International Space University, MSS 2014 i

Mars NOW

Final Report

International Space University

M.Sc. Space Studies 2014

© International Space University. All Rights Reserved.

ii International Space University, MSS 2014

The MSS 2014 Program of the International Space University was held at the ISU Central Campus in Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France.

The Mars NOW cover is an artistic impression of a crewed one-way trip from Earth to Mars. Mars image courtesy of USGS – United States Geological Survey. Available at: http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/search/details/Mars/Viking/schiaparelli_enhanced/tif

While all care has been taken in the preparation of this report, the International Space University (ISU) does not take any responsibility for the accuracy of its content.

Electronic copies of the Final Report and Executive Summary can be downloaded from the ISU web site at http://isulibrary.isunet.edu/opac/. Printed copies of the Executive Summary may be requested, while supplies last, from:

International Space University Strasbourg Central Campus Attention: Publications/Library Parc d’Innovation 1 rue Jean-Dominique Cassini 67400 Illkirch-Graffenstaden France

Tel. +33 (0)3 88 65 54 32 Fax. +33 (0)3 88 65 54 47 e-mail. [email protected]

International Space University, MSS 2014 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mars NOW

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Mars NOW team would like to express their sincere gratitude to their generous sponsors, the NASA MSFC Advanced Concepts Office and the NASA Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate, and to the following members of the International Space University faculty and staff for their guidance and support:

Hugh Hill Angie Bukley Gilles Clément James Dator Junjiro Nakahara Nikolai Tolyarenko Walter Peeters Kazuya Yoshida Chris Welch Vasilis Zervos Philippe Achilleas Liu Zhonggui Muriel Riester Nathan Wong Joshua Nelson

The Mars NOW team would also like to thank the following individuals:

Gary Martin, NASA Ames Research Center, USA Robert Thirsk, CIHR, formerly CSA, Canada Cornelius Zünd, Airbus Defense and Space, Germany Fabian Eilingsfeld, PRICE Systems, Germany Gernot Grömer, Austrian Space Forum, Austria Adrianos Golemis, Concordia Station, ESA, Antarctica Jacques Arnould, CNES, France

iv International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW AUTHORS

AUTHORS

This report was delivered by the following authors:

Baskaran, Balachandar Pivovarova, Lilia Architecture International Relations

Benhidjeb--Carayon, Alicia Ruihong, Yang Physics Vacuum Engineering

Chunquan, Duan Teeney, Leo Electrical Engineering Aerospace Engineering

Eilingsfeld, Adrian Terlević, Robert Biomolecular Engineering Medicine

Enestam, Sissi Van Ophem, Séverine Physics and Astrophysics Aeronautical Engineering

Ishola, Femi Venugopal, Ramasamy Electrical/Electronics Telecommunications

Engineering Engineering

Karacalıoğlu, Arif Göktuğ Weihua, Dong Engineering Management Systems Engineering

Zandabadi Aghdam, Kasaboski, Dallas Saman Space Engineering Mechanical/Aerospace Engineering

Molina, José Gabriel

Mechanical Engineering

International Space University, MSS 2014 v ABSTRACT Mars NOW

ABSTRACT

In recent years the idea of one-way Mars missions has started to take hold in the minds of the public and those involved in the space sector. The current interest is in large part due to the recent advancement of the commercial space sector and initiatives such as Mars One. A one-way mission to Mars would give a permanent and growing human presence away from Earth and poses interesting questions that are both technological and non-technological in nature. Human missions to Mars are the ultimate goal of most modern national space programs, with a group of fourteen global space agencies agreeing on Mars as the ultimate destination in the ISECG Global Exploration Roadmap. One-way missions will likely follow, and solutions to the challenges unique to this kind of mission are required.

This report aims to bring together some areas necessary in the planning and implementation of a one-way settlement, with a special focus on underdeveloped, non-technological areas. The analysis proceeds in an interdisciplinary fashion, by analyzing both technological and non-technological challenges that need to be addressed during the different phases of a one-way mission. Recommendations are given and solutions proposed to provide a useful guide for future work into developing successful human one-way missions to Mars.

A lack of understanding of many aspects of one-way Mars missions currently exists. Going to Mars one-way implies bringing along all necessary ingredients to permanently transfer to another planetary body. These ingredients include all essential technologies that would allow inhabitants of a Mars settlement to survive and thrive indefinitely. On the other hand, human civilization is more than just its technology. Cultural elements, such as governance frameworks, ethical considerations, and off-Earth economic systems will be an essential part of the development of a viable settlement. Finally, realistic funding schemes and management practices also need to be established if such a complex program is to be embarked on.

vi International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW FACULTY PREFACE

FACULTY PREFACE

The Nineteenth Century brought unprecedented waves of immigration to the United States of America. Millions emigrated in often-precarious sailing and steam ships. Many were making this extraordinary effort in response to poverty, famine, or persecution in their native countries. A smaller number merely sought fortune and adventure in “The Land of Opportunity”. What all of these immigrants had in common was the recognition that some of them would never see their family and friends again in “The Old Country”. Indeed, in Ireland, a tradition known as an “American Wake” was rampant in the 1800s and early 1900s. Families and friends would assemble the night before their loved ones sailed for the New World. Despite the music, dance, and high spirits, the evening was always overshadowed by the morose realization that a loved one was leaving home permanently, never to return. Hence, the term, “American Wake”, so-called because it compares this sad, ultimate evening event with a traditional Irish family wake for a recently deceased relative or friend, prior to burial.

Clearly, any future one-way missions to Mars will be fraught with countless technical, humanistic, and other challenges and dilemmas. The idea of Martian settlers never seeing their families again is just one of them. What is obvious is that one-way missions to Mars will require years of vigilant reflection and preparation. This year, members of ISU’s “Mars NOW” Team Project (TP) have reflected carefully on such potential missions. The seventeen, Masters-level students from some fifteen countries embarked on their research in October, 2013. Their first task was to complete an interdisciplinary Literature Review (“One-Way Missions to Mars”), which they delivered to ISU’s Faculty last December. The next phase of their work commenced in January, 2014, and was dedicated to identifying original and useful aspects of research to exploit. Their project has come to be known as “Mars NOW” and is summarized in this Report, which was delivered to ISU’s Faculty in late March, 2014.

The spirited members of “Mars NOW” are to be commended for several reasons. They have been open-minded from the start of this project and have always been sensitive to ISU’s 3I philosophy: International, Intercultural and Interdisciplinary. They have also been abundantly aware of the futility of “reinventing the wheel” by rehashing stale research. This awareness ultimately resulted in them to identifying and developing several imaginative research topics, which hitherto have received little attention on the part of international scholars.

Naturally, it is very stimulating for ISU’s Faculty to know that a proportion of our students will inevitably spend some of their professional careers planning and realizing future Mars missions. We wish them well and trust that they will never lose their zeal for space!

Associate Professor Hugh Hill.

International Space University, MSS 2014 vii TEAM PREFACE Mars NOW

TEAM PREFACE

“This is the goal: To make available for life every place where life is possible. To make inhabitable all worlds as yet uninhabitable, and all life purposeful.” Hermann Oberth, Man Into Space, 1957

"I don't think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet.”

Stephen Hawking, interview with The Telegraph, 16 October 2001

Humanity is witnessing the start of a new era in space exploration. Soon, humans will once again sail through the cosmos and extend their reach farther than ever before. In this epic voyage, Mars will be one of the richest prizes. Initial missions will set the stage for the ultimate Mars goal: the creation of a settlement, an extension of human civilization to another world.

While the concepts of one-way missions to Mars, and therefore Mars settlement, are still in their infancy, in recent years they have become a publicly discussed topic rife with speculation. However, in spite of all of the attention, little critical scrutiny has been directed towards these innovative ideas. Settling Mars should be regarded as a cosmic insurance policy for humanity. Ultimately, one planet is not enough.

The Mars Next One-Way (Mars NOW) team set out to describe and discuss some of the most relevant challenges and opportunities concerning settling Mars. We examined a number of topics ranging from innovative technologies, such as biotechnologies and robotics, to the hard ethical questions, which arise when we consider a proposal such as settling Mars. Additionally, we tackled questions concerning governance on Mars, the legal background of planetary exploration and settlement, and the value of outreach for the purpose of gathering support for a continued economic effort to support an off-world settlement.

The breadth of these topics was made possible thanks to the interdisciplinary nature of the International Space University and its large global network of experts. Our group’s diversity has contributed expertise and dedication, and our hard work has produced a report, which we hope will be of use to national agencies and private interests alike.

The Mars NOW team

viii International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv AUTHORS ...... v ABSTRACT ...... vi FACULTY PREFACE ...... vii TEAM PREFACE ...... viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... ix INDEX OF FIGURES ...... xiii INDEX OF TABLES ...... xv LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... xvi 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Mission Statement ...... 4 1.2. Project Goals and Background ...... 4 1.2.1. Defining “Mission” ...... 4 1.2.2. Assumptions ...... 5 1.2.3. Timeline: Phases of the One-Way Mission Approach ...... 5 1.3. Report Organization ...... 7 2. ETHICAL AND CULTURAL CHALLENGES ...... 10 2.1. Introduction ...... 10 2.2. Should We Explore Mars? ...... 10 2.2.1. Recommendations ...... 11 2.3. Should We Go One-Way? ...... 11 2.3.1. Recommendations ...... 12 2.4. When Can We Go? ...... 14 2.4.1. Recommendations ...... 15 2.5. Who Can Go On One-Way Missions? ...... 15 2.6. What About Martian life? ...... 15 2.6.1. Recommendations ...... 16 2.7. What if the Mission Fails? ...... 17 2.7.1. Failure During Launch ...... 17 2.7.2. Failure During Transit ...... 18 2.7.3. Failure on Surface of Mars ...... 18 2.8. Cultural Implications of an International Mars Mission ...... 18

International Space University, MSS 2014 ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Mars NOW

2.9. How Should We Behave on Mars? ...... 20 2.10. Conclusion ...... 22 3. LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS ...... 23 3.1. Introduction ...... 23 3.2. Legal and Regulatory Matters ...... 23 3.3. Planetary Protection ...... 28 3.4. Legality of Sending People on a One-Way Mission ...... 29 3.5. Conclusion ...... 30 4. CREW SELECTION AND TRAINING ...... 32 4.1. Introduction ...... 32 4.2. Crew Selection ...... 33 4.2.1. Analog Missions in Relation to Crew Selection ...... 33 4.2.2. The Selection Process ...... 34 4.2.3. Strengths of Initial Settlers...... 35 4.2.4. Selection of Further Settlers ...... 35 4.3. Crew Training ...... 36 4.3.1. Phase One: Basic and Advanced Training ...... 36 4.3.2. Phase Two: Mars Spaceflight Training ...... 41 4.3.3. Phase Three: Mission-specific, Settling Mars ...... 42 4.3.4. Training Human-Robot Teams ...... 43 4.4. Conclusion ...... 46 5. MARS MISSION TECHNOLOGIES ...... 47 5.1. Introduction ...... 47 5.2. Earth to Mars Transportation Technologies ...... 47 5.2.1. Autonomous Landing of Habitation Units and Construction Robots ...... 48 5.2.2. Human Missions from LEO to Mars ...... 49 5.2.3. Cargo Resupply Missions ...... 49 5.3. Life on Mars ...... 50 5.3.1. Engineering for Mars...... 51 5.3.2. Power Generation ...... 51 5.3.3. Communication Technologies ...... 53 5.3.4. Navigation Technologies ...... 53 5.3.5. Surface Mobility Technologies ...... 54 5.3.6. In-Situ Resource Utilization ...... 56

x International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.3.7. Oxygen Production ...... 56 5.3.8. Food Production ...... 57 5.3.9. Provision of Pharmaceuticals ...... 58 5.3.10. Terraforming ...... 59 5.4. Conclusion ...... 59 6. HABITAT SITE SELECTION ...... 61 6.1. Introduction ...... 61 6.1.1. Criteria for Site Selection ...... 61 6.1.2. Atmospheric Conditions – Climate, Temperature, and Pressure ...... 62 6.1.3. Presence of Water ...... 63 6.1.4. Topography ...... 65 6.1.5. Magnetic Field and Radiation Protection ...... 65 6.1.6. Minerals on Mars ...... 66 6.1.7. Dust Storms ...... 67 6.1.8. Scientific Research Opportunities ...... 67 6.2. Selection of Proposed Habitation Regions...... 69 6.2.1. Process ...... 69 6.2.2. Characteristics of Proposed Sites ...... 72 6.3. Conclusion ...... 73 7. HABITAT COMPARISON AND EVALUATION ...... 75 7.1. Introduction ...... 75 7.2. Initial Habitat...... 75 7.3. Long Term Habitat ...... 77 7.4. Psychological and Physiological Assessment ...... 79 7.4.1. Psychological Effects ...... 80 7.4.2. Physiological Effects: Radiation ...... 81 7.4.3. Choice of Primary Construction Material ...... 82 7.4.4. Physiological Effects: Reduced Gravity ...... 86 7.5. Conclusion ...... 87 8. GOVERNANCE ...... 88 8.1. Introduction ...... 88 8.2. Framework ...... 89 8.3. Assumptions and Drivers for a Martian Settlement ...... 90 8.4. Impact of International Cooperation ...... 90

International Space University, MSS 2014 xi TABLE OF CONTENTS Mars NOW

8.5. Spectrum of Governance Systems ...... 91 8.6. Policies ...... 92 8.6.1. Resource Management ...... 93 8.6.2. Freedom of Information ...... 96 8.6.3. Conflict Management ...... 97 8.6.4. Religion...... 97 8.7. Crime and Deviant Behavior on Mars ...... 97 8.8. Emergencies and Disaster Mitigation ...... 98 8.9. Conclusion ...... 98 9. OUTREACH AND EDUCATION ...... 100 9.1. Introduction ...... 100 9.2. Outreach Rationale ...... 100 9.3. Outreach Activities ...... 101 9.3.1. Interactive Games – “Life on Mars” ...... 101 9.3.2. Short-Term Public Analogs ...... 102 9.3.3. Media ...... 102 9.3.4. Design Your Mars ...... 102 9.3.5. Milestone Events ...... 102 9.4. Educational Activities ...... 103 9.5. Outreach and Marketing an Affordable Mission ...... 103 9.6. Outreach Organization Structure ...... 104 9.7. Conclusion ...... 106 10. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 107 REFERENCES ...... 109

xii International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW INDEX OF FIGURES

INDEX OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1: The Three Spheres of Sustainability ...... 2 Figure 1-2: The Spheres of Sustainability for a Mars Settlement ...... 3 Figure 2-1: ISECG Global Exploration Roadmap ...... 14 Figure 2-2: Challenger Space Shuttle Disintegration on January 28th, 1986 ...... 17 Figure 4-1: The “Beach” inside Biosphere-2 ...... 33 Figure 4-2: Mars crew Training Program ...... 37 Figure 4-3: Nautilus-X (left) and MIT Compact Radius Centrifuge (right) ...... 42 Figure 4-4: NASA’s Valkyrie Humanoid Robot ...... 44 Figure 4-5: Mars NOW Human-Robot Interaction Training ...... 44 Figure 4-6: Paolo Nespoli with Roboaut-2 on ISS (left), Koichi Wakata with Kirobo (right) ...... 45 Figure 5-1: Transfer Trajectory to Mars for Non-Human Missions ...... 48 Figure 5-2: Transfer Trajectory to Mars for Human-Rated Missions ...... 49 Figure 5-3: Graphical Representation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ...... 50 Figure 5-4: Modified Hierarchy of Needs for a Martian Settlement ...... 50 Figure 5-5: Electrical Power Generation Options for a Martian Base ...... 52 Figure 5-6: Build-up of Mars Communication Infrastructure ...... 53 Figure 5-7: The Lunar Roving Vehicle from Apollo 15 Mission (1971) ...... 55 Figure 5-8: Artist’s conception of unpressurized rovers on Mars ...... 56 Figure 5-9: Artist’s conception of pressurized rover ...... 56 Figure 5-10: Closed Cell Library with In-line Fermenter and Isolation Columns ...... 58 Figure 6-1: Mars Global Climate Zones ...... 62 Figure 6-2: Higher Pressure Areas on Mars ...... 63 Figure 6-3: Water-Equivalent Hydrogen Abundance ...... 64 Figure 6-4: Distribution of Hydrated Minerals ...... 64 Figure 6-5: Topography of Mars ...... 65 Figure 6-6: Crustal Magnetism of Mars ...... 66 Figure 6-7: Ferric Oxide Levels on Mars ...... 66 Figure 6-8: Dust Across the Surface of Mars ...... 67 Figure 6-9: Eastern Sites of Mars for Scientific Exploration ...... 68 Figure 6-10: Western Sites of Mars for Scientific Exploration ...... 68 Figure 6-11: Mars NOW Overlaid Map ...... 69 Figure 6-12: Mars NOW Selected Regions under the Ophir Chasma ...... 70 Figure 6-13: Elevation of Ophir Chasma Region ...... 70 Figure 6-14: The Location 288°E 4°S Close to the Center of Ophir Chasma ...... 71 Figure 6-15: Perspective View of Ophir Chasma - East to West ...... 71 Figure 6-16: Region of SITE 1 (285.74°E 3.84°S) ...... 72 Figure 6-17: Region of SITE 2 (289.26°E 3.39 S) ...... 73 Figure 7-1: Hard-Shell Habitat (left) and Hybrid Habitat (right) ...... 76 Figure 7-2: Steps to the Construction of the Hybrid Habitat ...... 76 Figure 7-3: Structure of the Habitat Walls ...... 77 Figure 7-4: Proposed Structures ...... 78 Figure 7-5: Sergei Zalyotin Examining Plants in the Lada Growth Chamber ...... 80

