Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76937-2 — a History of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East Heather J

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76937-2 — A History of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East Heather J. Sharkey Index More Information 361

Index

Abbasid dynasty and Ottoman constitution, 187 – 88 alcohol consumption during, 42 and regulatory functions, 192 differentiation by clothing during, 46 shrinking inl uence of grand viziers/ history of, 31 – 32 high- level bureaucrats, 190 ABCFM (American Board of as fan of Western culture, 258 Commissioners for Foreign i nancial crisis under, 183, 189 , 228 Missions), 138, 201 , 221 imperial revival under, 190 – 96 , 218 – 23 ‘Abd al-Halim Pasha, son of Muhammad and Afghani, 214 – 17 ‘Ali of Egypt, 254 – 55 and antiquities, 194 ‘Abd al-Malik (Umayyad caliph), 53 and artwork, 194– 96 ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri, 267 becoming more Muslim, 218 – 27 Abduh, Muhammad, 228 , 246 –47 and building of schools, 193 Abdulaziz (Ottoman sultan), 179 – 80, 183 , communications, 199 190 , 191 , 194 , 213 , 261 diplomacy, 196 – 97 Abdulhamid II (Ottoman sultan) educational practices, 191 censoring under, 189 – 90 emigration to Americas, 197 – 98 change in political mood under, problems from Ottoman state point 189 – 90 , 228 of view, 198 Christian missionaries, 199 – 204 religious demographics of in Egypt, 209 – 10 emigrants, 197 – 98 and girls/ women, 202 – 3 inl uence over residual territories/ inspections of mission subjects, 190 – 96 schools, 211 – 12 and Islamic reform Jewish/ Christian parallel “new orthodoxy” policy, 223 – 27 experiences, 201 – 2 Alevis’ desire for closer connection and medicine/public health, 200 – 1 with Protestants, 225 Mormons, 199 – 200 conscription, 223 – 24 , 225 –26 Muslim audiences, and forced conversion of Yezidis to nationalism, 204 – 12 Sunni Islam, 223 numbers of conversions, 210 – 11 government schools for promoting schools of, 201 Muslim culture, 225 and science debates, 203 – 4 inl uence of Christian conclusions about, 303 – 4 missionaries, 224 – 25 continuities during, 227 – 28 Muslim missionary campaigns, and end of Tanzimat era, 187 –90 224 exile of potential challengers, 190 reasons for conversions/making and increase in bureaucracy, 192 people more Muslim, 225 – 27 and Jewish-Ottoman relations, 188 Stavriotae, attempted shift and military, 192 from Islam to Christianity, and military conscription, 188 223 – 24 , 225 and mixed parliament, 188 – 89, organizational practices, 191 233n52 Ottomans abroad, 196 – 99 361

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76937-2 — A History of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East Heather J. Sharkey Index More Information 362

362 Index

Abdulhamid II (Ottoman sultan) (cont.) gazinos, 250 overlooking of sectarian distinctions musicians, 249 – 50 , 257 – 58 among Muslims, 222 , 241n214 public venues, 249 and pan-Islamic politics, rise of Ottoman middle class, 212 – 18 , 228 – 29 250 – 53 , 303 claim to title of caliph, 213 – 14 and cosmopolitanism, 252 effect of nationalism on, 228 as disproportionately Christian and effect of Wahhabism on, 228 – 30 Jewish, 252 embracing technology as features of, 251 characteristic of, 212 – 13 and literacy, 251 European claims to backwardness Muslim members, 252 – 53 of, 215 and women readers and ofi cial respect for tradition as writers, 251 – 52 characteristic of, 212 , 218 contraception and abortion and photography, 182 , 193 – 94 , rulings, 271 243 , 257 convergence during, 253 – 59 and religious diversity, 76 and alcohol consumption, 253 Alawites (Nusayris), 220 – 21 foreign mission schools, 256 – 57 in Albania, 219 – 20 Freemasonry, 254– 56 Alevis, 220 , 221 , 225 gazinos, 253 in Anatolia and Greater leisured shopping, 253 – 54 Syria, 220 – 23 picture postcard Dönme, 219, 220 , 227 consumption, 253 – 54 Druze, 220 power of clothes to blur religious and endogamy, 220 status, 244 – 45 , 257 Stavriotae, 219 , 220 secular spaces, emergence of, 245 Sui sm, 220 Young Ottomans, 255 – 56 Yezidis, 220, 222 , 223 , 227 conversion to modernities, 246 – 47 and retrieval of Libya, 191 demographics, 270 – 71 scientii c practices, 191 dethroning of, 287 – 88 interest in photography, 182 divergence during, 245 – 46 military exemption tax, 223 efforts to keep Arab provinces within nationalism in, 228 empire, 283 – 84 ordinary Muslims’ opinion of, 217 –18 end of Ottoman Empire, 288 – 89 overview of, 179 – 82 growth of “Turkish” British/French views on, 180– 81 consciousness, 284 – 85 control over Ottoman Empire, 181 – 82 increasing anxieties hobbies of, 180 among social/economically micromanager and workaholic, 179 beleaguered, 247 paranoia of, 179 – 80 , 181, 193 – 94 , consequences of privileging Islam/ 276 , 318 Muslims, 247 – 48 thrift of, 180 effects Russo-Turkish War, 247 refugee crisis under Abdulhamid II, military, and creation of Hamidiye 183 – 84 , 185 (see also muhajir s ) cavalry, 247 – 48 Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 Muslim- Jewish relationship, effect under, 184 – 85 on, 248 surveillance under, 189 – 90 , 194 refusal of Muslim supremacy See also Abdulhamid II (Ottoman principle, 247 sultan), later years of Jews and Ottoman reforms, 259 – 66 Abdulhamid II (Ottoman sultan), later in Libya, 265 – 66 years of relationship with Muslims, 266 and Armenian massacre, 267 – 76 status of Jews as dhimmis, 266 challenges to commerce and natural in Yemen, 260 – 63 disasters model of social Young Turks ( see Young Turks ) relations, 248 – 53 Abdullah Frères, 193

Index 363

Abdulmajid I (Ottoman sultan) Alevis, 75 , 220 , 221 attendance of non-Muslim festivities Algeria by, 124 – 25 ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri, 267 coni rmation of edict of 1839 by, 115 Alliance Israélite Universelle in, 159 and edict of 1856, 115 – 16 French policy toward Jews in, 160 – 61 abortion rulings, 271 French policy toward Muslims in, 161 Abougit, Louis, 150 French Christian anti-Semitism Abougit, Riccadonna, 150 in, 160 – 62 Abrahamic religions, 19 ‘Ali (cousin/son- in-law of Muhammad), Abu Bakr, 77 30 , 76 , 220 , 229 Abu Nuwas, 42 Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU), Abu Yusuf, 46 158 – 60 , 201 – 2 , 261 acculturation, conversions to Islam expansion of, 159 through, 48 and Frenchii cation of Jewish Adana Massacre, 278 – 79 communities, 159 Aden, 191 – 92 gender parity at, 159 , 252 Afghani, Jamal al-Din al- , 214 – 17 , reasons for focus on Jews in Islamic 228 , 254 – 55 world, 159 – 60 Abdulhamid II on, 216 – 17 Al- Qaeda, worldwide terrorist attacks by, 7 defence/ criticism of, 215 – 16 Amara, Ibrahim. See Damascus Affair in Egypt, 215 American Board of Commissioners for in exile in France, 215 Foreign Missions (ABCFM), and Freemasonry, 255 138 , 201 , 221 Afghanistan, U.S. and allies launch wars in, 7 American University of Beirut (AUB), Africa 200 , 256 conversions to Christianity in nineteenth/ Amis, Kingsley, 306 twentieth century, 48 – 49 Amsterdam, and trade, 102 economically motivated migration to Anatolia Middle East from, 2 Christian population, diminution in, 2 agriculture health statistics, 200 – 1 Armenian innovations, 279 migration to Americas from, 197 European-Ottoman exchanges, 70 Muslim-Christian interrelations in, 117 Europe/ Ottoman Empire exchanges, 70 Muslim life expectancy in, 201 , 267 moshavot in Palestine, 264 Sui sm in, 220 ahl al- dhimma. See dhimmis See also Armenian Massacre ; Armenians Ahmad Mukhtar Pasha, 262 Anglican missionary schools, 201 Ahmet III (Ottoman sultan), 100 Anglo-Jewish Association, 261 pleasure palace of, 101 Anglo-Turkish Convention, 131 A’idah, Nasrallah, 97 Antioch, Alawites in, 224 Akçam, Taner, 286 anti-Semitism Aksakal, Mustafa, 286 in Algeria, 153 , 161 – 62 Alawites, 153 , 161 and concept of blood libel, 85 efforts to convert to Sunni Islam, 224 Damascus Affair, 155 – 58 exemption from paying jizya, 222 and Disraeli, 184 al-Azhar university (Egypt), reforms Dreyfus Affair, 248 at, 246 – 47 Mortara Affair, 155 , 158 – 60 Albania, nationalism in, 284 in Morocco, 153 , 161 – 62 alcohol consumption persistence of, 155 by Abdulhamid II, 217 , 253 and rise of Zionism, 182 , by Mamluks, 42 230 – 31 , 263 – 64 Pact of Umar on, 42 and smells, 307 Qur’an on, 217 Antonius, George, 205 – 6 , 283 Aleppo apostasy, and Islam, 139 , 141 , 209 – 10 Catholic missionaries in, 97 –98 Arab League, founding of, 11 riot of 1850 in, 141 , 146 – 47 Arab nationalism (nahda), 251 , 282 – 83

