RESEARCH REVIEW

Concentrated Poverty in by Jeremiah Boyle

Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath created a renewed awareness of the unique isolation and vulnerability of people who live in communities where Milwaukee Case poverty concentrates and persists. The Study Area Federal Reserve’s Community Affairs staff partnered with the Brookings Institution to re-examine our understanding of concentrated poverty – defined as areas where at least 40 percent of the population lives below the poverty line.

The Enduring Challenge of Concentrated Poverty in America: Case Studies from Communities Across the U.S. identifies 16 communities in big, medium, and small cities, rural communities, and tribal lands, all of which share the characteristic of high concentrations of poverty. The study provides a quantitative basis for comparing these communities’ rates and trends of poverty, income, demographics, education, labor market, housing, and access to credit. In addition to comparing the case study areas to each other, each case study highlights the important can only come from more qualitative • What factors contribute to the regional context in which these pockets perceptions and descriptions of socio- development and persistence of high-poverty exist. economic issues. of poverty? The Enduring Challenge of The case studies are thematically • What is the capacity of local Concentrated Poverty in America went organized around four questions about organizations to address issues of well beyond the statistics and concentrated poverty: concentrated poverty? quantitative analysis. The case studies What challenges does living in an What strategies are public and tapped the unique capacity of the • • environment of concentrated poverty private sectors employing to Federal Reserve’s Community Affairs pose for these communities and the ameliorate its effects? staff to add the texture and nuance that families that live there?

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The Enduring Challenge of Concentrated Poverty in America: Case Studies from Communities Across the U.S. In 2006, the Community Affairs Offices of the Federal Reserve System partnered with the Brookings Institution to examine the issue of concentrated poverty. The resulting report, The Enduring Challenge of Concentrated Poverty in America: Case Studies from Communities Across the U.S., profiles 16 high- poverty communities from across the country, including immigrant gateway, Native American, urban, and rural communities. Through these case studies, the report contributes to our understanding of the dynamics of poor people The Milwaukee case study living in poor communities, and the policies that will be needed to bring both neighborhood consists of 11 contiguous into the economic mainstream. See www.frbsf.org/cpreport/index.html. census tracts adjacent to downtown Milwaukee, all of which have a poverty rate of at least 40 percent. The case study area includes all or parts of neighborhoods known locally as: Sherman Park, Metcalfe Park, Uptown, Washington Park, Walnut Hill, Midtown, Martin Drive, and Cold Spring Park. Although the data collection and analysis focused on the 11 census tracts, the qualitative analysis – the narrative of the case study – is really about a much larger area of northwest Milwaukee.

Challenges of Concentrated Poverty for Communities and Families There are common themes that run through all of the case studies and that echo the plentiful, extant literature on the subject. For example, human capital development in the form of education for Figure 1: Human Capital children, training and retraining adults Northwest Milwaukee displaced by economic upheaval, and Milwaukee MSA basic financial literacy for everyone was Education noted in each community.

% Adults without high school diploma, 2000 46.4 15.5 Unemployment, underemployment, and % Adults with a college degree, 2000 7.2 27.0 wage disparities are also significant % Students proficient in reading, 2005 52.9 78.7 factors contributing to the concentration and persistence of poverty. % Students proficient in math 37.1 67.0 Unemployment and labor force Labor Market participation statistics are often the primary measure of a community’s Unemployment rate, 2000 22.0 5.2 economic performance. % Adults in the labor force 55.7 68.1 Wage disparities provide a more nuanced and troubling challenge. This article expands on the case study, Communities Across the U.S. The purpose Nathan Marwell’s article, “Wage “Milwaukee, : The Northwest of the article is to illustrate how people, Disparities and Industry Segregation: A Neighborhood,” from the monograph, The place, poor economic conditions, and Look at Black-White Income Inequality Enduring Challenge of Concentrated policy interact to create communities that from 1950-2000,” beginning on page 9, Poverty in America: Case Studies from perpetuate poverty. points out on a national level, “It is