International Space University, MSS 2014 xiii INDEX OF FIGURES Mars NOW

Figure 7-6: Material Density vs Radiation Dose Equivalent ...... 82 Figure 7-7: Material Density vs Dose Equivalent for SPE and GCR ...... 83 Figure 7-8: Active Radiation Shielding Configuration for Spacecraft Habitat ...... 85 Figure 7-9: Dr. Robert Thirsk Using A Specialized Treadmill aboard ISS ...... 86 Figure 8-1: Styles of Governance over Time ...... 92 Figure 9-1: Artist's Rendition of an Engaged Audience Member ...... 101 Figure 9-2: Outreach Campaign Local Offices Locations ...... 105

xiv International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW INDEX OF TABLES

INDEX OF TABLES

Table 2-1: Human Health and Performance Risks for Exploration ...... 12 Table 2-2: Daily and Yearly Human Physiological Needs ...... 13 Table 3-1: Organizations t That Promote International Legal Systems Outside U.N...... 26 Table 4-1: The Different Categories of the NACA Score ...... 39 Table 5-1: Mars Settlement Power Requirement Comparison ...... 51 Table 5-2: Travel Distances of Various Lunar and Martian Rovers ...... 55 Table 6-1: Different Levels of Criteria for Site Selection ...... 61 Table 7-1: Available Options for Habitat by Characteristic ...... 75 Table 7-2: Alternatives for Long Term Habitat ...... 78 Table 8-1: Resource Supply on ISS ...... 94 Table 8-2: Disaster Scenarios and their Mitigations ...... 99 Table 9-1: Mars NOW Outreach Activities Ranking...... 106

International Space University, MSS 2014 xv LIST OF ACRONYMS Mars NOW

LIST OF ACRONYMS

A ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle

C COSPAR Committee of Space Research COPUOS Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

E EDL Entry-descent-landing ECLSS Environmental Control Life-Support System EVA Extra-Vehicular Activity

G GAIAE General Authority of Islamic Affairs & Endowments GCR Galactic Cosmic Radiation GMO Genetically Modified Organism

H HTV H-II Transfer Vehicle

I IAASS International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety IAF International Astronautical Federation ILA International Law Association ISECG International Space Exploration Coordination Group ISRU In-situ Resource Utilization ISS International Space Station ISSF International Space Safety Foundation ITU International Telecommunication Union

L LEO Low Earth Orbit

M Mars NOW Mars Next One-Way MTV Mars Transfer Vehicle

N NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NTR Nuclear Thermal Rocket

xvi International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW LIST OF ACRONYMS

O OST Outer Space Treaty

S SLS Space Launch System SpaceX Space eXploration (Technologies) SPE Solar Particle Events

T TLI Trans-lunar Injection

U UAE United Arab Emirates UN United Nation UNIDROIT Institut international pour l'UNIfication du DROIT privé (International Institute for the Unification of Private Law) USA United States of America USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

W WTO World Trade Organization

International Space University, MSS 2014 xvii

Mars NOW INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

Over the past two hundred years, our global population has increased by six billion. We have expanded onto almost every available landmass on the Earth, and we have seriously affected Earth’s ecosystem as a result. New evidence is presented every day indicating that the Earth may not be able to support our numbers and that our activities are causing global climate change.

Space exploration has helped humanity gain a more global viewpoint. Human exploration missions to the Moon and the International Space Station (ISS) have provided humanity with fresh perspectives. A well-cited example is the “Overview Effect” wherein seeing Earth from space can change a person’s perspective to becoming more international and environmental (White, 1987). High above geopolitical concerns and international borders, the need of a united humanity becomes apparent, and Earth is seen as a rare, isolated, and fragile system.

Mars is the closest planet to Earth in the Solar System that could support human life, if treated correctly. The Martian day is 24.5 hours long; its landmass is similar in area to that of the Earth’s continents combined. Martian gravity levels are 0.38 that of Earth, to which humans may be able to adapt. Mars has seasons and weather, and an average temperature of -65° C. Robotic exploratory missions have shown that Mars has an abundant supply of resources essential for supporting life, such as water and carbon (McFadden, 2006). There are other resources such as iron and bromine, which can have a number of useful applications and could support a substantial human population (Galanter & Kleber, 2008). However a very important observation should be made at this point: none of these resources are readily available on Mars in a form that is convenient for human use. The settlers will therefore have to use advanced technologies in order to stay alive on Mars, which we assume will be available on time for the missions. Given this assumption, and considering the relative proximity of Mars and Earth, it can be stated that the Red Planet is the prime candidate for permanent human settlement in the Solar System.

This settlement will be an extension and expansion of the human species and will help to promote its survival. Until now, all human space exploration has been conducted with return missions in mind. While return missions may be used in the pursuit of settling Mars, they inherently work slowly and with discontinuity. Placing the emphasis on return limits the sustainability of the settlement and confines our pursuit to one mission at a time.

The idea of one-way missions has recently started to take hold within the minds of the public, in large part due to the recent advancement of the commercial space sector. Initiatives such as Mars One have the ambitious goal of settling humans on Mars by 2023 (Mars One, 2012). Billionaire leader of Space Exploration (SpaceX) Technologies, Elon Musk, plans to retire on Mars (Harris, 2010).

International Space University, MSS 2014 1 INTRODUCTION Mars NOW

Currently there is a gap in the literature concerning one-way Mars missions. While many architectures and designs exist for the technological challenges of return missions, little development has been done focusing on one-way. It is incontestable that the development of required technologies is the most important and essential challenge on the critical path of any type of Mars mission, and some of these technologies will be, to some extent, elaborated in this report. However, considering there is already considerable literature focused on solutions for the technological challenges of a Mars mission, the ultimate aim of this project is to focus on the underdeveloped non- technical challenges of a one-way human mission to Mars. These challenges will be analyzed and possible solutions and recommendations will be explored. This report will complement and expand upon existing technical reports in order to better inform the public and influence future decisions regarding the benefits and challenges of one-way human missions to Mars.

Various previous studies on Mars were all driven by scientific objectives, with science as the primary focus of the mission design. However, it is the Mars NOW team’s approach to keep “sustainable human settlement” as the primary objective of the one-way mission and shape the architecture in line with this concept. Scientific aspirations will inevitably have effects on various means of the mission, however the evolution of the settlers from the Earth-dependent state to a self-sufficient state on Mars as early as possible is the key element in the team’s approach.

In order to frame the content concerning the challenges of one-way missions, existing sustainability models in the literature were considered. A relevant and convincing model found by the team describes three domains of sustainability, as well as the manner in which these domains interact, as can be seen in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1: The Three Spheres of Sustainability (Rodriguez, Roman, Sturhahn, & Elizabeth H., 2002)

2 International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW INTRODUCTION

Developed by the University of Michigan, the model was created after assessing the consequences of business decisions made on campus. It was found that the consequences could be generally placed in one of three domains, or an intersection between them. These included an Environmental, Social, and Economical domain. While standard business accounted for the Economical, this “triple bottom line” approach allowed for the University to consider the larger scope of their practices and create a more sustainable business model.

This existing model is modified by our team according to the necessities of a Martian settlement (see Figure 1-2). The topics discussed in this report majorly correspond to different sections of the Mars NOW sustainability model and thus provide a comprehensive, if not all-inclusive, analysis into some of the major issues of one-way Mars missions.

Figure 1-2: The Spheres of Sustainability for a Mars Settlement

Throughout this report, the Mars NOW team refrained from using the term colony for the future human establishment on Mars. While such a term is familiar and useful, our team wishes to avoid any negative historical connotations. Expanding to another planet gives humanity a chance to create something new, while avoiding the mistakes of the past.

International Space University, MSS 2014 3 INTRODUCTION Mars NOW

1.1. Mission Statement

“To analyze and propose solutions to the challenges of a one-way human mission to Mars, emphasizing important non-technological aspects, in order to better inform the public and influence future decision-making, by providing an interdisciplinary approach to the project.”

1.2. Project Goals and Background

In order to be fully characterized, a one-way human mission to Mars requires a broad analysis starting from the planning stages, the execution, and long term sustainability of a human settlement on Mars. Given the large scope of such an analysis, it would be beyond the capacity of this report to design such a mission in its entirety. Our team therefore decided to avoid using a systems approach to tackle the subject matter, but rather aimed to analyze and synthesize specific points (listed in Figure 1-2) in more depth. This synthesis will be provided in the conclusion section of each chapter, and finally discussed in Chapter 10.

It is our team’s hope for this report to be of relevance to an educated public and decision makers from the political and technology domain, in order to better inform this audience about the real difficulties inherent in one-way missions to Mars and Mars settlement. It is for this reason why the team chose to focus our attention on “non-technological” aspects of one-way missions, since it is our understanding that technically-minded people might already be familiar with the common technological challenges of settling on Mars. Therefore, only some of the most innovative technological concepts will be discussed in this report, while the main focus shall remain on issues of ethics, law, governance and human factors. Furthermore, it is not the intention of this report to create a roadmap for human settlement of Mars via one-way missions; on the contrary, it is something our team has intentionally tried to avoid.

A baseline mission concept was developed, in order to ensure consistency among discrete chapters and topics. The following paragraphs explain the basic definitions, assumptions, as well as the timeline for the project.

1.2.1. Defining “Mission”

The concept of “mission” is mentioned extensively throughout the text. Although this concept can refer to a single transfer operation of a spacecraft from Earth to Mars, the Mars NOW team has a much broader perception. We define “one-way missions to Mars” as the title of a comprehensive program, starting from initial planning, and going through several phases of development up until the self-sustainability of the Mars settlement is reached. Within this scope, our "mission" definition includes dozens of one-way transfers, crewed and robotic, which can be distributed along a great time-span.

4 International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW INTRODUCTION

1.2.2. Assumptions

This section describes the Mars NOW team's assumptions, which serve as a baseline for the following chapters of this report:

 The technologies which are required for a permanent human settlement will be available in time for the missions. The Global Exploration Roadmap will be taken as a baseline for the technology development process. This is an international space exploration strategy which gives Mars as its ultimate goal, to be reached in the 2030s, preceded by a series of incrementally more complex missions (ISECG, 2013).  The number of people in the Mars settlement will be constantly limited and under control. Even in the later phases of the mission, the population will not be allowed to grow in an uncontrolled manner.  “Self-sustainability” refers to a state wherein the settlement is able to fully support itself both in terms of resources and human procreation, without any assistance or resupply from Earth. However, assistance, communication, and especially trade between Earth and Mars will continue once the Martian settlement reaches the level of self-sustainability.  The one-way mission discussed in this report will not necessarily be the first human mission to Mars. One the contrary, it is assumed that various human return missions to Mars have already been conducted successfully before the initiation of one-way missions.

Further chapters in this report specify additional assumptions relevant to the specific topic discussed.

1.2.3. Timeline: Phases of the One-Way Mission Approach

To maximize chances of success, a one-way human mission to Mars should be undertaken as a single program. Although, it might be insightful to capture four snapshots from the mission timeline to better visualize the conditions at different phases.

Preparation Phase Before the arrival of the first crew on Mars, the planet has to be prepared for human survival. Detailed maps of the surface and subsurface must be prepared, which will lead to the selection of precise locations for landing and habitation sites. Habitation modules for the initial settlers should be sent to the surface and prepared for operation. Beacons should be located around the landing sites to ensure precise landing of the upcoming missions. Redundant power systems to meet the demand of settlers should be established. Space and surface infrastructure for communication between Earth and Mars, as well as within Mars, should be commissioned. As will be discussed in Chapter 5, the communication network at this stage will consist of surface-based systems. Lastly, space transportation capabilities required for transferring and landing both cargo and humans to Mars, as well as primary surface transportation vehicles to operate on Mars should be developed.

Start-Up Phase The second phase will start with the launch of the first crew to Mars. The Mars NOW team assumes that the initial team will consist of twelve people, each with very specific assigned roles, the justification of which is discussed in Chapter 4.

International Space University, MSS 2014 5 INTRODUCTION Mars NOW

With the current level of technology, the crew will be able to arrive to the planet after a six-month journey. However it is probable that, after being exposed to microgravity conditions for such a long time, and due to non-existence of any resident humans readily on the planet for assistance, the very first crew will not physically be able to move into their standby habitats immediately after landing. Therefore, the crew will need to live a few days or even weeks in their landing module until their bodies becomes adapted to Martian gravity levels. Once adaptation occurs, they will use the prepositioned transportation means to reach their permanent habitats and bring all the systems into operation necessary for their survival. Alternatively, artificial gravity techniques might be used during the Earth to Mars flight, which would allow the astronauts’ bodies to be adapted to Mars gravity immediately after landing.

This phase will mostly involve commissioning and maintaining the Martian settlement infrastructure and exploration. Exploring the surface and possibly the subsurface of the Red Planet, repairing the facilities, maintaining crewmember health and performance, and possibly conducting scientific experiments, will be scheduled by Mission Control and performed by a trained crew. This phase will continue until support structures are in place to supplement, but perhaps not fully support the settlers.

Pre-Sustainability (Earth-Dependent Habitation) Phase Considering the relative positions of Earth and Mars, the launch windows between the two planets are available almost every twenty-six months. Within this scope, the Mars NOW team assumes that eight new humans will be sent in the second launch window, which will initiate the second phase: Earth-dependent habitation. In this phase, the settlement, and therefore the habitation modules, will expand to serve a crew population of twenty, twenty-eight, and finally thirty-six within a decade.

It is important to note that there will be great dependency on Earth during this phase, and periodic resupply missions should carry food, equipment, and other necessary means to the settlers on Mars. Any interruption of resupply can give rise to serious problems including loss of the crew. Depending on future technological achievements, this Earth-dependent phase can be completed within several decades, or it can last for centuries. Still, even in the latter case, the number of settlers will likely not be tens of thousands.

During this phase, instead of being intensely interdisciplinary, crewmembers could specialize in several functions. For example, scientists could be sent to conduct experiments, focusing more on exploring Mars than on maintaining the facilities. As the settlement’s capabilities expand, it will be extremely important to maintain positive mental and social health for the settlers. Boredom, conflict, and other negative effects of long term isolation will become a problem. On top of the first phase tasks, the settlers should engage in other activities to promote the well-being of the settlement. Some of these tasks include recreation, communication with the Earth, and further exploration of Mars. This intermediate phase will encounter a shift of control and governance from Earth to Mars; where the settlers of Mars will be more responsible for making their own schedules, decisions, and demands. Further details will be examined in Chapter 8 of this report.

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The “Earth-dependent” phase, in fact, is similar to the living conditions on ISS. Operational for more than fifteen years, the level of self-sufficiency of the ISS is still very low and there is continuous resupply from Earth. Although water can be recycled aboard, the astronauts prefer to use fresh water when possible, mostly due to psychological perceptions. Therefore, even if the settlement reaches a high level of autonomy, it may not be able or wish to switch to the fourth phase: full self- sustainability.

Self-Sustainable (Long Term Settlement) Phase For a Martian settlement and for the purposes of the Mars NOW team, sustainability refers to a state wherein the settlement is able to support itself without further assistance or resupply from Earth. While assistance, trade, and communication between Earth and Mars will continue, the goal of any settlement is to be able to support its settlers independently.

As more settlers arrive, the settlement will become a community and the issue of governance will become most important. The settlers will be able to provide for themselves and it will be their responsibility to divide resources and work together. Training, selection, and tasks to be completed on/for Mars will be completely different from the previous phases. People will be free to pursue any conceivable profession, as long as they do so for and within the community.

It is the Mars NOW team’s perception that the distinction between the Earth-dependent phase and self-sufficient phase need not have a connection with the number of settlers on Mars. A settlement with a few hundred people might live self-sufficiently, or a village with ten thousand inhabitants may need resupply for survival. Therefore, no specific crew population will be cited as an indicator for self-sufficiency in this report.

However, achieving this state will not represent an easy task. It might be relatively easy to fulfill the needs of the settlement, but the effects of unfavorable environmental conditions and reduced gravity can limit the procreation of humankind, which will ultimately deter the possibility of complete self-sufficiency.

1.3. Report Organization

The following chapter, Chapter 2, will focus on the cultural and ethical challenges associated with one-way missions to Mars. In order to ensure that these missions are in humanity’s best interest, it is vital to consider the actions likely to be undertaken and form principles by which the actions should be undertaken. This chapter will explore important questions concerning one-way missions to Mars, addressing some of the challenges, limitations, and results of the success and failure of such missions. Answers to these questions are then made in the form of recommendations which are aimed at setting the ethical foundation for one-way missions to Mars.

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These recommendations will complement and help extend the current legal framework that exists for one-way missions. Chapter 3 will elaborate on the current international legal infrastructure, analyzing gaps and limits to one-way missions. Settling Mars will entail leaving behind not only the safety of the Earth’s biosphere but also the jurisdiction of Earth law. On Mars, national and international laws may not be applicable, and even so, direct enforcement from Earth will not be possible or effective. Rather than chart out a legal system for citizens of a future Martian settlement, we address current legal concerns that relate to how outer space is viewed.

