CULTS AND NEW RELIGIONS A BRIEF HISTORY 2ND EDITION PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Douglas E Cowan | --- | --- | --- | 9781118722107 | --- | --- APU - Course Details

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Login to my Brill account Create Brill Account. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World. Special attention is given to the religious history of regions and cities which illustrate the practical workings of these processes. The series published an average of two volumes per year over the last 5 years. ISSN: Contents About. Page: 1 2. Volume Publication Date: 17 Jun Publication Date: 22 Oct Publication Date: 23 Dec Publication Date: 09 Jul By: Gerald Lalonde. Publication Date: 21 Oct By: Laurent Bricault. Publication Date: 11 Nov Editor s : David Frankfurter. Publication Date: 19 Mar Publication Date: 08 Oct Agents, Images, and Practices. Editor s : Valentino Gasparini and Richard Veymiers. Apologetic arguments do have value, but they would seem to be most effective when individuals have already begun to make an exit. Such individuals are looking for dissonance reduction and justification as to why a religious migration towards Christianity would be a more appealing alternative. Although I have noted the positive aspects of discernment and apologetics, in addition to the shortcomings described above, it is also ethically problematic. Furthermore, the use of heresy-rationalist apologetics as an evangelistic methodology is pragmatically flawed. It is far more likely that the use of apologetic confrontation as evangelism shuts down openness rather than creating opportunities for fruitful witness. Harangues against the new religions do not lead their members to listen attentively to the arguments of zealous evangelizers. On the contrary, they drive them further away and elicit similar belligerent responses. Evangelicals have been involved in interreligious dialogue with the world religions for many years, 31 but dialogue with the new religions has been rare. Melton mentions meetings between Christian leaders and the Unification Church in the s, as well as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness in the s. The most extensive dialogical interactions by evangelicals with the new religions have been discussions with Latter-day Saints. A Mormon and an Evangelical in Conversation. Richard Mouw worked with another BYU professor, Robert Millet, to begin a series of conversations between evangelical and Mormon scholars. These dialogues are ongoing. After graduating from seminary, Greg Johnson founded Standing Together in Utah and began a series of public dialogues with Millet in a variety of venues. These and other dialogues between evangelicals and Mormons have also spawned new books 35 providing those unable to witness the dialogues with a sense of the nature of these interactions. More recently, dialogue partners from the new religions have expanded beyond Mormonism. Evangelicals have reached out to the Pagan community with an eye toward developing relationships and ongoing conversations, 36 and as a way of moving beyond the hostility of the past in order to form a new paradigm for interfaith dialogue 37 and religious diplomacy. In general, Christian dialogue with the new religions has faced many obstacles, several of which Saliba has discussed. Two stand out as especially significant. In our self-critique, we must also ensure that we strike a balance so that our desires for civility in dialogue do not compromise our ability to acknowledge foundational differences with our conversation partners. In recent decades evangelicals have been experimenting with new ways of understanding and engaging those in the new religions. In my view, missional and dialogical approaches are the best way forward. I conclude this essay with a few suggestions on how evangelicals might continue to develop these methodologies further as we engage not only the adherents of the new religions, but also those of other religious traditions in our pluralistic world. Look again at the example of Jesus. Strangely, we often fail to ask whether our way of engaging those in other religions is in keeping with the example of Jesus. Bob Robinson has made this point well in his book Jesus and the Religions. Adopt a Christological hermeneutic. I previously argued that the heresy-rationalist approach draws upon the wrong biblical texts as the foundation for engaging the new religions. Paul quotes Psalm —49 and Deuteronomy Replace a hostile faith identity with one of benevolence. I noted above that evangelicalism has a strong sense of boundaries and a preoccupation with considerations about who is in and out with regard to orthodoxy. This tendency is greatly magnified in the countercult, and it often leads to the formation of hostile faith identities regarding outsiders, particularly those of other religions. I suggest that as we reconsider the example of Jesus and adopt a more consistent Christological hermeneutic of grace and peace, we should also make new efforts at loving our religious neighbors, including those whom many consider a threat. Loving our religious neighbors as ourselves in the way of grace—even while retaining a healthy set of boundaries and concerns for sound teaching —will help transform hostile faith identities into benevolent ones. My focus in this essay is restricted to evangelical assumptions and perspectives. For a helpful introduction to the topic, see George D. In keeping with my desires to avoid pejorative language, and in keeping with the academic literature on the topic, hereafter I will refer to these groups as new religious movements. Michael T. James Beckford and James V. Richardson London: Routledge, , — Saliba, Understanding New Religious Movements , 2nd ed. CULTS, SECTS AND NEW RELIGIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY

What might a symbolic interactionist make of these symbols? Photo courtesy of ReligiousTolerance. The major religions of the world , , Islam, Confucianism, Christianity, , and Judaism differ in many respects, including how each religion is organized and the belief system each upholds. Other differences include the nature of belief in a higher power, the history of how the world and the religion began, and the use of sacred texts and objects. Religions organize themselves—their institutions, practitioners, and structures—in a variety of fashions. For instance, when the Roman Catholic Church emerged, it borrowed many of its organizational principles from the ancient Roman military and turned senators into cardinals, for example. Sociologists use different terms, like ecclesia, denomination, and sect, to define these types of organizations. Scholars are also aware that these definitions are not static. Most religions transition through different organizational phases. For example, Christianity began as a cult, transformed into a sect, and today exists as an ecclesia. Cults , like sects, are new religious groups. In the United States today this term often carries pejorative connotations. However, almost all religions began as cults and gradually progressed to levels of greater size and organization. The term cult is sometimes used interchangeably with the term new religious movement NRM. Controversy exists over whether some groups are cults, perhaps due in part to media sensationalism over groups like polygamous Mormons or the Peoples Temple followers who died at Jonestown, Guyana. Some groups that are controversially labeled as cults today include the Church of Scientology and the Hare Krishna movement. Most of the well- known Christian denominations in the United States today began as sects. Occasionally, a sect is a breakaway group that may be in tension with larger society. When membership in a sect increases over time, it may grow into a denomination. Often a sect begins as an offshoot of a denomination, when a group of members believes they should separate from the larger group. Some sects dissolve without growing into denominations. Sociologists call these established sects. A denomination is a large, mainstream religious organization, but it does not claim to be official or state sponsored. It is one religion among many. The term ecclesia , originally referring to a political assembly of citizens in ancient Athens, Greece, now refers to a congregation. In sociology, the term is used to refer to a religious group that most all members of a society belong to. It is considered a nationally recognized, or official, religion that holds a religious monopoly and is closely allied with state and secular powers. The United States does not have an ecclesia by this standard; in fact, this is the type of religious organization that many of the first colonists came to America to escape. How might you classify the Mennonites? As a cult, a sect, or a denomination? One way to remember these religious organizational terms is to think of cults, sects, denominations, and ecclesia representing a continuum, with increasing influence on society, where cults are least influential and ecclesia are most influential. Scholars from a variety of disciplines have strived to classify religions. One widely accepted categorization that helps people understand different belief systems considers what or who people worship if anything. Using this method of classification, religions might fall into one of these basic categories. Note that some religions may be practiced—or understood—in various categories. In addition, this approach can also include apologetic elements that seek to find the rational inconsistencies or shortcomings in the worldviews of the new religions. The emphasis on orthodoxy versus heresy, and the inclusion of apologetic refutations of competing worldviews come together to form the heresy-rationalist apologetic approach. Johnson notes that this analytical grid of heresy versus orthodoxy has historical precedent, such as Van Baalen and others who were significant in utilizing this methodology. The positive elements of the heresy-rationalist apologetic should be acknowledged. Johnson points out 15 that it excels in helping Christians develop discernment in regard to orthodox and heterodox doctrine: it involves a high view of Scripture in terms of its authority and inspiration and teaching; and it can provide teachers and other members of the church with the tools necessary to warn of heresy and maintain doctrinal integrity. Johnson goes on in his analysis to provide several examples of exemplary books of both an academic and popular nature that have utilized this approach. However, the heresy-rationalist approach is not without its shortcomings. In , an international group of evangelical scholars and mission practitioners met in Pattaya, Thailand, as part of the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization. One of the issue groups, IG 16, was devoted to the study of new religions. Issue Group 16 produced one of the more extensive Lausanne Occasional Papers LOP 45 to come out of this gathering, and it included critical interaction with the heresy-rationalist apologetic. Many of the individuals involved in this issue group had each previously wrestled with their concerns about the heresy-rationalist approach long before participating in the meeting in Thailand. Although they had taken different routes along the way, fresh biblical, theological, and missiological reflection, interactions with the academic literature on new religions such as that from the social sciences, and personal encounters and relationships with those engaged in the spiritual quests of the new religions were all important parts of this process of critical reflection. As a result of this critical