364 Index

Aratin, Butrus, 146 – 47 Ashkenazi Jews archaeology, nineteenth century, 119 attitude toward “Eastern” Jewish architecture others, 265 Baroque, 118 and Haskalah or Enlightenment, 154– 55 Gothic, 118 Asia, economic migration to Middle East triumphalist, 118 , 166n20 from, 2 Armenian massacre (1890s), 267 –76 Asir, Yusuf al-, 205 and anti-Armenian violence in assimilation, conversions to Islam Sasun, 273 through, 48 and Armenian resentments, 272 – 73 Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 134 – 35 assimilation through marriage/conversion/ AUB (American University of Beirut), adoption as genocide, 286 200 , 256 and attack on Ottoman Bank in authoritative power, 52 Istanbul, 273 – 74 Ayyubid dynasty, dress distinctions death tolls from, 267 during, 54 and mass conversions of Armenians to Islam, 268 Babur (Mughal Empire), 78 rape and abductions during, 268 Baer, Marc D., 227 role of Abdulhamid II in, Baghdad, move of Islamic state to, 31 268 – 70 , 274 – 75 Balfour Declaration (1917), 288 role of improved roads/communications Bali nightclub attack (2002), 7 in, 276 Balkans, and Muslim-Christian role of Muslim resentment against interrelations, 117 Armenians in, 270 – 72 Balkan Wars (1912–1913), 285 – 86 violent events of 1890s as pogroms vs. Balkan/Yugoslav Wars (1991–c. 2001), 6 massacres, 274 – 75 banality of violence, 3 See also Armenians Banna, Hasan al-, 215 Armenians Banu Qurayza Jews, massacre of, 33 –35 Adana Massacre against, 278 – 79 historical interpretation of, 37 – 38 agricultural innovations of, 279 Barbarossa (Khayr al-Din), 69 Bible translations for, 207 Bashir II, 150 and conscription, 270 bathhouses, distinguishing Muslims/ depictions of atrocities by Turkey, 4 –6 dhimmis at, 56 , 90 – 91 , 310 dress codes under Ottoman rule, 89 – 90 bearing arms and riding mounted and edict of 1839, 128 – 29 animals elements of Armenophobia, 272 and conscription of Christian men, 145 forced conversions during Safavid and conscription of Ottoman Empire, 77 citizens, 144 – 45 and Hamidiye cavalry, 247 – 48 exception during Egyptian invasion of health of, 201 Syria, 142 – 43 land ownership by, 270 exception in remote northern nationalism of, 228 , 248 , 251 Yemen, 142 population diminution, 2 exception of Coptic Legion, 142 proposed reforms by Britain, France, Muslim/ Christian men asymmetry, 316 and Russian for, 271 – 72 Pact of Umar on, 41 , 142 and provision of winter shelter/fodder bedouin, 224 for pastoralist Kurds, 273 Beirut response to wearing kalpak, 131 –32 Muslim- Christian social tensions and World War I, 286 – 87 in, 150 zartonk (renaissance) of, 251 printing presses in, 251 Armenophobia, 272 , 287 Belgium, terrorist attacks of 2015 and art 2016 in, 8 Baroque/Rococo, 101 Benedict XIV (Pope), 8 carpet designs, 104 – 5 , 312 –13 ben Gaon, Sa’adiya, 50 Islamic art formation, 53 – 54 Benjamin (patriarch of Coptic Church in Artan, Tülay, 103 Egypt), 36

Index 365

berats (certii cates of foreign protection at Mount Lebanon, 150 and legal status for translators in schools of, 201 , 293n65 Ottoman Empire), 96 – 97 Catholics Berkes, Niyazi, 100 , 164 , 217 , 218 , dragomans, 97 256 , 284 – 85 Melkites, 126 – 27 Berkey, Jonathan, 50 and Damascus massacres, Bernhardt, Sarah, 228 , 258 151 – 52 , 266 Be şikçi, Mehmet, 280 in Ottoman Empire, 83 – 84 , 96 Bilu group (Russian Empire), 263 – 64, Çelebi, Evliya, 92 274 cemaats, 82 bin Laden, Osama, 6 , 7 Cemil Bey, Tanburi, 258 Black Death, 56 censoring Black Sheep Turks, 77 under Abdulhamid II, 189 – 90 “blood libel” narratives, 156 self- censoring by book publishers, Bonaparte, Napoleon 23n33 invasion of Egypt by, 13 – 15 , 96 , 142 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), on Jews, 155 geopolitical reclassii cations Bonneval, Claude Alexandre Comte de, by, 10 – 11 74 – 75 , 107n36 , 124 , 144 Cevdet, Ahmet Paş a, 285 Britain. See Great Britain Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor), 83 British Museum, 119 Charles VI (France), 154 Bulgaria Charlie Hebdo attacks (2015), 7 – 8 and Balkan Wars, 285 – 86 Chatty, Dawn, 278 – 79 and nationalism, 206 Chechnya crisis with Russia, 8 tax collection during Ottoman era, 87 cholera, 192 , 270 Bulgarian Orthodox Church, 99 Christian churches burials/ funerals, Muslim law on, 49 – 50 edict of 1856 on, 136 – 37 Bustani, Butrus al-, 205 – 6 , 282 maintenance of sites in Middle East, 2 Byzantine Empire Pact of Umar on, 41 , 136 , 316 defeat by Seljuk Turks, 73 triumphalist architecture of, 118 , 166n20 and Egyptian Copts, 36 Umayyad caliph forbids construction of and European Crusades, 55 new, 49 Christian missionaries Cahun, Léon, 285 in Egypt, 99 , 209 – 10 Cairo Geniza, 44 – 45 , 54 and “new orthodoxy,” 224 – 25 Caliphate Conference of Cairo See also Catholic missionaries; (1926), 289 Protestant missionaries Campos, Michele U., 277 Christians Canning, Stratford, 125 , 138 , 139 , in nineteenth/twentieth-century 140 , 161 Africa, 48 – 49 Capitulations against conscription, 145 in Ottoman Empire, 95 and Damascus massacres, 151 –52 on right to appoint translators, 96 differences from Shi’is, 77 – 78 Carmona, Behor I., 128 dress codes under Ottoman Cassandra (mythological), 318 rule, 89 – 90 Catholic Church and European Crusades, 54 – 56 missionary wing of, 14 , 100 French Christian anti-Semitism printed works in Arabic, 14 in Morocco, 161 – 62 See also Catholic missionaries; Catholics in Algeria, 160 – 62 Catholic missionaries guilds under Ottoman rule, 94 in Aleppo, 97 – 98 individual and communal identities and Christian political allegiances, 95 among, 17 – 18 and dissimulation or secret Christian internal diversity in religious and belief, 224 – 25 doctrines among, 16 – 17 and edict of 1856, 138 maintenance of sites contemporary in Egypt, 99 Middle East, 2