Some of the psychological and physiological challenges involved with one-way missions are synthesized in Chapter 4. These challenges will be far greater and more extensive than those encountered so far in space exploration, and knowledge of the Martian environment and currently understood mission analogs can provide a basis for forming a crew selection and training program. Analyzing analog missions such as the Concordia Research Station in Antarctica and Biosphere 2, as well as previous astronaut selections, a crew selection strategy for a one-way Mars mission is proposed. For the training of the crew, the Mars NOW team presents a one-way mission training program that is based and expanded upon the current methods for training astronauts for ISS missions.

In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) and closed cycle regenerative life-support systems are key technologies that were identified as requiring development to support this project. Chapter 5 discusses technological challenges for sustaining life on Mars. Achieving self-sustainability will be a great challenge of a permanent Mars settlement. Self-sustainability will greatly depend on the achievable level of on-site resource utilization and production. Most current concepts for long- duration life-support systems contain at least one biological element. These elements can and should be enhanced by means of biotechnology. While much research is currently ongoing, little information has been released from within the space sector. The Mars NOW team proposes a multitude of potential applications for biotechnology for the future of ISRU on Mars.

The matter of site selection is discussed in Chapter 6. Site selection plays a key role in the self- sustainability of a human settlement; the site determines the point from which initial habitation and later exploration can start and expand. It incorporates the best conditions that provide basic necessities for the survival of humans. Scientists have proposed various locations for landing and sites suitable for habitats, but most of these past proposals have predominantly been for the purposes of scientific settlements or research bases. Using an image-overlay approach, the Mars NOW team constructed a map which allows us to better understand, and recommend, the sites which offer favorable conditions for settlement.

Once the settlement site is selected, it follows that habitats and supporting structures are then designed, built, and constructed. Among the many problems associated with living on Mars, radiation is one of the least understood and possibly the most dangerous. It is the belief of the Mars NOW team that a variety of shielding practices should be in place to ensure a sustainable, reliable, and redundant radiation protection system. Chapter 7 outlines the many designs of habitats which currently exist and incorporates a radiation shielding strategy to be implemented for one-way missions to Mars.

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As the Mars settlement becomes more autonomous, issues of governance will become more important. The early settlement will likely follow many policies and directions from Earth-based systems, but as the settlers are better able to support themselves, their decisions, and their processes may evolve and change. Chapter 8 analyzes the Governance concerns for a developing Mars settlement, listing the assumptions and drivers found by the Mars NOW team. Policies guiding resource management, freedom and distribution of information, conflict management, and religious and personal concerns are explored. Finally, the Mars NOW team makes recommendations for further work and development. Analyzing Martian governance before humans have even landed on the Red Planet may seem unusual, the development such policies and systems will drive the growth and design of the settlement, and may provide fresh perspectives to help improve the systems in place on Earth.

For a one-way mission, a well-organized outreach campaign with worldwide events is important. The public must be given an understanding of what the mission represents and its potential benefits, as outlined in Chapter 0. Attention must be sustained for a long period of time to provide continued support, and this is where a well-organized, high-visibility, global campaign is critical. The Mars NOW team analyzes the various approaches which have been used, and proposes an integrated, global approach wherein duplication is reduced and long term support can be achieved.

In order to sustain our species and continue expanding our knowledge and influence in the universe, one-way missions should be considered. The commitment required for conducting these missions works to our advantage as it necessitates commitment to the most fundamental of human pursuits. Instead of sporadically planning, canceling, and eventually accomplishing “flag and return” missions, one-way missions to Mars ethically require the development of support infrastructures leading to sustainable settlement of the Red Planet. This settlement will expand our presence, as well as offer new perspectives which will promote the sustainability of life on both Earth and Mars. It is time for humanity to expand beyond Earth and the Mars NOW team examines some of the ways we can do so.

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2. ETHICAL AND CULTURAL CHALLENGES

2.1. Introduction

Space exploration is high in risk, and pushing into the unknown requires great commitment. Earth is the only location within our solar system capable of supporting human life, and so far all space missions have been designed to return the crew home. With the advancement of technology and the heightened public interest for human exploration missions, one-way missions to Mars are now being considered more seriously.

One-way missions to Mars involve sending humans to the Red Planet, where they will live out their lives. Ethically and morally, one-way missions necessitate long term support; until such a time as the settlement becomes self-sustainable. Assuming the process follows the exploration of Earth, newly- explored areas would be settled first, and necessary supplies and support would be provided from the point of origin, Earth, until the settlement can independently provide for the settlers.

Settling the Red Planet would be the greatest undertaking of humanity and the consequences will be far-reaching. In order to ensure that these missions are in humanity’s best interest, it is vital to consider the actions likely to be undertaken and form recommendations by which the actions should be undertaken.

This chapter will explore important questions concerning one-way missions to Mars, addressing some of the challenges, limitations, and results of the success and failure of such missions. Recommendations are made for setting the ethical foundation for one-way missions to Mars.

2.2. Should We Explore Mars?

Survival of the species and the expansion of our knowledge and influence in the universe seem to be primary human motivations. The human exploration of Mars is a natural consequence of these motivations. So far, these motivations have driven humanity to expand throughout Earth, explore our universe, and advance our capabilities off-Earth. While there exists vast diversity within the human species, it can be argued that we are all directed by the motivation to survive, thrive, and search for answers to some extent.

The strongest driver in all living things is the innate desire to survive; humanity has gone one step further and desired to thrive. Our species has advanced technologically, culturally, and politically as a result of our need to live and make life better. Science and technology have developed to advance our species and our knowledge of the universe. Religion and philosophy have questioned our role and purpose in the universe, and have formed systems of belief based on their understanding. By exploring Mars, humans will continue building upon these motivations in a new venue that will allow greater opportunities for answers, resources, and experiences to enrich the human species.

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Humans should explore Mars to continue toward the goals of expanding our species and our knowledge of the universe. Living on Mars will provide us with perspectives that will propel forward science, religion, and culture in new and refreshing ways. Staying on Earth would ultimately limit our potential and growth as a species.

However, the pursuit of some motivations cannot come at the expense of human lives. The human exploration of Mars is a challenging task and may provide great rewards, but the risks and costs are still incredibly high. The health risks involved with human missions to Mars are still poorly understood, but at this time the potential rewards outweigh the dangers and unknowns.

2.2.1. Recommendations

The Apollo Moon Landings continue to serve as a culturally and technologically inspiring event. Human space exploration works at the frontier of what is known and what is unfamiliar, and forces humanity to grow and widen its perspective. The work of astronauts on the ISS has contributed greatly to science and has served as a symbol of international cooperation and potential. Exploring Mars will continue this trend and will present us with new challenges to consider and overcome, and it is the recommendation of the Mars NOW team to build upon this tradition.

Such missions cannot be conducted without the proper planning. The space industry has proven to be economically sound, with returns coming in at over six times the investment (Giannopapa, 2014), however not everyone is convinced. Sending humans to Mars will be an incredible investment and in order for the mission to succeed and benefit humanity, participation and commitment must be just as incredible. The following sections will examine specific challenges and address areas in which one- way missions to Mars can contribute most significantly to humanity.

2.3. Should We Go One-Way?

The next question involves how we get to Mars, and whether or not we return. In recent years, the idea of one-way missions has become more popular, especially due to public interest in organizations such as Mars One. One-way missions from which human crews do not return, offer many new challenges, but many new opportunities as well.

Settling Mars through one-way missions will allow us to expand our numbers and better sustain our species. It will also provide a platform from which to inspire international cooperation, peaceful use of outer space, thus sustaining human exploration campaigns.

The two limiting factors are the long-duration health effects and the support one-way missions would require. A human mission to Mars has never been attempted and there are currently too many unknowns concerning the long term challenges involved in exploring and settling Mars.

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Some of the health and performance risks which can be encountered during space missions have been outlined by the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG), as seen in Table 2-1. These risks need to be properly understood and mitigated in order to ensure survival of the human crew and, due to humanity’s lack of experience in deep space, we are not yet ready to conduct one-way missions to Mars.

Table 2-1: Human Health and Performance Risks for Exploration (ISECG, 2013)

Even when these risks are better understood, one-way missions necessitate further support, commitment, and reliability than current space missions require. The early years of living on Mars will involve deploying habitats to shelter the crew, and until the technology exists and is functioning on Mars to fully support the settlers, further supplies must be replenished from Earth. Without this support, the crew will not survive on the Red Planet.

A support structure is clearly required and those managing and financing the mission must realize the scope and be prepared to support the mission in any way required. Conducting a one-way mission to Mars without this level of support would be unethical.

2.3.1. Recommendations

One-way missions better support human spaceflight sustainability but can only be undertaken if support structures exist to maintain their longevity. This support can be in the form of fresh supplies, equipment, and crew. Mission planning must take this into account and be willing and able to support the mission until the settlement becomes self-sustaining.

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The best understanding of the requirements of astronauts during long term missions comes from data from the ISS, as seen in Table 2-2. The settlers will require adequate amounts of food, water, air, shelter, equipment, medical supplies, and other supplies specific to their crew composition, infrastructure, and environment. The means by which the settlers can obtain these resources are as follows: stored supplies, in-situ resource utilization, and an Environmental Control Life-Support System (ECLSS). The resources must be available and resupplied until such a time as ISRU and ECLSS can fully support the settlers of Mars.

Table 2-2: Daily and Yearly Human Physiological Needs (Clément, 2011) One day One year % of total (per person) (per person) mass Inputs Oxygen 0.83 kg 303 kg 2.7% Food 0.62 kg 226 kg 2.0% Potable Water 3.56 kg 1300 kg 11.4% (drink and food prep.) Hygiene Water 26.0 kg 9490 kg 83.9% (hygiene, flush, laundry, dishes) Total 31.0 kg ≈11400 kg 100%

Outputs Carbon dioxide 1.0 kg 363 kg 3.2% Metabolic solids 0.1 kg 36 kg 0.3% Water 30.0 kg 10950 kg 96.5% metabolic / urine 12.3% hygiene / flush 24.7% laundry / dish 55.7% latent 3.6% Total 31.0 kg ≈11400 kg 100%

Therefore, it is recommended that a resupply program be designed and included as an integral part of the one-way mission design until the technology develops to allow the settlers to produce these supplies on Mars.

The commitment required for one-way Mars missions is beyond the mission architectures seen today. Support must be provided for decades and even generations, should the settlement grow or take on new personnel from Earth. The resources required for this support would extend commitment to the program for much longer than a single nation could provide today. Should the mission be conducted on an international level, these resources should be planned and budgeted in advance, to the agreement of all cooperating parties.

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2.4. When Can We Go?

The first step involves the development of a better understanding of the risks and aspects of long term missions, and one-way Mars missions in particular. The second step is commitment, demonstrating a clear understanding and willingness to overcome the obstacles and provide necessary support.

The ISECG’s Global Exploration Roadmap recommends a step-by-step approach to human space exploration. Future plans include conducting missions to asteroids and the Moon on the way to prepare for Mars (ISECG, 2013). This process is visualized in Figure 2-1. While this process would give better knowledge of the expertise and experience required for deep space missions, the knowledge for one-way missions to Mars could be acquired much more directly by concentrating on Mars itself.

Figure 2-1: ISECG Global Exploration Roadmap (ISECG, 2013)

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2.4.1. Recommendations

Historically, robotic missions to the Moon were undertaken as a precursor to humans landing and the same approach should be undertaken on Mars. Robotic missions have gathered information on Mars and more missions are planned. However, the next planned step should not be a one-way mission. The first time humans land on Mars should involve a return component. A return mission should be first conducted to validate the design, technology, and conditions involved with sending humans farther than ever before, and for ensuring the reliability of the life-support system. While one-way missions have been proposed as the first step on Mars, it is completely irresponsible to compound the risk of supporting the mission long term without ensuring the safety of the crew in the short term. Therefore, the one-way mission should follow a return mission from Mars and the established commitment and development of a long term support campaign.

2.5. Who Can Go On One-Way Missions?

Due to the risks, challenges, and lack of immediate and convenient support for such a mission, only specifically and highly trained teams should go on one-way missions. By definition, the team members would be living out their lives together on Mars. Astronauts involved in six-month missions to the ISS only train for approximately three years. The training involved with one-way missions must be more comprehensive to cover the various challenges involved. The Mars environment is drastically different from that of Earth and the ISS, and astronauts will require a great deal of knowledge and expertise to survive and thrive.

The training should be undertaken by programs, agencies, and personnel with long-established experience in human space exploration and verification of these credentials will be at the discretion of those involved. Finally, all aspects of the risks, uncertainties, challenges, and benefits of one-way missions to Mars must be made clear to the participants. While public interest in going to Mars may be high at the moment, so are the risks. Therefore, it would be unethical to select participants based solely on interest.

While Chapter 4 of this report provides further insight, it is apparent that much training is necessary for the crew to survive on Mars. Therefore, it is the recommendation of the Mars NOW team that the proper practices are undertaken to ensure a successful mission comprising those who are most willing and able.

2.6. What About Martian life?

The Mars NOW team suggests that the primary motivation for one-way missions is to create a sustainable human settlement on Mars, to expand and protect the human species. This motivation will shape all aspects of the design and execution of these missions. Human life is often regarded as having paramount value, but the question of indigenous Martian life remains.

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An important motivator for the exploration already conducted on Mars has been the search for extraterrestrial life. While the primary motivation for one-way missions is to settle, the search for life has been valued as equally important in the scientific community. The discovery of extraterrestrial life would be equally important to consider from a cultural perspective as well.

Space agencies have recognized the importance of both the terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments and life therein, by implementing planetary protection policies. These policies, developed by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), help ensure the scientific integrity of extraterrestrial experiments and work to keep the chances of contamination to a minimum (COSPAR, 2002). Contamination of both terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments is considered unethical and dangerous by the international community.

To date, no signs of indigenous life have been found on Mars. Further exploration of Mars must continue respecting COSPAR policies; when humans explore the Red Planet, they must do so with the utmost care. Once humans land and begin settling Mars, the threat of contamination will likely increase dramatically.

In order to balance the considerations and ethical concern for both human and extraterrestrial life, one-way human missions to Mars must be planned and conducted with extreme caution. Contingencies must be designed into the mission so that the crew may adapt to new discoveries or change their behavior to accommodate new situations.

The main challenge involves the definition of life and implementation of environmental practices. While these practices have becoming increasingly important on Earth, the scarcity of life on Mars would demand a more extensive, cautious, and comprehensive environmental regime than exists today. This regime must evolve alongside the expansion of our knowledge of the universe.

2.6.1. Recommendations

The value of Martian life must be made clear and agreed upon by all involved with one-way missions to Mars. Bioethics, or the philosophical study of life and the choices made regarding it, must be further considered and developed to create policies suited to one-way missions. These policies should help guide the planning and execution of the mission, ensuring the greatest protection of both terrestrial and extraterrestrial life.

The settlement of Mars cannot come at the expense of indigenous Martian life. The destruction of Martian life during the human settlement of Mars would be unethical, setting a terrible precedent for human conduct, from scientific and cultural perspectives. Extending bioethics for one-way Mars missions will help humanity better understand and harmonize with other life. This harmony will extend to our production and consumption practices and will lead humanity toward developing a sustainable model of living, not just on Mars, but also on Earth.

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The plans for initial settlement and habitat setup must be established and agreed upon by all involved. The mission architecture must include practices and designs suited to handling the settlement of Mars in the most ethical manner possible. Training must include education concerning bioethics, and crew selection must include those fully willing to comply with these practices and principles.

As seen in previous sections, resource allocation between Earth and Mars is an important consideration of one-way missions. As the settlement grows, the plans for expansion must follow an environmentally considerate regime to continue conducting one-way missions ethically.

2.7. What if the Mission Fails?

Space missions involve a great deal of risk, which increases exponentially when human lives are involved. Human space exploration has historically exhibited caution, working to understand and reduce the risks. Despite all efforts, failure is an inherent part of any system and cannot be used to limit progress. Failures may occur, but it is vital to prepare and learn from them so that the risks are minimized in the future. In this section, the possibility and impact of failure is considered for different stages of a one-way mission.

2.7.1. Failure During Launch

On January 28th 1986, the space shuttle Challenger disintegrated seventy-three seconds after launch, as depicted in Figure 2-2. The impact on society still resounds today: seven civilian astronaut crewmembers lost their lives. Christa McAuliffe, a social studies teacher, was scheduled to give lectures from space as part of the Teacher in Space Project, organized by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The incident changed the direction of the United States’ space policies, when it was decided to cease civilian participation in space as a consequence of the disaster. The entire project was grounded while engineers took time to investigate the reasons for failure, and ensure that this disaster would not be repeated.

Figure 2-2: Challenger Space Shuttle Disintegration on January 28th, 1986 (NASA)

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The societal response to the Challenger failure set the precedent for accidents during launch and their further impacts on space activity. Learning from the failures of the past, we have developed various mitigation techniques, to reduce the risks to an operational level, which has become a society-accepted ethical norm.

2.7.2. Failure During Transit

Human beings have not extended past lunar orbit, so failures during the interplanetary transit to Mars are likely to occur. The transit stage from Earth to Mars will last approximately six months, thus offering more risk for failure than may occur during a single event such as launch or landing.

A failure occurring during this transit would have a much deeper impact on society. Because the project is highly dependent on public support, it is imperative that risks have been mitigated to the best of our current technical ability. If the public does not think that this mission is worth their investment, the mission would fail, as long term support has been determined to be crucial.

2.7.3. Failure on Surface of Mars

The harsh conditions of living on an alien planet will constantly put the crew to the test. Therefore, failures are likely to occur and threaten the lives of the settlers on Mars. The design of the mission must take into consideration all the requirements to ensure the safety of the crew.