process, new approaches were developed that drew upon biblical examples that contextualized the gospel message, case studies in the history of Christian mission, and the discipline of cross-cultural missiology. This resulted in a conceptual shift wherein the new religions were understood primarily as dynamic religious cultures 19 rather than deviant systems of heretical doctrine. This change of perspective from cults to cultures coupled with concerns about the heresy-rationalist apologetic led to the formation of new missions approaches, examples of which are included in the Lausanne Occasional Paper. Additional examples and more extensive treatments can be found in the book Encountering New Religious Movements. It has also received positive reviews in academic theological and missiological journals and websites. The development of cross-cultural mission approaches to new religions has not been well received in all segments of evangelicalism. Given that the model was developed in part as a critique of the countercult and their use of a heresy-rationalist apologetic, it is not surprising that individuals within the movement have been its most vocal critics. Although no countercult spokesperson has published an essay in a peer-reviewed journal critiquing the mission approach, I have had email exchanges in years past with some of these individuals. As a result of these conversations, some of their main objections to the mission approach are summarized below, followed by my brief responses. Inaccurate representation of the countercult. One common objection is that the critique offered of countercult ministries and methodology is not accurate and is based on misunderstanding. In response, we should recall the extensive academic research into the countercult done by figures like Johnson, Melton, 25 Cowan, 26 and others. In addition, many now involved in cross-cultural mission approaches were formerly involved in countercult ministries and at one time utilized heresy-rationalist approaches themselves. It is difficult to see how this depth of research and experience with countercult methodology could lend itself to such gross misunderstanding. Mission approaches are already being done by the countercult. However, a careful comparison of the heresy-rationalist apologetic with cross-cultural mission approaches reveals a sharp contrast, as even one secular scholar has been able to discern. Biblical texts appropriate for Christian heresies. Countercult critics also take issue with the allegation that the wrong set of biblical texts are utilized in a heresy-rationalist apologetic. In their view, when these texts are applied to Bible-based groups, or to those heretical systems that arose within the Christian community, the application is appropriate. However, this argument still does not address the basic hermeneutical issues of the orthodoxy versus heresy template raised in the initial criticism of the heresy-rationalist apologetic. Heresy-rationalist apologetics wins converts, so why consider an alternative? One final argument from countercult spokespersons is that the heresy-rationalist apologetic is an evangelistically pragmatic one—that is, it results in converts. In response, it should first be noted that such claims are anecdotal. No scientific survey data has been done in connection with countercult methods and the disaffiliation and reaffiliation journeys of those in new religions. Second, the complex and multifaceted personal journeys of former members of new religions must be taken into account. Apologetic arguments do have value, but they would seem to be most effective when individuals have already begun to make an exit. Such individuals are looking for dissonance reduction and justification as to why a religious migration towards Christianity would be a more appealing alternative. Although I have noted the positive aspects of discernment and apologetics, in addition to the shortcomings described above, it is also ethically problematic. Furthermore, the use of heresy-rationalist apologetics as an evangelistic methodology is pragmatically flawed. At its height the movement had over members; today there seem to be only few hundred worldwide. In fact, this may be the most influential Canadian contribution to modern religion. Most of these have remained essentially orthodox, but some have developed unusual beliefs and practices. Today in Canada, the most prolific of the new religions are continental in nature and not essentially Canadian. An important feature of such churches is their global scope and willingness to adapt beliefs and practices from all over the world. One of the most successful of these movements is the Calgary-based Victory Church. It was originally founded in Lethbridge by George and Hazel Hill. Today it is a growing denomination with over local congregations and significant international links. In the Victory Church movement, led by its Lethbridge congregation, successfully challenged the CRTC's ruling against religious broadcasting and is pioneering independent religious broadcasting in Canada. Even more spectacular is the international impact of the Toronto Vineyard Church. Although group-organized new religious movements have gained notoriety, a growing number of people from young adults through to seniors are involved in individual quests for and healing and do not affiliate with such groups. Further, the movement defies definition because it lacks clear-cut parameters. It is best seen as a broad attempt at an overall social and spiritual paradigm shift. It was used by and others, influenced by , in the s. Canadian Richard Bucke's was also an early forerunner of today's esoteric spirituality. In the early s anthropologist began to teach generic shamanic techniques to Westerners in workshops for use in healing and spiritual quests The Way of the Shaman , , and