2 Profitwise News and Views July 2009 RESEARCH REVIEW impossible to eradicate income inequality when wage inequality exists in Figure 2: Significant Demographic Changes every major industry.” Indeed, this Milwaukee observation supports the findings of a Northwest (MSA) 1998 analysis by the Center on Poverty Rate Wisconsin Strategy that, “The average Poverty rate 1970 18.0 7.9 difference in median hourly wages between workers in the same Poverty rate 2000 48.0 10.6 occupational category in the [case Income study] area versus those in Milwaukee County is $3.36 per hour.” Since the Median household income $19,356 $45,982 case study area is almost 80 percent Demographics African American, many assume that the Population, 2000 23,294 1,500,741 growing wage gap is attributable to racial inequality and discrimination in the % Population change, 1970 – 2000 -36.1 6.9 labor market. Racial/ethnic composition Recent research by economist % White 5.6 74.4 Christopher Wheeler for the Federal % Hispanic/Latino 3.5 6.3 Reserve Bank of St. Louis concludes that, % Black/African American 78.8 15.5 even as the unemployment rate in metropolitan areas decreased, the % Residents under age 18 47.3 26.4 concentration of unemployed persons % Single-parent households 52.7 9.8 grew dramatically.1 In a separate study, Wheeler analyzed wage gaps along % Foreign born, 2000 7.1 5.4 several different categories of wage % Population in same house as five years ago 42.5 49.1 earners. In this study, Wheeler found that, Access to Credit while some of the growth in wage inequality can be explained by differences % Credit files that are thin, 2004 50.8 23.0 between different categories of wage % Credit files with high credit scores 17.1 58.5 earners (i.e., Black vs. White wage % Mortgage originations that are high cost, 2005 62.7 25.9 earners; or wage earners with a high school diploma vs. those with a bachelor’s Mortgage denial rate, 2005 26.4 15.9 degree), a larger portion of the growth in wage inequality is explained by the growth • Families that have to move frequently transportation, neighborhood amenities). (or decline) in wages between the highest disrupt continuity at school. There are, however, significant differences wage earners and the lower wage earners in the local histories, economic contexts, 2 Health care providers can treat allergies within each demographic category. • and leadership capacities in each and asthma, but they cannot cure or community yielding divergent priorities in More attention and analysis is needed effectively manage those conditions in addressing the issues. This leads to the to fully understand how employment, the face of environmental challenges at conclusion that indeed there are no magic unemployment, underemployment, and home (i.e., mold, lead paint, second bullets for addressing issues of wage disparities interact, especially in hand smoke). concentrated poverty. high-poverty communities. High-cost mortgage loans constrain • Finally, it is worth noting here that, Finally, housing issues arise in all of the and frustrate home ownership based on this descriptive analysis, place case study communities, albeit for aspirations for those families living matters. The socioeconomic conditions different reasons. Unlike cities that have in high-poverty and in very poor neighborhoods are more highly concentrated public housing segregated neighborhoods. or more significant affordability associated with more limited challenges, housing policy in Milwaukee There are many more challenges that opportunities for residents and appear seems to emerge more often as an are associated with living in high-poverty to become self-perpetuating. adjunct to other issues: communities that are common to each of the case study communities (crime, health,

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Poverty concentrates in the midst of Figure 3: Loss of Manufacturing Jobs in Northern Cities – 1970-2000 both weak and strong regional economies. Regional economies that are themselves transitioning to “post- industrial” status (deindustrialization, economic restructuring, and globalization) add to the challenge of those struggling for personal economic growth in high-poverty communities. One author uses the analogy of someone running up a down escalator that seems designed to adjust its descent to the amount of effort to move up.3