There will be many risks involved with supporting humans on the surface of Mars, especially long term. In order to conduct one-way missions ethically, these risks must be better understood and mitigated. The public must be aware of these risks and designs and policies should be in place to ensure the safety of those involved. The crew must fully understand these challenges and be willing to overcome them. Backup and redundant systems and policies must be integrated into the design of the mission such that failures are not catastrophic.

2.8. Cultural Implications of an International Mars Mission

The largest international undertaking in space to date has been the multilateral cooperation mission under the International Space Station Program. The United States began this program as a solo initiative; yet later it became a bilateral initiative with the joining of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), adding a controversial component to the now joint mission between the two top competing space-faring nations. The ISS became a stage for a peacekeeping effort that held the attention of the whole world. Later, more countries joined as participating states, integrating their traditions into the newly formed culture of the ISS, thus making the space station an effective analog mission for any long-duration internationally-crewed spaceflight project (Fukushima, 2008).

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Creating a settlement on Mars under the ISS model or any other plan consisting of international cooperation will ensure a multi-cultural facet to the culture of the mission. With integrated, intercultural crew composition, various cultural factors and issues emerge - especially in the limited, isolated, and very crowded living and working area of the space vehicles and habitation units (see Chapter 7). On the legal front, a cooperative regulation scheme must be integrated into the infrastructure of the mission for such a long-duration mission to succeed and gain self-sustainable status. Furthermore, treatment of other cultural elements must be considered on the basis of human needs, as a space endeavor in international cooperation brings various cultures together in a very confined and isolated environment. Due to an incredible existing variety of human backgrounds and cultures, subjects such as languages, traditions, beliefs, and modes of contact must be considered and mitigated. A code of conduct involving key aspects of interpersonal communication must be agreed upon for successful completion of mission directives, especially in an environment that is foreign to humans.

In the International Space Station model, the station is comprised of various modules that represent their funding states. There are various languages spoken aboard the ISS, however the dominant languages have historically been Russian and English. In a one-way Mars mission, the flight to and the eventual settlement on Mars will be handled through some form of international cooperation. A decision for the common mission language must be reached, depending on the nature and the funding states of the mission. Various ethical implications stand in the way of choosing a language in terms of perceived importance, as a choice of a language could be seen as a claim to superiority in a partnership or cooperative setting.

However, an argument can be made that this is not a question of equality, but rather one of practicality. If we choose to hold the United Nations as a true model of international cooperation, there are two suggestions that can be made in terms of a common language: the 6 official languages spoken at the United Nations are: Arabic, Chinese, French, English, Russian, and Spanish; these languages can form the basis of a new intercultural way of life on the Mars settlement. However, for a small settlement as proposed by the Mars NOW team, a smaller selection of languages would be more effective; in this case, the precedent exists in the working languages of the United Nations: English and French (United Nations, 2014b). The ISS experience has taught us that a dual dominant language directive is viable and takes the pressure off of choosing one, eliminating what might seem to be preferential treatment.

Another controversial topic in any international, intercultural cooperative project is the subject of religion and contradicting beliefs or values. One of the most distinctive facets of human society is the variety of traditions, values, and cultures the human race has evolved to possess. It is the diversity of values and backgrounds that makes an intercultural project challenging. Even on the personal level, humans are individualistic to a fault. Triggers of conflict such as anxiety, fatigue, claustrophobia, isolation, and monotony pervade the space vehicle environment, and the unknown prospects of settling on an unexplored planet with a different gravity environment will further push human limits even beyond their differing beliefs and backgrounds (Boyd et al., 2007; Kanas et al., 2009).

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Three solutions are available:

 to prohibit religion outright on the mission/settlement and rather take on a secular approach: a solution which would spark protest and discontent;  to pick cultures that are somehow "compatible" to reduce the risk of conflict: a solution that has many ethical concerns and limitations, along with some discriminatory overtones; or  to institute a directive that would allow respect for religious and traditional expression, the practice of which to be done in private: a solution most difficult to enforce.

There are trade-offs to every solution: to prohibit religion and traditional values is impractical; to attempt to quash religion and in turn culture, goes against not only human nature, but also human happiness, well-being, and basic human rights. It is therefore imperative that decisions are made and directives put into motion before the project is executed on the subject of respecting cultural expression and beliefs.

A strong sense of individuality and differing values and beliefs across a variety of backgrounds makes humans vastly different from each other; however working toward a common goal in a situation with unknown factors instead can unite and provide impetus for the sustainable survival and growth toward the achievement of the Mars NOW team’s objectives. These objectives form the basis and help to streamline a code of ethics for the human conduct and activity on Mars, where building common heritage for the future will shape the Mars culture. A Mars settlement should not attempt to recreate an exact environment and culture that can be found on Earth, or to create something completely contrary to that on Earth. A Martian culture could not be entirely new or independent, due to the infinite links that exist between cultures and influences that pervade the human origins; it will rather be a convergence of the various human characteristics and predispositions, beliefs, and unique attitudes that humans will certainly and inadvertently transplant to Mars. This society should not attempt to be new and completely different; it should be shaped by the contributions of the many human experiences and lessons learned over the breadth of human existence on Earth.

2.9. How Should We Behave on Mars?

International law regarding space was first addressed over fifty years ago. Beginning with bilateral talks resulting from tensions felt during the Space Race, the idea of setting parameters for the use and access to outer space emerged as an issue worthy of discussion and debate within the international community. The United Nations in turn created a dedicated committee, COPUOS, the Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (1959).

The objective of the utilization of space now had a peaceful purpose. Since that time, there have been a number of treaties passed and signed into law that define the contemporary space law standard. Still, the majority of these treaties were placed into effect over forty years ago, under a very different political atmosphere. However, the "spirit" that was infused into these treaties by the international community holds the key to the continuous trends and motivations behind humanity's reach for exploration of our galactic neighborhood, and will help justify and give the Mars NOW project ethical perspective in terms of the human conduct on Mars.

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The key principles of space law are outlined in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty (OST), which is the treaty seen as a type of "constitution" of space law. In this treaty, space was named to be the "common heritage of mankind" - the implication of ownership by all. This possessive quality is a human trait that pervades our history on Earth; the initial claim of ownership, the establishment of boundaries, and the eventual exploitation of resources to the point of disruption of the natural order of things. In the case of the OST however, this trait is addressed and taken into account; instead of dividing space into sectors and letting the few space faring nations bid to take ownership and possession, the international community came together and decided on a different path.

The natural progression of events would have been history repeating itself, the resulting consequence being that space would only be utilized and militarized by the nations that had the means to traverse it. However, the intention of the OST was clear: to make something different in space than what we have here on Earth. The individual "land grab" would no longer be the objective of a united international community under the common heritage principle, but instead a noble pursuit to unite all of humanity's nations under one peaceful purpose: the advancement and improvement of a future of the human race in exploring space. The intentions of creating something so radically new rather than continuing historic progression has very interesting implications. The result was newly created limitations on the space-faring community - but the stage was now set for a different future and influenced every nation's ambitions and goals going forward.

Almost two decades after the Outer Space Treaty was put into effect, the 1979 Moon Treaty was introduced to further follow along similar lines of thought with the establishment of an international regime clause. No countries would now reap the benefits of the Moon or other celestial bodies until an international regime to govern such undertakings would be established. This effort seemed to be in accordance with the fairness and equality of the United Nations' objectives. However, the treaty was never ratified by any of the space-faring nations at the time. The international community had a new mindset now; one that was more diverse on the subject of appropriation and exploration. This hailed a change in the international community's thinking, and with it put a limit on any sustained efforts for a continued presence on the Moon or any other planetary body.

The Mars NOW team’s objective is a consequence of the spirit of the space law we have in place today. A one-way mission is a tall order, but it is radical enough to force humanity to think in terms of sustaining for the long term, to challenge, to innovate, to create, and finally to triumph against adverse odds. Resolving the challenges set by this mission will give humanity enough momentum to create new opportunities, new ways of thinking, new cultures, and new futures and expand beyond our simple possessive instincts. The next chapter will provide further insight into the current regulatory framework of space activities and its possible derivation for a Martian settlement proposed by the Mars NOW team.

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2.10. Conclusion

It is time for humanity to expand beyond Earth. Until now, all human space exploration has been conducted with return missions in mind. The concept of one-way missions is very new and can present many uncertainties. However, in order to sustain the effort made toward our most important pursuits, one-way missions should be considered. The commitment required for conducting one-way missions actually works in our advantage as they necessitate our commitment to these pursuits. Instead of sporadically planning, canceling, and eventually accomplishing “flag and return” missions, one-way missions to Mars ethically require the development of support infrastructures leading to sustainable settlement of the Red Planet. This settlement will expand our presence, promoting survival, as well as offer new perspectives which will promote the sustainability of life on both Earth and Mars.

There are many opportunities for failure, but such has always been the case in humanity’s greatest achievements. Human missions to Mars require considerable investment and commitment. This should be formally declared and recognized by all participants, whether the first missions are conducted nationally or through international, multi-public-private partnerships. The first missions to Mars should be conducted after the first return mission from Mars. Proving the technology for launch, transit, landing, and return is an incredible first step toward ensuring that a one-way mission would succeed.

One-way missions will likely require a great amount of ongoing support from Earth. The ultimate goal of the mission would be to create a settlement on Mars which can independently support the settlers, but this is technologically infeasible for the beginning stages of the mission. That being said, the first people on Mars should be mentally and physically trained for the non-supportive Martian environment, the problems due to long-duration space missions, and for the consequence of saying goodbye to Earth.

Finally, one-way missions to Mars will require extensive examination into how humans interact with each other and their environment. The sparse nature of resources on Mars will require strict forms of resource allocation, governance, and an expansion on the concepts of bioethics which will have positive repercussions on the sustainability of all humanity, not just the new settlers of Mars.

The remainder of this report examines many of the challenges, developments, and new opportunities involved with one-way missions to Mars and it is the ultimate goal of the Mars NOW team to bring these concepts to those most interested in making the human exploration and settlement of Mars a reality.

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3. LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

3.1. Introduction

A one-way mission to Mars entails leaving behind not only the safety of the Earth’s biosphere but also the jurisdiction of Earthly laws. On Mars, national and international laws will not be applicable; furthermore, direct enforcement from Earth will not be possible or effective. Rather than chart out a legal system for citizens of a future Martian settlement, the Mars NOW team addresses current legal concerns that relate to the legal and regulatory atmosphere surrounding outer space.

The current law regarding space and regulations on human conduct off-Earth were written during the Cold War era when both the United States and the former Soviet Union were trying to outperform each other. The political leaders of the time foresaw complications from the superpowers attempting to lay claims to extraterrestrial resources. Thus, as mentioned in Section 2.9 the intentions of these laws reflect the political climate of that age.

The political situation has changed drastically since these laws were drafted and passed. Although the motivation for space exploration has mostly been scientific discovery, the spurt of growth in the private space industry has hailed a change in direction. The commercial space sector aims to complement government activity in space and might spur the establishment of human bases off- planet. However, the motivations of the private industry have been mainly concentrated on the exploitation of space resources, which requires changes and updates to the current space legal regime. Whether the clamor of these private companies is justified or not, it is clear that as humanity enters a new age in space exploration, a reevaluation and renovation of the space legal system is necessary.

Humanity is no longer content on making short excursions within the Earth's sphere of influence. If humanity ever desires to extend beyond the Earth, rapid growth in technology has to be accompanied by changes in our social and legal structure as well.

3.2. Legal and Regulatory Matters

The current space legal regime consists of five United Nations (U.N.) space treaties and a set of U.N. General Assembly principles. However, after being in force for over forty years, the shortcomings of these laws and their vaguely expressed elements cannot be ignored anymore, especially because they are causing deadlocks on current issues and progress.

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The OST, the foundation of outer space law, is dedicated to maintaining peace in outer space. The U.N. introduced the concept of the “Province of All Mankind” to prevent any potential conflicts over property that could occur in outer space. This concept was underlined and elaborated further in the 1979 Moon Treaty with the proposal of the similar “Common Heritage of Mankind” principle, and interpreted as the most controversial segment. This concept was embodied by the further provision in Article II of the OST: “...including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation or by any other means.” (United Nations, 1967). Although this non-appropriation clause does not expressly include the exploitation of resources on celestial bodies, the uncertainty surrounding this matter has stood in the way of nations and private players from investing money and technologies in exploitative activities in outer space. Due to the extensively high costs of these missions, if there exist no approaches to deliver direct benefits, there will not be sufficient interest in realizing them.

The “Common Heritage of Mankind” concept does not solely appear in outer space law. This concept also appears in the earlier-instituted 1959 Antarctic Treaty and the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention. These international agreements regulate the common regions located beyond the states' national jurisdictions, as well as the natural resources located in these areas. It is intended to allow sustainable development of these common resources and to solve disputes and conflicts in these areas among the claimant states (United Nations, 1982).

The provisions embodied in the concept of “Common Heritage of Mankind” in these treaties present no principal disagreements on the non-appropriation of the common regions. Although some researchers have complained that the non-appropriation provision has already obstructed the private sector from investing in planetary missions, this provision ensures the continuation of peace in outer space. If disputes and discussions are reviewed along with these treaties, it can be observed that the most intensive disputes center around the question of who profits from the natural resources in the common region, if the natural resources are claimed to belong to all humankind (Tronchetti, 2009).

The Antarctic Treaty (United Nations, 1959) agrees to keep Antarctica as a common region for scientific research, although there were cases of acquisitions of territorial sovereignty by some states. It also maintains the Antarctic environment as the largest preserved ecosystem on Earth due to the critical role that the Antarctic ecosystem plays in the global weather system. The protection of the environment is the most emphasized subject in the Antarctic Treaty. No states can carry out activities that would damage the ecosystem. Some argue that this should be considered a success of the concept of “Common Heritage of Mankind” and this concept should be adapted to preserve other resources in common areas. However, the implementation of these practices for other circumstances would not be easy, as the Antarctic Treaty was a special situation with specific concerns.

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In the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (United Nations, 1982), the most disputed part is the area concerning deep seabed mining. In Part 9 of the Convention, a regime is proposed relating to minerals on the seabed outside of any state's territorial waters or Exclusive Economic Zones. A proposal is made to establish an International Seabed Authority to authorize seabed exploration and mining, and collect and distribute the seabed mining royalties. This part was the basis for the United States' refusal to ratify the Convention. The final agreement was achieved only after the developing countries made a concession and removed Part 9. The compromise allowed the Convention to avoid the fate of the 1979 Moon Treaty, which was not ratified by any major spacefaring nation, and showed another approach to dealing with the concept of the “Common Heritage of Mankind”.

In the OST, both concepts of “province of all mankind” and the non-appropriation principle are not very clear in the exploitation of natural resources and have been subject to different interpretations from legal scholars. The dilemma over the application of the non-appropriation principle to natural resources of outer space and celestial bodies is cause for a major roadblock.

The proposal of the concept of “Common Heritage of Mankind” in the 1979 Moon Treaty failed to achieve consensus within the international community. This was not surprising, since the concept had acquired similar disputes during the discussions of other international treaties during that period. However, the compromises made in the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention have already shown there is potential and opportunity that a similar compromise can be achieved for outer space in the near future. The tensions of the Cold War have long dissipated, the private sector has begun to enter the government-dominated space industry, and developing extraterrestrial resources for commercial purposes has become attractive.

As a result of recent development in space technologies, there has been increased effort by states and members of the private sector to invest and research the possibility of traveling to other planets and cultivating their resources. The existence of property rights in outer space has become a hot topic for discussion within the space community. Researchers suggest that it is time to make explicit statements about mining on celestial bodies. It is certain that specific rules are needed to establish how planetary exploitation will take place and to define the rights and duties of the parties involved. The Mars NOW team proposes four alternative solutions to deal with this issue:

1. Since the concept of “Common Heritage of Mankind” has never achieved consensus in the international community, and the "Non-Appropriation" provision in the OST made no statements against resource mining on celestial bodies explicitly, the international community should ignore this issue and move forward until resource mining on celestial bodies becomes feasible and practical, and deal with disputes as they arise. 2. An attempt should be made to clarify the provisions regarding resource mining on celestial bodies in the 1979 Moon Treaty and then resubmitted for voting and ratification in the United Nations international community.

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3. A proposal for a new declaration could be made by a member or members of the leading space-faring nations where the "Non-Appropriation" provision could be explicitly stated to not be applicable to resource mining on celestial bodies. This proposal would be based on the current international legal framework and submitted in the United Nations international community as a statement of intent or purpose and further action for the future. 4. A proposal for a new treaty or agreement could be created to solve the current discussion on ambiguous issues in "Non-Appropriation" and achieve international consensus after a long term discussion process.

Under the current international political environment, proposing a new space treaty and gaining full international consensus would be a very difficult and lengthy undertaking. Reinterpreting the current provisions and delivering a new declaration is more feasible. It is the Mars NOW team’s assessment that the best choice is to keep the non-appropriation principle and try to achieve a new agreement by all states that the movable objects, such as cultivatable resources, could receive some property rights within the legal space regime to promote private investment in the space industry.