Castaneda began his series of books about a sorcerer, Don Juan. Starhawk, whose real name is Miriam Simos, and others wrote about and practised a Goddess religion which promoted the growth of neo-paganism and modern witchcraft, usually known as . Marilyn Ferguson argued that a personal and social transformation was underway involving holism, a new world view and a paradigm shift. People involved with thinking and practices draw on a wide range of interests such as ; ; trans-channelling, which is a form of spiritualist ; ; tarot card reading; ; out- of-body experiences; ; ; Celtic and Druidic systems; North American and other native and non-native traditional religious systems; and ecological concerns. Thus, while there is no general agreement among practitioners, a wide range of beliefs and practices are available to potential users. At its most sophisticated, however, the Mystical Movement attempts to integrate modern scientific theories, including quantum mechanics, space-time physics, genetics, biology and neurophysiology, with mysticism to gain a broader, more holistic understanding of reality. Transformation, holism, the merging of science and religion are major themes. Involvement with nonbiomedical healing is prevalent at all levels of the movement through various kinds of spiritual healing such as laying-on-of-hands, and Reiki. More organized endeavours can be seen in such groups as the Calgary-based Wild Rose Clinic, which has a continental cliental and offers correspondence courses in traditional healing and herbalism. If membership of new religious groups is small, interest in new forms of spirituality is slowly growing. What is unique about the Mystical Movement and growing spirituality is its lack of a formal organization and the dissemination of its views through various media: books, magazines, videos, television programs, and most recently the internet. Spiritual and New Age literature can be found in most Canadian towns and the larger cities in regular book stores and libraries; larger cities usually have several bookshops devoted to New Age writings. In Winnipeg, for example, there are 4 specialty bookshops dealing in aspects of the Mystical Movement and esoteric spirituality. Two of these have been in extistence for at least 7 years. As a result the New Age and larger Mystical Movement are best viewed as a growing network of individuals who participate in varying degrees in an overall global belief system, rather than in terms of specific organizations or spiritual groups. Canadians avail themselves of a variety of activities both in this country and in the United States. Study groups in A Course in Miracles, spiritual development activities, workshops in tarot card reading, neo-, meditation and healing are widespread activities. People who attend such functions do not join a particular group or become members in an organization. Rather they are clients who receive instruction occasionally there is a fee , which they can use in their own lives or occasionally as a basis on which to establish their own local practice or spiritual interest group. Participants in such activities select what is relevant to their personal spiritual quest and then move on to other sources of enlightenment. As a result the individual's spiritual paradigm shares much of the overall mystical belief system; nevertheless, each person tailors their own system to his or her own needs and therefore creates a highly personal belief system. Because those who develop and those who participate in the Mystical Movement are usually well educated members of mainstream society, the movement has the potential to make profound impacts on society and culture. It is primarily an urban, middle-class phenomenon. Spiritualists are not marginal to society, but participate actively in community affairs; their activities are tolerated by society and generally ignored by traditional churches. Women are equal with men and often take a lead in a spiritual activity. Children are not deliberately drawn into membership: it is necessary to keep a balance between the mystical and the real world, a distinction that might be difficult for a young child. Visitors are warmly welcomed, but no pressure is exerted to join the organization or to accept particular beliefs. Some spiritualists estimate that there were spiritualists in Canada in the s, but only about one-third were active. Abramic religions are those religions which claim the patriarch Abraham as their common ancestor and include Christianity, Judaism and Islam. Yogic religions are those religions which centre their devotion on the practice of , or meditation, and find their origin in the religious traditions of India. Primal religions are those religions, including North American native and African religions, which centre on fundamental religious experiences such as dreams, visions, out-of-the-body experiences and the intervention of ancestors in daily life. Using this simplified typology the Unification Church is clearly an Abramic type of religion. It must also be recognized that today many groups combine elements from all 3 types of religion. Thus the Unification Church includes in its practices both Yogic and Primal elements, while Scientology clearly draws some of its beliefs and practices from the Yogic tradition. Gordon Melton, J. Clark and A. Search The Canadian Encyclopedia. Remember me. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World

