- political goals in gender equality, education, ity, emergency medical treatment and facilities, health, human consumption, security, and pro- and vaccines for childhood communicable dis- moting the rule of law.47 Although all of these eases. There are also provisions establishing goals are necessary forms of state restoration, educational facilities with food programs and a they do not directly address the issue of Soma- campaign to protect victims from human traf- lia’s need to form independent mechanisms for ficking.42 self-sufficiency, which only exacerbates the ma- lingering of economic state failure and interna- The New Deal Plan: Future of Somalia tional aid dependency.

Somalia is moving into a new era. Milestones Economy: Restoration or Disarticulation are unfolding and the world is taking note.43 On September 13, 2013, over 50 delegate states There are three types of variables that measure from Africa, Europe, North America, and the Somalia’s economic restoration from a war- Caribbean and Pacific joined together and en- torn state to an independent functional society: dorsed The New Deal Plan that pledged $2.4 dependent variables, controlled variables, and billion in the course of three years to aid in the independent variables.48 All three variables are security of Somalia’s multi-pronged social, polit- dependent upon each other to consummate ical, and economic reconstruction of the state.44 Somalia’s political, social, and economic restora- The unity between global actors illustrates the tion. While dependent variables and controlled seriousness that the international community variables cater to the political and social needs has in securing Somalia as an independent func- of the economy, independent variables boost tional state with a legitimate rule of law. Soma- the economy, reduce poverty, and solidify So- lia’s New Deal Plan was originally derived from malia’s independence. Further discussion of the President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s economic dependent variables and controlled variables plan to jump start America during The Great demonstrates that Somalia is on the right track Depression in the 1930s.45 toward becoming a fully functional state by em-

Journal of Global Development and Peace 8 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

placing resources toward the dependent and tionally accepted state sovereignty and formed controlled variables. However, a gap in the in- an inclusive government by creating the Provi- dependent variable will be the decisive factor sional Federal Constitution (PFC), setting forth for Somalia’s full restoration or disarticulation the legitimacy of the Federal Republic of Soma- of the state. lia (FRS). The PFC was ratified by Somalia’s 825 National Constituent Assembly members Dependent Variables and approved by the United States, the United Nations, and the United Nations Security Dependent variables include educational facili- Council as legitimate.53 Hassan Sheikh Moham- ties and tertiary enrollment. Tertiary enrollment ud was elected the first President since the Siad is defined as the amount of age-appropriate Barre regime fell in 1991 and a constitutional students enrolled in an educational facility.49 As blueprint focusing on the social, political, and previously noted, the TIS-Somalia has set up economic reconstruction of Somalia was set over twenty Strategic Planned Workshops lo- forth to create an atmosphere conducive to cated all across Somalia, from the northwest in gaining Somalia’s independence and establish- Somaliland, to the northeast in Puntland, down ing a legitimate rule of law.54 to the south from Mogadishu to Kismayo. The workshops directly sponsor building projects Independent Variables that focus on the construction of schools with community tertiary enrollment.50 Independent variables include trade dependency, international nongovernmental organization Controlled Variables (INGO) dependency, and trade coreness. These independent variables are the three pri- Controlled variables include domestic invest- mary areas that foreign policy decision makers ment, population growth, and democratiza- must address to counter Somalia’s poverty and tion.51 Domestic investment includes fixed as- strengthen its economy toward sustainable in- sets of the economy. As noted, the TIS-Somalia dependence. The first, trade dependency, is a appropriated over $38 million on 450 small calculated share of Somalia’s gross domestic grant activities toward fixed assets of the econo- product (GDP) against the sum of exports and my, some of which included water facilities, imports of goods and services.55 Somalia’s street lights, playgrounds, schools, and the res- GDP gained 2.6 percent in 2012 and expanded toration of government offices, commercial in terms of GDP growth by 1.6, reaching a high buildings, roads, railways, hospitals, and mar- of 30.1, but still remains in a trade deficit. Ex- kets.52 Population growth is also covered ports are at USD 520 million where imports through CIMIC and humanitarian aid by secur- exceed at USD 1260 million leaving Somalia in ing shipments of food, clean water, medical a negative balance at – USD 740 million.56 This supplies, and vaccines to their proper venue, trade gap results in foreign aid dependency and which reduces infant death, sustains a healthy poverty. According to the United Nations Sta- population, and increases life expectancy. The tistic Division (UNSD), the average Somali resi- final controlled variable is democratization. As dent’s national income per capita is 107 USD previously discussed, Somalia is well on its way per year averaging 30 cents per day, well below to democratization. Somalia regained interna- the poverty level.57 The second independent

9 Journal of Global Development and Peace Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State variable is INGO dependency. INGO depend- vision. The disparity is that the global norm re- ency refers to the penetration that INGOs have lies too heavily on implementing past interven- in Somalia. As noted in a previous section, So- tion models, systems, and methods to rebuild malia is clearly dependent on humanitarian aid post-conflict states that legitimately, over time, for basic human consumption and survival. fail to establish independent economic self- The offset is how that aid surpluses against the sufficiency. As discussed, Somalia is on the right state’s GDP. High residual aid can lower the track toward becoming a fully functional state value of goods and services produced from by emplacing resources toward the dependent local agriculture and material developments, and controlled variables. However, neglect of while low residual aid produces a substantial the independent variable creates an idle econo- gain. The balance between aid and the local my that over time exacerbates a cycle of civil economy is essential during the economic unrest and conflict that undermines prior social growth process, which in the long term should and political reconstruction efforts. The inde- reduce or eliminate the INGO aid for social pendent variable applied to the current recon- dependency. The third is trade coreness. Trade struction efforts toward the dependent and coreness is based on Somalia’s trade network controlled variables is the key to Somalia’s so- and integration in the world economy.58 Soma- cial, political, and economic restoration from a lia has three export partners: Oman, the United war-torn state to an independent functional Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Somalia has nine society with a legitimate rule of law. import partners: China, Djibouti, Egypt, India, Kenya, Oman, Pakistan, the United Arab Independent Variable: Frame for Fiscal In- Emirates, and Yemen.59 The strength in trade stitutions coreness is not measured by the amount of partners Somalia has but rather measured by The independent variable is reliant on opening bilateral trade flows between the countries and up domestic investment and foreign investment the costs associated with the goods and ser- in both the domestic market and the foreign vices.60 This trade core variable indicates Soma- market. Building a framework to support the lia has an open door for policy makers to invest independent variable is contingent upon two in bilateral trade flows when adopting an inno- key tasks: 1.) Somalia must produce a compre- vative mechanism for foreign investment, but, hensive mission statement; 2.) Aid must be if pursuing this route, policy makers must be rechanneled through Somalia’s national budget careful not to become unbalanced on the ex- to build sound fiscal institutions. With these ploitative side of trade coreness, as so often two key tasks as precedents, the door will be seen in less developed third world countries. open to begin building a wholesome cycle of growth and employment, increase competitive- Globalization: Time to Re-orchestrate the ness in the foreign and domestic markets, re- Tune duce aid dependency, strengthen core trade, and activate a synchronized tax based system in Globalization has ushered in an era that allows the state of Somalia. Somalia to become an independent and pros- perous state with a legitimate rule of law. The New Deal Plan is paramount in supporting that

Journal of Global Development and Peace 10 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

Somalia: Comprehensive Mission State- policies (flexible versus fixed), real sector poli- ment cies, and external sector policies that will form the centerpiece for Somalia’s financial inde- The first key task is for Somalia to build a mis- pendence.65 A sound fiscal institution gives So- sion statement. The mission statement must malia the tools to support innovative mecha- incorporate a philosophy and vision that will nisms to fill the independent variable gap that spell out Somalia’s short-term and long-term leads to a functional society with a legitimate goals. The goals should address Somalia’s future rule of law. reconstruction strategy, performance expecta- Innovative Mechanisms: Three Viable So- tions, and leadership roles for oversight man- lutions agement.61 The mission statement must have a clear and realistic goal to meet its objectives but Gaining momentum in a war-torn state does be flexible enough to incorporate reform and not mean Somalia is in need of a sophisticated build viable economic policies. The mission framework. Policy makers need to “keep it sim- statement should become a tool to influence ple.”66 There is no reason to offer more than external stakeholders or prospectors to forward what is essential in forwarding policy recom- business toward the state of Somalia while serv- mendations to address the independent variable ing as a foundation for the legal and regulatory gap of trade dependency, INGO dependency, framework surrounding its business climate.62 and trade coreness.67 The greatest mistake is to begin a complicated approach that immediately Rechanneling Aid & Building Fiscal Insti- places an undue hardship on the technical, ad- tutions ministrative, and managerial capacity of the state.68 It is important to identify and emplace Secondly, donors of The New Deal Plan economic reform where it makes sense. As the should not dictate reconstruction projects or mission statement calls out for clear and realistic activities outside the scope of the government’s goals, the economic framework should do the fiscal policy,63 as with the TIS-Somalia, UNDP, same. I offer and promote three viable solu- and CIVIC initiatives. Oftentimes donors do tions to fill the independent variable gap: Gov- not have the same goals as Somalia’s govern- ernmental subsidy programs for the domestic ment, which causes an influx of redundant and market, governmental subsidy programs in agri- overlapping reconstruction efforts and aid de- culture, and promoting a micro, small and me- pendency that prevents the economic growth dium size enterprise (MSME) reform.69 factor from proceeding forward, producing system failure. In order to eliminate system fail- Governmental Subsidy Programs: Domes- ure, Somalia’s newly sovereign government tic Market should become the focal point for reconstruction management. The pledged $2.4 billion in The first recommendation is governmental the course of three years from The New Deal subsidy programs for the domestic market. Plan64 should be re-channeled through Soma- With aid being re-channeled from the New lia’s national budget. Consolidating aid through Deal Plan through Somalia’s national budget, Somalia’s national budget will build sound fiscal the government can create jobs by subsidizing institutions with monetary and exchange rate domestic firms to recruit and train unskilled

11 Journal of Global Development and Peace Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State laborers. Training and employing former com- GDP, lowering unemployment rates, reducing batants, refugees, and displaced civilians is para- foreign aid dependency, and rectifying domestic mount in the reintegration process that also and foreign trade coreness. The Somalian gov- ensures a quantifiable degree of self-worth. Ac- ernment can support agricultural programs cording to Waters and Moore, unemployment through loans and subsidies for equipment, fer- creates high distress, tension, and fatigue, which tilizer, seeds, and drought-resistant crops. leads to the perception of a shameful social existence.70 The creation of jobs is instrumental in Micro, Small, and Medium Size Enterprise providing civil society with a stake in the game, (MSME) Reform restoring negative self-worth with dignity, and replacing civil unrest and corruption with virtu- The third recommendation is MSME reform. ous employment. Somalia’s government will The epitome of development for Somalia is in gain legitimacy, security, and social trust with the private sector. Over 99% of the region’s the population by creating jobs while the gov- private sector is MSMEs, with over 110 operat- ernment’s safety net, reduction in expenditures, ing in urban and rural areas.74 Unfortunately, as and lower labor costs will offset the high risk it is, the majority of MSMEs are in services and involved in an entrepreneur investing in Soma- trade, family run, less than five years old, and lia’s poor business climate.71 barely provide the basic subsistence for family support. The downfall is that the majority fail to Governmental Subsidy Programs: Agricul- reach full capacity to yield profit, produce out- ture put, or withstand market fluctuations. The problems associated with the lack of growth The second recommendation is governmental and running a sustainable business is due to the subsidy programs in agriculture. Subsidies and lack of a unified system, illegal business activity, price support programs for agriculture in Soma- scarcity of skilled and educated laborers, poor lia should be a top priority for development. infrastructure, lack of financial resources for According to the CIA World Fact Book, over start-up or expansion, and a disconnect to the 40% of Somalia’s GDP and 50% of export market.75 Somalia is in need of a comprehen- earnings are dependent upon Somalia’s agricul- sive reform that unifies the local system, im- tural sector in livestock, hides, fish, and char- proves competition, removes obstacles to coal.72 Currently, Somalia is dependent upon growth, and reduces the risk of investment. The humanitarian aid for its basic needs, which dis- framework for MSME reform should include: torts prices and becomes the primary discour- aging factor for agricultural investments.73 One simple and affordable avenue for li- However, with foreign aid re-channeling censing and registering MSMEs. The li- through Somalia’s national budget, it reduces censing requirement legitimizes business humanitarian aid dependency and boosts the activities and sets forth legal and regulatory value added for Somalia’s agriculture in domes- guidelines to eliminate illegal activity that tic and foreign markets. With the price distor- distorts market prices.76 tion substantially decreased, a labor intense market toward bulk commodity in agriculture Issue business identification numbers with would be a prime advancement in raising the the government. Begin generating a single

Journal of Global Development and Peace 12 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

and transparent tax-based revenue for gov- Conclusion ernmental self-sufficiency. Begin an affordable low tax rate of 5% to facilitate universal Somalia’s private sector, if properly managed, compliance with Somalia’s Ministry of Fi- plays a key role in economic development that nance (a continuing study is relevant to as- promotes investments, creates jobs, and gener- sess tax liabilities and burdens for ates governmental revenue. Economic devel- MSMEs).77 opment and governmental revenue leads to Provide marketing data and informational state independence and economic restoration. material to redress the imbalance between As previously discussed, Somalia is dependent services and trade vs. manufacturing.78 upon foreign aid to provide society with basic Many MSMEs are in the services and trade human needs as well as security through the industry with only a handful in manufactur- TIS-Somalia, UNDP, CIMIC, and humanitari- ing. Balancing the industry maximizes com- an aid donor programs. As it is, once the aid petitiveness and plays a great role in supply diminishes so will society’s basic needs and se- and demand production and distribution. curity, exacerbating the cycle of civil unrest and Invest in infrastructure. Construct shopping conflict that leads to post-conflict reconstruc- complexes for merchants that have reason- tion policy failure. With the independent varia- able overage charges and access to basic ble applied to economic growth and revenue, utilities (water, electricity, internet, tele- Somalia’s government will be capable of inde- phone).79 pendently providing society with its basic hu- Training in human resources, administra- man needs and be financially sound to support, tion, technology, and management. Educa- fund, employ, and manage AMISON, the tion broadens the scope for future invest- country’s leading security force. ments and provides the state with a compe- tent workforce. Issue grants and financing to encourage entrepreneurship, growth, or MSME expansion into large enterprises. Somalia is in an era where globalization dominates the trade and investment sectors. Somalia is strategically located in the Horn of Africa with its north, south, and eastern borders directly located on the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea, and the Indian Ocean, making it a primary platform and hub for domestic and international investments.80 There are many unique investment opportunities in Somalia that can summon exclusive investment in banking, energy, health, and tour- ism.81

13 Journal of Global Development and Peace Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

Endnotes: ber 16, 2013. http://www.mareeg.com/ fidsan.php?sid=27479&tirsan=4 1. Mohamud, Abdinur. 2013. "Affirming So- mali Sovereignty." Mareeg. Accessed Octo- 7. Mahiga, Augustine. 2012. Interview With Au- ber 16, 2013. http://www.mareeg.com/ gustine Mahiga, Secretary-Generals Special Repre- fidsan.php?sid=27479&tirsan=4 sentative for Somalia. UN News Centre, (August 17). Accessed October 16, 2013. 2. LeSage, Andre. 2005. Stateless Justice in Soma- http://www.un.org/apps/news/ lia: Formal and Informal Rule of Law Initiatives. newsmakers.asp?NewsID=67. Center for Human Dialogue, 7-58. Ac- cessed November 13, 2013. http:// 8. Ghani, Ashraf, and Clare Lockhart. 2008. dspace.cigilibrary.org/jspui/ "The Creeping ”Sovereignty Gap"." Chap. bitstream/123456789/30862/1/Stateless% 1 in Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Re- 20Justice%20in%20Somalia.pdf?1 building a Fractured World, 17-32. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Accessed 3. LeSage, Andre. 2005. Stateless Justice in Soma- November 14, 2013. lia: Formal and Informal Rule of Law Initiatives. Center for Human Dialogue, 7-58. Ac- 9. FFP. 2013. The Failed State Index 2013. FFP cessed November 13, 2013. http:// Publishing. Accessed November 14, 2013. dspace.cigilibrary.org/jspui/ http://ffp.statesindex.org/rankings-2013- bitstream/123456789/30862/1/Stateless% sortable. 20Justice%20in%20Somalia.pdf?1 10. Ghani, Ashraf, and Clare Lockhart. 2008. 4. Uluso, Mohamud. 2013. "Somalia: "The Creeping ”Sovereignty Gap"." Chap. Raskamboni Militia Challenges US, UN 1 in Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Re- Credibility." Qaranimo (Quaranimo). Ac- building a fractured world, 17-32. New York, cessed November 10, 2014. http:// NY: Oxford University Press. Accessed www.qaranimo.com/2013/06/25/somalia November 14, 2013. -raskamboni-militia-challenges-us-un- 11. UNHCR. 2012. "Somali Refugee Popula- credibility/. tion in Horn of Africa Passes One Million, 5. Uluso, Mohamud. 2013 p1. "Somalia: But Exodus Slows." (UNHCR Publishing). Raskamboni Militia Challenges US, UN Accessed November 8, 2013. http:// Credibility." Qaranimo (Quaranimo). Ac- data.unhcr.org/horn-of-africa/ cessed November 10, 2014. http:// country.php?id=197. www.qaranimo.com/2013/06/25/somalia 12. UNODC. n.d. Human Trafficking. http:// -raskamboni-militia-challenges-us-un- www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human- credibility/. trafficking/what-is-human-trafficking.html. 6. Mohamud, Abdinur. 2013. "Affirming So- 13. UNHCR. 2012. "Somali Refugee Popula- mali Sovereignty." Mareeg. Accessed Octo- tion in Horn of Africa passes One Million,

Journal of Global Development and Peace 14 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

But Exodus Slows." UNHCR Publishing. article/2009/12/09/ozatp-africa-narcotics- Accessed November 8, 2013. http:// un-idAFJOE5B801A20091209. data.unhcr.org/horn-of-africa/ country.php?id=197. 20. Mohamud, Abdinur. 2013. "Affirming So- mali Sovereignty." Mareeg. Accessed Octo- 14. Ghani, Ashraf, and Clare Lockhart. 2008. ber 16, 2013. http://www.mareeg.com/ “The Creeping”Sovereignty Gap”.” Chap. fidsan.php?sid=27479&tirsan=4 1 in Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Re- building a Fractured World, 17-32. New York, 21. USAID. 2013. "Transition Initiatives for NY: Oxford University Press. Accessed Stabilization in Somalia." USAID Publishing. November 14, 2013. Accessed November 2013, 8. http:// www.usaid.gov/somalia/fact-sheets/ 15. Shultz, Richard H. 2005. "The Era of transition-initiatives-stabilization-tis-somalia. Armed Groups." Chap. 1 in The Future of American Intelligence, edited by Peter Berko- 22. O'Driscoll, Michael, Jon L Pierce, and Ann- witz, 1-39. Stanford, California: Hoover Marie Coghlan. 2006. "The Psychology of Institution Press. Ownership: Work Environment Structure, Organizational Commitment, and Citizen 16. Kaplan, Eben. 2006. "Somalia's Terrorist Behaviors." Group and Organizational Man- Infestation." Council on Foreign Relations. Ac- agement 31 (3): 388-416. Accessed Novem- cessed November 14, 2013. http:// ber 10, 2013. http:// www.cfr.org/somalia/somalias-terrorist- search.proquest.com.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/ infestation/p10781. psychology/ docview/203373138/140BBF4512C62826 17. Shultz, Richard H. 2005. "The Era of 275/1?accountid=28125. Armed Groups." Chap. 1 in The Future of American Intelligence, edited by Peter Berko- 23. USAID. 2013. "Transition Initiatives for witz, 1-39. Stanford, California: Hoover Stabilization in Somalia." USAID Publishing. Institution Press Publication. Accessed November 2013, 8. http:// www.usaid.gov/somalia/fact-sheets/ 18. Kaplan, Eben. 2006. "Somalia's Terrorist transition-initiatives-stabilization-tis-somalia. Infestation." Council on Foreign Relations. Ac- cessed November 14, 2013. http:// 24. USAID. 2013. "Transition Initiatives for www.cfr.org/somalia/somalias-terrorist- Stabilization in Somalia." USAID Publishing. infestation/p10781. Accessed November 2013, 8. http:// www.usaid.gov/somalia/fact-sheets/ 19. Charbonneau, Louis. 2009. "Somalia Chaos transition-initiatives-stabilization-tis-somalia. Making E. Africa a Crime, Drug Hub: UN." Reuters. Accessed November 14, 25. IOM. 2012. "Transition Initiatives for Sta- 2013. http://www.reuters.com/ bilization." IOM International Organization for Migration. Accessed October 23, 2013.