Similar proposals have been suggested for solving this dilemma; there is also potential for legal maneuvering on this topic for various entities in the international realm. In addition to the U.N. legal framework, international or intergovernmental organizations can also play important regulatory and legal roles in space activities. These non-governmental organizations are outlined in Table 3-1 and can be helpful to the development and eventual solutions to various legal issues in space activities:

Table 3-1: Organizations that Promote International Legal Systems Outside U.N. Organization Name Organization Functions International Institute for the Unification UNIDROIT is active in the development of modern legal solutions for of Private Law (UNIDROIT) commercial development involving parties of governmental and non- governmental nature International Astronautical Federation IAF is a worldwide group of organizations involved in space activities. IAF is (IAF) a leading space advocacy organization, with 226 members in 59 countries including all leading space agencies, space companies, societies, associations and institutes

International Association for the IAASS is a non-profit organization dedicated to developing and advancing Advancement of Space Safety (IAASS) international cooperation and scientific progress in the field of space systems safety International Space Safety Foundation ISSF is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing policies of (ISSF) international cooperation and scientific progress in the field of space safety International Law Association (ILA) ILA is a major organization active in the field of space law. ILA promotes international understanding as well as the study, clarification, and development of international law

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Although the OST binds all party states, there exist no applicable mechanisms to supervise the implementation of this treaty. In order to ensure the safe, rational, peaceful, and orderly exploitation of Martian resources, a legal regulatory body must be established. At the time of discussions on the Law of the Sea Convention, some countries and companies had already invested money in deep seabed mining, complicating the situation and the possibility of reaching an agreement to the Convention. However, no human activities presently exist on Mars. An internationally-recognized regulatory body will effectively manage natural resource exploitation on Mars, prevent disputes, and resolve conflicts that may emerge in the future.

The proposed legal regulatory system will function to facilitate, coordinate, and control the exploitative activities on celestial bodies and solve disputes in these activities on Earth and in outer space. The organizational structure, working protocols, and decision-making procedures of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) formulate the best model for this regulatory body. The ITU successfully creates a peaceful environment for competition and cooperation, by allocating the common resources of orbital position and radio frequency of satellites, thus promoting the development of the industry. (Hinricher, 2004; Koenig, 2009)

The Mars NOW team proposes the establishment of an “Outer Space Administration” to serve these purposes. The structures, functions, and mechanisms of this Administration are outlined below:

1. The Assembly. The Assembly is the supreme organ of the Administration, consisting of all party states. The Assembly elects members and management to all other departments. The Assembly upholds and represents the concept of "Heritage of Mankind" as outlined in the Outer Space Treaty. The Assembly is the rule and policy maker. 2. The Council. The Council is the executive organ of the Administration. The Assembly elects the Secretary General of the Council who will take charge of this division. The Council will act as the supervisor and administrator in the exploration and exploitation activities in outer space. 3. The Technical Committee. This committee is in charge of making and maintaining the technical basis and standard, technical policy, and technical dispute settlement. The Committee will consist of different technical groups in the public and private sector. 4. The Legal Committee. This committee will study and analyze space law and propose new legal solutions for emerging issues in the exploration and exploitation activities in outer space. 5. The License Mechanism. All landing and resource mining activities carried out on celestial bodies must provide detailed plans and technical reports to the administration to request licensure. The administration will effectively control and manage the activities in outer space by this mechanism. 6. The Disputes Settlement Mechanism. Any disputes on other celestial bodies will be arbitrated first within the Outer Space Administration. The legal department and technical department are the major organs to deal with this issue. If the disputes cannot be settled in the Administration, then the case will be handed over to the Permanent Court of Arbitration for further arbitration, as within the ITU and the World Trade Organization (WTO) frameworks.

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There will be a transient period before the “Outer Space Administration” begins to function. During this period, a special department in UN is first required to be established to deal with near-Earth orbit issues, such as the ISS, and debris control and mitigation, which can only be solved with extensive international corporation. After the international community has agreed to create the department to coordinate all of the outer space activities, the ISS may not be abandoned as the current schedule and can be supported by all of the States with finance and techniques within the framework of the “Outer Space Administration”. A special work group involved with all States should be formed to make decisions on how to use the ISS for common interests of humankind. After the transient period, this work group can be transferred directly into the Council and the Technical Committee of the “Outer Space Administration”.

3.3. Planetary Protection

Although the concept of "planetary protection" is not legally binding, its legal basis is in Article IX of the OST; the principles of "planetary protection" have been accepted by the scientific community as well as the international society as customary law. Any Mars missions must adhere to the guiding principles of "planetary principles" for mission design. Planetary Protection Panel within COSPAR suggests that the whole lander system must be sterilized to at least Viking post-sterilization biological burden levels (thirty spores total per spacecraft). COSPAR also has policy guidelines on human missions to Mars, and is stated to be dedicated to safeguard both Mars and Earth from contamination and unneeded human interference. (COSPAR, 2002)

Missions to Mars are not only limited to exploration and resource mining; science is also a very important aspect, as searching for extraterrestrial life is a strong priority for outer space studies. Space agencies and Mars science communities both identify the search for present and past life on Mars as one of four overarching goals of Mars exploration. Although robotic missions have been conducted on Mars to search for life, limitations of robotic abilities have minimized the scope of operations on the Martian surface. The whole planet, especially areas considered by scientists as scientifically "Special Regions", call for more exploration and expansion of the human knowledge; however, it is the responsibility of any mission design to take into consideration the probability of contamination and take the necessary precautions to avoid doing so. (COSPAR, 2002)

Although COSPAR has specific constraints and recommendations for planetary missions, there are not many applicable suggestions and regulations on human missions. Moreover, since “no class of microorganisms can currently be identified with complete confidence as being that of greatest importance for preventing the forward contamination of Mars” (Committee on Preventing the Forward Contamination of Mars, 2006), more research is needed to prove the effectiveness of the current sterilization methods. It is also uncertain whether the contamination from Earth can be constrained within a limited area rather than the likelihood of spreading over a wider area through environmental means such as dust storms.

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Current heating methods for sterilizing spacecraft and equipment from the microorganisms cannot be directly used on humans. Thus, when the crew lands on the Martian surface, they will be the biggest source of contamination. Regrettably, there exists no perfect solution to this issue; however if some basic procedures like the current planetary protection recommendations are strictly followed by every Mars mission, at least the contamination on the Martian surface can stay within a controllable scope.

The Mars NOW team suggests the following protocols for implementation for all robotic and crewed Mars missions:

 Any Mars landers must provide technical details about the landing site and landing vehicle to the administrations to get the appropriate licensure.  The mission vehicle must be fully sterilized to the biological burden levels recommended by COSPAR.  The first phase of the search for life must be conducted by robots around the landing site. Astronauts can then perform experiments in the wider area around the landing site.  Before the completion of the search for life, the landers must be fully isolated from the Mars surface.  Landing sites must be constrained to the areas that have already been inspected previously, and the initial period of Mars missions must be maintained inside restricted “Earth Zones”.

3.4. Legality of Sending People on a One-Way Mission

Besides one-way missions to Mars involving high risk, one fact is certain: the crew will eventually die on Mars due to the natural process of human aging. However, what if a crew member or the entire crew dies due to an accident or negligence? Who would be liable? What would be the legal ramifications of the possible wrongful acts? These questions must be clarified before a one-way mission is sent to Mars. Some consider one-way missions to Mars, at least for the present time, to be a suicide mission. There even some religious groups and nations who classify it to be forbidden (Lakhani, 2014a).

To better understand the legality of sending a one-way mission to Mars, the Mars NOW team proposes that the issue should be examined within two baselines: in the first scenario, the mission is publicly defined as a scientific suicide operation, and in the second scenario, the mission is seen as a chance at a new life, with many visible and publicized risks.

The first scenario defines a one-way mission to Mars as “suicide” at its inception: the volunteers and members of the eventual crew are well aware of the risks before volunteering. The most glaring question stands: is it ethical and furthermore legal to let humans take their own lives willingly? The religious authority of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the General Authority of Islamic Affairs & Endowments (GAIAE) has publicly forbidden travel to Mars, as “the chances of dying are higher than living.” (Lakhani, 2014b) This guidance sets a precedent that traveling to Mars is equivalent to committing suicide. Some organized religions such as Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism view suicide as a sin, thus indirectly forbidding their followers to go to Mars.

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Recently, the GAIAE has issued a fatwa, or an official Islamic ruling, to warn Muslims against the popular and highly publicized Mars One mission.

In the UAE and India, suicide is considered a legal offence; anyone who attempts to kill his or herself and fails is punishable by law and is treated as criminal (under Article 335 of the UAE Federal Penal Law, and Section 309 of Indian penal code). In this case, if a crewed one-way mission to Mars must make an “emergency return” back to Earth, the crew will be considered criminals in those countries. In the United States, some states consider suicide a crime but it is rarely enforced. In most countries, however, assisting or aiding a suicide is a crime and punishable by law. All involved parties will be accused of aiding multiple suicides (whether attempted or successful) and everyone directly and indirectly involved may be prosecuted to the full extent of the law in their country of residence. Under these conditions, Mars One would be considered a criminal organization.

In the second scenario, the mission is presented as a chance for a new life as a pioneer of the unknown, while publicizing and educating the public about the multitude of risks associated with it. Many interested parties are assisting Mars One to send a crewed mission to Mars, one-way, by the next decade. However, the issue of legality is still left unanswered. What if the crew dies on the way to, or soon after, the arrival on Mars? What regulatory structure would be used to judge the potential wrongdoer? Who or what organization is liable and responsible for the life of the crew?

Historically, not all exploration and settling endeavors on Earth have had a return component. However, human exploration of space to date has always been planned very carefully for the safe return of astronauts. From research and robotic exploration of Mars, humanity realizes the inherent risks of a crewed mission. Nevertheless, thousands of people still volunteer to settle Mars through the Mars One initiative, even knowing the risks.

Assuming that the mission is conducted in a multinational collaboration scheme, the Mars NOW team proposes that a regulatory system be used to ensure the safety of the crew, rather than deliberately sending humans to Mars solely for pursuing the trophies of the first landing.

3.5. Conclusion

In the process of humankind’s exploration and exploitation of outer space, space law and other legal constraints must always be considered. Even though they present roadblocks to innovation and progress, these constraints may save lives and avoid conflicts. The current space legal structure reflects the political nature of the Cold War era, and must adapt to suit the needs of the current times. The more complex and ambitious space missions become, the more space law must adapt, develop, and change.

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Although there are professional disputes and criticisms of space law, the Mars NOW team proposes a solution to manage public or common regions of international community in outer space and a method to allocate profits made from these regions. This is an important issue that must be resolved before a one-way Mars mission can be realized. In the Antarctic Treaty and the Law of the Sea Convention, the international community endeavored and succeeded to achieve an international consensus with different solutions. The Mars NOW team proposes a number of solutions for this dilemma that exist within the United Nations legal framework.

The lack of an international regulatory body to manage space exploration, lack of explicit planetary protection laws, and the legal considerations of sending humans on one-way missions are three controversial legal topics that are currently standing in the way of Mars missions and space exploration in general. It is the societal response to these legal concepts that will ensure that the humanity's journey in outer space will have ethical, civilized, and cautious intent rather than becoming another brutal, conflicting, and destructive colony.

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4. CREW SELECTION AND TRAINING

4.1. Introduction

Traveling to and settling Mars will expose crews to significant physical and psychological challenges. The physical challenges could be remedied by technological improvements of existing methods. Once the technological means allow humans to survive under the extreme conditions of Mars, the psychological effects of a one-way mission will be more visible and dominant.

The effects of the space environment on human psychological health and physical performance have been studied since the beginning of human space activity. This research was performed in space, sub-orbital environments, and through analog studies conducted in laboratories and Isolated and Confined Environments (ICE). Some examples of these include the research stations in Antarctica, submarines, and facilities such as Biosphere 2. This work has yielded remarkable insight on human performance; however, there are still many questions that remain unanswered about human survival, health, and adaptability when traveling to and living on Mars. It should be noted that the difficulty of this mission is determined not only by a series of indefinite and mission-dependent factors, but also the unknown effects of arriving, living, and most likely dying on an unexplored planet that is hostile to Earth-based life. No single study can demonstrate all of the possible effects.

Considering all of these factors, the direct connection becomes apparent between the success of this mission and the selection and training of a qualified crew. The first “Martians” will have to be able to endure emotional stress while continuing to contribute to their assigned tasks and other aspects of their mission.

Choosing the appropriate number of initial settlers is a widely debated topic. To establish a baseline for the further discussions in this chapter, the Mars NOW team suggests that the very first community to reach Mars should consist of twelve individuals who will reach the planet via three spacecraft of four people, as discussed in the study The Mars Homestead plan (Mackenzie et al., 2010). Two additional spacecraft, with four new settlers each, will be sent during two consequent launch windows. In this scenario, after approximately seven Earth years, the settlement will consist of twenty eight people. After this point in the mission timeline, the initial habitats can be potentially replaced with long term settlement establishments. As technology improves, it is likely that larger and more efficient spacecraft will be built that will be able to take a larger number of people to the Mars settlement. (Mackenzie et al., 2010)

The selection criteria, as well as the procedure for the designation of the first twenty-eight settlers, and the criteria for the next generation of Martians will be discussed in section 4.2. The Mars NOW training proposal will follow in section 4.3.

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4.2. Crew Selection

The method of selection for the first settlers is a vital part of the planning and later success of a one- way Mars settlement missions. This is due not only to the psychological and physiological challenges that the mission will involve, but also to the necessity for high-level interdisciplinary skills of the crew. Examining analog missions can help derive the parameters to be considered during the selection process.

4.2.1. Analog Missions in Relation to Crew Selection

It has been hypothesized that the largest human performance challenges on one-way Mars missions are the psychological, cultural, and social effects of living in a dangerous, stressful, and confined environments. For ICE missions in Antarctica, the crew selection processes have included psychological examinations; however the crew members still reported issues such as depression and insomnia throughout the mission. (Harrison et al., 1991)

During the Biosphere 2 experiment (see Figure 4-1), a crew of eight people was confined in an artificially created bio-regenerative biosphere for an initially-intended two-year mission. Due to a number of problems encountered during the experiment, Biosphere 2 was deemed a failure. According to studies of the mission, “interpersonal relations considered by the crew members were the biggest problem in Biosphere 2.” (MacCallum & Poynter 1995, p.82)

Figure 4-1: The “Beach” Inside Biosphere-2 (Higgins, 2008)

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It is suggested in relation to Antarctic missions that instead of emphasizing the study of individuals, a group-selection process should be used (McKay et al., 1991). In this report, the Mars NOW team has chosen an approach of crew selection that concentrates largely on group dynamics and functionality. The selection of the crew for the Mars mission will be similar to the missions in Antarctica.

The candidates should (Harrison et al. 1991):

 possess high-level job skills;  show signs of motivation to complete the required mission tasks;  demonstrate social compatibility and emotional stability; and  be comfortable alone and within the group.

4.2.2. The Selection Process

The applicants will be evaluated in the following three categories:

 educational background and previous work experience;  medical evaluation; and  group dynamics.

The selection process will start with questionnaires which examine applicant’s personal, educational, and vocational background. Medical select-out criteria will include any serious psychiatric issues of the applicant or their family members. This includes diseases such as schizophrenia and other psychoses, or similar illnesses that can be inherited or can lead to inheritable illnesses. A history of depression will also be a select-out condition. The applicants will also be questioned on general health and fitness as well as their family background. Due to ethical reasons, applicants with underage children will not be selected. The educational and work requirements will be described in more detail later in this section.

Applicants who pass the first part of the selection process will move on to the next step of the process: the medical examination. Applicants will be evaluated by a psychologist and tested for physical health by a physician; aptitude tests will also be performed.

After passing the medical and aptitude examination, the applicants will move on to the final part of the selection: group dynamics. The candidates will be tested on their social skills and adaptability along with other candidates under surveillance of members of the selection board. The board will ask the candidates to perform different tasks within an assigned group and will monitor and survey the individual performance as a part of a group, as well as the group’s performance as a whole.

The groups will be initially formed to include different people for each task but transfers between groups may take place during the process. Once the optimal combination of people has been selected, the group lists will be frozen.

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The goal is to eventually choose one of the groups as a unit, not individuals from various groups. For the initial crew of twelve astronauts, four groups of twelve are suggested to be selected and trained, from which one group will be the primary crew for the first mission. Some of the next stage settlers can be chosen and trained further from the remaining thirty-six people, according to new necessities.

4.2.3. Strengths of Initial Settlers

The most challenging and exciting part of the whole settlement program will be the very first human landing on Mars. Even if the initial habitat modules are deployed and life-support systems became operational beforehand, this first crew will need to perform many complicated tasks to set up the settlement and will face serious risks during their operations. To cope with, and troubleshoot unforeseen problems, the initial twelve people will need to have high-level interdisciplinary knowledge and abilities in most of the following disciplines: life sciences, life-support systems, medicine, and robotics.

Moreover, for complex tasks that require specialized pre-training, it would be important to have at least two people capable of performing a single required task. This redundancy is vital in case of injury or death. The most successful applicants would be those who can perform well in as many of the required tasks as possible.

4.2.4. Selection of Further Settlers

Once a large number of habitation modules are functional and a larger crew can be supported by the life-support systems and in-situ resource utilization, the selection of the “everyday people” that would join the community would begin. While some of the settlers will still work in engineering teams for operating and maintaining critical systems for the settlement or running scientific experiments, some of them would be the first settlers with occupations not directly related to the technical aspects of maintaining a functional settlement. These settlers would work as teachers, cooks, cleaning personnel, and other positions, as needed.