366 Index

Christians (cont.) Cohen, Mark R., 37 middle class disproportionately as, 252 Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), nationalism in nineteenth century, 122 276 – 77 , 280 – 81 , 286 population diminution, contemporary Congress of Berlin 1878 , 185 Middle East, 2 , 20 conscription reforms, effect on Muslim-Christian draft as virtual death sentence, 225 – 26 interrelations, 117 and Druze men of Mount refusal of principle of Muslim Lebanon, 142 – 43 supremacy by, 247 and Jews, 145 , 281 See also Armenians ; Catholics ; Christian of Maronites, 142 – 43 churches ; Christian missionaries ; as reason for emigration, 281 conversion ; Coptic Christians; reasons for failure of universal Greek Orthodox Christians ; draft, 145 – 46 Protestantism resistance in Egypt, 144 church bells, ringing of, 41 , 118 under Young Turks, 279 – 81 Church Missionary Society (CMS), 140, Constantinople 209 , 211 conquest/occupation of by Ottomans, 66 Circassians, 4 – 6 , 184 conquest by Mehmet II, 66 , 78 – 79 circumcision, 56 consumption, emergence of, 102 Clarendon (Lord), 139 – 40 contraception, rulings on, 271 clash of civilizations, 6 conversion Clement XIV (pope), 8 to Christianity Clot, Antoine Barthélémy, 123 conversos, 86 clothing punishment for, 139 changes in nineteenth-century Ottoman clothing as signal of, 74 Empire, 121 , 243 – 44 and intercommunal relations, 48 consistencies in, 104 to Islam dress codes for dhimmis, 89 – 90 , 91 – 92 in Abbasid period, 32 , 48 during Fatimid dynasty, 54 Armenians, amidst massacre, ghiyar (laws of differentiation by 268 , 286 clothing), 46 , 54 and buildings, 78 – 79 and Jews forced conversions of Jews, 158 clothing in Fatimid Egypt, 54 involuntary, 67 – 68 differentiation by clothing in involuntary, in Safavid Empire, 77 Egypt, 306 involuntary, of Jews, 77 , 158 dress codes under Ottoman involuntary, of slave rule, 89 – 90 concubines, 67 – 68 European inl uence on clothing of under Mehmet IV, 78 women, 132 through assimilation, 48 Pact of Umar on, 41 , 46 turning Turk, 74 – 75 reform conversos, 86 clothing choice, 132 – 35 cookery books, 32 , 42 , 50 – 51 , 308 expectations of reform by Coptic Christians rabbis, 133 – 34 and ban against building churches, 136 women’s clothing, 134 and Byzantine authorities, 36 restrictions during Ottoman Empire, 66 and circumcision, 56 as signal of conversion, 74 conversions to Islam, 48 , 49 – 50 under Suleyman the Magnii cent, 89 – 90 dress codes under Ottoman rule, 89 –90 tracing history through study of, 313 formation of Coptic Legion by under Umayyad caliph, 49 Napoleon, 142 and Zoroastrians, 46 and invasion of Egypt under See also footwear ; headgear Napoleon, 96 CMS (Church Missionary Society), 140, language of, 42 209 , 211 reception of Muslim invaders in Cohen, Julia Phillips, 118 , 278 Egypt, 37

Index 367

problems with historical guilds, 93 – 94 interpretation of, 38 intercommunal relations, 39 – 47 relations with Muslims during changing meanings of term reforms, 117 dhimma, 40 See also Christians and conversions, 40 , 53 – 54 counterfactual history, 319 – 21 and doctrinaires, 42 – 44 courts and hairstyles/appearance, 41 , 46 mixed religious, and 1839 edict, 136 and inheritance, 40 Shari’a, 94 – 95 , 246 institutionalization of, 40 , 56 – 57 Crémieux, Adolphe, 153 , 155 , 157 – 58 and Islamic law, 43 – 44 Crémieux Decree, 160 – 62 and jizya, 39 (see also jizya ) Crete, under Ottoman rule, 83 and Muslim burials/funerals, 49 – 50 Crimean War, 137 – 38 and Muslim/non- Muslim criminal law (diya), 43 marriage, 39 Cromwell, Oliver, 154 and Pact of Umar, 40 – 42 crosses, displaying in roads or markets, 41 bearing of arms, 41 , 142 crypto-Christians, 219 on building/ repairing of churches/ crypto-Jews, 219 synagogues, 136 cultural fermentation, eighteenth century exceptions to, 41 – 42 and Orthodox Christians, 98 –99 on fermented drinks, 42 and Protestant missionaries, 99 historicity of, 40 – 41 and Roman Catholic missionaries, inl uences on, 41 95 , 97 – 98 restrictions for Christians under, 41 cultural intersections among Muslims, restrictions for Jews under, 41 Christians, and Jews, 16 on riding mounted animals, 41 , 142 Curzon (Lord), 305 on spoken languages, 42 solidarity among, 47 D’Aiguebelle chocolate company and law, Islamic, 43 – 44 cards, 4 – 6 diya (in cases of wrongful death), 43 Da’ish (ISIS), 8 and Shari’a law courts, 94 – 95 Damascus tax on merchants, 43 – 44 riot of 1860, 141 , 151 – 52 prostitution, 92 – 93 , 94 –95 shift of Muslim community from “quarter solidarity,” 93 , 141 Arabia to, 30 viability of system of, 20 – 21 Damascus Affair, 155 – 58 diffused/popular power, 52 Damascus massacres, 151 – 52 , 266 – 67 Din, Khayr al- (Barbarossa), 69 Dar al- Hikma (translation institute), 32 Din, Nasir al-, 217 Darwin, Charles, 203 – 4 disease. See public health Davids, Arthur L., 285 Disraeli, Benjamin, 184 Dawn, C. Ernest, 283 diya (in cases of wrongful death), 43 Denmark, cartoons lampooning Prophet Dome of the Rock, 53 Muhammad in, 7 Dönme, 219 , 220 , 227 Deringil, Selim, 116 , 196 , 223 – 24 , 268 and Sabbatai Sevi, 264, 294n105 Der Matossian, Bedross, 278 Donner, Fred, 34 devş irme (tax in young Christian men), 67 dragomans (translators), 96 – 97 dhimmis, 27 , 66 , 89 –95 , 302 dress. See clothing classii cation abandoned under edict of Dreyfus, Albert, 248 1856, 136 Dreyfus Affair, 248 , 264 clothing Druze, 147 – 51 consistencies in, 104 and assertion of external state dress/ appearance, 37 , 46 power, 147 – 48 dress codes, 89 – 90 , 91 –92 conscription of, 142 – 43 communal geography of, 89 and Damascus massacres, 151 – 52 distinguishing at public bathhouses, 56 , demise of feudal order and rise of new 90 – 91 , 310 rich, 148 – 49