In our secular society, both the quest for meaning and spiritual experiences are often dismissed as psychological problems. If, however, someone encounters a new religion during a period of questioning, or shortly after some vivid spiritual experience, then the sympathy shown by group members, and the answers provided by the group's teachings may be sufficient to cause them to join the group. Generally, most members of new religions should be seen to be on a spiritual quest which leads them to experiment with a number of religious groups before joining a specific group. Why a person joins a particular group appears to depend on friendship ties rather than anything else. Thus, a person may be attracted to a group like the Unification Church because Unification theology explains a particularly vivid spiritual experience. But commitment to the church comes from a feeling of belonging and the bonds of friendship which are formed with existing members. Theoretical support for these claims came from Flo Conway and Jim Siegleman's book Snapping , which argued that personality change following conversion was evidence of brainwashing. The basis for their theory was William Sargent's book Battle for the Mind , which sought to explain the effects of Billy Graham's Harringay Crusade in England in Thus, Conway and Siegleman made no real distinction between people who converted to the Unification Church or joined a local evangelical congregation. In Canada Josh Freed's Moonwebs , which became a television film, led credence to the claim that members of new religions were brainwashed and in need of deprogramming. This practice involved kidnapping members of unpopular religions and holding them prisoner until they renounced their membership in the group in question. Deprogramming was not limited to members of new religions. In the US it involved Anglicans, Baptists, Roman Catholics and members of political and social groups such as feminists. In short, it was used against anyone whose religion or lifestyle someone else, usually parents, thought was wrong. The practice was clearly illegal and had many implications for civil liberties. University of Toronto psychiatrist Saul V. Levine made a study of deprogramming in his book Radical Departures He concluded that as a means of changing people's views it was not only a failure but positively dangerous. These conclusions were supported by other scholars who provided civil libertarians, religious leaders in established churches and members of new religions with evidence against the practice of deprogramming. As a result it gradually fell into disrepute. Yet it cannot be denied that some people seem to join religious and similar movements as a result of group pressure and misleading information. It is also true that very small numbers of groups are positively dangerous. It involves therapy sessions and discussion rather than kidnapping and bombardment with negative information. The leading theorist of exit counselling is Margaret Singer, a retired professor of psychology from the University of Berkeley and leading figure in the American Family Foundation. With Janja Lalich she has written Cults in Our Midst , which presents a strong case against certain forms of new religions and pleads the case that some members and ex-members need counselling. Canada also has its share of anticult groups. Criticism of organizations like these is found in Bromley and Shupe's The New Vigilantes , which claims that such groups resemble the movements they claim to expose. Three main religious systems provide the basic ingredients for the majority of new religions. These are the Abramic, Yogic and Primal religious traditions. Over the years Canada has seen the growth of numerous indigenous new religious movements. Following the War of an Ontario-based Quaker sect, the Children of Peace, flourished until it finally died out in Today, there are several fundamentalist Mormon groups of more recent origin in southern Alberta and parts of BC. As a result the group broke up in the early s. Parker This movement blends Eastern and Western forms of spirituality with numerology. It practices and physical exercises similar to Hatha Yoga. It attracts upper-middle-class followers and is essentially Yogic in orientation. Two years later the matter is still under investigation by the police, although numerous theories about money laundering and the involvement with the drug trade abound. In spite of a 2-year jail sentence for the forceable detention of 3 children, the group has built 30 monastic-type communities in Canada and the US. Controversy continues to surround this and other groups, especially as allegations of child abuse frequently emerge, but, as with the notorious Children of God, are rarely proven. Although not founded in Canada the Children of God developed many of their distinctive features and created a negative image of new religions after a period of rapid growth in Vancouver, BC. Eventually the group divided into various colonies which went underground. They changed their name several times and currently use the name the Family. At its height the movement had over members; today there seem to be only few hundred worldwide. In fact, this may be the most influential Canadian contribution to modern religion. Most of these have remained essentially orthodox, but some have developed unusual beliefs and practices. Today in Canada, the most prolific of the new religions are continental in nature and not essentially Canadian. An important feature of such churches is their global scope and willingness to adapt beliefs and practices from all over the world. One of the most successful of these movements is the Calgary-based Victory Church. It was originally founded in Lethbridge by George and Hazel Hill. Today it is a growing denomination with over local congregations and significant international links. In the Victory Church movement, led by its Lethbridge congregation, successfully challenged the CRTC's ruling against religious broadcasting and is pioneering independent religious broadcasting in Canada. Even more spectacular is the international impact of the Toronto Vineyard Church. I started reading it just to cover a survey of history of cult, but the book offered a lot more, covering