Further settlers will be subject to less strict medical requirements than those of the initial crew. The psychological requirements should still remain stringent for each settler, as no return is considered in a one-way mission approach, but the main emphasis should now be on the psychological characteristics and motivations of the applicants to move to Mars.

At this stage, the selection of the personnel should be divided into two groups:

 persons with no dependents who want to settle on Mars and start a family there; or  persons with families who want to settle on Mars with their existing families.

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The mission organizers must investigate the motives behind full families' desire to settle on Mars must be investigated and it would be highly recommended to interview the children as well. Due to ethical reasons, it is likely that people with children may not be accepted unless the parents apply with their child to migrate as a family. An exception could be made if the child or youngest children are of mature age.

This report assumes a nominal space mission concept and timeline, in which critical paths are shaped and driven by technological and scientific values. However, if for any reason (whether due to an approaching natural catastrophe, political pressures, or simply human impatience) the mission is rushed, the crew selection process would most likely be subject to change and be adapted to fit the situation.

4.3. Crew Training

The crew will start mission training once selected. The Mars NOW team proposes a training program based on the training program for astronauts preparing for the International Space Station, but will be configured to fit the extreme environment of Mars. The Mars training program will be divided into the following three phases:

 Phase One: focused on astronaut basic and advanced training;  Phase Two: focused on flight specific training required for the Mars transition; and  Phase Three: focused on Mars survival and mission-specific training.

This approach is schematized on Figure 4-2.

4.3.1. Phase One: Basic and Advanced Training

The first phase combines both basic and advanced training under the same schedule. Currently, for a six-month mission to the ISS, the training schedule allocates sixteen months and twelve months to basic and advanced training, respectively (Seedhouse, 2010). For a one-way mission to Mars, the Mars NOW team suggests to follow a similar path to that of the ISS training schedule, but with an emphasis in Mars sciences. Additionally, it is assumed that the one-way mission to Mars training requirements will extend the schedule to allocate at least twelve months for “habitat science and maintenance training” and twelve months for “living on Mars training.” Training with robots to increase the functionality of human-robot teams will be incorporated into this Mars-specific training. The proposed program of crew training is outlined below. a) Basic Training

The Basic Training program focuses on bringing selected candidates from different backgrounds to the same level of knowledge and skills by covering a wide range of topics. Basic Training will last twenty-eight months and is designed to be a combination of classroom training and various field trips for hands-on experience (e.g. a field trip to a geological site could be included).

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Figure 4-2: Mars Crew Training Program

The details of the courses to be taught are:

Mars Sciences and Geology. This course introduces the origin and classification of rocks and minerals, geological processes and landform evolution, geological and environmental processes in Mars, Mars materials and their distribution and their environmental significance; it also describes the elements and components of the Martian atmosphere and energy in the Mars system.

Habitat Science. The course objective is to familiarize the crew with various sub-systems of the habitat. It includes an introduction to life-support systems and sciences; radiation sources, effects, shielding methods and detection; power generation, storage, and distribution; food production and sustainability; and waste management system, habitat maintenance, and airlock system.

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Space Applications and Communications. The aim of the course is to provide the crew with basic knowledge of satellite applications and an insight into communications. Topics are: introduction to Mars space applications, Mars observation and surveying, satellite use for science, introduction to communication science, fundamentals of digital communication and networking, information theory, sampling, quantization, coding, modulation, signal detection and system performance, Mars communications routing and protocol, and satellite and deep space communications.

Meteorology. Weather is a fundamental part of crew life; severe weather has significant impact on missions and habitat infrastructure. The aim of this course is to introduce the science of Martian weather and the atmosphere through the collection and analysis of meteorological data. This will provide the crew with an operational understanding of Martian weather and its connection to the dynamic Mars environment, and preparation for extreme weather such as sandstorms.

Life Sciences. The aim of this course is to introduce the fundamentals of organic chemistry, cell and molecular biology, genetics, human physiology, immunology and microbiology, biodiversity, plant diversity, and principles of ecology.

Human Behavior and Performance. This course introduces the challenges associated with human performance and behavior in an ICE. Mars analogs and long-duration spaceflight missions will be studied.

Physiology and Psychology. Microgravity and confined spaces affect human physiology and psychology. This course aims to introduce the history of human spaceflight and the effect of microgravity and confinement on the human body and mind. It also provides the fundamentals of countermeasures and procedures, and training on the operation, maintenance, and repairs to the relevant equipment.

Materials and Fluid Science. The aim of this course is to give fundamental knowledge about types of materials, their usage, properties, and characteristics; it focuses on the known materials present on Mars. It also provides fundamental knowledge in fluid dynamics, incompressible, and compressible fluids.

Robotics. This course introduces basic knowledge, types, and applications of robots in space missions; it will discuss the challenges of interacting with robots; with examples of Mars robot applications. Initial training will also be conducted with robots in human-robot teams to improve human-robot interaction and cooperation. Human-robot interaction training will be further discussed in section 4.3.4.

Fundamentals of Spaceflight. This course introduces the trajectories for interplanetary missions, includes the approximate velocity budget (the energy required), the approximate mass, and number of stages of the booster, and the problems and options associated with the terminal phase(s) of the mission.

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Physical Training. Physical training assists crews in preparing for the physical demands of the one- way Mars missions. This training includes three primary elements of a physical fitness program: aerobic activity, muscular strength and endurance exercises, and flexibility exercises.

Survival Training (summer and winter). Introduces the types of emergency situations that may occur on Mars, types of life-saving appliances and possible equipment modifications in case of multiple failures, operation training for life-saving appliances and equipment, and survival principles.

Medical Training. Basic medical training focuses on non-life threatening injuries as defined by a National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) score between I and III (see Table 4-1). The crew will be required to demonstrate understanding of the medical situation and be able to treat injuries with available resources. Telemedicine consultancy training will also be a part of the medical training, since such an approach is most suitable for a Mars settlement due, to the large time delay between Earth and Mars. NACA IV-VI will be handled by flight surgeons.

Table 4-1: The Different Categories of the NACA Score (ÖGAN, 2006) Categories Descirption Example NACA 0 No injury or disease N/A NACA I Minor disturbance. No medical slight abrasion intervention is required NACA II Slight to moderate distrurbance. fracture of the finger bone, Outpatient medical investigation, but moderate cuts, dehydration… usually no emergency medial measures necessary. NACA III Moderate to severe but not life- femur fracture, milder stroke, threatening disorder. Stationary smoke inhalation… treatment required, often emergency medical resources on site. NACA IV Serious incident where rapid vertebral injury with neurological development into a life-threatening deficit, severe asthma attack, drug condition can not be excluded. In the poisoning… majority of cases, emergency medical care is required. NACA V Acute danger third grade skull or brain trauma, severe heart attack, significant opioid poisoning NACA VI Respiratory and/or cardiac arrest N/A NACA VII Death N/A

Food Production: The crew will need to produce its own food on Mars. Current experiments on ISS have demonstrated that agriculture in microgravity is possible; thus it is assumed that cultivating agriculture will be possible in 1/3g. It is suggested that all crew members are trained to operate, maintain, and fix the food production facility that will be used on Mars.

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Once the selected crew completes the basic training, they will receive advanced training. The advanced training regimen is suggested to last for twenty-four months. The purpose of advanced training is to provide practical experience for spaceflight and permanent living on Mars. It includes twelve months of training in a Mars habitat simulation. This advanced training will be provided using a variety of facilities and equipment, such as computer-aided instructional trainer, crew software trainer, crew compartment trainer, high-fidelity simulator, 1g Mars habitat mockups, suit caution and warning system trainer, vacuum chambers, precision air bearing facility, neutral buoyancy facility, parabolic flight, and various simulations in virtual reality.

Mars Transit Flight Training. Flight training prepares the crew for the launch, Mars transit, and Mars re-entry. The crew will be introduced to flight simulators, full-scale mockups of the Mars spacecraft, and underwater training for Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) in space and on Mars.

Space Operations and Procedures. Through a series of lectures and hands-on training regimens, this course gives a detailed overview of how to plan, prepare, and perform spacecraft and habitat operations. Many operational aspects are addressed including relevant tools, procedures, and the experience gained in numerous spacecraft and Mars analog missions.

Maintenance. The crews are involved in the repair and maintenance of spacecraft, habitat, and other equipment. This course teaches the fundamentals of propulsion, electronics, and automatic control guidance; theory of aerodynamics for spaceflight, and structural analysis, material science, fluid dynamics and in-situ resources for the Mars habitat, life support system, food production, and other equipment. The objective is to teach the crew the maintenance processes for all systems and sub-systems of the spacecraft, Mars habitat, and Mars equipment.

Mars Emergency Management. The Emergency Management program will provide crews with skills necessary to respond to major emergencies and disasters effectively and in an organized manner during Mars missions. Comprehensive coursework covers a full range of mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery phases of emergency and disaster management.

Team Building / Behavioral Health. This course uses an experiential approach to learning skills and attitudes necessary for building and leading effective teams. Topics include communication and motivation theories, group formation and behavior, group decision-making processes, conflict management, negotiation, facilitation, and organizational support structures.

In summary, Phase One of the Mars NOW team's proposal for training is comparable to the ISS training program, with an added emphasis on Mars. Extended time is allocated, given the longer duration of a one-way mission to Mars. A detailed study of one-way missions to Mars training campaign is recommended. The next phases use the ISS as a training platform; NASA and the international community have proposed to use the ISS for such training methods (ISECG, 2013).

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4.3.2. Phase Two: Mars Spaceflight Training

Phase Two consists of spaceflight-specific training for the six-to-nine-month transit to Mars. The training is recommended to last approximately twenty-seven months, which includes spacecraft simulation, training on the ISS, and Mars landing analog training. The spaceflight-specific training will ensure that the crew is prepared to recognize and adapt to the rapidly changing gravity environment, be aware of and employ the microgravity countermeasures equipment and techniques, able to pilot and operate the spacecraft, and be able to handle spacecraft malfunctions and emergencies.

Microgravity Countermeasures One-way missions to Mars are, by definition, long term. It will take approximately nine months to travel from Earth to Mars. During this route, the gravity will transition from 1g on the surface of Earth to 0g in space, and 0.38g on the surface of Mars.

There are many risks to human health in microgravity including bone loss, cardiovascular changes and fluid shifts, increased risk of infection, muscle atrophy, neurovestibular adaptation, psychosocial adaptation, sleep and circadian disruption, and more (Morphew, 1999). Since the first human space flight over fifty years ago, ample research on human health in space has been conducted and many countermeasure methods have been proposed and implemented to solve or mitigate the problems. Current ISS countermeasures include mechanical methods (e.g. elastic loading garment, compression garment, active cooling, g-suit, recumbent posture etc.), pharmacological methods (e.g. anti-emesis, oral fluid loading, peripheral alpha agonist, bisphosphonates etc.), exercise, diet, and nutritional supplements. For long-duration missions, the Mir and ISS experiences indicate that current in-flight countermeasures are not optimal (Clément, 2011). Using existing countermeasure methods, humans would not be operational for a significant amount of time after landing on Mars. The average recuperation time from a long-duration spaceflight is approximately three months on Earth. Astronauts have difficulty walking and some become disoriented, as well as exhibiting other effects. The crew has to train to overcome these difficulties after landing on Mars. It is suggested that some equipment for recuperation is sent before the crew arrives. Another suggestion is to produce artificial gravity during the transit phase.

Artificial gravity can be considered the most efficient countermeasure, since it is a general purpose or "integrated" countermeasure. All physiological systems are stimulated at a desired gravity level such as Earth gravity (1g). For a Mars settlement mission, the simulated gravity level could be lowered throughout the transit phase in order to adapt the crew in-flight to the Mars gravity environment. To provide artificial gravity, the whole or a part of the spacecraft could be spun, thus providing centrifugal force. Alternatively, an intermittent source of artificial gravity could be used, such as a short arm centrifuge or other similar device aboard the spacecraft. However, intermittent artificial gravity could represent a less effective countermeasure, since it would be applied for less time (Clément & Bukley, 2007). Figure 4-3 shows an example of a deep space exploration spacecraft design (NASA’s Nautilus-X) with a spinning habitat section providing artificial gravity, and of a human powered intermittent artificial gravity system.

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Figure 4-3: Nautilus-X (left) (Henderson & Holderman, 2011) and MIT Compact Radius Centrifuge (right) (Trigg, 2013)

Spacecraft, Transit and Landing Training. Since the beginning of spaceflight, spacecraft have been capable of autonomous navigation and control. However, the manual mode is often used by the pilot to correct for errors the computer is not capable of mitigating. One example of such a situation was the Apollo 11 Moon Landing in 1969; Neil Armstrong was able to manually maneuver the lunar lander to a safe landing area. Apollo 13 had major malfunctions of the spacecraft and needed to manually correct the course to safely land back on Earth; the same could happen with the Mars spacecraft. The selected pilots should be able to navigate and operate the spacecraft manually in any emergency situation.

The ISS is a useful platform to simulate Mars transit, especially with the addition of dedicated modules that could be used for flight operation training. Such an analog would be a valuable test bed for various mission-related elements, such as adaptation to the microgravity environment, artificial gravity testing, communications training (including time delay), emergency, and landing procedures. Given the long-duration of the transit phase, in-flight learning should also be emphasized as part of the training program.

4.3.3. Phase Three: Mission-specific, Settling Mars

To prepare the crew for life and work on Mars, geological analogs on Earth could be a very useful approach. Mars analogs usually include (College & Christi, 2010; ESA, 2011; NASA, 2011a, 2011b):

 a wide range of EVA and scientific experiments that will be conducted on Mars;  testing all equipment that will be used during one-way Mars missions, such as communications equipment, rovers, portable life-support, EVA suits, and other crucial elements;  testing the crew's work in rovers away from the main base for extended time periods;  training the crews to work and live with robots (human-robot interaction); and  medical care with limited resources.

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In order to keep the analogs realistic, every element and process should run as close as possible to Mars conditions. For example, exiting the habitat will not be permitted unless planned as an EVA, and a communication time delay and bandwidth limitations will be implemented to simulate the distance between Mars and Earth; crews will only use the resources (equipment, tools, and food) which will be available on Mars; and so on.

Mars analog missions usually last from two weeks to one month. For Phase Three – settling Mars training, it is suggested that the duration of the analog should be progressively increased from two weeks to six months. Phase Three training should last thirty-six months, of which twelve months will be lecture and practice on how to operate habitat specific equipment for food production, life- support systems, robots and other necessary technologies, and also EVA and rover activities.

4.3.4. Training Human-Robot Teams

This section discusses the idea that for one-way Mars missions, humans and robots should be treated as complements rather than interchangeable substitutes, and formalizes both the human crew training and robotic development programs for the mission keeping this baseline in mind. Robot and human strengths and weaknesses are complimentary. At the current level of technology, robots excel at tasks that are beyond human physical capabilities, including very tedious, repetitive, or hazardous duties, but also ordinary tasks which need to be completed in extraordinary environments, such as the vacuum of space or the Martian surface. On the other hand, robot weaknesses include a lack of creative thinking abilities and problem solving, for which humans still remain largely unchallenged.

The development of autonomous robots specialized for specific tasks should be generally avoided for one-way missions to Mars. A system with high performance versatility is much more preferred since it would likely provide a higher utility per kilogram. Such a system can be developed with limited autonomy and interact with, or be controlled directly by, humans. In certain cases, these robots would be required to interact with humans as a part of their tasks.

For Mars exploration, all robotic missions until now have comprised of either landers or rovers. However due to the different needs and requirements of one-way missions, the next step could be to use humanoid robots. A trend for this can already be seen in the space industry with NASA, who is planning to send its “Valkyrie” humanoid robot (see Figure 4-4) to Mars as a precursor to human missions. This forty-four degree-of-freedom robot can walk over uneven terrain, climb a ladder, use tools, and is even fabric-covered to increase the comfort level of humans working with it (Ackerman, 2013).

For a Mars settlement, robot precursors can set up camp, explore the region, and generally prepare for human arrival. In later stages of the settlement, robots could grow food, assist with scientific exploration, search and rescue, extract resources and maintain construction projects. They can perform repairs and support medical care in other ways. Robots can even act as company or entertainment for children and adults, and thus prove to be an invaluable part of the settlement. It is likely that some of these robots will be interacting with humans on a regular basis and it is important to address and study the associated difficulties of human-robot interaction.

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Figure 4-4: NASA’s Valkyrie Humanoid Robot (NASA)

For the purposes of the Mars NOW team proposal for human-robot team training (see Figure 4-5), communication and motion are two most important aspects. Communication ability depends on the robot software, while motion ability is connected more with hardware. Moreover, the software and hardware of robots are usually developed separately. Therefore, human-robot team training should be taken step-by-step, and using different methods, as described below. This report suggests a three step approach: first, communication training; second, motion training; and third, task training.

Figure 4-5: Mars NOW Human-Robot Interaction Training

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Communication Training The crew will learn two-way communication with the robot. This course teaches the different ways the crew can connect to the robot. Depending on the robot, crews will learn how to send a command via a computer, gesture, voice, or even virtual reality. Likewise, the crew will learn to understand the robot when it communicates with them. It is suggested that most of the training is provided through virtual reality. Virtual reality offers a dynamic, simulated environment that can respond to a user’s actions in real-time; a large variety of operational conditions can be simulated. Virtual reality is a cost-effective tool that eliminates the need for a physical robot or environment, and can be used for introductory training of large quantities of people.