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https://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/ english/FF_Rule%20of% shared/shared/mainsite/activities/ 20Law_BCPR_2012.pdf. countries/docs/somalia/IOM-Somalia- Transition-Initiatives-for-Stabilization- 32. Del Castillo, Graciana. 2008. Rebuilding War May2012.pdf -Torn States: The Challenge of Post-Conflict Eco- nomic Reconstruction. New York, NY: Oxford 26. UNDP. 2012. "Rule of Law: Building University Press. Peace and Justice Through Security." UNDP Publishing. Accessed November 8, 33. Stromseth, Jane, David Wippman, and Ro- 2013. http://www.undp.org/content/ sa Brooks. 2006. "Introduction: A New dam/undp/library/corporate/fast-facts/ Imperialism." Chap. 1 in Can Might Make english/FF_Rule%20of% Rights? Building the Rule of Law after Military 20Law_BCPR_2012.pdf. Interventions, 1-17. NY, New York: Cam- bridge University Press. 27. Masters, Jonathan. 2013. "Al-Shabaab." Council on Foreign Relations. Accessed No- 34. WFP. 2013. Regional Bureau for East and Cen- vember 14, 2013. http://www.cfr.org/ tral Africa (ODN). World Food Program, somalia/al-shabab/p18650. 417-425. Accessed October 11, 2013. http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/ 28. Nesbit, Francis N. 2012. "UK Takes the groups/public/documents/op_reports/ Lead in Somalia." Foreign Policy in Focus. Ac- wfp252303.pdf. cessed September 28, 2013. http:// fpif.org/uk_take_the_lead_in_somalia/. 35. Spark, Laura, and Nima Elbagir. 2013. “Somalia Famine Killed Close to 260,000 29. Charbonneau, Louis. 2009. "Somalia Chaos People, Report Says.” CNN. Accessed Oc- Making E. Africa a Crime, Drug Hub: tober 1, 2013. http:// UN." Reuters. Accessed November 14, www.cnn.com/2013/05/02/world/ 2013. http://www.reuters.com/ africa/somalia-famine/index.html. article/2009/12/09/ozatp-africa-narcotics- un-idAFJOE5B801A20091209. 36. Spark, Laura, and Nima Elbagir. 2013. “Somalia Famine Killed Close to 260,000 30. Nesbit, Francis N. 2012. "UK Takes the People, Report Says.” CNN. Accessed Oc- Lead in Somalia." Foreign Policy in Focus. Ac- tober 1, 2013. http:// cessed September 28, 2013. http:// www.cnn.com/2013/05/02/world/ fpif.org/uk_take_the_lead_in_somalia/. africa/somalia-famine/index.html. 31. UNDP. 2012. "Rule of Law: Building 37. Menkhaus, Ken. 2010. "Stabilisation and Peace and Justice Through Security." Humanitarian Access in a Collapsed State: UNDP Publishing. Accessed November 8, The Somali Case." Disasters (Blackwell Pub- 2013. http://www.undp.org/content/ lishing) 34 (Supplement 3): S320-S341. Ac- dam/undp/library/corporate/fast-facts/

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cessed October 10, 2013. doi:10.1111/ 43. Harper, Mary. 2013. “Somalia ‘New Deal’: j.1467-7717.2010.01204.x. EU pledge at Brussels conference.” BBC News Africa. Accessed October 11, 2013. 38. Menkhaus, Ken. 2010. "Stabilisation and http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa- Humanitarian Access in a Collapsed State: 24108025. The Somali Case." Disasters (Blackwell Pub- lishing) 34 (Supplement 3): S320-S341. Ac- 44. Croft, Adrian. 2013. "Donors Pledge 1.8 cessed October 10, 2013. doi:10.1111/ Billion Euros for Somalia." Reuters. Ac- j.1467-7717.2010.01204.x. cessed October 11, 2013. http:// www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/16/us- 39. Hasselman, Hansjurgen. 2012. "Civil- somalia-eu-pledges- Military Cooperation a Way to Resolve idUSBRE98F0OY20130916. Complex Crisis Situations." Prism Security Studies Journal 4 (1): 17-29. Accessed Octo- 45. Samatar, Abdi Ismail. 2013. "A New Deal ber 10, 2013. for Somalia: How Can It Work?" Al Jazeera. Accessed October 22, 2013. http:// 40. CCOE. 2012. CIMIC Field Handbook. 3. www.aljazeera.com/indepth/ Netherlands: Civil-Military Cooperation opinion/2013/10/a-new-deal-for-somalia- Center of Excellence (CCOE). Accessed how-can-it-work- October 10, 2013. http://www.cimic- 20131021392150694.html. coe.org/download/ CFHB_3rd_edition.pdf. 46. Burt, Christopher, and Stuart Carr. 2011. "Organizational Psychology and Poverty 41. CCOE. 2012. CIMIC Field Handbook. 3. Reduction." Journal of Managerial Psychology Netherlands: Civil-Military Cooperation (Emerald Group Publishing, Limited) 26 Center of Excellence (CCOE). Accessed (6): 444-452. Accessed October 23, 2013. October 10, 2013. http://www.cimic- doi:http:// coe.org/download/ dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683941111154329. CFHB_3rd_edition.pdf. 47. Burt, Christopher, and Stuart Carr. 2011. 42. OCHA. 2013. Table A: List of All Commit- "Organizational Psychology and Poverty ments/Contributions and Pledges. Office for the Reduction." Journal of Managerial Psychology Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Fi- (Emerald Group Publishing, Limited) 26 nancial Tracking Service: Tracking Global (6): 444-452. Accessed October 23, 2013. Humanitarian Aid Flows, 1-29. Accessed doi:http:// October 12, 2013. http://fts.unocha.org/ dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683941111154329. reports/daily/ ocha_R10_E16269_asof___1310111817.p 48. Clark, Rob. 2008. "Dependency, Network df. Integration, and Development." Sociological Perspectives (University of California Press) 51 (3): 629-648. Accessed October 23,

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2013. doi:http:// -raskamboni-militia-challenges-us-un- dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1525/ credibility/. sop.2008.51.3.629. 54. Mohamud, Abdinur. 2013. "Affirming So- 49. Clark, Rob. 2008. "Dependency, Network mali Sovereignty." Mareeg. Accessed Octo- Integration, and development." Sociological ber 16, 2013. http://www.mareeg.com/ Perspectives (University of California Press) fidsan.php?sid=27479&tirsan=4 51 (3): 629-648. Accessed October 23, 2013. doi:http:// 55. Clark, Rob. 2008. "Dependency, Network dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1525/ Integration, and Development." Sociological sop.2008.51.3.629. Perspectives (University of California Press) 51 (3): 629-648. Accessed October 23, 50. USAID. 2013. "Transition Initiatives for 2013. doi:http:// Stabilization in Somalia." USAID Publishing. dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1525/ Accessed November 2013, 8. http:// sop.2008.51.3.629. www.usaid.gov/somalia/fact-sheets/ transition-initiatives-stabilization-tis-somalia. 56. Economics, Trading. 2013. Somalia Econom- ic Forecast 2013-2015 Outlook. Trading Eco- 51. Clark, Rob. 2008. "Dependency, Network nomics. http:// Integration, and Development." Sociological www.tradingeconomics.com/somalia/ Perspectives (University of California Press) forecast. 51 (3): 629-648. Accessed October 23, 2013. doi:http:// 57. UNdata. 2013. "Somalia: Country Profile." dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1525/ World Statistics Pocketbook (United Nations sop.2008.51.3.629. Statistic Division). Accessed November 10, 2013. http://data.un.org/ 52. IOM. 2012. "Transition Initiatives for Sta- CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Somalia. bilization." IOM International Organization for Migration. Accessed October 23, 2013. 58. Clark, Rob. 2008. "Dependency, Network https://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/ Integration, and Development." Sociological shared/shared/mainsite/activities/ Perspectives (University of California Press) countries/docs/somalia/IOM-Somalia- 51 (3): 629-648. Accessed October 23, Transition-Initiatives-for-Stabilization- 2013. doi:http:// May2012.pdf dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1525/ sop.2008.51.3.629. 53. Uluso, Mohamud. 2013. "Somalia: Raskamboni Militia challenges US, UN 59. Economics, Trading. 2013. Somalia Econom- Credibility." Qaranimo (Quaranimo). Ac- ic Forecast 2013-2015 Outlook. Trading Eco- cessed November 10, 2014. http:// nomics. http:// www.qaranimo.com/2013/06/25/somalia www.tradingeconomics.com/somalia/ forecast .

Journal of Global Development and Peace 18 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

60. Clark, Rob. 2008. "Dependency, Network somalia-eu-pledges- Integration, and Development." Sociological idUSBRE98F0OY20130916. Perspectives (University of California Press) 51 (3): 629-648. Accessed October 23, 65. Del Castillo, Graciana. 2008. Rebuilding War 2013. doi:http:// -Torn States: The Challenge of Post-Conflict Eco- dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1525/ nomic Reconstruction. New York, NY: Oxford sop.2008.51.3.629. University Press. 61. van Nimwegen, Gertjan, Laury Bollen, 66. Del Castillo, Graciana. 2008 p.280. Rebuild- Harold Hassink, and Thomas Thijssens. ing War-Torn States: The Challenge of Post- 2008. "A Stakeholder Perspective on Mis- Conflict Economic Reconstruction. New York, sion Statements: An International Empiri- NY: Oxford University Press Inc. cal Study." International Journal of Organiza- 67. Clark, Rob. 2008. "Dependency, Network tional Analysis (Emerald Group Publishing, Integration, and Development." Sociological Limited) 16 (1): 61-82. Accessed Novem- Perspectives (University of California Press) ber 6, 2013. doi:http:// 51 (3): 629-648. Accessed October 23, dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1108/1 2013. doi:http:// 9348830810915505. dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1525/ 62. van Nimwegen, Gertjan, Laury Bollen, sop.2008.51.3.629. Harold Hassink, and Thomas Thijssens. 68. Del Castillo, Graciana. 2008. Rebuilding War 2008. "A Stakeholder Perspective on Mis- -Torn States: The Challenge of Post-Conflict Eco- sion Statements: An International Empiri- nomic Reconstruction. New York, NY: Oxford cal Study." International Journal of Organiza- University Press. tional Analysis (Emerald Group Publishing, Limited) 16 (1): 61-82. Accessed Novem- 69. Del Castillo, Graciana. 2008. Rebuilding War ber 6, 2013. doi:http:// -Torn States: The Challenge of Post-Conflict Eco- dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1108/1 nomic Reconstruction. New York, NY: Oxford 9348830810915505. University Press. 63. Del Castillo, Graciana. 2008. Rebuilding War 70. Waters, Lea E, and Kathleen A Moore. -Torn States: The Challenge of Post-Conflict Eco- 2002. "Predicting Self-Esteem During Un- nomic Reconstruction. New York, NY: Oxford employment: The Effect of Gender, Finan- University Press. cial Deprivation, Alternate Roles, and Social Support ." Journal of Employment Counseling 64. Croft, Adrian. 2013. "Donors Pledge 1.8 (Blackwell Publishing Ltd.) 39 (4): 171-189. Billion Euros for Somalia." Reuters. Ac- Accessed November 8, 2013. http:// cessed October 11, 2013. http:// ezproxy.bellevue.edu:80/login?url=http:// www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/16/us- search.proquest.com.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/ docview/237020371?accountid=28125 .

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71. Del Castillo, Graciana. 2008. Rebuilding War 20Documents%5CFINAL%20Policy% -Torn States: The Challenge of Post-Conflict Eco- 20and%20Legal%20Framework%20for% nomic Reconstruction. New York, NY: Oxford 20MSMEs%20Study%20in%20Somalia% University Press. 20%20%20%20%20Report.pdf. 72. CIA. 2013. “Africa: Somalia.” The World 76. ILMC. n.d. Somalia Programme: Assessment on Fact Book. Central Intelligence Agency. Ac- the Policy and Legal Frameworks for Small and cessed November 8, 2013. https:// Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Somalia www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- (Somaliland and Portland). International La- world-factbook/geos/so.html . bor Organization, International Leadership & Management Centre LTD, 1-46. Ac- 73. Clark, Rob. 2008. "Dependency, Network cessed November 9, 2013. http://jplg.org/ Integration, and Development." Sociological documents/documents%5CJPLG% Perspectives (University of California Press) 20Documents%5CFINAL%20Policy% 51 (3): 629-648. Accessed October 23, 20and%20Legal%20Framework%20for% 2013. doi:http:// 20MSMEs%20Study%20in%20Somalia% dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bellevue.edu/10.1525/ 20%20%20%20%20Report.pdf. sop.2008.51.3.629. 77. ILMC. n.d. Somalia Programme: Assessment on 74. ILMC. n.d. Somalia Programme: Assessment on the Policy and Legal Frameworks for Small and the Policy and Legal Frameworks for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Somalia Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Somalia (Somaliland and Portland). International La- (Somaliland and Portland). International La- bor Organization, International Leadership bor Organization, International Leadership & Management Centre LTD, 1-46. Ac- & Management Centre LTD, 1-46. Ac- cessed November 9, 2013. http://jplg.org/ cessed November 9, 2013. http://jplg.org/ documents/documents%5CJPLG% documents/documents%5CJPLG% 20Documents%5CFINAL%20Policy% 20Documents%5CFINAL%20Policy% 20and%20Legal%20Framework%20for% 20and%20Legal%20Framework%20for% 20MSMEs%20Study%20in%20Somalia% 20MSMEs%20Study%20in%20Somalia% 20%20%20%20%20Report.pdf. 20%20%20%20%20Report.pdf. 78. ILMC. n.d. Somalia Programme: Assessment on 75. ILMC. n.d. Somalia Programme: Assessment on the Policy and Legal Frameworks for Small and the Policy and Legal Frameworks for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Somalia Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Somalia (Somaliland and Portland). International La- (Somaliland and Portland). International La- bor Organization, International Leadership bor Organization, International Leadership & Management Centre LTD, 1-46. Ac- & Management Centre LTD, 1-46. Ac- cessed November 9, 2013. http://jplg.org/ cessed November 9, 2013. http://jplg.org/ documents/documents%5CJPLG% documents/documents%5CJPLG% 20Documents%5CFINAL%20Policy%

Journal of Global Development and Peace 20 Somalia: Gaining Momentum in a War-Torn State

20and%20Legal%20Framework%20for% 20MSMEs%20Study%20in%20Somalia% 20%20%20%20%20Report.pdf. 79. Del Castillo, Graciana. 2008. Rebuilding War -Torn States: The Challenge of Post-Conflict Eco- nomic Reconstruction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 80. CIA. 2013. “Africa: Somalia.” The World Fact Book. Central Intelligence Agency. Ac- cessed November 8, 2013. https:// www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- world-factbook/geos/so.html . 81. SORIC. May 2013. "Building for the uture." Somali Reconstruction and Investment Conference & Exhibition. Nairobi, Kenya: SORIC Publishing. Accessed Accessed November 9, 2013. http://www.soric.so/ somalia-reconstructions-and-investement- summit .

21 Journal of Global Development and Peace An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions

An Evaluation of Education as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conflict-Torn Regions

Brandon LaFavor

Abstract The role of education in trying to mitigate conflict is a sensitive subject and was analyzed in-depth. This paper walks through the goals of conflict resolution and how education and curricula development can either support or detract from peacebuilding goals based on the educational materials used in class and social conditioning of youth. This qualitative research analyzes three different case studies and the role of education during: The Salvadorian Civil War, the Rwanda Genocide, and the continued Israeli and Palestinian conflict. This paper also examines the changing role of education during times of war or civil unrest. Emergency response education was analyzed using examples of Syrian refugees in Jordan and how the Lebanese education system operated during their civil war.

