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Depictions of Hunting in Eastern Han Dynasty Tomb Reliefs (25-220 Ce) from Shaanxi and Shanxi

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Depictions of Hunting in Eastern Han Dynasty Tomb Reliefs (25-220 Ce) from Shaanxi and Shanxi CHASING THE BEYOND: DEPICTIONS OF HUNTING IN EASTERN HAN DYNASTY TOMB RELIEFS (25-220 CE) FROM SHAANXI AND SHANXI by Leslie Wallace BA, University of Chicago, 2001 MA, University of Pittsburgh, 2005 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2010 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH THE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Leslie Wallace It was defended on February 19, 2010 and approved by Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, Associate Professor, History, University of California, Santa Barbara Karen M. Gerhart, Professor, History of Art and Architecture Anne Weis, Associate Professor, History of Art and Architecture Dissertation Advisor: Katheryn M. Linduff, Professor, History of Art and Architecture ii Copyright © by Leslie Wallace 2010 iii CHASING THE BEYOND: DEPICTIONS OF HUNTING IN EASTERN HAN DYNASTY TOMB RELIEFS (25-220 CE) FROM SHAANXI AND SHANXI Leslie Wallace, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2010 During the first and second centuries CE colonists living along the Northern Frontier of the Han Empire built tombs with stone doorways that depicted scenes of the hunt. These reliefs depict a fabulous world inhabited by mounted archers, hybrid xian (immortals) and frolicking/fleeing animals. Within these reliefs there is also a limited tendency to draw on the alternate lifestyles of the Xiongnu, a confederation of northern nomadic tribes who served as both neighbor and foe to the Han Chinese who lived in this area. Previous scholarship has seen hunting imagery in these reliefs as passive reflections of the mixed culture and economy of the region. I instead maintain that it was part of an iconographical program that depicted and facilitated the passage of the deceased to paradise across the dangerous borderlands between Heaven and Earth. My dissertation argues that imagery in Shaanxi and Shanxi was actually a refinement of earlier Eastern Zhou (771-221 BCE) and Western Han (206BC- 8CE) depictions of the hunt and immortals, but that in this region, the positioning of the hunt at doorways created a liminal space representing the “Great Boundary” between this world and the next. This world is described in an inscription from a tomb excavated in Suide, Shaanxi that warns the deceased of the dangers that confront him if he does not return to the world of the living. On the basis of this inscription and similar “soul-summoning” passages from the Chu ci (Songs of the South) and Eastern Han dynasty tomb-quelling texts (zhenmu wen), I argue that hunting imagery in Shaanxi and Shanxi belongs to the desolate spaces that were believed to exist between this world and the next. iv Furthermore, I conclude that these images were a local response adopted by the patrons because they lived in a militarized, colonized setting in which fears of foreign neighbors fused with their apprehensions of the ‘beyond’. v TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 2.0 AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SURVEY OF EASTERN HAN TOMBS FROM SHAANXI AND SHANXI ............................................................................... 7 2.1 HISTORY OF EXCAVATION AND SCHOLARSHIP .................................. 8 2.2 TOMB CONSTRUCTION: GENERAL TYPES AND THE PLACEMENT OF RELIEFS WITHIN THE TOMB ............................................................................... 14 2.3 CARVING STYLE AND COLOR ................................................................... 15 2.4 A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF MAJOR ICONOGRAPHIC FEATURES........ 16 2.5 A BRIEF HISTORY OF SHANG AND XIHE COMMANDERIES ............ 17 2.6 LIFE IN SHANG AND XIHE COMMANDERIES I: COLONIZATION, DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINE .................................................................................. 21 2.7 LIFE IN SHANG AND XIHE COMMANDERIES II: OFFICIALS, SOLDIERS AND BARBARIANS ..................................................................................... 29 2.8 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 33 3.0 HUNTING IMAGERY IN EASTERN HAN TOMBS: MAJOR CATEGORIES, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND PREVIOUS INTERPRETATIONS ................ 39 3.1 HUNTING IMAGERY IN SHANDONG, JIANGSU AND ANHUI ............ 40 3.2 HUNTING IMAGERY IN NANYANG, HENAN .......................................... 44 vi 3.3 HUNTING IMAGERY IN SICHUAN ............................................................. 47 3.4 HUNTING IMAGERY IN SHAANXI AND SHANXI .................................. 