Motion training Crews will learn about the robot’s physical limitations and operations. The course is based on hardware training, sensors, control delays, precision movements, and others elements. It is suggested that the human-robot motion training is provided as part of the Mars analogs training, as integrating human-robot teams into such analogs serve as an important training and research method.

Task training This course focuses on cooperation of human-robot teams. Crews will learn to perform tasks with the assistance of robots. For example, the ISS is the only real-life space environment inhabited by humans and robots (NASA’s Robonaut and JAXA’s Kirobo, see Figure 4-6). Both are intended to exemplify the idea of humans and robots working together outside Earth. The Robonaut 2 (R2) looks like a human and can use tools, assist with extra vehicular activities, or be tele-operated by astronauts. The Kirobo is the first talking robot launched into space. One of its goals is to test the effectiveness of humans and robots when working together on tasks in space (Howell, 2013). It is suggested that task training is provided during the Mars analogs and transit flight training on the ISS.

Figure 4-6: Paolo Nespoli with Roboaut-2 on ISS (left) (NASA), Koichi Wakata with Kirobo (right) (JAXA)

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Additionally, human-robot Cross Training might be a useful training tool. Cross Training is a method used in businesses and organizations to improve employee skill level and interaction by swapping job roles on a temporary basis. This interaction technique can be applied to a human-robot task, where the crew will learn how to train the robot by “interactive reward”: the robot is given positive or negative feedback depending on its actions. Cross Training can result in more concurrent work (humans and robots working at the same time), better time management, more trust and confidence from humans, and less uncertainty for the robot (Knight, 2013). However, significant advances in artificial intelligence are needed before this kind of training can be fully implemented.

4.4. Conclusion

This report proposes a selection process in three phases: during the first phase, a selection board will study the medical, educational, and work background of the applicant as well as his or her group dynamics and social capabilities. For this phase, choosing applicants with an interdisciplinary background would provide greater redundancy in case of accidents. During the second phase, crews will undergo spaceflight training. During the third phase, the training will be specific for living on Mars.

The Mars NOW team's proposal for a crew training regimen given in this chapter is based on the ISS training program, but with additional elements that are dictated by the nature of one-way missions to Mars. Additionally, a special emphasis is placed on human-robot team training. The Mars NOW team believes that human-robot interaction is an important asset to the future of a Martian settlement.

With humans at the focus of the Mars settlement, all mission factors need to be designed and engineered with the human aspect as top priority. A Mars settlement is challenging for the following reasons:

 all crewmembers will need to be able to perform multiple jobs efficiently;  the members of a Mars settlement will eventually include ordinary civilian citizens from Earth, who might need special attention;  the training program cannot be customized for every individual with a differing background, yet it must somehow cater all necessary skills to all crewmembers; and  the crew must work together seamlessly with each other as well as with robots to achieve success in their mission.

This chapter has proposed a crew selection and training program for the first settlers to reach Mars, which places an emphasis on legacy programs such as those of the ISS, and incorporates new elements such as in-flight learning and low Earth orbit and Mars surface operations analog training. However, no consideration was given to the selection and training for settlers of an already established Martian settlement. This omission was done on the ground of relevance, and should be the topic of further inquiry.

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5. MARS MISSION TECHNOLOGIES

5.1. Introduction

The Mars NOW report focuses on the understudied aspects of Mars missions and one-way Mars missions in particular. Nevertheless, it is inevitable to mention and outline at least some of the core technologies necessary to go to and settle on Mars. Recent research and developments in the space sector make it possible to propose new scenarios, and many of these technologies have further implications that should be addressed under cultural, ethical, and social perspectives.

As mentioned in the Introduction, one-way missions to Mars are based on the assumption that the ISECG’s Global Exploration Roadmap was pursued, and only slightly modified.

This chapter addresses the following questions:

 What are the crucial technologies for a Mars mission?  What are the key elements of those technologies?  What are the key challenges with those technologies?  What new perspectives and technologies do we propose?

The technologies can be clearly distinguished in two categories:

 Earth–Mars transportation, and  settlement on Mars.

These technologies will be explored in this chapter. As mentioned before, the primary intention of this chapter is not to provide thorough technological development but rather a broad overview and new perspectives.

5.2. Earth to Mars Transportation Technologies

In order to succeed in settling Mars quickly and safety, the Mars NOW team proposes the following phases:

Phase 1: Autonomous landing of habitation units and construction robots; Phase 2: Human mission from Earth to Mars; and Phase 3: Re-supply missions.

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Based on the 2009 NASA Design Reference Architecture 5.0, the masses to be transported to Mars would be between 250–460 tons for a Mars return mission (NASA, 2009). While the propellant mass involved with a one-way mission may be less than a return, transporting the equipment and establishing a human settlement on Mars will require larger launch vehicles than exist today.

In order to accomplish this challenging task, two options are considered. The first involves new “super-heavy” launchers, such as the Space Launch System (SLS), currently under development, which will be able to launch 110 tons to Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) (Kyle, 2013). Alternatively, significant numbers of “lighter” launchers, such as the Atlas V, can deliver seventeen tons to LEO (Kyle, 2013). In either case, substantial development is necessary to accomplish these phases, requiring either the development of new launcher technology or the development of an infrastructure capable of providing fifteen or more launches in a single year.

5.2.1. Autonomous Landing of Habitation Units and Construction Robots

So far, the 900 kilogram (kg) Mars Science Laboratory is the most complex and heaviest object flown and soft landed on Mars. It was launched by an Atlas V rocket and required a 2,400 kg entry, descent, and landing system, otherwise known as the "sky crane" (Palaia, 2010). Assuming technology and equipment for establishing an initial habitat (more details in Chapter 7), two to three launches similar to the size of Atlas V could lay the foundation for the first Mars settlement. These spacecraft could be launched to Mars following the most energy efficient 200 to 256 day transfer trajectory (see Figure 5-1).

Figure 5-1: Transfer Trajectory to Mars for Non-Human Missions

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5.2.2. Human Missions from LEO to Mars

Derived from the most recent Mars Design Reference Architecture, a one-way crew vehicle would have a mass of approximately 460 tons (NASA, 2009). With the current technology, no single launch vehicle is capable of carrying such a mass to LEO at once, but four to six launches will be required. Once the structure is transferred into the orbit, the second challenge will be the in-orbit assembly of this human-rated spacecraft. After the completion of construction in LEO, the crew can be transferred to this vehicle via the Soyuz or any other human-rated vehicle which might be available at that time. Currently only two countries, China and Russia, are capable of launching humans to space; this may provide potential options for international and intergovernmental cooperation. Finally, the transfer of the crew to Mars via this vehicle will also need advanced propulsion solutions which are not currently available. The duration of the mission phases of a generic crewed Mars flight can be seen in Figure 5-2. The mission will take approximately six months for the crew.

Figure 5-2: Transfer Trajectory to Mars for Human-Rated Missions

Although one-way travel is the fundamental assumption of the Mars NOW team’s approach, the safekeeping of the crew should still have the highest priority. In this scope, mission architecture of the Earth-Mars Transfer Vehicle should ensure margins for a contingency return to Earth if there is a system failure after Trans-Mars Injection.

5.2.3. Cargo Resupply Missions

The conventional resupply vehicle for Mars would have a mass approximating 300 tons (NASA, 2009). Nuclear Thermal Rocket (NTR) propelled resupply vehicles can transfer the necessary supplies to maintain a human settlement. While NTR would be the most "efficient" rockets in terms of required mass to LEO, the availability, legality, and technological maturity of NTR are matters of concern. Should the mission be undertaken by a non-governmental entity, it would have to overcome extensive legal restrictions.

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5.3. Life on Mars

There will be many technological challenges involved with sustaining life on Mars. In order to better understand the technology required, it is important to consider the needs of humans and rank them in terms of importance. This can be visualized by Maslow's “Hierarchy of Needs” (see Figure 5-3), a psychology theory proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943 (Maslow & Green, 1943). This theory sorts human needs from a basic level to more social and intellectual levels, and suggests that unless the basic needs are met, the individual will not desire, or be motivated to attain, the secondary or higher level needs. The most fundamental needs are defined as the physiological needs, including air, food, water, shelter, sleep, etc. which are critical for the human body to function properly.

This theory can also be used as a basis to define the basic requirements of the settlers, once they arrive on Mars. However, there is a critical difference: these fundamental elements defined in the bottom-most are either readily available on Earth (air, food, water, sleep), or can be produced with personal effort (shelter, clothing). However, the situation is completely different on Mars. Humankind will need to have advanced technology to produce each of these very essential elements for its survival. Considering that all the technological systems will ultimately need energy to operate, “uninterrupted power” may become one of the most important elements in the “Hierarchy of Needs for a Martian Settlement”. In this scope, regardless of the production technology to be used, robustness, reliability, and redundancy of power systems will be crucial.

Figure 5-3: Graphical Representation of Figure 5-4: Modified Hierarchy of Needs for a Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Martian Settlement

Figure 5-4, created by the Mars NOW team, demonstrates “Hierarchy of Needs for a Martian Settlement”. Besides including “power” in its base level, the modified hierarchy also brings “Earth- Mars communication” to a more fundamental level, since it is important in terms of the technical accomplishment and moral well-being of the crew. Communication between Earth and Mars is also essential to sustain the outreach of the event, the psychology of the settlers, and maintain the financial support of commercial and public entities for the mission.

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At this point, it should be clear to the reader that life on Mars will always rely on technology. The remaining sections of this chapter analyze requirements for the basic human needs for a Martian settlement.

5.3.1. Engineering for Mars

A one-way mission to Mars poses great challenges on the design of every component that is brought to Mars. Everything that will go to Mars will be exposed to radiation over extended periods of time while being aboard the Mars Transfer Vehicle (MTV). This is especially challenging for electronics, requiring increased levels of radiation hardening and radiation event mitigation. After the landing, which will put substantial levels of mechanical stress on equipment, moving parts will be constantly exposed to dust and sand, as well as very low temperatures on the Martian surface. The low temperatures as well as the dust carried by Martian winds will make it necessary to consider means of greasing moving parts. The material used for this must contain no volatile elements that would instantaneously evaporate due to the low pressure and density of the Martian atmosphere.

The main problem with technology in a settlement on Mars is the availability of spare equipment and parts. An alternative to having those sent on demand from Earth, or stockpiling them in advance, would be utilizing means of additive manufacturing, commonly known as 3D printing. Depending on the process, the working material is either molten and extruded in layers, or a powder is sintered in the form of the required component. While current technology does not yet provide the flexibility to build in just any material, the additive manufacturing market does see significant developments and it is highly likely that the technology satisfying the needs of Mars settlement spare part production will be available by the time a one-way mission to Mars is initiated. While the typical engineering approach is mechanical redundancy, this concept may not work exactly for one-way missions. This redundancy is often associated with an increase of complexity and an increase of mass; thus we propose the use of inter-exchangeable components for a Mars settlement. This approach enables many machines to be supplied by bringing fewer parts.

5.3.2. Power Generation

The appropriate source of power for a human base on Mars will depend on the size of the crew, total load requirement, and its scalability. Previous studies have proposed values for the total power requirement for a Mars settlement. Table 5-1 presents a summary of different studies with different crew complement.

Table 5-1: Mars Settlement Power Requirement Comparison Design Study Crew Size Total Power Requirement [kW] Haslach, H. W., 1989 Not Specified 400 NASA, 1993 6 160 Hoffman & Kaplan, 1997 3 320 James, Chamitoff, & D. Barker, 1998 2 to 8 100-500 Drake, 2009 6 Not Specified

While different power generation options (see Figure 5-5) are potentially available, only a few are considered for a Mars settlement.

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Figure 5-5: Electrical Power Generation Options for a Martian Base (Mcginnis, 2004)

Solar photovoltaic systems are highly vulnerable to weather conditions. On Mars, solar panels would have to be constantly freed from dust. Additionally, the conversion efficiency of silicon solar cells ranges between 14-17.5% and suffers from aging, resulting in a constant power drop over time. Finally, the greater distance between the Sun and Mars would yield less solar energy than observed in Earth orbit.

Nuclear dynamic power plants, however, are independent of solar flux levels and dust storms. They have a moderate weight and size, and are capable of producing high power output over extended periods of time. However, scarcity of nuclear fuels, exposure to radiation, and other safety concerns are the drawbacks of surface nuclear systems.

Rechargeable fuel cells could possibly be a good choice for generating electricity on Mars. These cells come in different sizes and are suitable for powering rovers and EVA systems (NASA, 2009). Fuel cells depend on hydrogen and oxygen reactants that can be produced from ISRU systems and while efficient, their usage is usually constrained by mass.

Nuclear power remains the main option for a Mars settlement, as alternative technologies are not yet able to compete with the consistent and especially environmental independent power output of power plants. However the use of nuclear material is undoubtedly linked to political as well as security issues.

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5.3.3. Communication Technologies

Communication will play an important role for a Mars settlement. A settlement on Mars would need to be in frequent contact with Earth, especially in the initial stages, for supplies, planning, counsel, and personal contact. Feasible communication architecture between Earth and Mars can be established in a phased approach:

 Ground-Based Communication. During the initial settlement phase, a single ground-based communication antenna on Mars directed at Earth, the signal being picked up by a network consisting of up to three antennas (similar to Deep Space Network) on Earth can establish approximately twelve hours of communication daily.  Satellite Communication. Following concepts of sequentially deployed satellites (Taraba et al., 2006). Areostationary satellites can be launched to Mars orbit, providing continuous and high data rate communication. If needed, a surface relay network can also be implemented to extend coverage to polar regions for EVAs and other operations.

The population of the settlement on Mars will possibly be smaller than the capacity of any satellite payload. Therefore, hosting different types of instruments on a single satellite (communication, navigation, remote sensing) could be another way of maximizing resources. Figure 5-6 summarizes the possible evolution of satellite constellations around Mars.

Figure 5-6: Build-up of Mars Communication Infrastructure

5.3.4. Navigation Technologies

Both the supply and crew transportation vehicles will require positioning systems to accurately land at the pre-selected site. Similarly, ground transportation vehicles, or the crew who are performing long EVAs, will require guidance and surface navigation systems.

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Similar to the communication infrastructure, navigation approaches can be implemented in a phased manner:

 Initial Settling Phase. The initial navigation needs, like precise landing of the crew or resupply vehicles, can be provided by simple beacons on the Martian surface. It is not needed to send specific equipment for this purpose, beacons located on rovers can be an easy and inexpensive solution. Multiple beacons which are positioned within a certain range for cross-tracking would increase the efficiency of the system.  Later Stages. Once the settlement approaches self-sufficiency, Global Navigation Satellite System networks can be established in Martian orbit. For this purpose, deploying multiple microsatellites at once can be advantageous, due to lower development and production costs and relatively low size and mass requirements of these satellites.

5.3.5. Surface Mobility Technologies

Before the Arrival of Humans There is still scientific knowledge to be gained with the help of mobile robots on Mars. Focusing on the necessities for permanent human settlement, this section aims to derive ideas for possible uses of autonomous robots.

Robotic Caterpillars: The rough terrain on Mars has been a problem for the rovers to date. The terrain would be an even bigger problem once it comes to landing and preparing the habitat for humans. Therefore, robotic vehicles like graders and rollers can be very beneficial for constructional preparation, even before the first human crew arrives on the planet.

Subsurface Explorers: All Martian rovers to date have only studied the surface of the planet and our knowledge about caves and subsurface formations is limited. Therefore, it may be important to send “subsurface explorers” to such sites, to verify if they are a safe option for habitation. These vehicles would need much more autonomy compared to surface robots, since continuous communication with Earth will be either impossible or involve very complex relay systems. Furthermore, these rovers will need their own sensors for navigation, since they should determine their way without being in danger.

Construction Robots: As will be discussed in Chapter 7, 3D printing may be utilized for radiation shielding purposes. The raw materials on Mars may be transformed to mixtures appropriate for the construction of structures like shelters and greenhouses. In such manufacturing processes, robots will necessarily play an important role; not only for printing the necessary components, but also to build the complete structure.

After the Arrival of Humans Once the first crew has landed and situated on Mars, surface transportation may be another requirement. The only crewed rover with space heritage to date is the “Lunar Roving Vehicle” (see Figure 5-7), which was used in the last three missions of the United States’ Apollo Program. These unpressurized rovers were able to carry one or two astronauts, their equipment, and lunar samples.

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Figure 5-7: The Lunar Roving Vehicle from Apollo 15 Mission (1971) (Credits: NASA)

It is irrefutable that autonomous, and manually controlled, rovers undertake a very important role during robotic exploration periods; however, it is also a known fact that they can act considerably slow compared to human-driven systems. Examples of Lunar and Martian rovers are presented in Table 5-2. Although robotic rovers do not travel continuously, there exists a noticeable difference between the speed of the crewed Apollo rovers and the rest. A similar situation is likely to happen on Mars.

Table 5-2: Travel Distances of Various Lunar and Martian Rovers Rover Location Distance Travelled Duration Distance/Hour (km)

Curiosity Mars 19 km (expected) 2 years (expected) 1.08E-03

Spirit Mars 7.7 km 6 years 1.46E-04

Lunokhod 1 Moon 10.5 km 11 months 1.33E-03

Apollo 16 Moon 26.7 km 3,5 hours 7.63

Apollo 15 Moon 27.8 km 3 hours 9.27

Apollo 17 Moon 35.74 km 4,5 hours 7.94

Opportunity Mars 39 km 10 years 4.45E-04

Lunokhod 2 Moon 42 km 4 months 1.46E-02

The Mars NOW team believes that the rovers for human transportation should be ready and sent to Mars in order to be operational before the first crew’s arrival. Depending on the distance between the pre-established habitat and the landing point of the human crew, surface transportation vehicles can have a very critical role for the survival of the crew by transferring them to their new home.