issues like the importance of a religious or spiritual phenomenon in a society or the role of the media in shaping and presenting them to people. It is totally unbiased and truly academic in its entirety, defining the advent, progress, and demise of some prominent new religious and spiritual This book totally changed my point of view toward the issue of Cults and New Religions phenomenon. It is totally unbiased and truly academic in its entirety, defining the advent, progress, and demise of some prominent new religious and spiritual movements. If you are interested in the subject, this is a great book to begin with. Olivia rated it it was amazing Nov 29, Deanna rated it really liked it Nov 02, Diane rated it it was amazing Mar 19, Kaden Andreason rated it really liked it Mar 14, Missie Pattipati rated it it was amazing Apr 11, Emma rated it liked it Dec 25, Bill Johnston marked it as to-read Jan 19, Jane added it Feb 26, Stephen marked it as to-read May 29, Courtney added it May 25, Victoria marked it as to- read Jun 10, Kerryanne Graham added it Sep 03, Isaac Ogallo marked it as to-read Dec 07, There are no discussion topics on this book yet. Readers also enjoyed. About Douglas E. Publication Date: 08 Aug By: Peter Alpass. Publication Date: 13 Jun Publication Date: 09 Dec Wayward Readings in Greek Theology. By: Henk Versnel. 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Evangelical Approaches to New Religions - Fuller Studio

In short, it was used against anyone whose religion or lifestyle someone else, usually parents, thought was wrong. The practice was clearly illegal and had many implications for civil liberties. University of Toronto psychiatrist Saul V. Levine made a study of deprogramming in his book Radical Departures He concluded that as a means of changing people's views it was not only a failure but positively dangerous. These conclusions were supported by other scholars who provided civil libertarians, religious leaders in established churches and members of new religions with evidence against the practice of deprogramming. As a result it gradually fell into disrepute. Yet it cannot be denied that some people seem to join religious and similar movements as a result of group pressure and misleading information. It is also true that very small numbers of groups are positively dangerous. It involves therapy sessions and discussion rather than kidnapping and bombardment with negative information. The leading theorist of exit counselling is Margaret Singer, a retired professor of psychology from the University of Berkeley and leading figure in the American Family Foundation. With Janja Lalich she has written Cults in Our Midst , which presents a strong case against certain forms of new religions and pleads the case that some members and ex-members need counselling. Canada also has its share of anticult groups. Criticism of organizations like these is found in Bromley and Shupe's The New Vigilantes , which claims that such groups resemble the movements they claim to expose. Three main religious systems provide the basic ingredients for the majority of new religions. These are the Abramic, Yogic and Primal religious traditions. Over the years Canada has seen the growth of numerous indigenous new religious movements. Following the War of an Ontario-based Quaker sect, the Children of Peace, flourished until it finally died out in Today, there are several fundamentalist Mormon groups of more recent origin in southern Alberta and parts of BC. As a result the group broke up in the early s. Parker This movement blends Eastern and Western forms of spirituality with numerology. It practices vegetarianism and physical exercises similar to Hatha Yoga. It attracts upper-middle-class followers and is essentially Yogic in orientation. Two years later the matter is still under investigation by the police, although numerous theories about money laundering and the involvement with the drug trade abound. In spite of a 2-year jail sentence for the forceable detention of 3 children, the group has built 30 monastic-type communities in Canada and the US. Controversy continues to surround this and other groups, especially as allegations of child abuse frequently emerge, but, as with the notorious Children of God, are rarely proven. Although not founded in Canada the Children of God developed many of their distinctive features and created a negative image of new religions after a period of rapid growth in Vancouver, BC. Eventually the group divided into various colonies which went underground. They changed their name several times and currently use the name the Family. At its height the movement had over members; today there seem to be only few hundred worldwide. In fact, this may be the most influential Canadian contribution to modern religion. Most of these have remained essentially orthodox, but some have developed unusual beliefs and practices. Today in Canada, the most prolific of the new religions are continental in nature and not essentially Canadian. An important feature of such churches is their global scope and willingness to adapt beliefs and practices from all over the world. One of the most successful of these movements is the Calgary-based Victory Church. It was originally founded in Lethbridge by George and Hazel Hill. Today it is a growing denomination with over local congregations and significant international links. In the Victory Church movement, led by its Lethbridge congregation, successfully challenged the CRTC's ruling against religious broadcasting and is pioneering independent religious broadcasting in Canada. Even more spectacular is the international impact of the Toronto Vineyard Church. Although group-organized new religious movements have gained notoriety, a growing number of people from young adults through to seniors are involved in individual quests for spirituality