368 Index

Druze (cont.) Syrian Protestant College, 200, and Maronite Christians, 148 – 49 203 – 4 , 256 and Maronite-Druze massacres, 150 See also Alliance Israélite Universelle and sectarianism, 149 (AIU) ; literacy Dung-Gatherers Decree (Latrine or Edward I (England), 154 Scrapers Edict), 261 , 262 Egypt dynastic deterioration theory, 108n38 Afghani in, 215 al-Azhar university reforms in, 246 – 47 Eastern Europe, Muslim refugees Christian missionaries in, 99 , 209 – 10 from, 185 Christian reception of Muslim Eastern Question, 123 , 184 invaders in, 37 eating utensils, 121 , 193 , 311 conquest by Fatimid dynasty, 54 Eddy, Mary, 202 conquest by Napoleon, 13 – 15, 96 , edict of 1839, 115 – 16 , 135 –36 118 , 142 administrative changes, 127 – 28 conquest by Shi’i separatist translation bureau, 127 – 28 movement, 31 – 32 ambiguities of reforms, 135 – 42 differentiation by clothing of Jews education, 135 in, 306 government ministries, 135 dress distinctions during Ayyubid passports, 135 , 163 dynasty, 54 postal system, 135 effects of European Crusades during and Armenian Christians, Malmuk dynasty, 55 – 56 128 – 29 , 135 – 36 freedom of the press in, 251 and Greek War of Independence, Freemasonry in, 254 – 55 125 – 28 invasion and occupation by Great and military reform, 128 Britain, 209 – 10 abolition of Janissaries, 128 – 29 languages in, 42 effect on Armenians, 128 – 29 migration to Americas, from effect on bureaucracy, 129 British-occupied, 197 effect on Jews, 128 mission schools, effect on literacy rate and Muslim workers, 125 in, 201 overview of, 115 – 16 Muhammad Ali (Mehmet Ali) and urban Muslims, 125 in, 122 – 23 edict of 1856, 115 – 16 , 136 – 42 , 161 Muslim Brotherhood in, 212, 240n193 and building of churches and Muslim- Christian relations during synagogues, 136 – 37 reforms, 117 and Catholic missionaries, 138 occupation of Syria by, 142 – 43 continual recognition of millets, 136 population diminution, contemporary dhimmis classii cation abandoned, 136 Christians, 2 as expression of realpolitik, 137 – 38 Jews, 1 and Great Britain, 138 – 40 private land ownership in, 95 and Jews, 141 Shari’a law court reform in, 246 and military conscription, 143 – 46 Yemeni Jewish migration to, 263 and Protestant missionaries, 138 –40 See also Coptic Christians and religious freedom, 136 – 41 , 208 Elgin Marbles, 196 education Elizabeth I (England), 210 Catholic missionary schools, 201, Emrence, Cem, 259 – 60 293n65 Engels, Friedrich, 273 Christian missionary schools, 201 England. See Great Britain and edict of 1839, 135 Eniş Pasha, 269 inspections of Christian mission Europe schools, 211 – 12 Muslim minority in, 20 medical school human dissections, 135 tax exemptions for merchants/consular Protestant missionary schools, 201 , ofi cials in, 88 293n65 See also individual country

Index 369

European Crusades, 54 – 56 French Jesuits, 200 , 204 European Enlightenment, 70 – 71 French Revolution, 153 – 54 eyeglasses, 251 Gaza, Christian population famine, 97 , 263 diminution in, 2 famine cannibalism, 263 gazinos, 250 , 253 Faroqhi, Suraiya, 313 Geertz, Clifford, 308 – 10 Fatimid dynasty, 32 gender. See marriage ; women conquest of Egypt, 54 Genoa, merchant tax exemptions in, 88 dress during, 54 Georgeon, François, 181 , 258 – 59 Fattal, Antoine, 34 Gérôme, Jean-Léon, 195 – 96 Fawaz, Leila, 276 ghazi (warrior for the faith), 72 – 73 , 77 Feldman, Walter, 250 , 258 ghiyar (laws of differentiation by festivals, religious, convergence clothing), 46 , 54 concerning, 50 Gladstone, William, 184 – 85 fez, 130 , 134 – 35 , 243 , 257 Goitein, S.D., 44 – 45 , 47 , 52 i nancial crisis, under Abdulhamid II, 183 Gökalp, Ziya, 285 Findley, Carter V., 104 – 5, 107n27 Grabar, Oleg, 53 i tna (public disorder), 152 Great Britain food customs annexation of Aden, 191– 92 , 261 in nineteenth-century Ottoman British-Ottoman trade agreement of Empire, 119 1838, 131 convergence among, 50 – 51 and edict of 1856 (Hatt-ı cookery books, 32, 42 , 50 – 51 , 308 Hümayun), 138 – 40 eating utensils, 121 invasion and occupation of spread of use of forks, 193 , 311 Egypt, 209 – 10 footwear, 176n214 , 243 philo-Semitism in, 154 color-coded meanings of, 311 proposed reforms for Anatolian France Armenians, 271 – 72 attacks on French newspaper Charlie tax exemptions for merchants from, 88 Hebdo, 7 – 8 views on Abdulhamid II, 180 – 81 cultural inl uence on Ottoman Great War (World War I), 286 – 87 Empire, 101 Greece exile of Afghani to, 215 and Balkan Wars, 285 – 86 invasion of Egypt under Napoleon, reclassii cation as European by 13 – 15 , 96 CIA, 10 military advisors to Ottoman Greek Catholics (Melkites), 126 – 27 Empire, 144 and Damascus massacres, 151 – 52 , 266 number of Jews at time of French Greek Orthodox Christians, 98 –99 Revolution, 154 at government school in Syria, 225 proposed reforms for Anatolian musicians, 250 Armenians, 271 – 72 and printing presses, 100 rising Islamophobia in, 7 reaction of Arabic-speaking people to support of Catholic missionaries in Greekness of, 126 Aleppo, 97 – 98 Stavriotae, 219 , 220 tax exemptions for merchants, 88 and trade, 102 terrorist attacks in Paris, 2015 and Greeks 2016, 8 depictions of atrocities by Turkey, on views on Abdulhamid II, 180 –81 chocolate cards, 4 – 6 See also Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU) and nationalism, 228 , 314 – 15 Francis (Pope; Jorge Mario Bergoglio), 8 perceptions of rampant breeding in Franco-Prussian War, 160 Ottoman Empire, 271 Fraser, Nancy, 254 Greek War of Independence, 125 – 28 freedom of the press, in Egypt, 251 Ottoman policies under Freemasonry, 254 – 56 , 267 Mahmud II, 126

370 Index

Greek War of Independence (cont.) success as leveling device, 130 –31 reaction of Greek Orthodox patriarch turban, replacement by fez, 130 to, 126 turbans as social markers, 289n6 reaction of Rum Catholics to, 126 – 27 Henry VIII (England), 210 green tomatoes (kavata), 103 Herzl, Theodor, 248 , 264 Grégoire, Abbé Henri, 155 Heyberger, Bernard, 166n20 , 249 Gregory V (Greek Orthodox Hibbat Zion (Lovers of Zion), 264 Patriarch), 126 Hijaz Railway, 212 – 13 , 239n180 Grehan, James, 314 Hi Jolly (Hajj Ali), 197 Gottreich, Emily, 176n214 Hindu nationalism, 255 guest workers, short-term in Middle history, meanings of term, 305 – 6 East, 2 Hodgson, Marshall, 28 – 29 , 35 guilds, 93 – 94 , 289n6 homeland (vatan), 255 , 256 , 285 gypsies. See Roma hotoz (headgear), 133 – 34 Hourani, Albert, 205 – 6 Habermas, Jürgen, 254 human dissection, 135 Habsburg Empire, defeat of humanitarianism, 121 Ottomans by, 96 Hümayun decree (1856) 136 Ha-Cohen, Mordechai, 265 Hunchaks, 273 – 74 hairstyles Hungary, tax collection during Ottoman European inl uence on Jewish era, 87 women, 132 Huntington, Samuel T., 6 Pact of Umar on, 41 , 46 Husayn, Sharif, 288 Hajj Ali (Hi Jolly), 197 Hakim, Faris al-, 208 – 9 Ibn Khaldun, 75, 108n38 , 314 – 15 Halil, Patrona, 101 – 2 ibn Killis, Ya’qub, 54 Hamdi Bey, Osman, 194 – 96 ibn Munabbih, Wahb, 53 Hamid al-Din, Yahya Muhammad, ibn Nahmias, David, 99 – 100 262 – 63 , 264 – 65 ibn Nahmias, Samuel, 99 – 100 Hamidiye regiments, 247 – 48, 267 , Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq, 42 , 51 269 , 273 Ibrahim Pasha, grand vizier to Sultan Hanioğ lu, M. Ş ükrü, 207 Ahmet III, 100 – 1 Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment), 154 –55 Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad Ali of Hathaway, Jane, 86 – 87 Egypt, and Egyptian invasion of Hatt- ı Hümayun. See edict of 1856 Syria, 142 – 43 , 148 Hattı Ş erif of Gülhane. See edict of 1839 Ifraim son of Salomon Lagniado, 97 Hayatizade Mustafa Fevzi Effendi (Moses, İ nalcık, Halil, 83 son of Raphael Abravanel), 74 India, Muslim minority in, 20 headgear individualism, emergence of, 98 brimmed hat ban, 257 ini dels (kefere), 89 fez, 130 , 134 – 35 , 243 , 257 intellectual exchange, and convergence, 50 hotoz, 133 – 34 intercommunal relations as illustrative of religion/social status, and conversions, 48 289n6 , 313 dhimmis ( see dhimmis ) reform, 129 – 35 differing views on, 3 acceptance by Christian and Jewish initial Muslim encounters with elites, 130 Christians and Jews, 32 – 38 Armenian response to wearing conciliation/magnanimity, 35 –37 kalpak, 131 – 32 problems with historical Jewish women’s headgear, 133 – 34 interpretation of, 36 – 38 Mahmud II on dress as social war and violence, 33 – 35 engineering tool, 134 – 35 Banu Qurayza massacres, 33 – 35 resistance by Muslim tradesmen/ problems with historical artisans, 130 – 31 interpretation of, 34 – 35 signii cance of reaya (Raya) and lines of distinction, 49 – 50 and, 131 – 32 and points of convergence, 50 – 52