Biography:

Brandon LaFavor was born in Oregon and is an aspiring Ph.D. student. He holds a Master’s degree in International Education where he specialized in comparative education policy, leadership, and conflict resolution. Brandon is fluent in the Spanish language and was awarded undergraduate degrees from both the School of Romance Languages and the School of Economics at the University of Oregon, where he focused in econometrics and cultural sustainable development. His primary educational pursuit is in international economics and global sustainability. Brandon moved with his family to the northeast in 2012, and in 2013 he accepted a position as the Overseas Study Coordinator at the University of Bridgeport, where he is also an Adjunct Professor in The College of Public and International Affairs. He has spent significant time studying, traveling, and working in Central America. Before working with universities, Brandon was a translator for an immigration attorney at a social service agency in Oregon and a development advisor for an independent insurance firm.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 22 An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions

Introduction and destructive aspects of education as a tool for conflict resolution, and compares case stud- Education plays an evolving role in the peace- ies that analyze the role of education in histori- building process of conflict-torn societies. cal internal conflicts around the globe. Some of From the beginning of a conflict through to the the case studies to be examined include the Sal- redevelopment of post-conflict societies, educa- vadorian Civil War, the Rwandan genocide, and tion is a tool that can be used to redefine rela- the continued conflicts in Israel and Palestine. tionships and create innovative solutions for This paper will also look at the current educa- fostering peace in society. Many of the world’s tional efforts as opportunities for peacebuilding conflicts are internal civil wars in divided socie- for Syrian refugees in Jordan. Additionally, ties and one of the greatest obstacles in conflict Lebanon will be used as an example for how resolution is separating the historical relation- school systems function during times of con- ships people have developed throughout the flict. existence of a particular conflict. Internal conflicts are typically deeply rooted by years of so- Essential Goals and Principles of Conflict cial conditioning and it is cautioned that the ed- Resolution ucational response will have to be tailored to the national cultural identity, the political cli- International educators are in a unique position mate, and it must be sensitive to all parties in- to promote tolerance and understanding as we volved in the conflict (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000). strive to achieve effective conflict resolution strategies. Those people working to build peace Understanding the different ways education can in conflict-torn regions should outline a frame- impact and potentially interfere with the peace- work for effective negotiations based on the building process is an important aspect of con- underlying goals and principals of conflict reso- flict resolution that needs to be analyzed and lution. Three of the most profound principles synthesized by the different policy making enti- to conflict resolution include the separation of ties involved in the conflict. By developing a people from problems, using objective criteria, sound understanding of the different ways to and inventing options for mutual gain. approach education as a means of peacebuilding, educators and facilitators of the process are Separating people from the problem- able to more effectively break down violent structures and barriers that create miscommuni- Often times, when people are deeply involved cation and misunderstanding and construct in a conflict, or when people feel very strongly foundations for which peacebuilding can occur. about a fundamental and imperative issue, emotions can escalate as perceptions are relative Problem Statement to perspective (Bodine & Crawford, 1998). It is not a surprise that when people are confronting Education as a mechanism to peacebuilding in a problem, both sides will have a different per- conflict-torn regions can be a controversial top- spective, which can lead to misunderstanding. ic. This article provides an introduction to the Once there is a misunderstanding, people get essential goals and principles of conflict resolu- upset, feelings get hurt, and egos become chal- tion, discusses and evaluates the constructive lenged; “Every problem has both substantive

23 Journal of Global Development and Peace An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions issues and relationship issues” (Bodine & Craw- the opposing sides, anger is typically the emo- ford, 1998, p. 51). One of the difficulties of tional reaction. Further down the spiral, when conflict resolution is trying to separate the rela- one side becomes angry the typical emotional tionships from the problems. Conflict occurs reaction is hate (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 1991). If when lines are figuratively drawn, sides are opposing sides are able to work through per- formed, and people become divided. When ception, emotion, and miscommunication is- this happens, people have difficulty working sues, they can begin “to separate the relation- together to solve problems as they have be- ship problem from the substantive problem” come more concerned with being right instead and they can begin to try and reach a solution of finding solutions. that is beneficial to each side (Bodine & Craw- ford, 1998, p. 52). Perception of a problem, or how to best deal with a problem, is a major source of conflict. Use Objective Criteria- Typically people can agree that there is a problem but perception of the problem becomes an It is not uncommon for people involved in a issue when individuals or groups disagree on negotiation to become overwhelmed by posi- the cause, effects, importance, or how to solve a tional bargaining. Using objective criteria is the particular problem. attempt to use real pieces of information to dictate the extent to which a negotiation should be Every conflict involves differing points of agreed upon. The real pieces of information view; thus, every conflict involves differing should be relevant to the problem and the in- notions of what is true, what is false, or the formation should be independent of beliefs or degree to which facts are important. There- fore, the “truth” and its importance are rela- individual agendas. Positional bargaining is the tive. situation that arises when people believe there is (Bodine & Crawford, 1998, p. 51) a single solution, and they want it to materialize. It is more important, however, for negotiators In addition to perception, emotion and mis- to focus on interests that drive opposing sides’ communication may further the divide of any motives for deciding their position in regards to particular conflict. People may need to try and what they want. “Using objective criteria separate from a problem, or mediation may means that neither party needs to give in to the need to occur when opposing sides are fueled other; rather, they can defer to a fair solu- by emotions. Like the downward spiral, when tion” (Bodine & Crawford, 1998, p. 54). The people are emotional, effective communication use of objective criteria is equated with the time becomes difficultif people are talking to each -tested model of deciding how to divide some- other at all. Furthermore, “what one intends to thing- essentially, you cut the piece of pie and I communicate is almost never exactly what one choose which piece of pie I want (Bodine & communicates and people misunderstand and Crawford, 1998). misinterpret that which is communicat- ed” (Bodine & Crawford, 1998, p. 52). Once Invent Options for Mutual Gain- one side becomes emotional, the other side is likely to respond with an equally emotional re- The mutual gains approach is a process which action. If the emotions cause fear within one of people can follow to protect relationships while

Journal of Global Development and Peace 24 An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions

involved in a conflict (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, novative solutions without committing to any- 1991). In inventing options for mutual gains, thing. This process revolves around the ques- opposing parties do their best to come up with tion: what if? By discussing different options, multiple and varying options that could poten- opposing parties can begin to understand the tially advance mutual interests. There are a root causes that drive interests of opposing indi- number of obstacles that present themselves in viduals or groups. Additionally, opposing par- the negotiating process of a typical disagree- ties should try to reach an agreement by evenly ment. It becomes difficult to creatively invent distributing the fair share of the value (real or new options if opposing sides form premature perceived) amongst all parties involved. This is judgments, become focused on finding a single the third step in inventing mutual gains and is answer, believe that either one side or the other referred to as value distribution. In the fourth (not both) will be able to access a particular re- and final step, opposing parties need to create a source, or being concerned solely with an indi- mechanism of follow through to ensure the vidual or a group’s immediate interest (Bodine solution created is fair and creates mutual gains. & Crawford, 1998). During the follow through process, negotiators should try and focus on future challenges that There are four fundamental steps in the process have the potential to surface while implement- for inventing options for mutual gain: prepara- ing the new agreement. Opening lines of clear tion, value creation, value distribution, and fol- communication, that focus on resolving con- low through (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 1991). flicts as they arise, will result in increased levels These steps are intended to maximize the brain- of confidence that the agreement can function storming process and to look at problems from and will benefit all parties involved. multiple perspectives. “Shortsighted, self- concern leads people to develop only partisan “Creative-thinking abilities encompass behav- positions, partisan arguments, and one-sided iors that enable people to be innovative in solutions” (Bodine & Crawford, 1998, p. 54). problem definition and decision mak- By using a mutual gains approach, conflicting ing” (Bodine & Crawford, 1998, p.X). In order parties have the opportunity to discuss the mul- to think creatively about solutions to a problem, tiple issues on their individual agendas and to one must look at the problem from all the pos- create an agreement that focuses on finding sible perspectives. One of the most important common ground and a win-win solution aspects of the creative thinking process is brain- (Bodine & Crawford, 1998). storming new ideas in a space free of judgment (Bodine & Crawford, 1998). Critical thinking, Looking at the four-step approach for invent- on the other hand, is the careful analysis of the ing options for mutual gain, preparation is the options uncovered during the creative thinking first step which emphasizes the best alternative and brainstorming process. By comparing and to a negotiated agreement. By being prepared contrasting the different solutions and planning with numerous alternate options that address for future obstacles, critical and creative think- the interests of both sides of the conflict, nego- ing skills are vital in the conflict resolution pro- tiators increase the chances for coming to a success. cessful agreement. Value creation is the second step and revolves around freely suggesting in-

25 Journal of Global Development and Peace An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions

Goals of Education as a Mechanism for be increased, ethnic tolerance could be in- Peacebuilding- creased, and history can be redefined to reflect true events (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000). In areas of severe conflict and unrest, passing exams becomes secondary to creating safe, neu- In regards to the “conflict-dampening impact tral environments that work to redefine rela- of educational opportunity,” school systems tionships and overcome stereotypes and mis- and educators in high conflict areas should pro- conceptions. Education is about giving stu- mote curricula for mutual understanding (Bush dents a choice. Having alternative options to & Saltarelli, 2000, p. 16). Securing curricula for joining military groups and participating in con- mutual understanding is a good step to creating flict can be empowering for both children and a climate that is accepting of multiple ethnicities. adults. These alternative options are created by Peacebuilding is described as a process rather “delegitimizing violent force as a means of ad- than a product; therefore, the approach needs dressing problems” (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000, p. to be multi-layered and multi-faceted. In addi- 30). Essentially, problems must be addressed tion to teaching methods for understanding, and communication needs to take place. tolerance of ethnicity and language, and conflict resolution, education for peacebuilding can In general, U.S. society views education as a begin to mitigate the outbreaks of violence and positive aspect in our fundamental national in- intolerance in a geographical locale. By under- frastructure. However, an education system standing breaking points and conflict catalysts, could be succeeding in accord with current educators in divided societies could serve as an measures of success (such as state exams) but at indicator for predicting future outbursts of vio- the same time play a pivotal role in further di- lent behavior. The very root of education is to viding an already conflicted society. This can serve as a tool to improve oneself which makes happen because the social hierarchy is rein- it an important piece to the peacebuilding pro- forced through unequal distribution of educa- cess. However, depending on the approach and tional resources. Therefore, education as a tool application, education may unintentionally cre- for peacebuilding is less about conflict resolu- ate barriers to the peacebuilding process. tion and more about raising standards and level- ing the playing field. The context of every situa- Education as a Barrier to Peacebuilding- tion is different, and therefore, education as a mechanism for peacebuilding must evolve in order to meet cultural and societal needs.

Education as a Positive Contribution to Peacebuilding-

There are many positive and constructive applications of education in the peacebuilding process. By providing high quality educational opportunities, conflict over access to opportunity could be diminished, linguistic tolerance could It is widely accepted that education is an im-

Journal of Global Development and Peace 26 An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions

portant piece to the foundation of effective so- societies is if curricula and teaching materials cietal infrastructure and is generally viewed as a promote intolerance and further oppress cultur- positive and productive means of developing al minorities or other sects of the society (Bush peace and stabilizing conflict. Education as a & Saltarelli, 2000). “Curriculum packages that means of peacebuilding does have merit, but it promote tolerance will have little impact if they is important to understand that it is merely one are delivered within educational constructs that piece of a complex puzzle for redefining hateful are fundamentally intolerant” (Bush & Saltarelli, relationships and moving towards productive 2000, p. vi). Education, as part of the peace- compromise and collaboration amongst oppos- building process, needs to work to breakdown ing parties. Moreover, education could easily be educational barriers that promote hostility as constructed as a tool to separate and divide part of the broad scope for conflict resolution. people rather than unite them. History is easily manipulated by scholars and researchers in or- Education and the Salvadorian Civil War- der to lobby for political gain. When this is the case, education could become segregated and The Salvadorian Civil (1979-1992) was a con- become a means for promoting inequality and flict of brooding mistrust between the military- advancing stereotypes (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000). led government and a number of guerrilla Apartheid South Africa is a good example of groups that banded together to form Frente how policy makers were able to manipulate Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional history. The purpose of the Truth and Recon- (FMLN) (Filipov, 2006). The FMLN believed ciliation Commission, an initiative headed by that the government was unsuccessful in re- Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu, was sole- sponding to societal needs. During the twelve- ly to uncover and document a truthful history year Salvadorian Civil War, leadership changed of events that occurred under apartheid South three different times. After the loss of nearly Africa. 75,000 lives, it was not until the United Nations intervened and arranged peace talks in an effort Education for peacebuilding largely depends on to end civilian deaths before any amicable reso- the context of society (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000). lution was uncovered (Filipov, 2006). These Even with the best of intentions, education as a peace talks produced an agreement that led to means for peacebuilding could have negative the surrender of arms by the FMLN and a re- consequences if access to education or the dis- duction in military presence within the govern- tribution of education only reaches small pock- ment. ets of the population. If there is an uneven distribution of resources, or if education is used The educational system of El Salvador has had “as a means of creating or preserving positions to adjust and change both during and post con- of economic, social, and political privilege,” the flict. One of the original social changes that the result could be civil unrest and further drive a guerilla groups were lobbying for was socioeco- wedge between conflicting groups or social nomic equality and a redistribution of tax dol- classes (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000, p. 34). lars to serve some of the most impoverished regions in the country (Filipov, 2006). As the Another way that education could negatively FMLN has now become an officially recog- impact the peacebuilding process in divided nized political party that occupies a number of

27 Journal of Global Development and Peace An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions local municipalities, both the formal and infor- peace, or a repository truth for most Rwan- mal education of the nation’s political climate dans” (Salmon, 2004, p. 79). The curriculum has evolved. was designed to support the political agenda, and the Rwanda example highlights how edu- In the years following the signing of the peace cation is not always neutral. It would be diffi- treaty, El Salvador has invested heavily in devel- cult to argue that educational inequality and oping infrastructure in the poor, and subse- skewed curriculum caused the genocide in quently high crime regions of the country. In Rwanda but it is an example of how it can con- addition, because there have been reform ef- tribute to the reinforcement of stereotypes in forts to improve the quality of education and order to advance a political agenda or further increase access, enrollment levels and retention divide a society. rates have increased and national literacy rates have been slowly but steadily increasing The strong focus on higher education, which (Filipov, 2006). currently serves only two percent of the population in the relevant age group, has predictably inequitable results. First, Rwanda's unit costs in The changes of the economic sector that re- higher education are among the highest in the quire educated and skilled employees suggest world today and are about 75 times the unit that education reforms will be crucial for the costs in primary education. Second, the best- pattern of unemployment in the country in the educated ten percent in a cohort claims more long term. Thus, economic and political stabil- than seventy percent of the cumulative public ity will depend on a large degree on the ability spending on education received by that cohort. of the labor force to adjust to the requirements It is thus no surprise that Rwanda's system is of the new economy, which in turns fluctuates one of the least structurally equitable in Sub- according to the levels of training and educa- Saharan Africa. (World Bank, 2003, p. 16) tion. As of now, El Salvador has shown that it is able to conduct strong policies to adjust to the current economic and political realities. During the height of the genocide, in which the (Filipov, 2006, p. 123) ethnically charged power struggle between the Tutsi and Hutu people resulted in the deaths of Despite a long history of relationships defined eight hundred thousand Tutsis and moderate by mistrust, the El Salvador transition into post Hutus in a mere one hundred days, schools conflict development appears to be an example were damaged and destroyed, teachers were that can be modeled as a framework for lasting targeted as they represented the elite, and refu- peace. gees fled to Tanzania and the Democratic Re- public of the Congo (Salmon, 2004). The refu- Education and the Rwanda Genocide gees that fled to the DRC found themselves in meager conditions. The Ministry of Education Education in Rwanda was a prime example of for the DRC believed that providing the refug- education as a barrier to peacebuilding. Before es education was delaying the repatriation pro- 1994, education was seen as something that was cess (Bird, 2003). reserved for those with elite status and was a manner in which the ethnically divided social The Ministry of Education in Rwanda opened hierarchy could be reinforced. “Education was a short two months after the Tutsi-led army not a means of advancement, a symbol of regained control of the area in September 1994.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 28 An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions

It was a priority of the Ministry to begin draw- lent, and threatening, and conditioning these ing children back to the schools as soon as pos- stereotypes in both formal and informal educa- sible as a display of future stability. Rwanda tion settings, destructive actions that contradict appears to be making reform efforts to create a the peacebuilding process become justifiable as more inclusive education system. It is illegal to a means for achieving their desired agenda. discriminate based on regional or ethnic back- ground and the curriculum now includes peace The process of conditioning stereotypes leads and reconciliation education in an effort to in- to groups banding together in a sense of identi- still the virtues of tolerance, understanding, and ty, even if the common denominator of the forgiveness in the next generation of students identity is merely that they are not one of the (Salmon, 2004). “Education can be a positive “others.” These identities are separately reinforce. It must be supported by schools that are forced in both Israeli and Palestinian schools inclusive and based upon merit and based upon (Cronin, 2004). “Many non-governmental, pro- funding mechanisms that support all people Israeli organizations find this identity feeds ha- rather than just the elite” (Salmon, 2004, p. 85). tred, and ultimately, the violence directed to- In the middle of recovering after the 1994 gen- ward Israel” (Cronin, 2004, p. 98). This could ocide, there is no easy solution to improve the be seen by opening up a Palestinian textbook to state of the Rwanda education system. It will a world map and discovering that Israel is not be important to try and foster peace and recon- on the map and Palestine occupies the entire ciliation in both formal and informal education territory (CMIP, 2002). Therefore, in the eyes arenas to get enough participation from society of Palestinian students, Israel does not actually to be effective. exist as a recognized state, which furthers the belief that the Palestinians are protecting what is Education in Israeli and Palestinian Con- rightfully theirs. Jewish textbooks, on the other flicts hand, portray Palestinians and Arabs in negative connotations and make arguments to defend The situation in Israel and Palestine is yet an- and justify a war (Cronin, 2004). However, other example that we can look to in order to there is a scholarly debate in regards to curricula analyze the negative effect of education as a as a fuel for conditioning negative stereotypes. mechanism for peacebuilding. “According to critics on both sides of the debate, the portrayal An analysis of Palestinian textbooks by Firer of the ‘other’ in Israeli and Palestinian textbooks and Adwan (2001) found that the books por- perpetuates hate, leads to increased violence, tray Jews throughout history in a positive manner and do not use negative stereotypes. How- and hinders the overall peace process in the ever, the examination also points out that, in Middle East” (Cronin, 2004). Both Israeli stu- the day-to-day experiences of Palestinians, dents and Palestinian students are conditioned Israelis are encountered as an occupierone to sustain intolerance and further the hate- who obliterates the Palestinian way of life fueled conflict. It is common for conflicting through killings, land decimation and confisca- groups to promote negative stereotypes within tion (Cronin, 2004, p. 98). the factions and the situation between Israel and Palestine is a perfect example (Maoz, 2000). In light of this research, it becomes apparent By defining the “other side” as inhuman, vio- that it is not only formal education that needs to

29 Journal of Global Development and Peace An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions be addressed in peacebuilding, but as discussed (UNESCO, 2013). earlier, peacebuilding needs to be viewed as a multifaceted process that redefines relationships in a variety of formal and informal settings.