and healing and do not affiliate with such groups. Further, the movement defies definition because it lacks clear-cut parameters. It is best seen as a broad attempt at an overall social and spiritual paradigm shift. It was used by Alice Bailey and others, influenced by Helena Blavatsky, in the s. Canadian Richard Bucke's Cosmic Consciousness was also an early forerunner of today's esoteric spirituality. In the early s anthropologist Michael Harner began to teach generic shamanic techniques to Westerners in workshops for use in healing and spiritual quests The Way of the Shaman , , and Castaneda began his series of books about a sorcerer, Don Juan. Starhawk, whose real name is Miriam Simos, and others wrote about and practised a Goddess religion which promoted the growth of neo- paganism and modern witchcraft, usually known as Wicca. Marilyn Ferguson argued that a personal and social transformation was underway involving holism, a new world view and a paradigm shift. People involved with New Age thinking and practices draw on a wide range of interests such as astrology; magic; trans-channelling, which is a form of spiritualist mediumship; crystal healing; tarot card reading; meditation; out-of-body experiences; karma; reincarnation; Celtic and Druidic systems; North American and other native and non-native traditional religious systems; and ecological concerns. Thus, while there is no general agreement among practitioners, a wide range of beliefs and practices are available to potential users. At its most sophisticated, however, the Mystical Movement attempts to integrate modern scientific theories, including quantum mechanics, space-time physics, genetics, biology and neurophysiology, with mysticism to gain a broader, more holistic understanding of reality. Transformation, holism, the merging of science and religion are major themes. Involvement with nonbiomedical healing is prevalent at all levels of the movement through various kinds of spiritual healing such as laying-on-of-hands, and Reiki. More organized endeavours can be seen in such groups as the Calgary-based Wild Rose Clinic, which has a continental cliental and offers correspondence courses in traditional healing and herbalism. If membership of new religious groups is small, interest in new forms of spirituality is slowly growing. What is unique about the Mystical Movement and growing spirituality is its lack of a formal organization and the dissemination of its views through various media: books, magazines, videos, television programs, and most recently the internet. Spiritual and New Age literature can be found in most Canadian towns and the larger cities in regular book stores and libraries; larger cities usually have several bookshops devoted to New Age writings. In Winnipeg, for example, there are 4 specialty bookshops dealing in aspects of the Mystical Movement and esoteric spirituality. Two of these have been in extistence for at least 7 years. As a result the New Age and larger Mystical Movement are best viewed as a growing network of individuals who participate in varying degrees in an overall global belief system, rather than in terms of specific organizations or spiritual groups. Canadians avail themselves of a variety of activities both in this country and in the United States. Study groups in A Course in Miracles, spiritual development activities, workshops in tarot card reading, neo-shamanism, meditation and healing are widespread activities. People who attend such functions do not join a particular group or become members in an organization. Rather they are clients who receive instruction occasionally there is a fee , which they can use in their own lives or occasionally as a basis on which to establish their own local practice or spiritual interest group. Participants in such activities select what is relevant to their personal spiritual quest and then move on to other sources of enlightenment. As a result the individual's spiritual paradigm shares much of the overall mystical belief system; nevertheless, each person tailors their own system to his or her own needs and therefore creates a highly personal belief system. Because those who develop and those who participate in the Mystical Movement are usually well educated members of mainstream society, the movement has the potential to make profound impacts on society and culture. It is primarily an urban, middle-class phenomenon. Spiritualists are not marginal to society, but participate actively in community affairs; their activities are tolerated by society and generally ignored by traditional churches. Women are equal with men and often take a lead in a spiritual activity. Children are not deliberately drawn into membership: it is necessary to keep a balance between the mystical and the real world, a distinction that might be difficult for a young child. Visitors are warmly welcomed, but no pressure is exerted to join the organization or to accept particular beliefs. Some spiritualists estimate that there were spiritualists in Canada in the s, but only about one-third were active. Abramic religions are those religions which claim the patriarch Abraham as their common ancestor and include Christianity, Judaism and Islam. Yogic religions are those religions which centre their devotion on the practice of yoga, or meditation, and find their origin in the religious traditions of India. Primal religions are those religions, including North American native and African religions, which centre on fundamental religious experiences such as dreams, visions, out-of-the-body experiences and the intervention of ancestors in daily life. Using this simplified typology the Unification Church is clearly an Abramic type of religion. It must also be recognized that today many groups combine elements from all 3 types of religion. Thus the Unification Church includes in