Paradoxically, the persistence of concentrated poverty in strong regional economies reminds us that simply growing the economy does not necessarily lift all boats and that the long-term exclusion of poverty-stricken communities requires more active SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Economic Information System, Table CA25, Total Full-time and Part-time Employment by Industry. interventions to ensure their inclusion in improving economies. Factors that Contribute to the deindustrialization and the loss of Development and Persistence of manufacturing jobs (see Figure 3). The Almost all of the job growth in the Concentrated Poverty case study neighborhood is at the heart metropolitan area has occurred away of what was once a booming center of from the city. While the study area and the greater Northwest Side of While there are many factors that are many different industries. As those Milwaukee lost 7,265 jobs between associated with the development and industries declined and disappeared, 1994 and 2003, the three surrounding persistence of concentrated poverty, The historical patterns of racial segregation in counties of Waukesha, Ozaukee, and Enduring Challenge of Concentrated the housing market evolved into the Poverty in America highlights and Washington (the “WOW” counties) geography of poverty in Milwaukee. 4 illustrates four. added 51,876 jobs. Demographic Changes “This becomes a fair housing issue in History Matters view of the fact that the central city is Demographic changes are key drivers History matters because poverty predominantly African American in in the concentration and persistence of population, yet 32.3 percent of concentrates over time. High levels of poverty. The out-migration of middle- Milwaukee’s Black households do not poverty in these communities are the income families left pockets of lower- own cars...Currently the region’s mass product of long-term, complex, economic income and predominantly minority transit is not adequate to access and social dynamics, and deliberate households. And nowhere is the growth employment outside Milwaukee County.”5 actions in both the public and private of children in single-parent families more sectors. While standard economic theory pronounced than communities where Isolation suggests that the lower prices of housing high concentrations of poverty persist. and labor would eventually attract new Finally, pervasive isolation underlies all investment and employment opportunities, As the chart shows, rapidly increasing of the case study communities – not just the poverty rates in these case study poverty rates, lower median incomes, a the physical disconnection of being on areas worsened or stagnated between very young population with a high the “wrong side of the tracks.” Isolation in 1990 and 2000 despite the prevailing concentration of single-parent these communities is characterized by economic growth and prosperity and households, and a high concentration of social, racial, linguistic, and economic declining national poverty rates. high cost (subprime) loans are among the separateness from the surrounding demographic trends in Milwaukee that community and larger economy. Like many of its peer cities in the have contributed to the concentration Midwest and Northeast, Milwaukee was and persistence of poverty. Employment and wage disparities hit hard by the forces of illustrate the point, as discussed above.

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Milwaukee’s case study is home to the In most of the case studies, funding guide, the city had increased its headquarters of Harley-Davidson and the nonprofit/advocate efforts to address share of block grants to 55 percent of the former headquarters of Miller Brewing. It the complex and interrelated barriers $21 million federal entitlement. is also in the shadow of downtown these communities face are hindered by Neighborhood organizations and their Milwaukee’s office towers and high-rise the new and evolving nature of the allies vocally opposed these measures, condominium complexes. It is problems; changing populations; and the but resigned themselves to the shifting immediately adjacent to Marquette struggle to retain talent, especially community development landscape.”8 University and the resurgent employment young people. And even when center known as the Valley. government, private and nonprofit Addressing Concentrated Poverty in stakeholders try to pull together, these The old “Beer Line” railroad tracks Milwaukee efforts are often thwarted by a shortage that used to serve a thriving of genuine expertise, governance Every community has its own manufacturing center has now become issues, and the lack of trust engendered approach to stabilizing and revitalizing a symbol of not only the “wrong side of by some of these efforts. High-profile communities. Generally, these the tracks” physical isolation, it is also a failures influence public thinking more approaches fall somewhere along a symbol of a much more compelling and than lower-profile successes. spectrum: at one end, are place-based challenging detachment from the initiatives that focus on improving the economic, social, and political Community development efforts in physical environment of the community; mainstream of greater Milwaukee. Milwaukee have been stymied by this and, at the other end, people-based interaction of capacity, governance, and initiatives focusing on expanding Challenges of “Being Poor in a Poor trust issues: opportunities for individuals and families. Neighborhood” The limited scope of place-based “[Mayor John] Norquist sought to use programs does little to affect the impact Isolation acts to promote and more block grants to offset deficits in the of broader macroeconomic forces. They perpetuate the challenges of being “poor city budget or the employee pension fund. are sometimes criticized for clustering in a poor neighborhood.” Those According to the Milwaukee Journal projects like affordable housing, further challenges include human capital – the Sentinel, the proposal in 2002 would concentrating underserved populations. combination of schools and skills; social increase the city’s share of the federal People-based programs struggle to capital – “personal relationships that aid block grant allocation from 40 to 57 achieve the scale and reach to serve the in achieving goals”6; and the lack of percent. In that year, federal CDBG large populations they intend to serve. mainstream investment. Clearly, revenue was $22 million. The paper Milwaukee shares the plight of quoted block grant director Mike Soika The strategies that are emerging overcoming the challenges – both real saying that these changes reflected the more recently borrow from both ends of and perceived – of higher costs, limited city’s objective of ‘redefining its that spectrum in an effort to not simply buying power, crime and safety, illicit relationship’ with community improve communities, but transform economic activity, and a younger and less organizations. The city, he stated, ‘will them by “fundamentally altering the educated population, that dampen fund fewer groups, reduce duplication, socioeconomic mix of distressed areas investment in some communities. and focus on value and outcomes’ in the to create communities that are attractive future.7 According to the 2004 block grant to a broader range of households.”