There is no way to analyze post-conflict education because conflict is still rampant in the region. It has been noted that Israel has agreed that its texts do perpetuate hateful relationships and paint Arabs in a negative light. Israeli officials have begun to rewrite their textbooks to promote peaceful relations with their Arab The goal of the project is to increase opportuni- neighbors; however, biased teaching tools are ties for Syrian refuges to access quality educa- still prevalent in the area (Cronin, 2004). Con- tion and “strengthen the future employment versely, Palestinian books have not changed prospects of the displaced youth” (UNESCO, much. The textbooks and teaching materials 2013, p. 1). continue to tell an underlying narrative of Pales- tinian people as a group under siege. “As Israel UNESCO outlines their main activities in Jor- did in the first few decades of its existence, Pal- dan: estinians use its educational resources as a vehi- cle with which to solidify Palestinian uni- Address qualified teachers’ gap by building ty” (Cronin, 2004, p. 104). The conflict be- the capacities of Jordanian teachers in peda- tween Israel and Palestine will continue for as gogical and mentoring strategies in emer- long as the opposing sides continue to condi- gency situations. tion their children into a mentality that revenge Offer demand-driven informal and non- and hatred toward the “others” is justifiable. formal education programs and vocational Although schools can be a good place to begin skill development opportunities for Syrian reshaping the formal education, this type of youth inside the refugee camps and for Jor- social conditioning needs to be addressed both danian and Syrian youth in urban areas. inside and outside the classroom in order to have lasting impact in redefining the hateful The principals laid out are broadly designed in relationships that have been reinforced in multi- scope to have the educational efforts reach be- ple aspects of daily life. yond merely serving Syrian refuges but also to help Jordanian children who are being affected Education for Syrian Refugees in Jordan by the conflict. This type of inclusive educational response will go a long way in strengthening UNESCO has decided to fund a project to sus- the future international relations of neighboring tain quality education for Syrian refuges by im- territories. By promoting quality of teaching, plementing a 4.3 million Euro agenda to pro- this project is designed to lend support to the mote skill development and job training for Jordanian government as it struggles to meet displaced youth and citizens who have been increased demand as waves of Syrian refugees affected by this grave humanitarian crisis are funneled into refugee camps and urban are-

Journal of Global Development and Peace 30 An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions

as. “Through building the capacity of the Minis- security, a model for social norms, and academ- try of Education, its teachers, and other educa- ic skills” (Zakharia, 2004, p. 114). Essentially, tion professionals, this project promotes long- schools became a place for connections with term support to Jordan’s efforts to host Syrian other people, and shared experience. It is refugees while maintaining quality education for through these shared experiences, positive or all” (UNESCO, 2013, p. 1). negative, that created a sense of friendship and community within the walls of the school. How Schools Cope with War: A Look at Lebanon Conclusion

When there is severe civil unrest in a protracted Education as a mechanism for peacebuilding is region, public institutions, as supported by soci- an interesting topic that can play crucial roles in etal infrastructure, collapse, are disrupted, and further dividing a society, or truly fostering the have impacts that last generations as youth are peacebuilding process. Education as a mecha- robbed of their opportunity to compulsory ed- nism for peacebuilding should be looked at in ucation (Zakharia, 2004). Stabilizing education two broad scopes. The first scope refers to systems is imperative in an attempt to emergency response education. This type of “normalize” life during conflict. Often times, as peacebuilding is focused on schools as safe in the case of the Lebanese Civil War, personal zones during a conflict. The aim shifts from safety became the priority. It was reported in passing exams and meeting predetermined interviews with students that many of the teach- standards and moves to personal security and ers and administrators grew to fear students normalization. This first broad scope for edu- who had been recruited by militia and military cation as a mechanism for peacebuilding is leaders. These students brought guns to class framed as a humanitarian response and is de- and came and went as they saw necessary. The signed to shelter youth from the negative im- students intimidated administrators, sometimes pacts that arise when they are exposed to severe at gun point, and urged their fellow classmates violence at such a young age. The second to join the conflict. During the Lebanese civil broad scope for education as a mechanism for war, “students talked about cheating on school peacebuilding is the attempt to redefine rela- exams and on the government Baccalaureate, tionships through new forms of social condi- which involved buying/selling exam questions tional and conflict-sensitive promotion of peace in advance from teachers or other school and reconciliation in the national curriculum. staff” (Zakharia, 2004, p. 113). In other words, education reform typically becomes a post-conflict focus and the goal is to Despite the obstacles, teachers wanted to teach create a curriculum with means to access educa- and students wanted to learn. In discussions tion that does not reinforce negative stereotypes with those who were teachers and students dur- and deepen the societal divide. ing the Lebanese civil war, “several themes emerge from the student and teacher narratives regarding the role of schools in establishing space for positive relationships and the limita- tions on providing structure and continuity,

31 Journal of Global Development and Peace An Evaluaon of Educaon as a Mechanism for Peacebuilding in Conﬂict-Torn Regions

Endnotes: 8. Fisher, R., Ury, W., & Patton, B. (1991). What If They Are More Powerful? Developing 1. Bird, L. (2003). Surviving school: Education Your BATNA-best Alternative to Negotiated for refugee children from Rwanda 1994- agreement (2nd Ed). New York, NY: Penguin 1996. Paris: UNESCO, International Insti- Books, USA. tute for Education Planning. 9. Lederach, J. P. (1997). Building Peace: Sustain- 2. Bodine, R. J., & Crawford, D. K. (1998). able Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Wash- The Handbook of Conflict Resolution Education: ington, D.C.: United States Institute of A Guide to Building Quality Programs in Peace Press. Schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 10. Maoz, I. (2000). An experiment in peace: 3. Bush, K. & Saltarelli, D. (2000). The two Reconciliation-aims workshops of Jewish faces of education in ethnic conflict: To- Israeli and Palestinian youth. Journal of Peace wards a peacebuilding education for chil- Research, 37(6), 721-736. dren. UNICEF-United Nations Children’s Fund. Innocenti Research Centre: Florence, Ita- 11. Salmon, J. (2004). Education and its contri- ly. bution to structural violence in Rwanda. An entry in Education in Emergencies and Post- 4. Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace. Conflict Situations: Problems, Responses, and Pos- (2002). Jews, Israel, and Peace in Palestinian sibilities. 1(1), 29-85. Society for Internation- School Textbooks 2000-2001 and 2001-2001. al Education, Teachers College, Columbia Retrieved on November 21, 2013 from: University. New York, NY. http://www.edume.org/anout/ about1.htm 12. UNESCO (2013). Emergency education response to Syrian Refugees in Jordan. Re- 5. Cronin, P. (2004). Developing national uni- trieved on November 21, 2013 from: ty by educating students about their ene- http://www.unesco.org/new/en/ mies: The case of Israel and Palestine. An amman/education/technical-vocational- entry in Education in Emergencies and Post- education-training/emergency-education- Conflict Situations: Problems, Responses, and Pos- response-to-syrian-refugees-in-jordan/ sibilities.1(1), 97-105. Society for Interna- tional Education, Teachers College, Colum- 13. World Bank (2003). Education in Rwanda: bia University. New York, NY. Rebalancing resources to accelerate post- conflict development and poverty reduc- 6. Filipov, F. (2006). Post-conflict peacebuild- tion. Washington, DC. ing: Strategies and lessons from Bosnia and Herzegovina, El Salvaodr, and Sierra Leo- 14. Zakharia, Z. (2004). How schools cope ne. New York, NY: United Nations. with war: A case study of Lebanon. an entry in Education in Emergencies and Post-Conflict 7. Fisher, R., Ury, W., & Patton, B. (1991). Situations: Problems, Responses, and Possibilities. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without 1(1), 107-117. Society for International Ed- Giving In. New York, NY: Penguin Books. ucation, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity. New York, NY.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 32 Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

South Sudan and the East African Community: Creating the Foundation for Political and Economic Integration Through Agriculture and Women

Michael F. McCarthy

Abstract This paper explores the pre-conditions of functionalist theory, using South Sudan’s relationship with the East African Community as a case study. As a newly independent state with a monoculture, primary resource-based economy, and a population that lives on less than one United States dollar per day, South Sudan must integrate politically and economically with the East African Community (EAC). This paper focuses on two sectors that are the most neglected in South Sudan’s economy: agriculture and women. This paper analyzes the relationship between agriculture and women, explores the role that international and national human rights laws play in empowering women, and examines the importance of microfinance institutions in diversifying South Sudan’s economy.

Biography: Michael McCarthy graduated from the University of Bridgeport’s Master’s program in Global Development and Peace, earning his degree in 2013. In addition to this, Michael earned a Bachelor’s degree from the University of Connecticut in History and a minor in Human Rights. During his time at the University of Bridgeport, Michael worked as a Research Associate at the Yale Child Study Center in the field of early childhood development and education policy where he conducted research in Uganda and Peru. Further, Michael interned at the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Jordan Country Office based in Amman. Michael has also studied at Princess Sumaya Universi- ty for Technology in Amman, Jordan.

33 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

1.0 Introduction For functionalism to occur, laws and norms must be representative in all states. A common As the world becomes more globalized, devel- ground that countries can agree upon is equal oping countries often attempt to stabilize their and non-discriminatory societal standards. This economies through collaboration with neigh- was reflected from the United Nations Univer- boring countries within their regions. Successful sal Declaration of Human Rights, in which the political and economic integration, as seen with preamble states that “the peoples of the United the European Union, is contingent on groups Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their of economies and societies being able to func- faith in fundamental human rights, in the digni- tion together. Many states, however, have dis- ty and worth of the human person and in the similar economies and conflicting ideologies on equal rights of men and women and have de- development and corresponding laws and poli- termined to promote social progress and better cy. Two main principles are derived in function- standards of life in larger freedom.”5 As a result, alist theory: development and non- societies are required to create laws that protect discriminatory and empowering laws that pro- the basic human rights of all populations. By mote economic, social, and political rights. doing this, a population can achieve an adequate standard of living. Grainne de Burca explains the role that law plays in Neo-functionalism. Burca states that The notion of non-discriminatory law is reflect- law affects a state in five different ways, being ed in the idea of democracy. Kelly Harris reiter- that it is an “enabling force,” a “constraining ates that democracy must “[place] emphasis on force,” it “structures” the judicial and executive concrete political, social, and economic rights, order of society, creates judicial validity, as well as opposed to a liberal democracy that empha- as “provides reasons for action.”1 Burca high- sizes abstract political rights.”6 A democracy lights the importance of the fifth influence of that strays away from abstract liberalism, is pro- law on society. He elucidates that the notion of moting a society that secures rights (social, polit- non-discrimination in courts, which is an im- ical and economic) that are needed to achieve portant facet within the European Union, influ- adequate human development. ences the behavior and actions of society.2 Ulti- mately, laws, according to Burca, “provides Moreover, the pre-conditions to a functionalist them [actors] with reasons to change and to state include a set of non-discriminatory laws adapt their behavior in response to legal norms, and norms that promote economic and human whether because they believe in the particular development through economic, social, and values expressed by those norms, or because political rights. This paper explores the pre- they respect the processes from which those conditions of functionalist theory in a develop- norms have emerged.”3 Laws play a role in how ing, newly formed state that lacks non- a society acts, and how people pursue their life- discriminatory laws and norms, using South style, as well as function.4 A society, therefore, Sudan’s relationship with the East African cannot be predictive or consistently functioning Community as a case study. South Sudan can without the creation of non-discriminatory currently be characterized by its low level of standards. development, economically and socially. The newly formed state, therefore, cannot enter the

Journal of Global Development and Peace 34 Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

East African Community at this time because of a common currency.12 In June 2011 Sudan such premature integration would be applied for membership followed by an appli- detrimental to the strength and function of the cation from South Sudan on November 11.13 East African Community. This paper examines The EAC rejected Sudan’s application due to how functionalism can be represented in a state the objections of Uganda and Tanzania, while that must meet certain pre-conditions before deferring South Sudan’s submission. According developing the laws necessary to fulfill to Article 3 (ii) of the East African Community functionalist theory. Treaty, membership “is based on…adherence to universally acceptable principles of good 1.1 Case Study: South Sudan and the East governance, democracy, the rule of law, ob- African Community servance of human rights and social justice.”14 Thus, for South Sudan to successfully integrate On July 9, 2011, South Sudan officially raised its into the East African Community, it must share flag, illustrating the nation’s independence from and promote these ideologies, which have the North.7 The newly formed nation faces served as norms for the successful functional- poor infrastructure and extreme poverty, as ism of this integration. more than half of the population is uneducated and lives under one dollar per day.8 In addition, The notion of member states sharing similar South Sudan lacks a diverse economy; 98 per- worldviews is important for the EAC’s success cent of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is when looking at the regional bloc’s past failures. dependent on oil.9 In order to stimulate its The East African Community was first created economy to meet these challenges, South Su- in 1967 and included Uganda, Kenya, and Tan- dan must politically and economically integrate zania. However, the EAC collapsed less than with other countries to acquire foreign invest- ten years after its establishment. In Regional Or- ments and trading partners. However, South ganizations and African Underdevelopment: The Col- Sudan is far from integration. It must first create lapse of the East African Community, Agrippah the necessary foundation to be able to develop Mugomba explains that the fall of the EAC was and integrate with bordering countries of the due to the shifting interests and ideologies of East African Community (EAC). the members. For instance, he states that Ken- ya relied on the “capitalist path to development, The EAC is a regional organization that con- in an area dominated by socialist oriented sists of the United Republic of Tanzania, and states,” which led Kenya to “fully embrace the the Republics of Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, and United States in an attempt to enhance its secu- Rwanda. It was revived in 2000 by Uganda, rity.”15 Here, Mugomba illustrates that conflict- Tanzania, and Kenya, with Burundi and Rwan- ing ideologies secluded Kenya from the rest of da gaining membership in 2007.10 The East the member states. In addition, Mugomba ex- African Community has made several strides plains that the “collapse of East African Air- toward the creation of an East African federa- ways in February 1977, which was quickly fol- tion by implementing a customs union in lowed by Kenya’s decision to launch its own 2005.11 Additionally, in January 2011 member international airline, sealed the fate of the Com- states began discussing the creation of the East munity.”16 African Monetary Union for the establishment

35 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

Also, in The End of the East African Community: and financially developing its people to create a What are the Lessons for Regional Integration consumer-driven population that will partici- Schemes?, Arthur Hazlewood explains that the pate in the East African markets. EAC’s breakup was caused by the failure of the members to approve the community’s 1977- To enhance ripeness between EAC member 1978 budget, as well as the closure of the Tan- countries, South Sudan must adhere to the zanian border to Kenya.17 Both authors illus- principles of promoting social justice and hu- trate the notion that the lack of regional cooper- man rights stated under Article 3 (ii) of the East ation and differing political and economic ideo- African Community Treaty. To meet these logies disturb regional conformity and function- standards, it is necessary for the government of alism. In addition, the EAC’s past failures show South Sudan to promote women’s rights. that having strong relationships between mem- Women who live along the border of South ber states is a prerequisite for successful political Sudan derive their income from informal trade and economic integration. Without this, disinte- of their goods in Ugandan cities. Thus, South gration occurs. Sudan must bring women into the formal trading market through microfinance institutions, to Ultimately, to help further political and eco- stimulate the economy, increase goods and ex- nomic integration in the region, South Sudan ports, as well as encourage formal cross-border must achieve numerous objectives. For exam- trade. Additionally, South Sudan must develop ple, South Sudan has poor infrastructure that its agriculture sector through the empowerment disrupts trade routes with bordering countries. of women. This will ultimately increase house- According to the World Bank, there is only one hold incomes as well as reduce unemployment. road that runs from Juba, South Sudan’s capital, South Sudan therefore must develop a strong to Uganda.18 This is vital because South Suda- foundation for trade, exports, and consumer- nese shipping vehicles have to pass through ism through the empowerment of women and Uganda to access other EAC markets. Also, the the development of agriculture, so it can suc- World Bank has reported that none of the cessfully participate in political and economic roads in South Sudan are in “good condition,” integration with East African countries. as opposed to the 82 percent of roads in “good” standing that East Africa has as a 2.0 South Sudan’s Natural Advantage: Agri- whole.19 As a result, poor infrastructure damp- culture ers trade, causing freight tariffs to rise to un- bearable levels.20 However, in April 2012, China The agriculture sector plays a vital role in South committed to loaning $8 billion to help South Sudanese lifestyle, employing 62.9 percent of Sudan develop its infrastructure.21 the population.22 The agriculture sector, however, is severely underdeveloped, and currently Therefore, this paper focuses on two sectors plays a minimal role in economic growth. South that are the most neglected in terms of political Sudan currently cultivates only 4.5 percent of its and economic integration: agriculture and suitable farming land.23 Therefore, the amount women. This paper analyzes the role that agri- of money that is being contributed to the econ- culture and women can play, if successfully de- omy from the agriculture sector is relatively veloped, in diversifying South Sudan’s economy small. Out of the 670,000 square kilometers of

Journal of Global Development and Peace 36 Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

farmable land, less than 10 percent of its total limiting the productivity of the agriculture sec- worth is actually acquired.24 The cultivation of tor. land is vital in decreasing unemployment and contributing to economic growth. Currently, Rostow adds that traditional societies “devote a unemployment in South Sudan is staggering. very high proportion of their resources to agri- The relaxed unemployment rate in 2008 was culture.”29 South Sudan currently does not in- 29.5 percent for people ages 15 to 24, and 16.5 vest oil revenues into the agriculture sector. To percent of people ages 25 to 64.25 Thus, culti- tackle this issue, the European Commission has vating land can provide jobs to the unem- committed to providing €80 million ($106 mil- ployed. It is necessary to analyze the current lion) in aid for rural development and food se- state of South Sudan’s agricultural sector and curity.30 The funding is being allocated for the examine how agricultural development creates improvement of “rural infrastructure; boosting jobs, as well as a consumer-driven population productivity by providing easier access to ser- through economic and human development. vices and land; support to small-holders and strengthening water management for sustainable use.”31 Funding for the transportation of goods is representative of Rostow’s second stage of economic development, “the precondi- tions for take-off.”32 Investment in infrastructure is imperative for agriculture development; however, there is still no motivation to produce surplus crops. Foreign investment in infrastructure is impractical unless there is increased production of crops. South Sudan, therefore, does not fulfill all of the characteristics of a traditional 2.1 South Sudan: A traditional society with society and does not follow Rostow’s linear pre-conditional features path toward full development.

According to Rostow, the first stage of eco- Rostow’s ideology illustrates a linkage between nomic development is the “traditional socie- agriculture and industrialization. South Sudan ty.”26 In past traditional societies, Rostow states can theoretically use oil revenues to invest in that “varying degrees of manufacture devel- other sectors. However, oil is only profitable oped; but, as in agriculture, the level of produc- when prices are high and there is global de- tivity was limited by the inaccessibility of mod- mand. Reliance on oil revenues is risky, and cre- ern science, its applications, and its frame of ates a mono-culture state. Investment in agricul- mind.”27 This description parallels that of South ture is necessary to solidify an economic base Sudan, where subsistence farming dominates needed for reinvestment into the economy. the population’s mindset. Among the popula- The demand for food production will continue tion that works in the agriculture sector, 84 per- as the global population increases. cent are considered non-wage workers.28 Farm- ers are, therefore, only producing enough food Thus, expansion of the agricultural industry can to meet the needs of their families, ultimately be obtained by stable reinvestment in machin-

37 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women ery and land cultivation. As agriculture produc- developing countries because of high unem- tion increases, so will the demand for labor, ulti- ployment rates. Labor paves the foundation for mately increasing surplus income. A transfor- economic expansion stimulating an influx of mation from a subsistence mindset, to a capital- capital which can then be used to purchase istic approach is therefore necessary to yield more land for expansion, as well as for new higher profits. Profits, however, must be con- technology to modernize the agricultural sector. tinually reinvested into the sector, as well as the economy. As the industry grows, dependence W. Lewis illustrates the symbiotic relationship on oil profits decreases, which facilitates a shift between labor and agricultural development. from a mono-culture to a diversified economy. He explains that “in economies where the majority of the people are peasant farmers, work- A surplus of crops is needed for adequate ing on their own land, we have a more objec- productivity in a traditional society, as well as tive index, for the minimum at which labour for the building of infrastructure and transport can be had is now set by the average product of mechanisms in a society set for economic “take the farmer; men will not leave the family farm off.”33 The country must first create the neces- to seek employment if the wage is worth less sary foundation for a traditional society by cre- than they would be able to consume if they re- ating a business and commercial class within mained at home.”37 Underdevelopment limits the agriculture sector to increase productivity. economic development for both the farm own- In order for South Sudan to contribute to the er and the potential laborer. A land owner can- EAC’s economy, as well as boost its objective not simply provide a higher level of income to of becoming a federation, it must develop a incentivize people to leave their own farms and stable economy with a consumer-driven popu- work for others. A farmer’s wage reflects that lation. The development of an entrepreneurial of what the farm produces. Thus, incentivizing mindset among the South Sudanese population through increased wages is contingent on a can help families develop a consistent and sta- farmer’s ability to increase crop production. ble income. This income paves the path toward two essential pre-conditions for an adequate A farm, however, cannot increase crop produc- consumer-driven population: securing econom- tion, unless it can increase its labor. A lack of ic rights and promoting human development. investment to modernize and expand the sector halts agriculture production. For example, a 2.2 Theoretical Framework: Agriculture’s farm owner can only hire a laborer if produc- role in human and economic development tion yields a profit that is sufficient enough to provide a wage that is higher than what a labor- J. W. Moller states that there are three essential er can obtain on his or her own farm. There- requirements for agricultural development: la- fore, an initial shift from subsistence farming to bor, land, and capital.34 Labor, according to producing a surplus is necessary. The first profit Moller, is often in high supply.35 He explains a farm owner makes must be reinvested in la- that “agricultural capital in its traditional forms bor. With more labor, profits can then be in- is created by production processes in which creased. Again, a farm owner must use generat- labor is the primary, and, in some cases, the oned profits to reinvest back into the farm by ly resource.”36 Labor is a primary resource in modernizing.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 38 Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

