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Reconceptualizing Learning: a Review of the Literature on Informal Learning

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Reconceptualizing Learning: a Review of the Literature on Informal Learning Reconceptualizing Learning: A Review of the Literature on Informal Learning Michelle Van Noy Heather James Crystal Bedley Reconceptualizing Learning: A Review of the Literature on Informal Learning Michelle Van Noy Heather James Crystal Bedley With Steven Malick & Justin Vinton Education and Employment Research Center School of Management and Labor Relations Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey Janice H. Levin Building 94 Rockafeller Road Piscataway, NJ 08854 April 2016 Prepared for the ACT Foundation ABOUT RUTGERS SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT AND LABOR RELATIONS Rutgers' School of Management and Labor Relations (SMLR) is the leading source of expertise on the world of work, building effective and sustainable organizations, and the changing employment relationship. The school is comprised of two departments—one focused on all aspects of strategic human resource management and the other dedicated to the social science specialties related to labor studies and employment relations. In addition, SMLR provides many continuing education and certificate programs taught by world-class researchers and expert practitioners. SMLR was originally established by an act of the New Jersey legislature in 1947 as the Institute of Management and Labor Relations (IMLR). Like its counterparts that were created in the other large industrial states at the same time, the Institute was chartered to promote new forms of labor-management cooperation following the industrial unrest at the end of World War II. It officially became a school at the flagship campus of the State University of New Jersey in New Brunswick/Piscataway in 1994. For more information, visit smlr.rutgers.edu. ABOUT THE EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH CENTER Rutgers’ Education and Employment Research Center (EERC) is housed within the School of Management and Labor Relations. EERC conducts research and evaluations on education and workforce development programs and policies. EERC research expertise includes community colleges, state and federal workforce developmental systems, skills development, college completion, and innovative and technology-based programs. TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................... i Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1 I.Broad Overview of Informal Learning ................................................................................................. 2 A. What Is Informal Learning? ............................................................................................................. 2 1. The Continuum of Learning Formality ....................................................................................... 3 2. Definitions of Informal Learning ................................................................................................. 5 B. How Does Informal Learning Occur? ........................................................................................... 10 1. Theories on Learning ................................................................................................................... 10 2. Role of Technology ...................................................................................................................... 14 C. Who Benefits from Informal Learning? ....................................................................................... 18 1. Variation across Individuals ....................................................................................................... 18 2. Organizational versus Individual Goals ................................................................................... 20 II. Specific Types of Informal Learning ................................................................................................. 22 A. Organized Informal Learning ....................................................................................................... 23 1.Noncredit Learning ....................................................................................................................... 23 2. Work-based Learning .................................................................................................................. 25 3. Volunteerism and Service Learning .......................................................................................... 33 4. Mentoring and Coaching ............................................................................................................ 37 5. Communities of Practice ............................................................................................................. 39 B. Everyday Informal Learning in the Workplace .......................................................................... 41 1. Subtypes of Everyday Informal Learning ................................................................................ 42 2. Influence of Workplace Structure on Learning ........................................................................ 46 III. Understanding the Impact of Informal Learning .......................................................................... 49 A. Efforts to Measure Informal Learning ......................................................................................... 50 B. Strategies to Recognize Informal Learning .................................................................................. 51 1. Prior Learning Assessment (PLA) ............................................................................................. 51 2. Certifications and Licenses ......................................................................................................... 53 3. Workplace Rewards ..................................................................................................................... 54 4. Learn and Earn Models ............................................................................................................... 55 C. Implications and Remaining Questions ....................................................................................... 56 References ................................................................................................................................................. 59 Appendix: Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 73 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Given the importance of learning to economic and life success, this review seeks to broaden the conception of learning beyond traditional formal education. Learning occurs every day in many ways and in a range of settings. This broad scope of learning—termed “informal learning”—is increasingly important in the rapidly changing knowledge economy. As such, in this review paper, we examine the different types of informal learning, their opportunities and challenges, and their issues of access and equity. Spanning multiple disciplines, we draw particular attention to the workplace and adult learning literature. This meta-review is a synthesis of over 600 publications with a focus on review articles published in the last 25 years. I. Broad Overview of Informal Learning A useful framework for understanding informal learning is to view learning as occurring on a continuum of formality based on the following attributes: the location in which learning occurs, whether learning is instructor or student led, the extent to which the content learned is an organized curriculum, and one’s purpose for seeking knowledge. Learning that is most formal can be characterized as learning that occurs in schools that award credentials, is instructor led, covers an organized curriculum, and where knowledge is intentionally sought. Based on this framework, we categorize informal learning into broad categories. Organized informal learning can occur in a range of settings including schools, work, the community, and home. It is intentionally sought by learners, employs a curriculum and an instructor, but does not lead to an educational credential. Everyday informal learning also takes place at school, work, community, or home. It does not include an instructor or an organized curriculum, and learners have a range of intentionality in which the learning can be self-directed, incidental, and/or embedded in the process of socialization. Learning occurs in a variety of ways across the continuum of learning formality. A few of these ways are particularly common with informal learning: experiential, relational, and situated learning. Situated learning attends to the influence of the context in which learning occurs. Both experiential learning, learning through action, and relational learning, learning from others, are related to situated learning. In addition, technology has an important role in how learning occurs across all types of learning. Through opportunities such as online learning, massive open online courses (MOOCS), games and simulations, and mobile learning, technology may expand access to learning opportunities. At the same time, access to the Internet differs by socioeconomic status, and attrition rates for some of these opportunities are high. Informal learning, like formal learning, has issues with access and equity. Not all individuals are able to access and benefit from informal learning. A variety of characteristics, including cognitive ability and motivation, influence how much
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