Index 371

Iran Damascus Affair, 155 – 58 Jewish population diminution in, 1 Mortara Affair, 155 , 158 – 60 marriage ban between Ottoman women/ and Banu Qurayza massacres, 33 – 35 Iranian men, 163 historical interpretation of, 37 – 38 as never conquered by Ottoman and Black Death, 56 Empire, 11 , 64 and circumcision, 56 Qajar dynasty, 153 , 161 communalism despite socio-economic See also Safavid Empire (Iran); diversity, 47 Zoroastrians and conscription, 145 , 281 Iraq conversions to, 53 – 54 Christian population diminution in, 2 and Crémieux Decree, 160 –62 move of Islamic state to Baghdad, 31 differences between Shi’is and, 77 –78 U.S. and allies launch wars in, 7 and edict of 1856, 141 war to gain area of present-day, 77 European inl uence on hairstyles/ Isak, Tanburo, 249 – 50 clothing of women, 132 Ishaq (translator), 127 forced conversions to Islam, 77 , 158 ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria), 8 in France Islam French Revolution, 154 and apostasy, 139 , 141 , 209 – 10 post- Revolutionary France, 154 – 55 double meaning of, 28 and Haskalah or Enlightenment, 154 – 55 expansion of state after death of individual and communal identities Muhammad, 30 among, 17 – 18 formative period of, 28 , 29 – 32 internal diversity in religious practice Zaydi Islam, 224 , 260 – 63 and doctrines among, 16 – 17 See also Muhammad (Prophet) ; middle class as disproportionately Muslims ; Qur’an ; Shi’i Islam; Jewish, 252 Sunni Islam musicians, 249 – 50 Isma’il (Safavid Shah), 149 , 218 –19 Ottoman reforms Israel effects on Muslim-Jewish population diminution of interrelations, 117 – 18 Christians in, 2 effects on Yemeni Jews, 260 – 63 population increase of Jews in, 1 – 2 population diminution, contemporary, short-term guest workers in, 2 1 – 2 , 20 Yemeni Jewish migration to, 263 refusal of principle of Muslim Israeli-Palestinian crisis, 8 supremacy by, 247 Isra’ili, Abu Ya’qub Ishaq ibn Sulayman at Salonica government school, 225 al-, 51 Sephardic, 86 Istanbul, 80 – 81 taxation, 97 Italy See also Alliance Israélite Universelle invasion of Libya, 229 – 30 , 266 (AIU) ; clothing ; dhimmis ; Ottoman-Italian War, 285 Dönme ; headgear; Pact of Umar ; synagogues ; Yemen Janissaries Jirousek, Charlotte, 103 , 104 abolition of, 128 – 29 jizya, 44 – 45 , 302 complaints against convert, 218 collection of, 86 – 88 modern, nineteenth-century Ottoman diversity in application of, 316 reforms and, 121 exemption for Alawites, 222 and Patrona Halil Revolt, 102 exemption for Druze, 222 recruitment of, 144 exemptions for European merchants/ and Sui sm, 67 consular ofi cials, 88 Jerusalem, Yemeni Jewish migration to, 263 fairness of, 87 – 88 Jesuits, 200 , 204 i nancial burden of, 44 – 45 Jews imposed on Yezidis, 222 in Alawite Morocco, 154 psychological burden of, 44 in Algeria, 153 Qur’an on, 39 anti-Semitism, mid-nineteenth-century and Zoroastrians, 39

372 Index

Joan of Arc, 210 Libya John the Baptist, skull fragment of, 109n59 conscription of Jews in, 281 Jordan, 2 , 192 – 93 Italian invasion of, 229 – 30 , 266 , 285 Juhasz, Esther, 313 Karamanli dynasty in, 191, 265 migration to Americas, 197 Kadizadelis, 89 Lincoln, Abraham, 209 Kafadar, Cemal, 73 – 74 literacy Kafescioğ lu, Çi ğdem 79 acceleration during eighteenth kalpak (headgear), 131 – 32 century, 95 , 96 Karamanli dynasty (Libya), 191 , 265 and Armenians, 270 Karbala, mass movement to Shi’ism effect of mission schools in Egypt on, 201 in, 230 printing press, effect on, 14 , 99 – 100 kavata (green tomatoes), 103 and rise of Ottoman middle class, 251 kefere (ini dels), 89 literature, Arabic Kemal, Nemik, 285 during Abbasid period, 32 Kennedy, Hugh, 47 – 48 Nahda (Arabic literary revival), Kern, Karen, 163 205 – 6 , 255 kiş lak (forced provision of winter shelter/ little history, signii cance of, 310 – 14 fodder), 273 London Underground attacks (2005), 7 Krstic, Tijana, 76 Louis Philippe (France), 157 Kurds child mortality among, 200 –1 Macedonia, 87 , 277 depictions of atrocities by, on chocolate madhhabs (legal communities/schools of cards, 4 – 6 law), 31 in Hamidiye regiments, 247 – 48, 267 , Madrid subway attacks (2004), 7 269 , 273 Mahan, Alfred T., 10 forced provision of winter shelter/fodder Mahmud I (Ottoman sultan), military for, 273 advisor to, 74 – 75 , 107n36 , 124 Kurdish Jews, 312 – 13 Mahmud II (Ottoman sultan), inl uence of protection racket against European culture on, 119 Armenians, 273 Maimonides, Moses, 50 See also Armenian massacre Makdisi, Ussama, 196 Malak Tawus (Peacock Angel), 222 land ownership Mamluk dynasty, 55 – 56 by Anatolian Armenians, 270 Mamluks (Muslim Turk/elite slaves), private, in Egypt, 95 alcohol consumption by, 42 and tax liability, 87 Marcus, Abraham, 97 Land Reform Law (1858; Ottoman Maronites Empire), 192 , 270 conscription of, 142 – 43 Lane, Edward W., 306 conversion to Protestantism, 208 language and Druze at Mount Lebanon, 147 –51 Arabic as language of imperial as nouveau riche, 148 – 49 statecraft, 31 marriage Pact of Umar on, 42 , 316 –17 asymmetry between Muslim/Christian as social marker, 75 – 76 men, 245 – 46 , 316 Law of Nationality (Ottoman Empire), 163 ban between Ottoman women/Iranian Layard, Henry, 179 men, 163 Lebanon conversions to Islam through Christian population diminution in, 2 intermarriage, 48 Muslim-Christian social tensions in, 150 endogamy under Abdulhamid II, 220 Lebow, Richard Ned, 319 – 20 Qur’an on Muslim/non- Muslim, 39 Leopold I (Holy Roman Emperor), 96 between Sunni and Shi’i Muslims, 163 Lévy, Sam, 225 Marx, Karl, 273 Levy-Rubin, Milka, 41 Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary), 210 Lewis, Bernard, 38 , 69 , 253 Masters, Bruce, 99 , 100 , 127, 249 , 254