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fragmented business assistance system Figure 4: Business Growth in Metro Milwaukee (Number of Business Establishments) in Milwaukee was seen as an impediment to entrepreneurial % change1994- Area 1994 2003 2003 development. The UEP weaves together the elements of a comprehensive Inner City 4,080 3,774 -7.5% business assistance program for early- Northwest Side 2,170 2,020 -6.9% stage growth-oriented businesses to Milwaukee County 22,109 21,037 -4.8% help create a culture of entrepreneurship. It is also designed to WOW Counties 16,226 18,655 15.0% leverage minority-owned businesses’ SOURCE: UWM Center for Economic Development analysis of U.S. Census, propensity to hire minority workers by County Business Patterns, establishment data by zip code, 1994-2003 (in growing minority-owned businesses to Levine, 2006) scale. The UEP works with senior-level executives at large corporations and neighborhood transformation through institutions to identify joint ventures, plans that are developed by the spinouts and divestitures, strategic residents of each of those partnerships, and other opportunities neighborhoods. Development and for the corporation to enter into a implementation of these plans are fully market-driven venture with a supported through a multi-year minority entrepreneur. commitment of $50 million from the Zilber Foundation, and a broader Leadership and Partnership: Two array of the city’s leadership through a Ships Passing in the Night? select group of advisors from the civic and corporate leadership of the city. As discussed above, “Neighborhood organizations and their allies vocally Theoretically, one of the ways that opposed these measures, but resigned individuals can address a lack of themselves to the shifting community employment opportunity is to become development landscape.”10 A once strong an entrepreneur – self-employment. and innovative coalition of financial However, less than 5 percent of the institutions, housing counseling groups, households in the study area reported and the city, crumbled under the weight of self-employment income as compared affordable housing projects that defaulted, with 12 percent of households in the bankrupting some of Milwaukee’s state. The study area lost business strongest nonprofits and splintering the establishments during a decade of coalition. Then, New Opportunities for national prosperity. Figure 4 shows that Homeownership in Milwaukee (NOHIM) the study area lost 7.5 percent of its disbanded after 12 years of addressing businesses while the number of home mortgage lending issues in businesses in outlying counties Milwaukee. NOHIM was originally created increased by 15 percent.9 Milwaukee’s to address the racial disparity in loan denial inner city might well benefit from a rates in Milwaukee, which has consistently sustained effort to encourage had one of the highest levels of disparity entrepreneurship, especially efforts to among mortgage applicants nationwide. support growing minority-owned firms NOHIM, a coalition of financial institutions that have a greater propensity to hire and home buyer counseling agencies, In Milwaukee, the Zilber Initiative aims minoirty workers. made $263 million in loans to 4,653 to engage residents of targeted applicants over 12 years, 80 percent of communities in transformational Progress Through Business, a which went to ethnic minorities. 11 initiatives. Loosely based on the New national nonprofit, and the City of Communities’ Programs in Chicago, the Milwaukee created the Milwaukee Milwaukee generally, and NOHIM goal is to have residents and Urban Entrepreneur Partnership (UEP) specifically, illustrate the point made stakeholders of targeted neighborhoods to support and encourage above that, a lack of trust “attaches to develop and implement comprehensive entrepreneurship in the city. The many of these efforts because high-