Furthermore, enhancing technical capacity, Thus, a shift from subsistence ideology is need- from reinvestment of generated profits, is nec- ed to achieve Moller’s three facets of develop- essary to achieve and maintain persistent eco- ment: capital, advanced farming technology, nomic growth. Lewis states that “If we assume and management proficiency. technical progress in agriculture, no hoarding, and unlimited labour at a constant wage, the Developing the agriculture sector is a necessary rate of profit on capital cannot fall. On the con- step to increase production for domestic and trary it must increase, since all the benefits of regional trade. The agricultural sector also al- technical progress in the capitalist sector accrue lows individuals in South Sudan to develop the to the capitalists.”38 Technological advance- monetary base needed to not only improve ment, through profit reinvestment, is necessary their financial state, but also increase their stand- to keep the rate of revenue steady. Reinvest- ard of living and well-being. Before a person ment of generated profits into modernizing the can participate in EAC markets, they must have sector leads to agricultural expansion. Yet, ex- developed the capacity to consume goods. A pansion can only occur with an increase of la- person, therefore, must be able to obtain basic bor. As the industry expands, the demand for material needs, such as food, clothing, and shel- labor increases, which ultimately increases pro- ter, as well as basic services needed for survival, duction. A cycle is then created. Consistent in- such as health care. Achieving adequate human vestment in the sector is therefore beneficial for development drives consumerism because it famers because it permits a cycle of profitable allows a person to invest in other areas once all and economic growth. basic needs have been met. Thus, once a person has achieved a level of comfort, well-being Economic prosperity, however, cannot occur and stability, incomes can then be saved and without a change in mindset. Moller explains used toward buying consumer and durable that “the greater the value attached to leisure the goods. less incentive to convert leisure into materiel goods.”39 The objective is to convert unused Moreover, developing the agriculture sector time into productive work. To achieve this, a increases the demand for labor, which ultimate- “transformation of labor time into agricultural ly increases employment. Employment allows a output” needs to occur.40 Moller states that “the person to achieve his or her economic rights, level of resource availability, technology and which is needed to achieve human security. management are the key influences. The more Shareen Hertel provides a working definition of production that can be had for a given amount economic rights, which consists of three sec- of labor, the more incentive to the farmer to tions: “the right to an adequate standard of liv- convert his leisure into materiel goods...”41 A ing (including subsistence rights); the right to shift from subsistence farming to producing a employment; and the right to basic income surplus of goods to be sold is needed. High guarantees for those unable to provide for profits can stimulate the farmer to place more themselves.42 Hertel classifies “food, shelter, energy, time, and devotion into creating a more potable water, basic medical care and basic edu- productive farm. As productivity and technolo- cation” as subsistence rights.43 Thus, there is a gy improves, actual labor time decreases, allow- linkage between economic stability and attain- ing more time to better manage the sector. ing basic fundamental human rights. As more

39 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

South Sudanese individuals shift from produc- standard of adequate living by achieving all ing enough goods to survive to working on basic human rights through economic prosperi- farms as wage earners, economic stability will ty. Sen, however, explains that development increase. By obtaining employment, an individ- cannot occur unless an individual has the capa- ual receives a steady income that can be used to bility to achieve economic and human rights. solidify one’s economic rights by having the His capability approach elucidates that “the ca- ability to purchase services and goods to pability to function” is “related to the achieve- achieve a better standard of living. ment of well-being.”48 Therefore, the South Sudanese population must have the right to Arjun Sengupta further reiterates the relation- economic growth, through farming. Sengupta ship between economic rights and human de- expands on this notion and states that “such velopment.44 Sengupta states that “Without economic growth must be carried out with eq- bringing economic growth explicitly into the uity and justice, in a non-discriminatory and picture, the right to development would be participatory manner.”49 Providing the right to confined to the possible realization of only economic opportunity, therefore, must be uni- some rights.”45 A person lacking economic versal. growth can achieve some rights, such as the basic right to life, or even shelter, but it cannot Moreover, agricultural development provides achieve all rights. Economic stability allows a the opportunity for South Sudan to employ its person to achieve rights that are of monetary population. Through employment, economic value, such as health services. Sengupta ex- rights can be achieved, which ultimately solidi- plains that “For economic growth to be includ- fies human development. By achieving an ade- ed as an element of the claims representing the quate standard of living through fundamental right to development, it must be consistent with rights, such as, food, shelter, water, and health the conditions of realizing all the other claims as services, a population is able to shift its use of human rights.”46 Economic rights and human income from material needs for survival to con- rights, according to Sengupta, are interchangea- sumer and durable goods. Thus, achieving ade- ble. quate human and economic development is necessary for the development of a consumer- This ideology is further explored by Amartya driven population. Sen, who states that “sometimes the lack of substantive freedoms relates directly to eco- 3.0. Women, Microfinance, and the Agricul- nomic poverty, which robs people of the free- ture Sector dom to satisfy hunger, or to achieve sufficient nutrition or to obtain remedies for treatable As Sen and Sengupta pointed out, economic illnesses.”47 Sen explores the notion that human growth must be achieved by providing equal rights are often violated because of the lack of access to opportunities. Thus, to develop its economic opportunity. Economic rights are agriculture sector, South Sudan must empower inclusive of human rights, while basic rights are women in rural areas. Women consist of the inclusive of economic sustainability. In the case majority of the population in South Sudan. Ag- of South Sudan, the agricultural sector provides riculture is also the highest employed sector, the opportunity for the population to acquire a and rural areas are the most populated, there-

Journal of Global Development and Peace 40 Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

fore, investing in women can lead to the pro- make up 77 percent of all microfinance cus- duction of more crops and higher household tomers.57 incomes. For example, 78 percent of families that live in rural areas depend on their women The use of microcredit for the development of to farm for their survival.50 Family income is the agriculture sector is rare. For instance, in also supported by women’s participation in in- West Africa only 3 percent of agriculture loans formal trade. According to the World Bank came from microfinance organizations.58 For report De-Fragmenting Africa: Deepening Regional almost a decade in India, microfinance contrib- Trade Integration in Goods and Services, South Su- uted to a meager 8 percent of agriculture devel- danese women who participate in cross-border opment funds.59 Currently, 10 percent of wom- informal trade are those who live in cities, such en in South Sudan have used microfinance in- as Kaya, at the border between South Sudan stitutions to begin their businesses.60 It is im- and Uganda.51 These women, who are crossing portant to note that 90 percent of South Suda- the border to obtain income to meet daily living nese women who have started a business ac- expenses, are often uneducated and illiterate.52 quired funds from money they had saved or However, these small exchanges add up to a from relatives.61 This statistic portrays the no- substantial amount of trading revenue. For in- tion that women have access to funds. Howev- stance, in 2008 South Sudan and Uganda trad- er, the number of women who have actually ed $389 million worth of goods in the informal started their own business is very low. There- market.53 This is $143 million more than the fore, women who have acquired capital from trading revenue that was acquired in the formal family members or from their own savings rep- market.54 Therefore, investing in women in ru- resent a small minority in South Sudan. The ral areas will lead to the increase of crop pro- average South Sudanese individual that is living duction. In addition, as more goods are traded under one dollar a day is not going to have a by women, a higher profit will be brought back savings. Therefore, the likelihood of women to families, ultimately increasing household in- obtaining funds from a family member to start comes. The rise in household income plays a a business is not probable. vital role in creating a consumer-driven population. Thus, increasing household incomes Microfinance institutions enable women to ob- strengthens one’s purchasing power. tain the necessary capital to invest in agriculture. They can also indirectly commit individuals to To empower women financially and to get indi- produce surpluses and begin exporting. For viduals in the agriculture sector to produce sur- instance, when South Sudanese women take pluses, the government of South Sudan must out loans, they will have to pay them back with establish microfinance institutions throughout interest. Excess crops must be grown to be sold rural areas. Microfinance provides loans, insur- for income so loans can be paid back. These ance, and transfer services to the very poor be- expenses prevent a family from engaging in cause banks often do not provide services to subsistence farming. Thus, microfinance is im- people living below the poverty line.55 Many portant to South Sudan’s quest for economic microfinance centers specifically assist individu- integration because it introduces the notion of als who live under one dollar per day.56 Tradi- surplus production. Furthermore, since the ma- tionally, these institutions serve women, who jority of the rural population lives on one dollar

41 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women per day, there are limited markets in which to credit banking scheme.”63 The government of sell crops. As a result, women will have to ex- South Sudan should consider mimicking India’s port their goods to surrounding countries that system on microfinance. In 2007, India passed are capable of buying them, such as Uganda, the Microfinance Sector (Development and South Sudan’s largest trading partner since Regulation) Bill. The bill calls for the develop- 2007.62 ment of a Micro Finance Development Coun- cil to “advice the National Bank on formulation Therefore, it is important that South Sudanese of policies, schemes, and other measures re- women have access to funds. Once funds are quired in the interest of orderly growth and de- available, women will have the opportunity to velopment of the micro finance sector.”64 Thus, expand their lands, acquire essential farming the government of South Sudan must develop resources (seeds, fertilizers), and can even be- a council similar to this to work with the Cen- come employers. Thus, they become empow- tral Bank of South Sudan (government operat- ered. Currently, most families do not see the ed) as well as with the Ministry of Agriculture reason for producing extra crops because they and Forestry. do not see the benefit. Microfinance, however, can change that perspective. As women are ex- Furthermore, in 2008, the World Bank found posed to the notion that producing extra crops that one of the largest obstacles for the success can lead to higher income, the production of of microfinance institutions is government laws goods, exporting, and trade could drastically proposing regulations on the amount of start- increase. As a result, as profits rise, wealth be- up capital a microfinance institution must have gins to accumulate and a savings can be estab- before it can provide services.65 India tackled lished. This savings can then be used to develop this issue in both the 2007 and 2011 Micro Fi- and improve a current agricultural business, or nance Sector (Development and Regulation) can be given to relatives. Microfinance institu- bills.66 For instance, the 2011 bill calls for an tions, therefore, can provide loans indirectly. application for the establishment of a micro- Personal savings that are acquired from busi- finance institution to have “a net owned fund, nesses that initially began from microcredit can created out of contributions to capital, reserves serve as loans to other family members. Thus, or grants or donations received by it, of at least the production of surpluses and exports will five lakh rupees or such other amounts speci- continue to escalate. Also, as farms expand, the fied by regulations.”67 The government of demand for labor will rise, which ultimately South Sudan must propose a bill that allows provides more jobs. rapid and low-cost start-ups for microfinance institutions. The objective is to have numerous 3.1 South Sudan and the Microfinance Sec- accessible microcredit opportunities for wom- tor: What needs to be done? en. Relaxed regulations, such as the ones proposed in India, can persuade more micro- The government of South Sudan lacks a microfinance organizations to establish ties in South finance component in the Ministry of Agricul- Sudan. ture and Forestry. However, one of the functions of the ministry is to “establish and man- The presence of microfinance institutions with age/supervise an agricultural microfinance and low disbursement will initially stimulate the agri-

Journal of Global Development and Peace 42 Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

culture sector. As more people are employed tons of rice.71 Thus, Kenya had to import more and production of goods increases, the govern- than $84 million worth of rice.72 A study on rice ment of South Sudan will have to maintain and production in Kenya by the Kenya Agricultural increase production. Once microfinance institu- Research Institute (KARI) found that the lack tions acquire a substantial amount of funds for of rice production was due to the limited disbursement, South Sudan must begin looking amount of microcredit taken out by farmers. at financing long-term needs for farmers. For Only about 5 percent of loans per year for 5 instance, in What Can Microfinance Contribute to years were distributed for rice in Kenya.73 Tan- Agriculture in Developing Countries, Solène zania also shares a similar agriculture problem, Morvant-Roux states that there are two types of where famines are reoccurring because 40 per- goals when providing aid for agriculture devel- cent of the population lives in areas that have opment, short- and long-term. The short-term unpredictable rain falls.74 goals for development are obtaining basic farming essentials, such as “seeds, fertilizers and pes- South Sudan must consider investing heavily in ticides.”68 As farming becomes more advanced rice production. The government of South Su- and the production of crops increases, more aid dan has the potential to be the main exporter of will be needed for advanced machinery, ship- rice in the region. Unlike other countries, South ping, storage facilities, preservation, and land Sudan has vast amounts of suitable farming expansion.69 As a result, exports have the po- land that is densely populated by potential farm- tential to significantly increase by advancing and ers. Establishing strong rice production will not modernizing the agriculture sector. only help South Sudan’s current food insecurity, but will also play vital a role in reducing food 3.2 Agriculture, Microfinance, and Relation- threats throughout the EAC. In order to ship Building achieve this, South Sudan must consider a microfinance bill that obligates microfinance insti- East Africa has faced a severe food shortage in tutions for the first 3-5 years of establishment, the last few years. Many countries in the EAC, to reserve one-third to half of all loans for rice specifically Kenya and Tanzania, are experienc- production. Another option would be for the ing food insecurity. Currently, South Sudan government of South Sudan to compensate produces numerous agricultural products, such farmers for their rice production. For example, as sorghum, corn, wheat, rice, sugarcane, and South Sudan can reserve 0.5-1 percent of its fruits such as bananas and mangoes, as well as, GDP, as compensation, for farmers who pro- peanuts, beans, and sweat potatoes.70 The most duce rice. This can ultimately serve as a motiva- important agricultural product that South Su- tion to grow rice. Moreover, the government of dan has is rice. South Sudan must begin developing its agriculture sector so it can start pursuing integration Rice consumption in East Africa is enormous, with the EAC. but the amount of rice grown in the region is trivial. For instance, Kenya is consuming rice at 4.0 Women and the East African Commu- unprecedented levels, where in 2007 the popu- nity: South Sudan’s Responsibility lation consumed 293,722 tons of rice; however, Kenya was only capable of producing 46,256 South Sudan cannot rely on women to develop

43 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women its agriculture sector for trade and exporting cal to the family unit’s survival, with the woman’s with other East African countries unless it subservient position fulfilling an important social changes its laws on women. The treatment of role.”77 women is one of the EAC’s top concerns. For instance, after the EAC denied North Sudan’s In addition, customary practices allow strict dis- application for membership, Uganda’s minister cipline of women by men in the private sector, for East African Affairs, Eirya Kategaya, stated which can often lead to domestic violence.78 It that “We [Uganda and Tanzania] rejected their is important to note that customary law does [North Sudan’s] application after looking at sev- not permit domestic violence, but is flexible on eral issues like…the way they treat women and what it considers severe.79 Arranged marriages their religious politics.”75 South Sudan does not are often common and involve giving compen- have a track record of violence and abuse to- sation for marriage.80 Thus, societies under cus- ward their women, like the North. However, it tomary law are male dominant. Consequently, does have a judicial system that views women these views toward women limit their participa- as inferior to men. In addition, South Sudan has tion in decision making at both the local and yet to safeguard women’s rights under interna- federal levels.81 tional law. In the 1970’s the EAC collapsed because of conflicting ideologies. Therefore, Unfortunately, due to the lack of accessibility of South Sudan must align itself with the same statutory courts throughout the country, 90 per- norms, laws, and policies as the EAC. As a recent of court cases pass through customary sult, conforming to EAC standards will show judges.82 Many scholars argue that the govern- that South Sudan wants to strengthen its rela- ment of South Sudan must take action against tions with the community. customary law because it violates human rights. However, if the government of South Sudan 4.1 The View of Women in South Sudan changes every law that violates women’s rights, it will be altering customs and culture. As a new Currently, South Sudan has conflicting judicial nation, the government of South Sudan cannot systems. It has both customary and statutory take the risk in altering every law against women courts. The statutory courts consist of legal because it would drastically change the lifestyles trained judges, while the customary courts are of its people in a short period of time. headed by Chiefs who favor patriarchal ideals.76 For instance, the report Women’s Security and the The government of South Sudan must first Law in South Sudan states that all 50 tribes in focus on promoting two aspects of women South Sudan that practice customary law: rights, property rights and participation in local “are inherently patriarchal, relegating women to a and federal affairs. Both these rights can play a lower status in the family and community and per- role in increasing surplus production, exports, petuating and enforcing a number of customs and and household incomes. Women’s participa- traditions that are harmful to women. Proponents tion in decision making is vital for the success of the law maintain that the role and status of wom- of the agriculture sector and microfinance insti- en must be seen in the context of a culture whose tutions. As contributors to family income upmost value is family cohesion; from this stand- through farming, women must be actively in- point, women and men’s positions are equally criti- volved in the laws and policies that surround

Journal of Global Development and Peace 44 Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

agriculture and microfinance. Property rights en.”85 Furthermore, CEDAW specifically states are also vital toward the growth of these sectors. that women are entitled to land. Article 15 As incomes rise from businesses started by mi- states that women must have “a legal capacity crocredit, the expansion of farming land is feasi- identical to that of men and the same opportu- ble. Currently, customary law states that men nities to exercise that capacity. In particular, they have control over finances and land.83 There- shall give women equal rights to conclude con- fore, even if women would like to expand their tracts and to administer property.”86 Ratifying businesses, their husbands may not allow it. international law is the necessary step toward Men may also deny women the opportunity to the creation of new laws that guarantee proper- share their savings with other relatives. As a re- ty rights to everyone. The government of South sult, prohibiting these rights can actually halt Sudan must encourage women to purchase agricultural growth. To solidify these rights, the more land and loan their savings to other mem- government of South Sudan must first ratify bers so they can invest in the production of regional and international human rights docu- crops. The objective is to make it as easy as pos- ments. sible for women to help expand the agriculture sector. 4.2 Ratification of Human Rights Docu- ments Furthermore, in Gender and Statebuilding in South Sudan, Nada Mustafa Ali states that for women The government of South Sudan has yet to to be empowered at the governmental level, the ratify the African Charter on Human and Peo- government of South Sudan must reserve 30 ple’s Rights, and the Convention on the Elimi- percent of government seats to women.87 nation of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women need to be a part of the government to Women (CEDAW). It is important to note that produce policies regarding agriculture and mi- both documents have been ratified by Uganda, crofinance. In addition, if women have a voice Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, and Rwanda (EAC in government they can promote their rights, member states).84 Thus, if South Sudan ratifies specifically property rights. Ratifying CEDAW them as well, it will be moving one step closer is imperative for the government of South Su- toward promoting the same worldviews as the dan to meet this objective. For example, Article EAC community. Ratifying these documents 7(c) of CEDAW states that women have the also illustrates that South Sudan wants to move right to participate in and create government in the right direction in promoting human policy.88 Thus, ratifying this document will obli- rights and social justice, which are both require- gate the government of South Sudan to em- ments to become a member of the EAC. power women at the government level.