Index 373

McMahon-Husayn Correspondence (1915 life of recruits, 144 – 45 and 1916), 288 reform under edict of 1839, 128 Mecca, 33, 191 , 229 See also bearing arms and riding Medina, 37 – 38 , 191 , 229 mounted animals; conscription ; Banu Qurayza massacres at, 33 –35 Janissaries Mehmet II (Ottoman sultan) millet system, 66 , 81 – 88 , 302 and Christian Armenians, 85 and Christian Armenians, 85 conquering of Constantinople by, 66 , continual recognition under edict of 78 – 79 , 302 1856, 136 and Greek Patriarch, 83 i nancial lenders, 86 and Jews, 84 – 85 and Jews, 84 – 86 as most powerful Ottoman sultan, 181 meaning of “millet system,” 82 and Orthodox Christianity, 83 – 84 and Orthodox Christians, 83 – 84 repopulation policies of, 80 – 81 overview of, 82 veneration of relics by, 79 semantics of, 81 – 82 See also Ottoman Empire See also jizya Mehmet IV (Ottoman sultan), 78 millet wars, 127 Mehmet Ali. See Muhammad Ali of Egypt Misrie, Rose C., 197 Melkites (Greek Catholics), 126 –27 missionaries, Mormon, 199 – 200. See also and Damascus massacres, 151 – 52 , 266 Catholic missionaries; Protestant messianism, 264 , 294n106 missionaries Mevlevi Sui Muslims, 250 Montenegro, and Balkan Wars, Miaphysites (Syria), 36 285 – 86 Middle East Moravian Pietists, 99 area associated with term, 10 – 12 Mormon missionaries, 199 – 200 assumptions about Muslims, Jews, and Morocco Christians in Alliance Israélite Universelle in, concept of religion/religious, 18 159 , 160 cultural intersections, 16 enclosure policy (mellahs), 137 individual/ communal identities, 17 – 18 French Christian anti-Semitism intercommunal/intersectional relations in, 161 – 62 as not static, 17 as never conquered by Ottoman internal diversity in religious and Empire, 11 , 64 doctrines, 16 – 17 Mortara, Edgardo, 158 coining of term, 10 Mortara Affair, 155 , 158 – 60 timeframe of “modern,” 12 – 16 Moses, son of Raphael Abravanel and European imperialism, 14 – 15 (Hayatizade Mustafa Fevzi and Napoleon effect, 13 – 15 Effendi), 74 Midhat Pasha, Ahmed Ş ei k, 187 – 88 , moshavot in Palestine, 264 190 , 191 mounted animals, Pact of Umar on, migration 41 , 142 to Americas from Anatolia, 197 Mount Lebanon, migration to Americas to Americas from Egypt, 197 from, 197 to Americas from Libya, 197 Mughal Empire, founding of, 78 to Americas from Mount Lebanon, 197 Muhajirs (Muslim refugees from the conscription as reason for, 281 Caucasus and Balkans), 2, to Middle East, economically 267 , 271 motivated, 2 Muhammad (Prophet) of Muslims to United States, 197 and Banu Qurayza massacres, reform, effect on Yemeni Jews, 33 – 35 263 – 64 , 265 cartoons lampooning, 7 – 8 military, Ottoman and conquest of Mecca, 33 exemption tax for, 146 relics of, 80 Hamidiye regiments, 247 – 48, 267 , revelations of, 28 , 29 269 , 273 See also Islam ; Muslims ; Qur’an

374 Index

Muhammad Ali (Mehmet Ali) of Egypt Romantic, 119 and occupation of Syria, 142 –43 Serbian, 228 and recruitment of slaves for the Netherlands, and merchant tax military, 173n129 exemptions, 88 resistance against military Nizam-ı Jedid (New Order), 124 conscription in, 144 North America, Muslim minority in, 20 and Syria, 157 Muller-Lancet, Aviva, 311 Operation Magic Carpet, Yemen Muqaddasi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad (1949-1950), 265 Shams al-Din al- , 50 Orphans Decree, 261 , 262 , 265 Muqtadir (Abbasid caliph), 46 Ortaylı, Ilber, 221 Murad III (Ottoman sultan), Jewish Osman, Ertugrul, 288 mother of, 68 Osman Hamdi Bey (see Hamdi Bey, Murad IV (Ottoman sultan), 255 Osman) Musharraf, Pervez, on Banu Qurayza Osman, family of (the Ottomans), 72 massacres, 34 Otranto martyrs, 8 , 67 music, convergence concerning, 51 – 52 Ottoman Empire Muslim Brotherhood, 212 , 240n193 absorption of converts to Islam within Muslims ruling class, 73 and circumcision, 56 agricultural exchanges with Europe, 70 diversity among, 317 – 18 allegiance to, maintaining, 104 individual and communal identities as Asiatic empire, 69 among, 17 – 18 biological assimilation of internal diversity in religious and Anatolians, 73 – 74 doctrines among, 16 – 17 Capitulations in, 95 Kadizadelis, 89 Christian inl uences on Islamic practices population in non-Muslim countries, in, 79 – 80 contemporary, 20 class distinctions among Turks, 75 – 76 sectarian disputes after death of clothing restrictions during ( see clothing ) Muhammad, 30 conversions in ( see conversion ) See also Abbasid dynasty; Islam ; cultural assimilation of Muhammad (Prophet) ; Qur’an; Anatolians, 74 – 75 Umayyad dynasty culture of consumption in, 102 Mutawakkil, al- (Abbasid caliph), 46 decline of, 69 – 70 Müteferrika, Ibrahim, 99 , 100 dhimmi society in ( see dhimmis ) Muwaylihi, Ibrahim al-, 181 , 189 – 90 , distinctions from earlier 193 , 283 dynasties, 66 – 69 diversity in, 64 , 80 – 81 Nahda (Arabic literary revival), 205 – 6 , 255 as European empire, 66 – 67 Najaf, mass movement to Shi’ism, 230 expansion of, 302 Najara, Isaac, 249 harmony in, differing views on, 65 Napoleon effect, 13 – 15 historical precedents followed by, 65 –66 naqus (semantron), 118 and individuality, 70 – 71 Nasi, Gracia, 86 Islam in ( see Islam ) Nasi, Joseph, 86 Istanbul, inl uence on, 80 nationalism longevity of, 64 Albanian, 284 military/diplomatic watershed events, 96 Arab (nahda), 251 , 282 – 83 military in ( see conscription; military ) Bulgarian, 206 millet system in ( see millet system ) Christian, in nineteenth century, 122 missionaries in (see missionaries ) and Christian missionaries, 204 –12 as modern empire, 69 – 71 , 302– 3 Greek, 228 , 314 – 15 and Otranto martyrs, 8 , 67 Hindu, 255 overview of, 302 – 5 and pan- Islamic politics, 228 population by religious persuasion, print culture, role in rise of, 251 1876, 20