its practices both Yogic and Primal elements, while Scientology clearly draws some of its beliefs and practices from the Yogic tradition. Gordon Melton, J. Most religions transition through different organizational phases. For example, Christianity began as a cult, transformed into a sect, and today exists as an ecclesia. Cults , like sects, are new religious groups. In the United States today this term often carries pejorative connotations. However, almost all religions began as cults and gradually progressed to levels of greater size and organization. The term cult is sometimes used interchangeably with the term new religious movement NRM. Controversy exists over whether some groups are cults, perhaps due in part to media sensationalism over groups like polygamous Mormons or the Peoples Temple followers who died at Jonestown, Guyana. Some groups that are controversially labeled as cults today include the Church of Scientology and the Hare Krishna movement. Most of the well-known Christian denominations in the United States today began as sects. Occasionally, a sect is a breakaway group that may be in tension with larger society. When membership in a sect increases over time, it may grow into a denomination. Often a sect begins as an offshoot of a denomination, when a group of members believes they should separate from the larger group. Some sects dissolve without growing into denominations. Sociologists call these established sects. A denomination is a large, mainstream religious organization, but it does not claim to be official or state sponsored. It is one religion among many. The term ecclesia , originally referring to a political assembly of citizens in ancient Athens, Greece, now refers to a congregation. In sociology, the term is used to refer to a religious group that most all members of a society belong to. It is considered a nationally recognized, or official, religion that holds a religious monopoly and is closely allied with state and secular powers. The United States does not have an ecclesia by this standard; in fact, this is the type of religious organization that many of the first colonists came to America to escape. How might you classify the Mennonites? As a cult, a sect, or a denomination? One way to remember these religious organizational terms is to think of cults, sects, denominations, and ecclesia representing a continuum, with increasing influence on society, where cults are least influential and ecclesia are most influential. Scholars from a variety of disciplines have strived to classify religions. One widely accepted categorization that helps people understand different belief systems considers what or who people worship if anything. Using this method of classification, religions might fall into one of these basic categories. Note that some religions may be practiced—or understood—in various categories. For instance, the Christian notion of the Holy Trinity God, Jesus, Holy Spirit defies the definition of monotheism , which is a religion based on belief in a single deity, to some scholars. Some Japanese practice , which follows , which is a religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world, while people who practice totemism believe in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings. It is also important to note that every society also has nonbelievers, such as atheists , who do not believe in a divine being or entity, and agnostics, who hold that ultimate reality such as God is unknowable. While typically not an organized group, atheists and agnostics represent a significant portion of the population. It is important to recognize that being a nonbeliever in a divine entity does not mean the individual subscribes to no morality. Indeed, many Nobel Peace Prize winners and other great humanitarians over the centuries would have classified themselves as atheists or agnostics. Religions have emerged and developed across the world. Some have been short-lived, while others have persisted and grown. Hindu women sometimes apply decorations of henna dye to their hands for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. Photo courtesy of Akash Mazumdar. The oldest religion in the world, Hinduism originated in the Indus River Valley about 4, years ago in what is now modern-day northwest India and Pakistan. It arose contemporaneously with ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures. Hindus believe in a divine power that can manifest as different entities. Three main incarnations—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—are sometimes compared to the manifestations of the divine in the Christian Trinity. Multiple sacred texts, collectively called the Vedas, contain hymns and rituals from ancient India and are mostly written in Sanskrit. Buddhism promotes peace and tolerance. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama around B. Siddhartha was said to have given up a comfortable, upper-class life to follow one of poverty and spiritual devotion. Buddhism also tends to deemphasize the role of a godhead, instead stressing the importance of personal responsibility Craig Meditation is an important practice in Buddhism. A Tibetan monk is shown here engaged in solitary meditation. Confucianism was the official religion of China from B. An extraordinary teacher, his lessons—which were about self-discipline, respect for authority and tradition, and jen the kind treatment of every person —were collected in a book called the Analects. In fact, its teachings were developed in context of problems of social anarchy and a near-complete deterioration of social cohesion. Dissatisfied with the social solutions put forth, Kung Fu-Tzu developed his own model of religious morality to help guide society Smith In Taoism, the purpose of life is inner peace and harmony.

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