These documents can aid in the formation of Achieving a 30 percent proportion of govern- new laws concerning property and women’s ment seats will support the EAC’s vision on rights. For instance, Article 14 of the African empowering women. For example, the propor- Charter on Human and People’s Rights guaran- tion of women represented in parliament in tees everyone the “right to property,” while Ar- Rwanda is 56.3 percent, Uganda has 31.3 per- ticle 18 obligates the state to “ensure the elimi- cent, Tanzania has 36 percent, and Burundi has nation of every discrimination against wom- 32 percent, while Kenya only has 9.8 percent of

45 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women women represented in parliament.89 Four of the create the foundation for a consumer-driven five EAC member states have achieved a 30 population. A population that has the capability percent or higher representation of women in to buy goods and spend money on luxuries can government, with the exception of Kenya, who benefit the East African Community, because it has committed to achieving this goal. If South can expand its markets to South Sudan. In addi- Sudan also achieves 30 percent or higher, it is tion, as agriculture becomes more advanced, showing the EAC that it wants to empower exports to other countries will rise. This can women not just at the local level, but at a gov- serve as a relationship-building tool. With fertile ernment level as well. Thus, South Sudan can land, South Sudan has the resources to develop illustrate its progress toward meeting EAC enough food to aid other EAC member states standards by ratifying both CEDAW and the in eliminating their food scarcities. African Charter on Human and People’s Rights. Furthermore, the empowerment of women will also enhance ripeness with the EAC. The EAC 5.0 Conclusion membership requirements, stated in Article 3 (ii) of the East African Community Treaty, are South Sudan has a long way to go before it can based on adherence to democracy, rule of law, fully integrate with the East African Communi- social justice, and human rights. Thus, as South ty (EAC). Since July 2011 South Sudan has Sudan develops its agriculture sector to create a viewed infrastructure as its main concern. Addi- consumer-driven population, it will also be ad- tionally, the government of South Sudan has hering to the EAC’s worldviews. Additionally, also seen the great potential that agriculture can South Sudan must reflect on the EAC’s pro- play in economic growth. Thus, the govern- motion of human rights through the ratification ment is making great strides in developing the of international human right laws. Following country. However, it is failing to see the correla- the EAC’s commitment to empower women, tion between non-discriminatory development South Sudan will illustrate its desire to conform and political and economic integration. to the community’s standards.

Due to the mindset of South Sudanese farmers, Moreover, once these pre-conditions are met, investing in agriculture will lower unemploy- South Sudan can move toward the laws and ment, and nothing more. South Sudan must policies that are necessary to fully develop the encourage its rural population to refrain from country as a potential partner in a functional subsistence farming. To achieve this, South Su- system of political and economic integration. dan must empower women in the agriculture sector. Microfinance institutions can motivate people to produce surpluses. Ultimately, they indirectly introduce the notion that producing more crops can lead to a higher income. As a result, higher incomes can lead to the establishment of a savings. These savings will help reduce poverty and create consumerism. Micro- finance institutions in the agriculture sector can

Journal of Global Development and Peace 46 Creang the foundaon for polical and economic integraon through agriculture and women

Endnotes: Negotiations,” East African Community News, January 14, 2011, http:// 1. Grainne de Burca, “Rethinking Law in www.eac.int/about-eac/eacnews/535-eac- Neofunctionalist Theory,” Journal of Europe- launches-single-currency-negotiations.html. an Policy 12, no. 2 (April 2005): 318-321. 13. Nicholas Bariyo, “East African Community 2. Ibid, 321. Rejects Sudan’s Bid To Join Trade Block,” Wall Street Journal, December 1, 2011, 3. Ibid. http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO- 4. Ibid, 322. 20111201-702169.html. 5. United Nations General Assembly, Univer- 14. Admission to the EAC, “Admission to the sal Declaration of Human Rights, (Paris, UN Community,” East African Community, General Assembly, December 1948), at http://www.eac.int/about-eac/admission- http://www.un.org/en/documents/ to-the-eac.html. udhr/. 15. Agrippah T. Mugomba, “Regional 6. Kelly Harris, “Still Relevant: Claude Ake’s Organizations and African Challenge to Mainstream Discourse on Af- Underdevelopment: The Collapse of the rican Politics and Development,” Journal of East African Community,” The Journal of Third World Studies 22, no. 2 (Fall 2005): 85. Modern African Studies 16, no. 2 (June 1978): 263. 7. BBC, “South Sudan’s Flag Raised at Inde- pendence ceremony,” BBC News, July 9, 16. Ibid, 264. 2011, at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ 17. Arthur Hazlewood, “The End of the East world-africa-14092375. African Community: What Are the Les- 8. Save the Children – Australia, “South sons for Regional Integration Schemes?” Sudan,” Save the Children, http:// Journal of Common Market Studies 16, no. 1 www.savethechildren.org.au/what- we- (September 1979): 40. do/emergencies/south-sudan. 18. Rupa Ranganathan and Cecilia M. Briceno- 9. BBC, “South Sudan’s flag raised at Garmendia, “South Sudan’s Infrastructure: independence ceremony.” A Continental Perspective,” Work Bank – African Region Sustainable Development Unit, 10. Sarah Grainger, “East Africa Trade Bloc (September 2011): 10. Expanded,” BBC News, June 18, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ 19. Ibid, 10. africa/6762615.stm. 20. Ibid, 11. 11. Ibid. 21. Sudan Tribune, “Kiir Says China to Loan 12. East African Community, “Press Release: South Sudan $8 billion,” Sudan Tribune, EAC Launches Single Currency April 28, 2012, http://

47 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

www.sudantribune.com/Kiir-says-China-to 31. Ibid. -loan-South,42431. 32. W.W. Rostow, “The Five Stages of 22. L. Guarcello, S. Lyon, and F.C. Rosati, Growth – A Summary,” 7. “Labour Market in South Sudan,” Understanding Children’s Work Programme 33. W.W. Rostow, “The Five Stages of Working Paper (Rome: UNICEF, Growth – A Summary,” 5-14. December 2011): 11-12. 34. John W. Moller, “The Process of 23. Food and Agriculture Organization of the Agricultural Development in Low-Income United Nations, “South Sudan Naturally Countries,” Journal of Farm Economics 44, no. Endowed for Sustainable Growth Through 3 (August 1962): 702-705. Agriculture,” FAO Media Centre, July 8, 35. Ibid, 702-704. 2011, http://www.fao.org/news/story/ en/item/81693/icode/. 36. Ibid, 703. 24. Ranganathan, Briceno-Garmendia, “South 37. W. Arthur Lewis, “Economic Sudan’s Infrastructure: A Continental Development with Unlimited Supplies of Perspective,”: 17. Labour,” The Manchester School 22, no. 2 (May 1954): 148-159. 25. Guarcello, Lyon, Rosati, “Labour Market in South Sudan,” 23. 38. Ibid, 154. 26. W.W. Rostow, “The Five Stages of 39. John W. Moller, “The Use and Productivity Growth – A Summary,” in The Stages of of Farm Family Labor in Early Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Agricultural Development,” Journal of Farm Manifesto (Cambridge: Cambridge Economics 45, no. 3 (August 1963): 523. University Press, 1960), 4. 40. Ibid. 27. Ibid, 4-5. 41. Ibid. 28. Guarcello, Lyon, Rosati, “Labour Market in South Sudan,” 11. 42. Shareen Hertel, “Why Bother? Measuring Economic Rights: The Research Agenda,” 29. W.W. Rostow, “The Five Stages of International Studies Perspectives 7(2006): 217. Growth – A Summary,” 5-14. 43. Ibid. 30. European Commission, “South Sudan: EU Announces Priority Support to Agriculture 44. Arjun Sengupta, “The Human Right to and Food Security,” European Commission, Development,” Oxford Development Studies December 14, 2011,http://europa.eu/ 32, no. 2 (June 2004): 182. rapid/pressReleasesAction.do? 45. Ibid, 185. reference=IP/11/1535&format=HTML&aged 46. Ibid. =0&language= EN&quiLanguage=en.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 48 Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

47. Amartya Sen, Development As Freedom, (New 60. Paul Brenton and Gozde Isik, “De- York: Random House, 1999), 3-4. Fragmenting Africa: Deepening Regional Trade Integration in Goods and Services,” 48. Amartya Sen, Inequality Reexamined, (New 51-52. York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 50. 61. Ibid. 49. Sengupta, “The Human Right to Develop- ment,” 185. 62. David Muwanga, “Uganda: South Sudan Now Nation’s Biggest Trading Partner,” 50. Nada Mustafa Ali, “Gender and All Africa, March 12, 2012, http:/ Statebuilding in South Sudan,” United States allafirca.com/stories/201203210789.html. Institute of Peace Special Report No. 298, (Washington, DC: December 2011): 6. 63. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, “Functions – Agriculture and Forestry,” 51. Paul Brenton and Gozde Isik (Eds.), “De- Government of South Sudan, http:// Fragmenting Africa: Deepening Regional www.goss-online.org/magnoliaPublic/en/ Trade Integration in Goods and Services,” ministries/Agriculture-and-Forestry.html. World Bank, (Washington, DC: 2012): 51. 64. Ministry of Finance, “The Micro Financial 52. Ibid, 51. Sector (Development and Regulation) Bill, 53. Ibid, 45. 2007,” Government of India (New Delhi: March 12, 2007): 3-4. 54. Ibid. 65. World Bank, “World Development Report 55. “What is Microfinance?” Consultative 2008: Agriculture for Development,” World Group to Assist the Poor, http:// Bank, (Washington, DC: 2007): 145. www.cgap.org/p/site/c/ template.rc/1.26.1302/. 66. Ibid. 56. “What Are the Clients of Microfinance?” 67. Ministry of Finance, “The Micro Financial Consultative Group to Assist the Poor, Sector (Development and Regulation) Bill, http://www.cgap.org/p/site/c/ 2011,” Government of India (New Delhi: template.rc/1.26.1304/. June 20, 2011): 9 at http://finmin.nic.in/ the_ministry/dept_fin_services/ 57. Ibid. micro_finance_institution_bill_2011.pdf. 58. Solene Morvant-Roux, “What Can 68. Solene Morvant-Roux, “What Can Microfinance Contribute to Agriculture in Microfinance Contribute to Agriculture in Developing Countries?” Foundation pour Developing Countries?” 6. l’agriculture et la ruralite dans le monde, (Paris: February 2008): 6. 69. Ibid. 59. Ibid. 70. “South Sudan,” IFDC, http:// www.ifdc.org/.

49 Journal of Global Development and Peace Creang the Foundaon for Polical and Economic Integraon Through Agriculture and Women

71. Emongór R.A., F.M. Mureithi, S.N. 82. Sudan Human Security Baseline Ndirangu D.M. Kitaka and B.M. Walela, Assessment, “Women’s Security and the “The Rice Value Chain in Kenya with Law in South Sudan,” 2. Reference to Rice Producers,” Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (Nairobi): 1304. 83. Ibid, 6. 72. Ibid. 84. “List of Countries Which Have Signed, Ratified, Acceded to the African Union 73. Ibid, 1306. Convention on African Charter on Human and People’s Rights,” African 74. East and Southern Africa Division, “New Union,http://www.achpr.org/english/ IFDC Projects in East and Southern ratifications/ratification_african% Africa,” IFDC, http://issuu.com/ifdcinfo/ 20charter.pdf. docs/newprojects_esafd. 85. Organization of African Unity, African 75. Sudan Tribune, “Sudan’s Bid to Join EAC Charter on Human and Peoples Rights Quashed by Uganda & Tanzania,” Sudan (Monrovia: Organization of African Unity, Tribune, November 27, 2011, http:// July 1979), http://www.achpr.org/english/ www.sudantribune.com/Sudan-s-bid-to- _info/charter_en.html. join-EAC-quashed-by,40840. 86. United Nations General Assembly, 76. Sudan Human Security Baseline Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Assessment, “Women’s Security and the Discrimination Against Women, (December Law in South Sudan,” Chr. Michelsen Institute 18, 1979), at http://www.un.org/ (Geneva: February 2012): 2 at http:// womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/ www.cmi.no/file/1906-HSBA-women- econvention.htm#intro. security-law.pdf. 87. Nada Mustafa Ali, “Gender and 77. Ibid, 3-4. Statebuilding in South Sudan,” 5. 78. Ibid. 88. United Nations General Assembly, 79. Ibid. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. 80. Jaclyn Christine Garcia, “The Future of South Sudanese Women: Reconstructing 89. United Nations Statistics Division, Customary Law in South Sudan,” Master’s “Millennium Development Goals Thesis, Brandeis University, May 2011, 13. Indicators,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, http:// 81. Jane Kani Edward, “Women and mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx. customary law in Southern Sudan,” Sudan Tribune, March 8, 2007, http:// www.sudantribune.com/Women-and- customary-law-in,20646.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 50 How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Educaon

How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Education

Dr. Thomas Ward

Abstract A May 1968, student uprising in Paris almost led to the collapse of the government of then French President Charles de Gaulle and his Fifth Republic. A well calculated brand of watching, waiting . and then acting at the opportune moment allowed President de Gaulle to block his opposition’s advance and it culminated with De Gaulle’s masterful call for elections in the summer of 1968, which allowed President de Gaulle to challenge much of his opposition. Recognizing the universities both as a seat of political power and as a paragon of inefficiency, de Gaulle took advantage of the aftermath of May 1968 to put an end to France’s centralized university system. The University of Paris- Sorbonne, for example, was divided in Fall 1968 into thirteen smaller institutions. Pow- er was localized in each institution but the general perception was that the quality of education in France had begun to diminish and that France’s educational system had fallen into silos. In the decades that followed, Europeans increasingly looked toward the Unit- ed States and Great Britain as the reference points for academic excellence. All of this was further reinforced through the Jiaotong University’s Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) or the so-called Shanghai Rankings that have taken on increasing prominence in Europe and in France in particular since the rankings protocols first began some two decades. When elected to the Presidency in 2007, Nicholas Sarkozy vowed to reverse that and to make France once again a center of excellence. In the pursuit of excellence, the France of today feels obliged to centralize its academic institutions once again à la ‘68. This time will the re-centralization of academic institutions in France have the impact and outcomes that are desired by French leadership? This article attempts to introduce the key dimensions of France’s current education reform and the challenges that it takes and the risks that it runs.

Biography: Thomas Ward is Vice President for Internationalization and Dean of the College of Public and Interna- tional Affairs at the University of Bridgeport in Connecticut. Ward lived and studied in France for several years and was one of eleven American academics selected by the J. William Fulbright Scholarship Commis- sion to participate in October 2013 in the first Fulbright International Education Administrator program in France.

51 Journal of Global Development and Peace How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Educaon

Gaulle defied his opposition by insisting that he would not step down as President, as many had demanded. De Gaulle instead dissolved the French National Assembly, calling for new elections. His retort to his opponents “La re- forme oui, la chienlit non” (Change, yes; havoc, no), first articulated on May 19th, began to “stick.” It resonated with the French mainstream who favored reforms rather than breakdown and “revolution.” The De Gaulle who had rallied In May 1968 I was a university exchange stu- France during the German Occupation man- dent in France when strikes that began at the aged to retrieve his government from the University of Paris-Nanterre spread to the Latin throes of collapse and 500,000 of his supporters Quarter and the Sorbonne and, from there, filled the Champs Elysée on the evening of ricocheted across campuses throughout France. May 30th. On June 30, 1968, in a lopsided vote, When the government of French President his party and its allies took 394 of the National Charles De Gaulle responded with police in riot Assembly’s 485 seats. De Gaulle remained in gear and by the closure of universities, labor office another year. His Fifth Republic survives unions, including the powerful General Con- until today; however, the University of Paris federation of Labor or Confédération gé- numbered amongst the casualties of the May nérale du travail (CGT), joined the fray and upheaval. announced a general strike. They supported the students while also garnering public support for In July 1968 Charles De Gaulle chose Edgar their own grievances against the Ministry of Faure, both a politician and a respected intellec- Labor for its unrelenting opposition to an in- tual, as his new Minister of Education. Faure crease in the minimum wage. For a while, proposed reforms that resulted in the subdivi- France appeared on the verge of a regime sion of the University of Paris into 13 smaller change and then rivalries over leadership be- units, each with significant autonomy. Similar tween Socialist leader and later President reforms took place in the university systems François Mitterand and French Communist throughout France. The University of Lyons Party leader George Marchais divided the op- was subdivided into Lyons 1 and Lyons 2 (and position. Gaullist forces took advantage of the later Lyons 3); the University of Bordeaux be- moment. De Gaulle’s Prime Minister Georges came Bordeaux 1, 2, 3, and 4. The subdivisions Pompidou agreed to meet with French labor could be based as much on politics as academic leaders. This led to the May 27th Grenelle Ac- disciplines. For example, the new University of cords that included a 35% increase in the mini- Paris I (Sorbonne-Pantheon) became known mum wage and an end of the general strike. for providing its students with an interpretation of the law that tilted to the Left, while its coun- The once cohesive voice of dissent dissipated terpart Paris II (Pantheon-Assas) chose a Right- and President De Gaulle chose to steal off for a leaning approach to legal studies. single day (May 29th) to his residence in Co- lombey-les Deux Eglises. On his return, De

Journal of Global Development and Peace 52 How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Educaon

The decentralization and, in a sense, the frag- quency that an institution’s faculty and research- mentation of the French university system ers are cited in leading Science and Social Sci- would persist until 2000. Over that period, the ence Indexes. The Shanghai rankings also take reputation of French higher education, long into account an institution’s per capita produc- respected for being among the best in the tivity in each of the aforementioned categories. world, lost standing to institutions in the United In terms of publications and citations, the States and the United Kingdom. The institu- Shanghai Rankings only include English lan- tional subdivisions of the post-1968 system led guage publications, leaving the Chinese, the to educational silos that failed to recognize and French, and others at a disadvantage. seize opportunities for inter-institutional cooperation. The collective national achievements of French academics in Nobel Prizes and Fields Awards The Shanghai Rankings are not to be taken lightly. France ranks first in Fields Medalists together with the United The decline in France’s education has been evi- States, with each having garnered eleven awards dent in the standings of French universities in (with France winning two of the four medals in “the Shanghai Rankings.” The Shanghai Jiao the most recent selection that took place in Tong University Institute of Higher Education 2010). France figures fourth in Nobel laureates (SJTUIHE) first published its Research on World behind the United States, the United Kingdom, Class Universities in 1993 and it initiated its Aca- and Germany, but ahead of Russia, China, and demic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) in Japan. 2003. The Institute’s original intent in publishing these research findings was to serve as a France’s most elite educational institutions of benchmark or reference point so that Chinese higher education are not its universities but its universities could compare their educational Grandes Ecoles. One of them is the rue d’Ulm’s and research standings with other top universi- Ecole Normale Superieure (ENS), alma mater to ties in the world. However, the ARWU quickly Louis Pasteur, Henri Bergson, Jean Paul Sartre, became “the ranking of choice” for more than and Michel Foucault. ENS has produced thir- China. While the Shanghai Rankings have not teen Nobel laureates and all of France’s Fields yet had the same impact in the United States medalists. However, largely because of its insti- where US News rankings remain the measure tutional mission and scope of activity (which, of choice, they have had a defining influence on for example, does not include a stand-alone the current direction that French higher educa- ENS doctorate), ENS stands at only #71 in tion and research are taking. The key criterion the current Shanghai Rankings. Nineteen of the Shanghai Rankings is productivity in sci- American universities figure in Shanghai’s top entific research. Factors taken into considera- twenty-five universities for 2013. Four others tion include an institution’s performance in de- are British, one is Japanese, and one is Swiss. livering alumni and faculty who garner Nobel The first French universities figure at #37 and Prizes and Fields Medals (the mathematics #39, with France having only four institutions prize, awarded quadrennially, often compared in the top 100. to the Nobel). The rankings also assess faculty publications in 21 key subject fields and the fre-