Index 375

precursors to, 72 – 73 and Muslim-Christian interrelations, 117 public piety displays in, 78 and Muslim-Jewish relic veneration in, 79 – 80 interrelations, 117 – 18 religion, limits to, 314 – 18 religion, how it mattered during this repopulation policies in, 80 – 81 , 271 time, 162 – 65 similarities to earlier dynasties, 65 – 66 in attitudes toward non-Muslims in social change, acceleration in eighteenth commerce, 162 – 63 century, 95 – 102 in cases of law, 163 as Sunni Muslim empire, 76 in clothing reform, 163 – 64 taxation ( see taxation ) in headgear reform, 163 territories comprising, 11 , 64 in military service, 164 tomato consumption, as traditional, sectarianism, rise of new, 146 –52 103 Aleppo riot of 1850, 141 , 146 – 47 translators (dragomans), 96 – 97 Damascus massacres, 141 , 151 – 52 Tulip Period, 101 – 2 Druze at Mount Lebanon, 147 – 51 Turkish language, social distinctions Young Ottomans on Tazimat reforms, 256 and, 75 – 76 See also Abdulhamid II ; Ottoman Empire urban revolts in, 101 – 2 Ottoman Enlightenment, 100 See also Abdulhamid II; Ottoman Ottoman-Italian War, 285 Empire, reforms in Ottoman Empire, reforms in, 303 Pact of Umar, 40 – 42 Alliance Israélite Universelle diversity in application of, 316 – 17 established, 158 – 60 on zunnar belt, 41 , 46 , 317 bearing arms and riding mounted Palaggi, Hayyim, 133 animals, 142 – 46 (see also Palestine, 2 , 263 – 64 conscription ) pan-Islam, and Abdulhamid II, 180 clothing reform ( see clothing ) Parker, Geoffrey, 319 – 20 Damascus Affair, 155 – 58 passports, 135 , 163 edict of 1839 ( see edict of 1839 ) Patrona Halil Revolt, 102 edict of 1856 ( see edict of 1856 ) Peacock Angel (Malak Tawus), 222 effects on equality, 117 Père Thomas. See Damascus Affair and foreign intervention, 163 Peter the Great (Russia), 123 headgear reform ( see headgear ) Petros the Peloponnesian, 250 modern, nineteenth century, 118 – 25 photography archaeology in, 119 and Abdulhamid II, 182 , 193 – 94 , Christian nationalism in, 122 243 , 257 clothing changes, 121 as historical source, 134 , 164 , 203 , cultural developments in, 118 –19 243 , 254 Eastern Question during, 123 uses of, 10 eating utensils, 121 , 193 , 311 Pinsker, Leo, 264 foodways, 119 Pius IX (Pope), 158 , 267 humanitarianism, 121 plague, quarantine during, 122 – 23 inl uence of Selim III on, 123 –25 poetry, hilye, 79 Janissary corps, 121 Ottoman court vs. folk, 75 Muhammad Ali (Mehmet Ali) in wine poetry, 42 Egypt, 122 – 23 population outmigration in, 119 – 20 Christians in contemporary Middle regional politics in, 118 East, 2 , 20 technology in, 119 – 20 Jews in contemporary Middle East, telegraph, 120 1 – 2 , 20 transport systems, 119 – 20 Muslims in non-Muslim countries, territorial loss in, 118 , 121 –22 contemporary, 20 tourism in, 119 Ottoman Empire, by religious trade in, 120 – 21 persuasion, 1876, 20 Mortara Affair, 155 , 158 – 60 repopulation policies, 80 – 81 , 271

376 Index

pork, pig- raising for, 316 Qur’an, 29 Porter, Roy, 307 on alcohol consumption, 217 postal system, 135 on intermarriage with non-Muslims, 39 power on jizya, 39 authoritative, 52 diffused/popular, 52 Ramadan, 217 , 219 Presbyterian Board of Foreign Rashidun (rightly-guided ones, the early Missions, 201 caliphs), 30 Presbyterians, 200 , 209 – 10 Ratti- Menton, Comte de, 156 , 157 missionary schools of, 201 reaya (Raya; l ock), 131 – 32 printing press, 14 , 99 – 100 reforms. See Ottoman Empire, reforms in Propaganda Fide, 14 , 100 Refugee Code (Ottoman Empire), 192 Protestantism refugee crisis, under Abdulhamid II, Alevis’ desire for closer connection 183 – 84 , 185 with, 225 Reis, Hizir, 69 conversion of Armenians to, 210 –11 relic veneration, 79 – 80 conversion of Maronites to, 208 religion Syrian Protestant College, 200, as basis of group cohesion, 314 – 15 203 – 4 , 256 as creed and devotional system, 314 See also Protestant missionaries differences in concept of, 18 Protestant missionaries diversity in practice and and eighteenth-century social change, 99 interpretation, 316 – 17 aids to conversions, 205 , 207 –12 as legal status, 314 – 15 foreign advocates, 208 – 9 limits to, as explanatory and Bible translations, 205 –8 framework, 315 – 18 Bulgarian Bible, 206 religious, differences in concept of, 18 languages used by, 206 – 7 religious endowments (waqfs), 82 Van Dyck Bible, 204 – 6 remittances, 270 and dissimulation or secret Christian Renan, Ernest, 215 belief, 224 – 25 Reş id Pa ş a, 133 – 34 and edict of 1856, 138 respect toward Muslims, Pact of at Mount Lebanon, 150 Umar on, 41 schools of, 201 , 293n65 Reynolds, Michael, 286 women missionaries as fashion Ricoeur, Paul, 3 models, 202 – 3 Rida, Rashid, 215 public bathhouses, distinguishing Robert College (Istanbul), 256 Muslims/ dhimmis at, 56 , Robinson, Chase, 41 – 42 90 – 91 , 310 Rodrigue, Aron, 278 Public Debt Administration (PDA), Roma, collection of jizya from 183 , 228 Muslim, 87 public disorder (i tna), 152 Roman Catholics. See Catholics public health Romantic nationalism, 119 under Abdulhamid II, 200 – 1 Rose Chamber Edict. See edict of 1839 and Armenians, 270 Rum / rumi, 126 – 27 , 284 cholera, 192 , 270 Rushdie, Salman, 3 , 21 , 318 – 19 and quarantine, 122 – 23 , 192 Russell, Alexander, 131 trachoma, 270 Russia typhus, 184 crisis with Chechnya, 8 public piety, 78 defeat of Ottoman Empire by, 96 publishing industry, self-censoring by, Muslim refugees from, 185 23n33 proposed reforms for Anatolian Armenians, 271 – 72 Qajar dynasty (Iran), 153 , 161 Russian Orthodox Church, 96 quarantine, 122 – 23 , 192 Russo- Turkish War (1877–78), Quataert, Donald, 130 – 31 184 – 85 , 247

Index 377

Sadat, Anwar, on Banu Qurayza Shah Isma’il, 149 , 218 – 19 massacres, 34 Shah Tahmasp (Safavid shah), 77 Safavid Empire (Iran), 76 – 78 Shari’a law courts differences between Shi’is/non- Muslims reform in Egypt, 246 in, 77 – 78 women litigants during Ottoman forced conversions in, 77 Empire, 94 – 95 founder of, 76 – 77 Shaw, Stanford A., 85 , 107n27 , 124 Shi’i Islam (Imami/Twelver Sherif Pasha, governor of Syria and variety) in, 76 appointee of Muhammad Ali of Said, Edward, 196 Egypt, 156 – 57 Said Pasha, Ottoman viceroy of Shidyaq, As’ad al-, 208 Egypt, 208 – 9 Shi’i Islam, 76 – 80 , 81 salai sm, 215 Imami/ Twelver, 76 , 149 Salt, Jeremy, 276 mass shift toward under Abdulhamid Samanids (Iran), 31 II, 230 Santa Maria, Elia Giacinto di, 220 –21 Shi’i Muslims Sanusiya brotherhood, 229 –30 Abbasid control of Egypt removed Sa’ud, Muhammad ibn, 229 by, 31 – 32 Saudi Arabia, short-term guest difference from Sunni Muslims, 30 workers in, 2 difference from Zoroastrians, Scramble for Africa, 186 77 – 78 sectarianism marriage with Sunni Muslims, 163 Aleppo riot of 1850, 146 – 47 splintering into branches/sects, 31 Damascus massacres, 151 – 52 and taqiyya (dissimulation), disputes after death of Muhammad, 30 77 , 216 Druze at Mount Lebanon, 147– 51 Wahhabis’ attitude toward, 229 and assertion of external state Zaydis, 224 , 260 – 63 power, 147 – 48 shrines, sharing of, 150 demise of feudal order and rise of new Simon, Reeva S., 265 rich, 148 – 49 slave concubinage, and involuntary and Maronite Christians, 148 – 49 conversion, 67 – 68 and Maronite-Druze massacres, 150 Slaveykov, Petko, 206 and sectarianism, 149 smells, and culture policy under Abdulhamid II, 222 , cooking oil smells, 310 241n214 as marker of identity, 306 – 10 rise of new, 146 – 52 stereotypes about, 308 self- censoring by book publishers, Smith, Eli, 205 , 207 – 8 23n33 Sontag, Susan, 6 Selim I (Ottoman sultan), 80 Sovo, Raphael Asher, 133 Selim II (Ottoman sultan), Christian Spanish Reconquista, 54 , 65 mother of, 68 Spivak, Gayatri C., 311 Selim III (Ottoman sultan), 123 – 25 , Stavriotae, 219 , 220 250 Stillman, Norman, 41 semantron (naqus), 118 Stillman, Yedida K., 46 Sephardic Jews, 86 Stock, Eugene, 140 September 11, 2001, terrorist Stora, Benjamin, 161 attacks, 7 , 320 Stretcher-Bearers’ Decree, 262 Serbia Suez Canal, 191 , 261 and Balkan Wars, 285 – 86 Sui sm and nationalism, 228 in Anatolia and Greater Syria, 220 and Treaty of Bucharest, 125 Bektashi order, 218 Serbian Orthodox Church, 99 and Janissaries, 67 Sevi, Sabbatai, 219, 264, 294n105 Mevlevi order, 218 Shai ’i, Abu ‘Abd Allah Muhammad ibn and Turks, 75 Idris al-, 49 Wahhabis attitude toward, 229