6 Profitwise News and Views July 2009 RESEARCH REVIEW profile failures influence public thinking “Why the Garden Club Couldn’t Save Some relatively new initiatives in more than the lower-profile successes Youngstown,” compared the trajectory of Milwaukee that benefit from corporate that occur only with sustained efforts Allentown, Pennsylvania, and engagement and commitment and over time.” The general atmosphere of Youngstown, . The paper focuses on show a great deal of promise include mistrust in which NOHIM decided to the role of corporate and civic leadership the Zilber Initiative, which is led by a disband overshadows the fact that, while and the interactions that developed board of advisors comprised of high- NOHIM existed, low-income and minority between centers of power in those profile civic and corporate leaders14, households in Milwaukee’s “target area” communities. The network effects that and the Milwaukee 7’s Regional gained greater access to home mortgage emerge show that, “particular Workforce Alliance and the Milwaukee and home equity products. Indeed, organizations must actors who 7 Water Council. although we cannot demonstrate a are not otherwise well connected in order The Regional Workforce Alliance, cause-effect relationship, as NOHIM to serve as a focus of civic engagement... with support from the U.S. Department disappeared, high-cost (subprime) Rather than simply increasing the of Labor’s Workforce Innovation in lending surged, and now, “Metropolitan number of civic organizations or even Regional Economic Development Milwaukee has some of the greatest participation in them...what is most (WIRED) initiative, is leveraging both the racial disparities in subprime lending in important is how social capital is new resources of the WIRED program the U.S.”12 deployed, called upon, and realized by actors within communities...”13 and the existing workforce development More recently, Milwaukee Mayor Tom programs in the region. However, in Barrett convened the Milwaukee Progress Through Business order to be transformative, its stated Foreclosure Partnership Initiative (MFPI), (Progress), a national nonprofit philosophy is that, “Innovation and a coalition of government officials, organization affiliated with the transformation most often happen at the housing counseling agencies, community University of Wisconsin’s Center on intersections between organizations and development groups, financial Business and Poverty, works with large thus single, stand-alone projects are not institutions, and philanthropic corporations to help them engage in eligible for funding.”15 organizations. MFPI’s immediate goal is local development efforts through their One target industry for the Regional to access the resources available though business operations, first. Three legs of Workforce Alliance approach to the U.S. Department of Housing and the Progress stool are called “produce the right amount of talent with Urban Development’s (HUD) BusinessLINC, EmployeeLINC, and the right skills when and where needed,” Neighborhood Stabilization Program GreenLINC. “LINC” stands for is the water technology. Milwaukee has (NSP), and address the foreclosure crisis learning, investment, networking, positioned itself as a global leader in in Milwaukee. MFPI succeeded in and collaboration. development of fresh water obtaining $9.2 million in NSP funds from BusinessLINC is an example of technologies.16 As a relatively new HUD. However, recent interviews creating social capital through network industry developing emerging conducted by the author with MFPI effects. The BusinessLINC coalitions technology, the water industry will need participants reveal that this coalition must were created to bring CEOs directly a deep and growing pool of talent to remain vigilant to guard against a into addressing the issue of greater feed the anticipated growth of the mindset, borne of history’s “high profile inclusion of minority-owned businesses industry, even if the specific skill sets failures” in order to sustain and build in corporate supply chains. The necessary are still evolving. upon this initial success. initiatives don’t tell the CEOs how to do Clearly, one thing that local it; they ask the CEOs to do exactly The Challenges of Effective practitioners crave but see as largely what they do for the companies they Collaboration missing in Milwaukee is leadership and lead: survey the environment for engagement from the corporate opportunities and marshal the All of the initiatives highlighted in this community. There is a general sense resources to seize those opportunities report, including the Milwaukee that a lack of sustained engagement by specifically in the communities in which Foreclosure Partnership, the Zilber corporate executives in local economic they maintain business operations and Initiative, the Milwaukee 7’s Water Council and community development initiatives facilities. EmployeeLINC and and Regional Workforce Alliance, saps the community of vital social GreenLINC ask the same of the CEO Progress Through Business, and many capital that emerge from functioning as it applies to human resources others, will face the dual challenges of social networks. (especially for a company’s low-income looking “over the horizon” for employees), and as it applies to the opportunities, while focusing strategically An interesting paper by Sean Safford, development and maintenance of the on the near-term needs of the community. a professor at the University of Chicago, company’s physical plant.