49 3.5 GENERAL INTERPRETATIONS OF THE HUNT ..................................... 51 3.6 INTERPRETATIONS OF HUNTING IMAGERY IN THE NORTHWEST …………………………………………………………………………………..54 3.7 ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE IMAGERY ................................................................ 57 3.8 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 58 4.0 HUNTING, IMMORTALITY AND THE BORDERLANDS BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH............................................................................................................. 60 4.1 MOTIFS COMBINED WITH HUNTING SCENES ..................................... 61 4.1.1 Xiwangmu....................................................................................................... 62 4.1.2 Immortals worshipping a mounded object ................................................. 63 4.1.3 Boshan lu ........................................................................................................ 64 4.1.4 Immortals and Animals in Stylized Landscapes ......................................... 65 4.2 PATTERNS IN WHICH HUNTING SCENES ARE COMBINED WITH MOTIFS OF IMMORTALITY ........................................................................................ 69 4.3 PACIFICATION OF THE BORDERLANDS: IMMORTALS FROLICKING WITH ANIMALS AND SCENES OF THE HUNT ............................. 72 4.3.1 Immortals and Animals................................................................................. 75 4.3.2 Hunting, Exorcism and Communication with Heaven .............................. 78 4.3.3 The Relationship between Animals and Man in Scenes of the Hunt from the Northwest .............................................................................................................. 79 4.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 89 vii 5.0 “THE PEOPLE WHO LIVE BY DRAWING THE BOW” AND REPRESENTATIONS OF THE AFTERLIFE IN HUNTING IMAGERY FROM THE NORTHWEST ............................................................................................................................ 90 5.1 THE FIGURE OF THE MOUNTED ARCHER ............................................ 91 5.2 FALCONRY ....................................................................................................... 95 5.3 HUMAN-ANIMAL COMBAT ......................................................................... 98 5.4 THE HUNT, WARFARE AND MILITARY TRAINING ........................... 101 5.5 “THE PEOPLE WHO LIVE BY DRAWING THE BOW” AND WESTERN HAN REPRESENTATIONS OF MARTIAL VALOR ................................................. 104 5.6 XIONGNU LANDS AS THE ENDS OF THE EARTH/WILDERNESS ... 107 5.7 THE XIONGNU AS NON-HUMAN AND FOREIGNERS IN HAN TOMBS …………………………………………………………………………………110 5.8 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 118 6.0 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 120 CHINESE GLOSSARY............................................................................................................ 123 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 127 viii LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. INSCRIPTIONS FOUND IN TOMBS FROM SHAANXI AND SHANXI .............. 35 ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Numerous persons have been instrumental in bringing this work to completion. First and foremost is Professor Katheryn Linduff who throughout my academic years in Pittsburgh has been a constant source of inspiration, support and encouragement. I am also deeply indebted to the members of my committee, Professors Anthony Barbieri-Low, Karen Gerhart and Anne Weis, whose critical comments and intriguing questions have motivated and informed all stages of my research. All have spent a great deal of time editing and discussing my work; any errors or omissions in this thesis are my own. I am also grateful for my colleagues and friends, Maria D’Anniballe, Shalmit Bejarano, Naoko Gunji, Han Jiayao and Yuki Morishima who have encouraged me throughout my graduate career. To Sheri Lullo and Rachel McTernan, I owe special thanks for asking critical questions that helped frame my research. My gratitude also extends to Zhang Haihui of the East Asian Library at the University of Pittsburgh for her help with my research and the translation of difficult texts. I would also like to thank Linda Hicks for the many cups of coffee and warm conversation that have enriched my graduate experience. I was able to complete this research thanks to two Foreign Language and Area Studies (FLAS) Fellowships (Asian Studies Center, University of Pittsburgh), the China Studies Tuition Remission Scholarship (Asian Studies Center, University of Pittsburgh) and the Arts and Science x
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