378 Index

Suleyman the Magnii cent (Ottoman taxation sultan), 64 eighteenth century, 97 dress codes under, 89 – 90 based on land ownership, 87 as most powerful sultan, 181 devş irme (on young Christian and siege of Venice, 83 men), 67 Sunni Islam, 76 on dhimmis merchants, 43 – 44 consolidation under Abbasid exemptions for merchants, 88 dynasty, 31 reforms and, 97 efforts to convert Alawites, 224 See also jizya forced conversion of Yezidis to, 223 technology, in nineteenth-century Sunni Muslims Ottoman Empire, 119 – 20 , 199 difference from Shi-i Muslims, 30 Tedro, Philip, 198 extremist groups, 6 telegraph, 120 , 199 marriage with Shi’i Muslims, 163 terrorist attacks Sykes-Picot Agreement, 288 Bali nightclub, 2002, 7 synagogues Brussels, 2015 and 2016 , 8 edict of 1856 on, 136 – 37 London Underground, 2005, 7 monumental, 118 Madrid subway, 2004, 7 Pact of Umar on, 41 , 136 Paris, 2015 and 2016, 8 Umayyad caliph forbids construction of Tunisia, synagogue, 2002, 7 new, 49 United States, September 11, Syria 2001, 7 , 320 and Aleppo riot of 1850, 141 , 146 –47 Tertullian, 38 Catholic missionaries in, 97 – 98 Tetlock, Philip E., 319 – 20 Christian population diminution textile industry, 70 in, 2 thick description, 309 – 10 clothing restrictions Thompson, Anna Y., 216 during Mamluk dynasty, 54 Tibawi, Abdul Latif, 209 during Ottoman era, 91 – 92 tombstones, as illustrative of religion/social convergence to ensure collective status, 130 , 313 security, 248 – 49 tourism, nineteenth century, 119 Damascus trade massacres in, 151 – 52 , 266 – 67 in nineteenth-century Ottoman riot of 1860, 141 , 151 – 52 Empire, 120 – 21 shift of Muslim community from British-Ottoman trade agreement of Arabia to, 30 1838, 131 Damascus Affair, 155 – 58 translation bureau, 32 , 127 – 28 Egyptian occupation of, 142 – 43 translators (dragomans), 96 –97 languages in, 42 Treaty of Balta Liman (1838), 131 Miaphysites in, 36 Treaty of Berlin (1878), 185 Muslim- Christian interrelations, 117 Treaty of Bucharest (1812), 125 Sui sm in, 220 Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), 96 taxes in Aleppo under Ottoman Treaty of Kujuk Kaynarca (1774), 96, Empire, 97 118 , 213 Syrian Civil War (post-2011), 8 Treaty of San Stefano (1878), 185 Syrian Protestant College, 200, 203 – 4 , triumphalist architecture, 118 , 166n20 256 Tunisia disappearance of Christians in, 38 Tabari, Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Jarir synagogue attack in (2002), 7 al- , 48 turbans Tahmasp (Safavid shah), 77 replacement by fez, 130 taifes, 82 as social markers, 130 , 289n6 Tanzimat reforms. See edict of 1839 ; edict Turkey of 1856 beginnings of usage of term, 73 taqiyya (dissimulation), 77, 216 , 220 depictions of atrocities by, on chocolate Tatars, Muslim, 183 – 84 cards, 4 – 6

Index 379

population diminution, contemporary Whirling Dervishes, 250 Christians, 2 White, Charles, 131 – 32 Jews, 1 White Sheep Turks, 77 reclassii cation as European by CIA, 10 Winter, Stefan, 78 Turkic, meaning of term, 72 women Turner, Victor, 313 and education, 159 Turtushi, Abu Bakr Muhammad al-, 40 European inl uence on hairstyles and Twain, Mark, 129 – 30 , 193 clothing of, 132 Tyndale, William, 210 French Catholic missions, effect on typhus, 184 behaviors/expectations of, 98 as litigants in Islamic (Shari’a) law ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-’Aziz (Umayyad courts, 94 – 95 caliph), 41 , 49 as middle class readers/writers in ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab (Rashidun i n- de- siècle Ottoman caliph), 41 , 77 Empire, 251 – 52 Umayyad dynasty missionaries, effects on, 200 , 202 – 3 alcohol consumption during, 42 rape/ abductions during Armenian conversions to Islam during, 49 massacre, 268 history of, 30 – 31 See also marriage umma (Muslim collective), 29 World War I (Great War), 286 – 87 , 304 United Arab Emirates, short-term guest workers in, 2 Yahya (translator), 127 United States Ya’qub, Mu’allim Hanna, 142 diplomatic relations with Abdulhamid Yaziji, Ibrahim al-, 283 II, 196 – 97 Yaziji, Nasif al-, 205 – 6 intervention in Ottoman Empire, Yellin, Shlomo, 277 – 78 163 Yemen migration of Muslims to, 197 conquest of, under Abdulaziz, 261 Muslim minority in, 20 exception to Jews bearing arms/riding and terrorist attacks of September 11, animals in, 142 2001, 7 Great Britain in, 191 – 92 and 9/ 11 Commission Report, 320 Muslim-Jewish relations in, 259 Université de Saint-Joseph, 200 Ottoman reforms, effects on Jews Urban II (Pope), 6 , 55 in, 260 – 63 ‘Uthman (Rashidun caliph), 77 attacks on Jews in Sana’a by children, 262 Vámbéry, Ármin, 285 British annexation of Aden, 261 Van Dyck, Cornelius, 204 – 5 Dung-Gatherers Decree, 261 Van Dyck Bible, 204 – 6 emigration, 263 – 64 , 265 van Ginkel, Jan J., 36 enforcement of jizya, 262 , 265 Varjabedian, Nerses, 186 living conditions, 263 vatan (homeland), 255 , 256 , 285 Orphans Decree, 261 , 262 , 265 Venetians, and merchants tax status as dhimmis, 260 , 264 – 65 exemptions, 88 work on the Sabbath and Victoria (Great Britain), 193 holidays, 262 Zaydis in, 224 , 260 – 63 Wahhab, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-, Yezidis, 18 , 220 , 222 , 223 , 227 229 Young Ottomans, 255 – 56 Wahhabism, 228 – 30 Young Turks, 244 waqfs (religious endowments), 82 and Adana Massacre, 278 – 79 Watenpaugh, Keith D., 252 – 53 conscription under, 279 – 81 Watson, Andrew, 209 – 10 , 216 feelings of nondominance among Arabs West Bank, Christian population under, 281 – 83 diminution in, 2 initial enthusiasm for, 277 – 78 Western Europe, rising Islamophobia as name of leaders of 1908 rebellion in, 7 – 8 concerning Macedonia, 277

380 Index

Young Turks (cont.) Zaydan, Jurji, 282 secret organization of young Zaydi Islam, 224 , 260 – 63 ofi cers, 276 – 77 , 280 – 81 , Zionism, 15, 182 , 230 – 31 , 248 , 263 – 64 286 Zoroastrians, 39 , 46 , 77 – 78 , 220 and wars leading to demise of Ottoman Zubaida, Sami, 306 – 7 Empire, 285 – 87 zunnar belt, 41 , 46 , 317 Yugoslav Wars (1991–c. 2001), 6 Zürcher, Erik J., 145 , 279