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In order to succeed, these initiatives Conclusion must begin with the end in mind. What, specifically, are you trying to accomplish? The Enduring Challenge of How will you measure success? What will Concentrated Poverty in America you measure? How will you measure it? describes a number of challenges that And, finally, how will partners hold each high-poverty communities in the United other accountable and remain partners? States face across a range of geographic, economic, and demographic One example of an organization that environments. It also concludes that there has addressed the dual challenges of are no “silver bullets” or policies that could vision and strategic focus is Chicago be adopted at the national level that would United. Chicago United was created in fully address the multiple issues that the aftermath of the 1968 riots in concentrate and isolate individuals and Chicago. It is the only organization that families in these pockets of poverty. is dedicated exclusively to addressing Milwaukee’s Northwest Side provides race in business through hiring, an excellent case study of both the promotion, board development, and similarities and the uniqueness of high- minority supplier initiatives. poverty neighborhoods. In order for Chicago United’s Five Forward® Milwaukee to address its unique set of Initiative is a compelling commitment by issues that promote and perpetuate dozens of Fortune 1000 companies to concentrated poverty, Milwaukee will need establish new relationships with five to address its need of the development of minority-owned suppliers and professional leadership capacity and social capital service providers and to track the benefits necessary to address the core issues. of those relationships – over five years – That will require patience and trust. for the company, the supplier, and the communities where the suppliers and companies are located. However, the program has a single measure of success: how much has revenue increased at the participating minority-owned firms? Everyone in the program understands and agrees that the growth of the minority- owned companies – specifically their revenue growth, is the only basis on which the other benefits (increased employment opportunities, wealth creation, and economic development) can be achieved.

There is an elegance to the single measure that seems to be generating an increased level of engagement and commitment from the highest levels of the participating Five Forward® firms. Not every initiative can focus on just one measure of success, but the Five Forward® initiative does demonstrate that well-defined goals and accountability can help leaders marshal the resources to efficiently and effectively address challenging issues.

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Notes 1 Wheeler, Christopher. The Rising Residential Concentration of Joblessness in Urban America: 1980-2000. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 2007. 2 Wheeler, Christopher. Earnings Inequality within the Urban United States: 2000-2006. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 2008. 3 Rusk, David. Inside Game/Outside Game: Winning Strategies for Saving Urban America. Brookings Institution Press, 1999. 4 Levine, Marc V. The economic state of Milwaukee’s inner city: 2006. Milwaukee: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Center for Economic Development, 2006. 5 Metropolitan Milwaukee Fair Housing Council. City of Milwaukee Analysis of Impediments to Fair Housing, August, 2005. 6 Quillian, Lincoln, and Rozlyn Redd. “Broadly meaning the personal relationships that aid in achieving goals, social capital is not a single explanation or variable, but rather points toward a variety of explanations of how informal human social relationships are important for human behavior...We find the evidence especially compelling linking racial inequality and certain types of social capital disadvantage resulting from disadvantaged neighborhoods.” Can Social Capital Explain Persistent Racial Poverty Gaps? National Poverty Center Working Paper #06-12, 2006. Also available at www.npc.umich.edu/ publications/workingpaper06/paper12/working_paper06-12.pdf. 7 Groups angry over funding cuts. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, July 23, 2004. 8 Grover, Michael. The end of politics: the rise and fall of the East Side Housing Action Coalition (ESHAC), 1970-1998. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2004. 9 Levine, Marc V. The economic state of Milwaukee’s inner city: 2006. Milwaukee: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Center for Economic Development, 2006. 10 Grover, Michael. The end of politics: the rise and fall of the East Side Housing Action Coalition (ESHAC), 1970-1998. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2004. 11 Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago. Milwaukee home mortgage lenders: “mission accomplished.” Profitwise News and Views, p. 3, September 2003. For information on NOHIM, see Michele Derus, Mission Accomplished, Mortgage Lending Coalition Disbands, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, June 3, 2003, at www3.jsonline.com/story/index. aspx?id=145373. 12 For more on high-cost, subprime, and predatory lending in Milwaukee, see Metropolitan Milwaukee Fair Housing Council. Fair housing impediments: private market. City of Milwaukee Analysis of Impediments to Fair Housing, pp. 50-56, 2005. Also available at www.ci.mil.wi.us/ImageLibrary/User/jsteve/MilwaukeeAI.pdf. 13 Safford, Sean. Why the Garden Club Couldn’t Save Youngstown: Civic Infrastructure and Mobilization in Economic Crises. MIT Working Paper IPC-04-002, Institute of Technology Industrial Performance Center, 2004. Available at http://web.mit.edu/ipc/ publications/pdf/04-002.pdf. 14 Prominent Milwaukee business leaders to advise Zilber Initiative. BizTimes Daily, June 18, 2008. Available at www.biztimes.com/daily/2008/6/18/prominent-milwaukee-business- leaders-to-advise-zilber-initiative. 15 Regional workforce alliance of Southeastern Wisconsin. Accelerating Regional Prosperity. March 2009. 16 Schmid, John. U.N. Names Milwaukee a Water Technology Hub. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, April 27, 2009.

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