53 Journal of Global Development and Peace How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Educaon

A Call for Restructuring Until now, the PhD has not had the same weight and visibility in France as in places such The call for a paradigm shift in French higher as the United States, Germany, Korea, or Chi- education became a cause célèbre in the 2007 na. For one thing, the French only address presidential campaign that pitted Union pour un medical doctors as “Docteur.” PhD or not, Mouvement Populaire (UMP) candidate Nicolas everyone else is still “Madame,” “Monsieur,” or Sarkozy against Socialist Party leading figure “Mademoiselle.” France’s elite Ecole Nationale Ségolène Royal. Following his May 2007 victory d’Administration (ENA) or National School of in the polls, Sarkozy and the UMP introduced Administration, overseen by France’s Council legislation in the French National Assembly for of State, represents the key training ground for structural reforms in French higher education the top political leaders and civil servants, in- that would give a boost to France’s profile in cluding Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, Jacques Chi- rankings such as Shanghai’s Academic Ranking rac, and François Hollande, three of France’s of World Universities (ARWU). Sarkozy even last four presidents. In an October briefing to went so far as to give specific marching orders American university administrators, a top ENA to Valerie Précesse, his Minister of Higher Edu- academic official explained that, during his stay cation and Research, asking her to develop a in the United States, he had faced obstacles be- plan that would lead to at least two of the top cause of not having a PhD. He had anticipated twenty universities in the world rankings being that, as in France, the ENA diploma would French. He also specified that French universi- speak for itself but found that his American ties should claim at least ten of the top 100 slots. colleagues judged him at least as much on his During the 2012 presidential campaign, current degree as on the provenance of his education. French President François Hollande criticized Leadership at ENA is now exploring changes Sarkozy’s campaign to repackage French higher in its curriculum so that its graduates will earn a education, describing the process as PhD. “undemocratic.” Nevertheless, since assuming office in 2012, Hollande has allowed most Sar- The EU identity and France’s part in it has so- kozy reforms to go forward, even when he suf- lidified through milestones such as the Treaties fered criticism from the respected French Cen- of Maastricht (1992) and Lisbon (2009). The ter-Left daily Le Monde. While President Hol- need to harmonize the academic standards of lande’s Minister of Higher Education Gene- the EU member states and other European viève Fioraso also criticized the ranking systems partners led to the Bologna Accords of 1999. for having an Anglo-American bias, she chose This has allowed for the standardizing of some not to stray too far from the Sarkozy plan. Ran- dimensions of education and the granting of kings clearly remain on the mind of the Hol- common credit throughout Europe through lande administration. The crux of their reforms the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), is still an effort to bring together the French designed to facilitate educational mobility. To universities, Grandes Ecoles such as ENS, and align itself with the Bologna protocols, France France’s very strong National Scientific surrendered its two longstanding-advanced post Research Centers (CNRS) in five to eight loca- -Master’s degrees, the Diplôme Supérieur d’Etudes tions in France as leverage to improve French Specialisées (Higher Diploma of Specialized Stud- Universities’ world rankings. ies) and its Diplôme d’Etudes Approfondies

Journal of Global Development and Peace 54 How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Educaon

(Diploma of Advanced Studies). The unabash- (US$ 2.4 billion). Like most endowments, only edly anglicized “Masters 2” has replaced both earnings on principal will be available for new of them. projects or to supplement annual operating expenses. However, it remains unclear if the uni- University Conglomerates and the Ambi- versities and their partners will manage these tious Paris-Saclay Experiment funds by themselves or if the French government will manage them directly. Collaborative academic “conglomerates” have begun to emerge from the post-1968 subdivi- A Neglected Undergraduate Population? sions of the University of Paris. These have led to two “new” Sorbonnes: Sorbonne Universités and Sorbonne Paris Cité each bring together some of the post-1968 subdivisions of the University of Paris as well as certain of the Grandes Ecoles and National Scientific Research Centers (CNRS) located in Paris. However, the Univer- sity of Paris-Saclay, located on the outskirts of Paris, is the highest profile of France’s new higher education collaborations. Paris-Saclay represents a partnership of two of the greater Paris region universities, as well as seven of the One challenge that the institutional collabora- ten most elite of France’s Grandes Ecoles, includ- tives still need to address is the “décalage” (gap) ing Ecole Polytechnique (France’s MIT), Ecole Nor- between supporting research and graduate stu- male Supérieure (ENS) Cachan, and a top busi- dies versus servicing a needy undergraduate ness school, Ecole de Hautes Etudes Commerciales population, particularly first year students. (HEC), along with top National Scientific Re- French universities, including Paris-Saclay and search Centers (CNRS) and private industries Paris-Sorbonne, have open admissions for their covering everything from dairy products to undergraduate programs. Any student with a nanotechnology. Once complete, there will be baccalaureate has the right to matriculate in a ten thousand academic researchers as well as French university. The baccalaureate is attained twenty thousand private sector researchers on through a challenging, cumulative exam taken site. Since 2010 the leaders of the Paris-Saclay at the conclusion of a student’s university stu- project have been up front that a key raison d’être dies. The baccalaureate is viewed as the first of these collaborations is to catapult the Univer- university-level credential and it is required for sity of Paris-Saclay to near the top in the Shang- entrance into a French university. Students wis- hai rankings. Paris-Saclay and similar higher ed- hing to enter a Grande Ecole must not only score ucation-research clusters in venues such as Par- well on the baccalaureate but they must also be is, Bordeaux, Lyons, and Strasbourg are sched- admitted based on their score on an exam for a uled to receive generous “endowments” specific Grande Ecole, usually taken after two through the French Ministry of Education. The additional years of preparatory classes after the Paris-Saclay project will receive the largest of baccalaureate that can also count as the first two these, amounting to some 1.8 billion Euros years of university study. Since 1985 there are

55 Journal of Global Development and Peace How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Educaon three types of baccalaureates in France: the Ge- when an overwhelmed and underprepared first neral baccalaureate or “bac” as it is known is for -year student withdraws because of failing those on a university or Grandes Ecoles track; the grades or stress. technological “bac”, in place since 1968, for those planning studies in a technical track; and, Greater attention is being given to first-year stu- most recently, the professional baccalaureate for dents in some venues in France. Michel Den- those normally planning to enter the job force eken, first Vice President of the University of upon graduation. Students holding any of the Strasbourg, recently observed not only that three baccalaureates are automatically qualified Martin Karplus, 2013 Nobel laureate in Chem- to enroll in any French public university. Howe- istry, had a joint academic appointment at Har- ver, the level of preparation required for these vard and at the University of Strasbourg. He three baccalaureates differs greatly, with the ge- added that the University of Strasbourg’s three neral “bac” being by far the most rigorous. Nobel laureates, the other two being Jules Hoffmann (Nobel Prize in Medicine 2011) and Nevertheless, the incentives for those with any Jean-Marie Lehn (Nobel for Chemistry in type of “bac” to continue study can be compel- 1987), all deliver lectures to first-year students at ling and may make “taking the plunge” worth- the University of Strasbourg. Nevertheless, while. The state-regulated tuition for any needed resources such as remedial courses, French university is less than the library or stu- writing centers, and tutoring are sorely lacking dent activity fees at many colleges in the United in France. The Shanghai Rankings do not fac- States. In academic year 2013-2014, undergrad- tor retention efforts into the rankings because uates pay 183 Euros (US$ 245) per year. Mas- the ARWU focus is purely research. If higher ters degree students pay 254 Euros (US$ 339) rankings are the goal and retention does not fit and doctoral students pay 388 Euros (US$ 514). into the calculus, resource centers, such as we In addition, students must pay an annual health find in the United States, could remain a low insurance fee of 211 Euros (US$ 281). Entry priority. into a university, even if short-lived, allows a student to state on a resume that he or she has Partly in response to the Shanghai Rankings, done some university study. the European Union has initiated its own rankings through U-Multirank, which has received However, there are also challenges facing enter- €2 million in EU support through the year ing freshmen. The academic resource centers 2014. The university systems across Europe found in American universities are lacking. Al- have established stronger ties through the Bolo- so, it is not easy in places like Bordeaux for en- gna Process, which since its inception in 1999 tering freshmen to find off-campus housing. has facilitated cooperation across borders with- When a student discloses that he or she is a in the European Union. U-Multirank will be freshman, landlords shy away, knowing that the rolled out in early 2014. Its rankings’ criteria in- attrition rate for University freshmen in France clude quality teaching, student learning, the is higher than 50% nationwide. Landlords pre- building of partnerships, and internationaliza- fer a second- or third-year student or a student tion, as well as research. Concern has been ex- at a Grande Ecole. They do not want to risk a pressed that the new rankings may have a bias vacant room in the middle of a school year for EU institutions. Time will tell.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 56 How the Shanghai Rankings Have Transformed French Higher Educaon

What can United States Higher Education The French effort to play “catch-up” suggests Learn From France’s Education Experi- that no country, including the United States, ence and Trajectory? can afford to focus on the current successes and failures of its own institutions of higher ed- Over the past five decades, French education ucation. The self-study process that American has gone full circle from centralized control to universities must undergo periodically to main- devolution of power to local universities begin- tain accreditation serves as an important venue ning in 1968, to the current collaborations that for schools to reflect and compare their perfor- have produced new, super-sized, research- mance to defined protocols. In the self-study oriented conglomerates such as the University process, universities must provide evidence that of Paris-Saclay. Hopefully France’s longstand- they have achieved expected accreditation agen- ing centers of educational excellence including cy standards or demonstrate how they are the Ecoles Normales Superieures and the Ecole Poly- working in a productive way towards achieving technique will be able to maintain enough of their those standards. This process places the re- identity and autonomy within the new models sponsibility squarely on institutions of higher to offer the intellectual leadership and high learning to meet the criteria established by the quality educational experience that they have accrediting agency. However, the accreditation provided in the past. The Shanghai Rankings process implicitly also places increasing respon- and the shared metrics and standards of the sibility on regional and professional accredita- Bologna Process hopefully can serve to orient tion agencies, as well the US Department of French education in a both an international and Higher Education, to establish standards based a positive pedagogical direction, even if lacunae on tracking and learning from successes of uni- exist. versities and educational systems both in the United States and abroad. If American universi- The original intent of the Shanghai Rankings ties and the state, regional, and professional as- was to measure the quality of Chinese universi- sociations that accredit them are not cognizant ties vis-à-vis universities in other parts of the of the developments that are occurring else- world. The rankings were meant to help Chi- where, the United States could face the same nese universities understand their overseas challenges a decade or so from now that France counterparts’ achievements and factor those confronted in 2007. We should also anticipate into building a top flight Chinese system of ed- that, as time goes by, China will not just be cali- ucation. Amazingly, China’s higher education brating and ranking research institutions but system that was decimated by Mao’s Cultural undergraduate programs as well. Perhaps now Revolution of the 1960s finds itself in the midst is the time to think about what an American of an impressive process of rebuilding. With an version of the Shanghai ranking of world uni- economy on steroids and with its tradition of versities should look like. “tiger moms (and dads),” China, through its Shanghai Rankings, and through top flight institutions such as Beijing, Fudan, and Tsinghua universities, appears destined to become as much a player in international education as it is in the South China Sea.

57 Journal of Global Development and Peace Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Educaon

Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Education

Rebecca Witherington

Abstract For a number of tribes in Kenya, the raising of livestock and subsequent nomadic lifestyle has long been the key to economic stability and success. It also creates a deep linkage between the modern tribes and the traditional culture of pastoralism in East Africa. But while the traditional lifestyle still allows for the economic development of these groups, it may prove a hindrance to their long-term social development with regard to the groups’ ability to provide consistent education to their children. The Millennium Development Goals provide a framework for addressing the most pressing concerns facing developing countries today. Among these goals is one that calls for the univer- sality of primary education for children. Kenya has already taken important steps towards realizing this goal; for example, school fees in the country have been abolished and, as a result, primary school enrollment has skyrocketed. The United Nations is also working to establish a legal framework that would require school-age children to attend classes up to a certain level. Such an action would help in realizing the MDG regarding education, but would create a conflict with the culture of pastoral groups. This paper will seek to gauge the differences in primary education between the state as a whole and pastoralist tribes in Kenya in order to determine whether or not their nomadic lifestyle is a hindrance to their development in that aspect. In order to do this, the paper will examine indicators of educational development, as designated by the United Nations, such as net enrollment in primary education and literacy rates. Additional social indicators of development such as secondary and tertiary enrollment and school life expectancy will supplement the information. Should the research produce evidence suggesting that nomadic culture does prove an obstacle to consistent education, recommendations will be made regarding approaches to providing education opportunities to children of pastoral communities by referring to models of healthcare accessibility currently being used to treat these communities.

Biography Rebecca Witherington received her B.A. in Anthropology and Iberian Studies from New York University (New York, NY). Before enrolling in the University of Bridgeport’s Global Development and Peace M.A. program, Rebecca was a Community Inclusion Counselor at The Kennedy Center, Inc. (Trumbull, CT), a non-profit organization that offers programs and services to individuals with disabilities. She is currently employed as a Graduate Assistant with the University of Bridgeport’s Office of Graduate Admissions.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 58 Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Educaon

Introduction “the use of extensive grazing in rangelands for livestock production.”2 But this definition fo- Kenya is home to a significant nomadic popula- cuses solely on the economic function that a tion, based on the fringes of society in arid and nomadic lifestyle serves for its people. In order semi-arid lands (ASAL). These peoples are as- to understand the pastoral culture, one must sembled into tribal groups based on kinship ties endeavor to look beyond this way of life as and have practiced pastoralism for many gener- merely a mode of production, and understand ations. The movement of the groups is an im- it as a mode of perception.3 In other words, it is portant part of their economic livelihood, as imperative that pastoralism be defined in terms well as their culture. But this movement is not of the many social and historical conditions un- conducive to regular school attendance and der which it occurs.4 The culture and tradition may hinder school-age children’s abilities to re- behind the pastoral way of life should be treated ceive primary education. As Kenya moves to- with equal importance. This balance in the rela- wards realizing the Millennium Development tionship between local ecology, domesticated goals, are pastoral children being left behind? livestock, and people in rangelands is also defined by the landscape in which this lifestyle This paper posits that the transient nature of traditionally occurs. Pastoral societies range in the nomadic pastoral tradition in Kenya, regions where resources are scarce and ecologi- through the example of the Masaai and others, cally variable, often at the threshold of human does create a barrier to education. This barrier is survival within them.5 intensified by the fact that the state actively seeks to sedentarize nomadic peoples, and the educational system, which only accommodates sedentary people, is an indirect route to instilling pastoral children with sedentary values and undermines the values of pastoral life. Through the example of non-traditional schooling options and mobilized healthcare, this paper will seek to make recommendations by which the pastoral peoples’ traditional way of life may car- ry on, without sacrificing education, and subse- quently, their ability to interface with other Additionally, there are three ideal types of pas- communities in matters of business or other- toralism. Ideal types are used here because wise in an informed and fair manner. groups may adhere to lifestyles that hybridize from these three basic traditions. The first is Pastoralism and Development nomadism. These pastoralists are entirely dependent on the sale and exchange of livestock In order to address an issue regarding develop- for their livelihood. For this reason, namely that ment in pastoral society, one must first endeav- they may need to explore different markets de- or to define both pastoralism and develop- pending on success rates, their migration routes ment.1 Therein lies a problem. Both terms are are irregular. The second ideal type is transhu- arguably vague. Pastoralism may be defined as mance pastoralism. These groups have perma-

59 Journal of Global Development and Peace Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Educaon

nent homesteads from which they embark on tions of pastoralism and often revolved around seasonal migrations. These migrations occur inaccurate stereotypes, lending to their ineffec- between two fixed points and groups often tiveness. As research on pastoral culture began practice herd splitting. Lastly, there are the agro- to expand in the 1970s and 1980s, scholars be- pastoralists. These groups are inherently differ- gan to emphasize that in order to “understand ent than the first two in that they are sedentary. herders, one must understanding herding”8; They do not practice any form of migration; that is, in order to understand the nuance of rather, they rely on a mix of crop production pastoralism, one must look at the specific types and herding for their livelihood in a fixed loca- of pastoral life practiced and the behaviors asso- tion.6 Again, it is necessary to reiterate that these ciated with them. three types of pastoral life are ideal types designed to categorize groups in simple terms and Unfortunately, pastoralists were often seen as do not necessarily reflect the individuality of disturbances within the ecosystem they relied independent groups. on, rather than a long-term and integral part of that system.9 This perspective, stemming from Defining development is likewise, tricky. Be- the “tragedy of the commons” concept,10 as- cause the concept is relatively new, it continues serts that common property resources shared to morph to accommodate the contexts within by pastoralists leads to overgrazing and environ- which it is used. For the purpose of this paper, mental degradation (i.e. desertification). A long- development will be understood as a process by standing misconception that pastoralism poses which an individual, group, or state builds their a threat, this attitude is especially true of African current economic and social situation so that game parks, where pastoral lands have been their overall quality of life is enhanced, and the appropriated for the creation of reserves. Migra- meaning of economic and social situations and tory peoples are seen as an invasion of that their development addressed. This working space and detrimental to its wellbeing, though definition seeks to avoid the use of biased lan- little thought is given to the quantity of land guage and qualitative comparisons of cultures being removed from the herding patterns of (as opposed to independent assessments of that people.11 This view of pastoralism as a dis- each on their own merits).7 Because the term turbance stems from traditional state discourse development is vague, the definition used here- that frames pastoral life as a string of opposi- in does not always align with those used by tions: nature vs. civilization, nomadic vs. seden- scholars throughout the history of development tary, traditional vs. modern, and so forth.12 efforts within pastoral society. In moving forward with an analysis of development and edu- These theories of pastoral effects formed what cation within pastoral society, this article will was considered the “mainstream” view of pas- address some of the inconsistencies found in toral development for many years. This view past efforts as they affected early development centered on the notion that rangelands were efforts before applying this unique definition to suffering from desertification that was mainly frame suggestions for improvement. caused by overgrazing domestic animals, caused by an increase in the number of animals per Past development efforts within pastoral com- herd. This view suggested that while the tech- munities have relied on more narrow defini- nology existed to combat desertification, the

Journal of Global Development and Peace 60 Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Educaon

traditional social and economic systems of pas- ders along traditional routes, the sedentary state toral culture would militate against any such strives to dominate and encapsulate these no- actions and that the solution was therefore to mads, bringing them into the traditional state privatize commercial ranches, grazing blocks, structure.17 Many traditional pastoral groups, and so forth, and support these land plots with such as the Masaai, do not believe in the con- scientific guidance regarding more sustainable cept of land ownership per se. Rather, they see techniques through a central bureaucratic insti- grazing and water rights as rights shared by all tution.13 members of a territorial section,18 thus state pressure to privatize traditional grazing lands Aside from an inaccurate mainstream view of and remain sedentary is contrary to their cultur- development, pastoralists face inconsistent but al norms. This is countered by the popular state prevailing national attitudes. Pastoralism is feeling that nomad movement is offensive to viewed in states, such as Kenya, as a the requirements of a modern state and its ad- “fundamentally flawed way of life”14 and this ministration. States may fail to see cross-political notion is perpetuated by the state and perme- boundary migration as part of the necessary ates the culture. This overall understanding of search for water and pasture.19 pastoral life then contributes to the frameworks for common understanding of pastoralism and, The dichotomy between governance and gov- finally, affects the ways in which society and ernment comes into play here. Governance, the pastorals interact within social contexts. This exercising of authority within a group through prevailing attitude continues to play a role in an internally evolved set of rules, describes the undermining pastoral livelihood through incor- political structures that exist within individual rect policies, preventing the circulation of accu- pastoral groups as a result of years of social evo- rate, informed knowledge, and by spoiling positive programs into negative outcomes.15

Development efforts for pastoral groups have historically served to further marginalize, rather than support. This is attributed to the programs being designed by non-pastoralists who fail to grasp the key social component necessary for success within the culture. Efforts have often tried to emphasize “social change” (an example of the bias often applied within the context of development) rather than “directed progress,” lution. Government, on the other hand, is less the advancement of the group.16 inherent to the group. Defined as the formal exercise of control through law and coercion Development efforts geared towards pastoral over a group by a state, government embodies communities have also created political friction the role of the state in the antagonistic relation- between nomadic groups and the state. While ship between sedentary society and pastoral nomadic groups continue to seek autonomy communities that has hindered successful, ho- and retain the right to move across state bor- listic integration.20

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Universal Education This may be largely due to recent legislation, The Millennium Development Goals are a set beginning the process of creating legal frame- of goals, adopted by the United Nations, to be works, such as The Children’s Act (2001), to achieved by the year 2015. They focus on eight keep children in school.25 issues of immediate importance in developing countries and the achievement of any or all of Because pastoral specific data is hard to come these goals would greatly improve the quality of by, one may deduce that the average literacy life for many people around the world and help rate among these communities is low based on them to better realize their developmental po- their general rural locations. Therefore, the first tential. The second goal is of particular interest barrier to education for pastoral communities is because it deals with education. It presses that not necessarily cultural. by 2015, children everywhere, regardless of gender, should be able to finish primary school- In Kenya, the total percentage of individuals ing.21 living in poverty is approximated at 52%, and overall poverty was higher in ASALs. In pasto- According to the United Nations, school en- ral districts of Kenya, average poverty levels are rollment in sub-Saharan Africa, though the low- much higher: Garissa (92%), Marsabit (87%), est of all regions, has still increased 18 percent- and West Pokot (69%). Perhaps as a result, ac- age points (from 58% to 76%) between 1999 cording to the United Nations Educational, and 2008.22 In addition, a survey conducted by Scientific, and Cultural Organization the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (UNESCO), Kenya’s GER was 87.1% in 2001, (KNBS) assessed the country’s literacy rate at but these same rural districts fell below that na- 71.4%. For the purposes of this survey, literacy tional average. Garissa and Marsabit had 12.9% was defined as being able to write in any lan- and 41.3% enrollment, respectively. Other re- guage and read a whole sentence, or having at- gions such as Wajir (19.3%), Mandera (22.2%), tended any level of secondary education. It was and Turkana (32.2%) were also low.26 found that literacy rates declined with age, which may demonstrate that recent changes to The obvious potential barrier to development education policy have helped to secure primary with regard to education is the mobile nature of education for the younger generations, though pastoral life.27 There are, however, other factors it is still not universal.23 that contribute to the difficulty of providing the standard of primary education called for by the A Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) is deter- MDGs. For example, state or privately run edu- mined by calculating the total enrollment in a cational facilities follow generally universal cur- specific level of education, regardless of the ages riculum guidelines, whereas pastoralists tradi- of the students, and expressing that number as tionally learn through apprenticeship or pass a percentage of the eligible school aged popula- knowledge from parent to child.28 While this tion. In Kenya, the GER is 116.9% overall, form of education may not be as “well round- though rural areas have disparate percentages ed” as a school curriculum, there is evidence when compared to urban areas.24 World Bank that the apprenticeship component actually en- anticipates that Kenya will be one of two coun- hances the understanding of complex themes tries to realize the MDG of universal education. through practical application in the community

Journal of Global Development and Peace 62 Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Educaon

and with the livestock.29 tional pastoral values that place the welfare of the family unit above that of the individual. Another potential barrier is pastoral communi- Does this form of schooling then truly empow- ties’ concerns that education, as the state offers er the individual or socialize pastoral youth in it, poses a threat to their way of life. Pastoralists preparation for assimilation into sedentary life? believe in the value of education and its im- 35 These concerns are interconnected. The les- portant role in the development of their com- son taken from these potential barriers to pasto- munities.30 It provides pastoral society with a ral education should be that focus on the uni- security net by strengthening their access to, versal value of education makes it difficult to and relationships with, outside enterprise.31 This identify cultural and ideological components is countered by suspicions that the forms of critical to the success of educational practices.36 education currently available to them are created with the intent to promote, or even force, a Another interesting question, within the larger sedentary lifestyle.32 discussion of pastoralism and development, is how to merge traditional education with the The counter to this is some pastoralists ex- mainstream state curriculum, and what the pos- pressed interest in sending their children to sible impacts of a phasing out of traditional ed- school in order for them to obtain jobs outside ucation could mean for pastoralist communi- of traditional society as a bridge between tradi- ties. One study of Maasai boys compared the tional culture and the sedentary world. This abilities of individuals who did and did not at- would also provide more stability for the com- tend traditional schools. The study concluded munity in times of hardship (drought, epidem- that boys who did not attend formal schools, ics, raids). However, in some cases, parents who but rather learned through traditional Maasai expressed interest in educating children only methods such as apprenticeship, could perform sought to do so with one or two of their chil- higher order and more complex classifications dren, keeping the others within the fold of the and identifications of cattle than those who at- pastoral community to assist with the traditional tended school. This demonstrates that cognitive modes of economic production. This creates a processes are affected by context and that indi- barrier for some children, as families may only viduals with hands on learning in their specific send the child they perceive to be the brightest trade field learned better than those who merely for an education while the rest are not afforded studied the concepts from a distance.37 equal opportunity.33 Because pastoralists are heavily reliant on herd- Education may further undermine traditional ing and raising livestock for their economic suc- pastoral values through the values assumed by cess, it is important that even children who re- proposed initiatives. For example, the Educa- ceive formal education be able to pick up this tion For All (EFA) movement is a global com- trade once they have finished schooling. For mitment to provide quality basic education to this reason, it is important to consider a blended all children. It is supported by development approach to creating pastoral education pro- agencies such as World Bank and UNESCO.34 grams.38 By incorporating an internship or ap- However, it was conceptualized within the con- prenticeship aspect in the formal classroom text of individual rights, which opposes tradi- style learning, pastoral students can learn both

63 Journal of Global Development and Peace Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Educaon

their traditional trade and other important top- way in order to secure education for their chil- ics such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and dren. more that will aid their business skills in future interactions with non-pastoral communities. Other alternatives use a less formal approach through open and distance learning (ODL) There are a number of alternative education methods. One example of an open style of edu- models being used around the world to address cation is the Alternative Basic Education for the issue of pastoral education. The first option Karamoja (ABEK) program in northern Ugan- is mobile schools. These schools are temporary da. The program’s key points include: facilita- structures, such as tents, staffed by teachers tors from the community and community con- who move the school along with nomads dur- tributions towards the welfare of the facilitators, ing their migratory seasons. Such schools have along with learning centers, space, and attend- been used in Nigeria and Iran and are best suit- ance. The language of instruction is the local ed to nomad pastoralists who have no perma- language and teaching schedules are structured nent residency. However, these schools are not to work around children’s labor needs at home. always successful. They face challenges related The curriculum includes livestock education, to financing, non-nomad teachers who are re- crop production, environment management, luctant to travel, and issues with designing col- home management, rural technology, rights and lapsible classrooms. Lack of government policy obligations, peace and security, and human and an irrelevant curriculum also contribute to healthall aimed at cultivating a minimum sur- their failure,39 although, with an approach that is vival kit of education based on the more culturally integrated into pastoral commu- “3Hs” (head, heart, and hands).41 The idea is to nities and supported by the government, these provide a basic education that is also functional mobile schools could be made more viable. and helps to make students assets to their communities through knowledge and vocational Another option for pastoral education is on-site skills. schools. These schools are located at fixed points along nomads’ traditional migratory Distance learning is an alternative for migratory paths. In order for this to work, the teachers groups that provides instruction in a classroom must be familiar with pastoral movement when the group is in a certain region for an ex- (according to wet and dry seasons) and in turn, tended period of time. When the migratory sea- pastoralists must be willing to organize their sons come, and the groups leave that fixed loca- groups’ movements in such a way as to ensure tion, they are given materials to use for practice they pass within range of educational facilities in the time spent outside of the classroom. Of- during their migratory seasons.40 This option is ten, distance learning is accompanied by radio best suited for transhumance pastoralists be- or internet learning; however, this is likely not a cause the location of at least one school would viable option for pastoral communities in Ken- coincide with the permanent residency of the ya because they are mainly located in poor, rural pastoral group. Because transhumance pastoral- areas and continuous access to these compo- ists follow traditional routes, it may not be far nents may not be possible.42 fetched to suggest they tailor their travel to coincide with specific school locations along the Also, in developing approaches to education

Journal of Global Development and Peace 64 Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Educaon

for pastoral communities, the model of pastoral into account all aspects of pastoral culture, envi- health care currently employed in Kenya may ronment, and economy, in order to create a provide insights into what works for the com- system that will allow pastoral children to realize munity. Pastoralists in the district of Marsabit their right to a primary education. The pro- are at a disadvantage when it comes to posed approach of this paper is to create a healthcare access. Most pastoral communities blended alternative school program, a combina- average a distance of sixty kilometers from the tion of mobile schools and on-site schools. nearest healthcare facility. In addition, poverty among pastoral communities often renders in- On-site schools would be established along tra- dividuals unable to afford services when need- ditional migratory routes. Research would first ed. For this reason, the World Health Organi- need to be conducted to determine which zation is endeavoring to decentralize healthcare groups use which routes, how frequently, at in the region. By focusing on building the ca- what time of year, and so forth, in order to de- pacity of local and accessible options such as termine effective placement. If possible, schools herbalists and midwives, healthcare can be should be built in areas of high pastoral traffic, made more available. Training these individuals preferably at intersections of routes or im- in hygienic protocols and basic sanitation in- portant stopping points such as watering holes. creases their effectiveness.43 This will make the schools more diffuse, and accessible to multiple tribes. Kenya also has a small-scale project in Wajir called the Nomadic Primary Health Care Pro- These locations would be paired with mobile gram (NPHC) that has been designed to ac- schools. Mobile schools would be embedded commodate mobility in much the same way within pastoral groups and would travel as one that mobile school programs have. By integrat- of the group from place to place. Ideally, the ing healthcare with the local customs, NPHC educators for each group would be tribe mem- has created a holistic approach to pastoral ber themselves; in this manner the educators healthcare that has been relatively successful in will be better able to tailor needs to fit the com- increasing access. NPHC also initiated a mobile munity. school program in 1995 called the Hunaniye project. This project used a dugsi approach by The mobile schools should follow the ABEK housing educators with families. This approach, model of alternative education. They should be like ABEK, allowed teachers to work class sensitive to the community’s need for the chil- schedules around household labors needs.44 dren to assist with livestock or with home management, thus classes should be scheduled Recommendations around peak times for these activities. In addition to a more formalized curriculum concur- Creating a strategy to implement effective rent with state standards, there should be time school systems within pastoral culture is more allotted to education pertaining to livestock, complicated in practice than in theory. For this farming, sustainable practice, and other topics reason, it will require a blended approach that relevant to pastoralism as an economic activity. considers past failures, as well as successes. The approach should be holistic in nature, by taking As children get older, they should be taught

65 Journal of Global Development and Peace Pastoralism and Development in Kenya: Raising Standards of Educaon

how to employ their basic math skills both in required, this permanent site can communicate the field with regard to the livestock but in situ- these needs to the program administration who ations such as bargaining or bartering, econom- can ensure necessary provisions are available at ic situations that may be encountered in more the next on-site stop on the migratory route. urbanized areas when doing business in a vil- lage. By incorporating these elements into the These check-in points may also be used to fur- children’s education, they will become capable ther teachers’ education by holding workshops herders, as well as business people. This will to enhance skills or teach new methods. In this enhance their ability to interact with the seden- way, the program will keep the quality of the tary community and perhaps give them the ad- education high and the content current. Fur- vantage in their struggle to maintain their cultur- thermore, as teachers travel with a group, they al practices. may identify students with special needs. An on -site location would be ideal for reporting the Another aspect of this approach to education is needs of the student in order to gain access to the structure of the program: how the on-site materials and training to better equip the teach- and mobile elements will interact and compli- er to educate that child in a way that would en- ment each other. In this model, on-site schools gage the child, as well as effectively communi- would be considered the “home base” for the cate core concepts. mobile schools. As groups pass through the area of an on-site school, the structure itself will Permanent locations also allow an opportunity not so much be for the use of students as for for teachers to incorporate media into their cur- the use of teachers and school administration. riculum. This may include the use of video, radio, or Internet to supplement what the chil- On-site schools will be an important center for dren are learning in their studies. The reinforce- collecting grades and data to ensure mobile ment of material through media, especially visu- school effectiveness. The program would real media, may be helpful for many students, as quire the creation of a paper-based grading sys- each will have a different learning style. tem to monitor progress and identify weaknesses in students. These weaknesses would be are- Lastly, having permanent locations and admin- as within which the program would evaluate istration will create conditions to facilitate inter- itself to ensure that the mode of delivery is clear action with the government. In this respect, the and informative. Regular assessments of modes proposed program would be better suited to of delivery will allow educators to improve or contribute to policy-making and request policies change their teaching strategies according to the that will support its institutions. A permanent needs of the classes. structure will mesh well with sedentary society, making the program easier to understand and On-site schools will be a critical communica- acceptable in the eyes of government decision tions point for mobile schoolteachers. These makers. facilities can be used to communicate needs in the field to administrators. If a mobile class- This proposed program must be coupled with room tent needs repairing, if the teacher needs more effective governance over education at additional supplies, if additional finances are the district and local levels. The Kenyan gov-

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ernment continues to push forward with one- size fits all legislation to protect a child’s right to education, which may hinder pastoral children. Alternative education programs need to advo- cate, in whatever capacity they are able, for the rights of these children. By making their programs known to government officials, alternative education efforts can build awareness for the pastoral community so that their specialized needs are represented in Kenyan education policy.

Conclusion

Despite years of research, there is still no functioning solution to the question of educating nomad children. Though there is no explicit data concerning pastoral education quality as quantified through literacy rates and enrollment, the severe disparities between the national average and the district averages where the majority of pastoralists reside are telling. Clearly, the community is not utilizing traditional schooling, and so far no permanent solutions have been found to educating nomadic children.

But the failures of the past provide insight into how to better approach new initiatives. The key component to creating an effective program for pastoral education will be the use of a holistic approach. Such an initiative will need to think outside the box and approach education as a blending of cultural factors with curriculum. In order to allow nomads to continue living their traditional lifestyle, programs will need to find ways to accommodate the mobile nature of the community. By creating a permanent “home base” to oversee the mobile classrooms, the proposed program can keep one foot in the pastoral world and one in the sedentary world, effectively creating a bridge between the two that will ultimately benefit the children.

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Endnotes: Speranza. “New Avenues for Pastoral De- velopment in sub-Saharan Africa.” 1. Hagmann, Tobias and Chinwe Ifeijka Speranza, “New Avenues for Pastoral De- 17. Ibid. velopment in sub-Saharan Africa,” Europe- 18. Ibid. an Journal of Development Research 22 (2010): 593-604 19. Dyer, Caroline, “Nomads and Education for All: Education for Development or 2. Ibid. Domestication?” 3. Ibid. 20. Hagmann, Tobias and Chinwe Ifeijka 4. Ibid. Speranza. “New Avenues for Pastoral De- velopment in sub-Saharan Africa.” 5. Ibid. 21. “Millennium Development Goals. Goal 2: 6. Ibid. Achieve Universal Primary Education.” United Nations, http://www.un.org/ The History of Development: From 7. Rist, Gilbert, millenniumgoals/education.shtml. Ac- Western Origins to Global Faith (London: Zed cessed on April 4, 2013 (accessed May 1, Books, 2002), 9 2013) 8. Fratkin, Elliot, “Pastoralism: Governance 22. United Nations. “The Millennium Devel- Annual Review of and Development Issues,” opment Goals: Report 2010.” (2010) 16-18. Anthropology 26 (1997): 235-261 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/ 9. Ibid. MDG%20Report%202010%20En% 20r15%20-low%20res%2020100615%20- 10. Ibid. .pdf#page=18 . Accessed on February 24, 2013. 11. Ibid. 23. Kenya Development Report 2009 12. Krätli, Saverio, “Education Provision to Nomadic Pastoralists: A Literature Re- 24. Ibid. view,” IDS Working Paper 126 Institute of Development Studies (2001) 25. Ibid. 13. Fratkin, Elliot, “Pastoralism: Governance 26. Carr-Hill, Roy, Almaz Eshete, Charlotte and Development Issues.” Sedel, and Alba de Souza, “The Education of Nomadic Peoples in East Africa: Dji- 14. Krätli, Saverio, “Education Provision to bouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania Nomadic Pastoralists: A Literature Re- and Uganda,” (2005) United Nations Edu- view.” cational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza- tion International Institute for Educational 15. Ibid. Planning: Paris and African Development 16. Hagmann, Tobias and Chinwe Ifeijka Bank: Tunisia. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/

Journal of Global Development and Peace 68 Creang the foundaon for polical and economic integraon through agriculture and women

images/0014/001405/140562e.pdf Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanza- (accessed on February 24, 2013) nia and Uganda: Review of Relevant Litera- ture,” (2005) United Nations Educational, 27. Ibid. Scientific and Cultural Organization Inter- 28. Dyer, Caroline, “Nomads and Education national Institute for Educational Planning: for All: Education for Development or Paris and African Development Bank: Tu- Domestication?” nisia. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ im- 29. Dyer, Caroline, “Nomads and Education ages//0014/001405/140563e.pdf#xml=ht for All: Education for Development or tp://unesdoc.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ Domestication?” ulis.pl? data- 30. Ibid. base=&set=518C03EE_2_304&hits_rec= 31. Krätli, Saverio, “Education Provision to 1&hits_lng=eng (accessed on February 24, Nomadic Pastoralists: A Literature Re- 2013) view.” 40. Ibid. 32. Dyer, Caroline, “Nomads and Education 41. Ibid. for All: Education for Development or 42. Ibid. Domestication?” 43. Duba, Huka H., Ingrid M. Mur-Veeman, 33. Krätli, Saverio, “Education Provision to and Arno van Raak. “Pastorlist Health care Nomadic Pastoralists: A Literature Re- in Kenya.” International Journal of Integrated view.” Care 1, 1 (March 2001) 34. “Education for All Movement,” United 44. Carr-Hill, Roy and Edwina Peart, “The Ed- Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultur- ucation of Nomadic Peoples in East Africa: al Organization, http://www.unesco.org/ Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanza- new/en/education/themes/leading-the- nia and Uganda: Review of Relevant Litera- international-agenda/education-for-all/ ture.” (accessed May 1, 2013). 35. Dyer, Caroline, “Nomads and Education for All: Education for Development or Domestication?” 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. Carr-Hill, Roy and Edwina Peart, “The Ed- ucation of Nomadic Peoples in East Africa:

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