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The design of transportation rovers must consider energy, cargo storage, capacity for long traverses, and maneuverability on the rough and hilly surfaces. They should also support site development through the work of drilling, carrying objects, lifting, and moving regolith. The rovers can be either pressurized for settlers to use without space suits, or unpressurized where they ride similar to the Apollo astronauts as they drove on the lunar surface (Seedhouse, 2009), as seen in Figure 5-8 and Figure 5-9.

Figure 5-8: Artist’s Conception of Figure 5-9: Artist’s Conception of Pressurized Rover Unpressurized Rovers on Mars (NASA) (David A. Hard)

5.3.6. In-Situ Resource Utilization

In-situ-resource utilization is the key element of a self-sustainable Mars settlement. Achieving self- sustainability will be a great challenge for a permanent Mars settlement. Accomplishing it would not only reduce the economic impact of supply vessels needed to be sent from Earth, but might also be a key element for considering and executing a one-way Mars mission in the first place. Self- sustainability will greatly depend on the achievable level of on-site resource utilization and production. In-situ resource utilization and closed cycle regenerative life-support systems are key technologies that were identified by the Mars NOW team as in need of development to support this project.

As mass is a major cost driver, the capability to recycle and produce supplies on-site is extremely important. Since it is known that water is present on Mars, in some form, a lot of thought has been given on how it can be extracted, processed, cleaned, and stored from Martian soil. Water is important as it is not only crucial for human to survive, but also an efficient source of oxygen (for atmosphere and propellant) and hydrogen (propellant) (Rapp, 2006a).

5.3.7. Oxygen Production

With the recent discovery of water ice (saturated with carbon dioxide) on Mars, the focus of oxygen production, for breathable atmosphere or propellant, is on using fuel cells to split oxygen from hydrogen while consuming power (Rapp, 2006a). This process is highly efficient and also provides a high level of purity making it possible to get rid of potential contaminants.

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The availability of oxygen during the Mars transit is technically more challenging. While chemical systems for splitting carbon dioxide under release of oxygen are highly efficient, they will not last for the whole duration of the Mars flight. This makes it necessary to look into new life support systems. Most current concepts for long-duration life-support systems contain at least one biological element. These elements can and should be enhanced by means of biotechnology, the field of science which focuses on living organisms and the means of using them to develop useful products. By introducing several modifications to algae, which are so far the most efficient way of releasing oxygen, the settlers could replenish their oxygen supply. By reducing pigmentation, algae can grow to higher densities by using light more efficiently and reducing contamination. One benefit of plants over algae is their viability and resistance against radiation-induced genetic mutations of seeds (Sugimoto et al., 2011), as well as the positive impact of growing plants on human psychology. The cultivation of algae would require substantial volumes of water and high quantities of light, but should be considered especially for a growing settlement.

5.3.8. Food Production

Studies from the ISS show that a human in space will at least require 0.83 kg of oxygen, 0.62 kg of food, 3.56 kg of drinking water and 26 kg of use-water per day (Clément, 2011). Many scenarios evaluate the possibility of extracting water from Mars soil, but do not address the on-site production of food. With no in-house production, a crew of six people in a Mars settlement would require 68,000 kg of resupplies per year, of which 1,357 kg are food.

Recent discoveries of perchlorates by the Mars Science Laboratory could be an indicator of Martian soil being unsuitable for plant cultivation (Leshin et al., 2013). This issue could be solved by bringing soil-like substrate in a dehydrated state to Mars, but would result in a substantial weight increase (Liu et al., 2008). Instead, genetically modified crops with enhanced tolerances that are optimized to grow inside the habitat on Martian soil, can provide a more weight-efficient alternative. By inserting multiple gene sequences, coding for essential substances, and deactivating specific proliferation genes, a balanced nutrition for the settlers can be achieved. This would also address aspects of planetary protection, by preventing accidental spread of foreign species.

One aspect of space food that is criticized by astronauts is the unavailability of fresh food, including meat. Clearly, the availability of fresh meat will be an issue that cannot easily be addressed. One method to create artificial meat is the use of 3D printing with Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), which is currently under development. While first experiments of this technology are promising, the origin of the cells, the ethics, as well as potential secondary effects must be considered and need further development (Haagsman et al., 2009; Tuomisto & Mattos, 2010).

A very convenient way of producing meat is the cultivation of fish. Experiments from aboard Spacelab and the ISS (Masukawa et al., 2003) showed not only that fish can cope with microgravity, but also that it is possible to create a self-sustainable fish tank.

Another nutrient that will possibly be used for the Mars settlement will be algae, which was mentioned in the previous section, due to its substantial oxygen production capability.

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5.3.9. Provision of Pharmaceuticals

A Mars mission will require therapeutics to counteract effects of microgravity such as bone and muscle degeneration and adverse radiation effects during the Mars transit, as well as all medical conditions on Mars. Most currently available pharmaceuticals have a limited shelf life. This applies especially to the highly complex compounds used for cancer treatment. Due to the high radiation doses during Mars transit, as well as the high surface radiation including ultraviolet (UV), the likelihood of cancer occurrence as well as degradation of medication is increased. A major problem on Mars is the absence of any petrochemicals that are commonly used in the chemical and medical industry, making it impossible to produce medication the traditional way on-site.

One potential way of addressing this issue is the use of a "cell library" consisting of industrial over- expression cell cultures. These are genetically engineered cells that produce pharmaceutical active compounds during cultivation. When needed, these cells are inserted into a bio-reactor and grown to required cell density levels, containing the amount of the required therapeutic in a few days. Using currently available means of isolating tagged proteins or compounds, it would be possible to isolate the medication after that period. A closed and automatic system could provide these steps on its own (see Figure 5-10).

Figure 5-10: Closed Cell Library with In-line Fermenter and Isolation Columns

To guarantee prompt availability, the system could produce replacements as soon as the end of the shelf life of the stored components is imminent. Frequently used medication could be cloned into plants and grown on Mars to build up stock for the growing population of the settlement.

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5.3.10. Terraforming

In the long run, Mars can be transformed into a habitable planet by a process of global environmental engineering known as terraforming. To create an aerobic atmosphere, the surface temperature, atmosphere mass, and water availability would have to be increased. However to date, no technology is capable of achieving this feature. While all concepts see a runaway CO2 greenhouse effect for a subsequent step of terraforming, no realistic approach for the initial step exists; the temperature increase and release of water from Martian soil (Fogg, 1998).

The Martian environment is harsher than any found on Earth, with varying temperatures from -120°C to +20°C, high UV levels on the surface and lack of a dense atmosphere (NASA, 2007a). A potential method that could trigger initial changes in the Martian atmosphere would be the release of highly modified GMOs (enhanced UV, temperature, drought tolerant characteristics) into water ice in the Martian soil. Due to the extreme temperatures, metabolism would only be possible during the rare “warm” periods of Mars. These microorganisms would release water as well as oxygen in the process of their metabolism while proliferating. The autonomous growth of the organisms is the main reason for this approach, as an initially small volume can start a large culture. In principle, for all the single extremes of Mars, an equivalent answer in biotechnology can be found. However, the concept of a microorganism that can cope with this environment would require an understanding of life and its processes, which we do not yet have and would inevitably destroy Martian life forms should any be found. Nevertheless, using GMOs for terraforming seems like a more realistic approach than most current concepts, e.g. 125 km orbital mirror (Zubrin & McKay, 1993) which are hard to accomplish in terms of their dimensions and engineering requirements.

5.4. Conclusion

The simple concept of settling on Mars is an unsurpassed endeavor that will require all of humankind’s current knowledge. However, restricting this concept further with a one-way approach and trying to establish a fully self-sufficient community will require dedication and advancement of several technological disciplines to a next frontier. A highly interdisciplinary effort should focus specifically on the targeted mission architecture.

Summarizing the transportation technologies, the use of lightweight concepts and presently- available launcher technology can make it possible to lay the cornerstone of a future Mars settlement. However, once it is necessary to send humans on this trip, super heavy launchers will be needed, which are not yet fully developed by any space-faring nation. It is the Mars NOW team’s assessment that the emergence of commercial companies that provide access to heavy launchers and presently-available light launchers in vast numbers will be the enabling element for Earth to Mars transportation.

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In this respect, biotechnology is one of the most promising and important technological areas for maintaining the sustainability of a Martian settlement. This chapter addressed the key elements of food production, countermeasures to the Martian environment, and maintaining the health of the settlers, demonstrating that biotechnology can also help with several other areas in the context of a permanent settlement. While this report focuses on the under-developed aspects involved with one- way missions to Mars, technology is essential to support humans, especially for a long-duration exposure in extraterrestrial environments.

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6. HABITAT SITE SELECTION

6.1. Introduction

Site selection is vital to ensure that the environmental and other various factors are most favorable to the settlers once they land, occupy their initial habitats, and later create a long term form of habitation. Site selection incorporates two elements: landing site and habitat location. Scientists have proposed various locations for landing and sites suitable for habitats, but most of these past proposals have predominantly been for the purposes of scientific settlements or research bases.

This chapter approaches the matter of site selection with a long term goal of a sustainable human settlement, and focuses on identifying the most suitable regions considering landing and initial habitat creation. Site selection plays a key role in the sustainability of a human settlement; the site determines the point from which human settlements and later exploration can start and expand. It incorporates the best conditions that provide basic necessities for the survival of humans. Sites that provide such favorable conditions can reduce the time of a pre-sustainability phase, and minimize the margin of dependency on technology. A well-selected site can also improve the efficiency of work while contributing to the development through the use of in-situ resources. Furthermore, it can lower maintenance needs of the habitat, in turn eliminating some potential risks in safety.

6.1.1. Criteria for Site Selection

This report employs three levels of criteria for the site selection process in the order that it was implemented. It is further organized by level of impact on the sustainability of the settlement. This process starts from the overview of the whole planet, narrows down by region, and refines the locality.

Three levels of criteria are used in the habitat site selection (see Table 6-1). The top-level criteria are considered for the identification of a suitable area; the secondary criteria are utilized for the identification of specific regions of interest; and, the tertiary criteria are consulted to justify the suitability of possible sites for habitation and under the local context.

Table 6-1: Different Levels of Criteria for Site Selection Top-Level Criteria Secondary Criteria Tertiary Criteria Suitable atmospheric conditions Local magnetic field as initial Radiation protection based on such as temperature, pressure, protection from harmful type of habitats and sunlight radiation Presence of water Minerals for in-situ resource Impacts of asteroids, meteors, utilization and comets Elevation/topography Scientific importance Potential for future expansion

The method for choosing a landing and settlement site employed in this chapter involves an image- overlay technique that is further refined through various other information and data obtained from credible sources and resources.

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6.1.2. Atmospheric Conditions – Climate, Temperature, and Pressure

The temperatures on Mars vary by location; ground temperature at the equator ranges from -113⁰C to -93.5⁰C at night and from -13.5⁰C to +7⁰C during the day. Temperatures in areas close to the equator can reach a maximum of +20⁰C (NASA, 1998). At high latitudes in the fall, temperatures reach -123 ⁰C and remain relatively same throughout the winter. At the North Pole in the summer, the temperatures of the water-ice cap remain close to -73⁰C as water sublimes (Carr, 1996). In this scope, the most preferable conditions for human habitation exist in the tropical and equatorial region between 25⁰N and 25⁰S latitude, as shown in Figure 6-1. These regions also provide convenient access to and from orbit, and therefore are proposed by Mars NOW for habitat site selection.

A: Glacial (permanent ice cap); B: Polar (covered by frost during the winter which sublimates during the summer); C: North (mild) Transitional (Ca) and C South (extreme) Transitional (Cb); D: Tropical; E: Low albedo tropical; F: Sub-polar Lowland (Basins); G: Tropical Lowland (Chasmata); H: Subtropical Highland (Mountain) Figure 6-1: Mars Global Climate Zones (Hargitai, n.d.)

Total pressure at the surface of Mars is within the range of 7-10 millibars (Rapp, 2006a). Lower seasonal pressures are prevalent during winter in the south, due to the condensation of CO2 at the

South Pole, and high pressures occur during northern fall and winter when CO2 sublimes at the South Pole. The total water in the Martian atmosphere is only 1.3 km3 (James et al., 1998).

The humidity on Mars is high at night but is less saturated during the day. There are three basic regions with high atmospheric pressure: the northern lowlands, deep valleys of Vallis Marineris, and Hellas Planatia. Atmospheric density in Hellas Basin is 44% greater than the planetary average, as shown in Figure 6-2. In order to have the advantage of higher atmospheric pressure, regions with lower altitude are preferred for the settlement (James et al., 1998).

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Figure 6-2: Higher Pressure Areas on Mars (NASA, 1998)

The five most abundant gases in the Martian atmosphere are carbon dioxide (CO2 95.9%), argon (Ar

2.0%), nitrogen (N2 1.9%), oxygen (O2 0.14%), and carbon monoxide (CO 0.06%). There will be enough supply of CO2 for plants as part of the life support system to produce O2 (Lewis & Stephen, 2003). Also, methane is observed to be present in small amounts in regions where there is permafrost or water, and can be effectively utilized in the future if available in extractable quantities.

The sunlight is maximum at the tropical regions and northern hemisphere experiences longer summers (The Planetary Society, 2013). Though the Hellas Basin provides the most favorable conditions, it is preferable to propose the site with similar conditions to be located in the northern hemisphere close to the tropics.

6.1.3. Presence of Water

The availability of water is one of the basic requirements for any settlement on Mars. Liquid water is important for the survival of humans and plants, which would be an essential element of any closed- loop or open-loop life support systems. Water in the form of ice has been discovered in the polar regions, however no liquid water has been found on the surface of Mars. Maps of neutron distribution on Mars created via Odyssey and other missions imply that there is water under the Martian surface, and water ice is abundant in high latitudes (NASA, 2002). From these maps, it can also be noted that there is a possibility for underground water to exist near the equatorial area (see Figure 6-3). Studies conducted so far on the surface of Mars suggest that the planet is water-rich and may contain a global ocean of water, which can range between 0.5 – 1 km deep and can exist in the form of ground ice and ground water (Boyce, 2002).

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Figure 6-3: Water-Equivalent Hydrogen Abundance (NASA, 2001)

The Omega Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer has recorded the presence of water from hydrated minerals based on the crystalline structure and water related process based on mineralogical record (ESA, 2013c) (see Figure 6-4). These regions have been specially analyzed for the site selection process.

Figure 6-4: Distribution of Hydrated Minerals (ESA, 2013b)

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6.1.4. Topography

The topography is heterogeneous on Mars. Although the planet does not contain any mountain ranges, it contains individual mountains created due to impacts and small tectonic activates in the past. The highest point is the top of Olympus Mons (27 km) and lowest point is the Hellas Planitia impact basin at -9 km (see Figure 6-5). The southern hemisphere is comparatively higher than the northern hemisphere.

It is preferable to have a landing location at lower elevations (+1.3 km or below) since these locations have higher pressures, and are suitable for parachutes to deploy while landing (Golombek, 2003).

Figure 6-5: Topography of Mars (NASA/USGS, 2013)

6.1.5. Magnetic Field and Radiation Protection

Mars contains regional mini-magnetospheres, which are formed due to strong crustal magnetic fields (NASA, 2007b). These fields are found to be stronger in the regions of the southern hemisphere, and protect the planet from harmful charged particles, as shown in Figure 6-6 (Space, 2013). These regions will also provide additional protection to human settlers from ionized particles from the Sun, galactic cosmic rays, and extragalactic cosmic rays emanating from outside the Milky Way galaxy. Although these fields are inadequate to fully protect humans, they can complement the radiation protection techniques discussed in Chapter 7.

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Figure 6-6: Crustal Magnetism of Mars (NASA, 2005)

6.1.6. Minerals on Mars

The major minerals on Mars are basalt, andesite, and hematite as well as silica and complex silicates. It also contains traces of elements such as aluminum, magnesium, and calcium. Sulphates and carbonates are also present on Mars (Siller, 2004).

Content of iron has been analyzed for the selection of the site, since it has been considered one of the most desirable materials for structural and machinery purposes for future long term settlements (see Figure 6-7). Iron is also available in wide regions on the surface of Mars (Herndon, 2004).

Figure 6-7: Ferric Oxide Levels on Mars (ESA, 2013b)

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6.1.7. Dust Storms

Dust storms are prevalent on the surface of Mars for approximately half of the Martian year. The dust storm season begins during the northern hemisphere autumn equinox and ends at northern hemisphere spring equinox (The Mars Climate Database, 2001). It is observed that the availability of the iron content on Mars directly correlates to the presence of dust (see Figure 6-8). Although regions of dust provide easy access to resources, the probability of escalation of small particles in a dust storm is high and can negatively affect the habitats, leading to required frequent maintenance. Strong regional dust storms have been identified mostly in the southern hemisphere. For this reason, the Mars NOW proposed site has to be chosen within the northern hemisphere or close to the equator.

Figure 6-8: Dust Across the Surface of Mars (ESA, 2013a)

6.1.8. Scientific Research Opportunities

Although the focus of this report is sustainable human settlement, scientific research aims should also be taken into account. Since the initial stages of habitat development would necessarily involve several scientific studies, it is preferable to have interesting science sites close to the habitats. NASA has identified about 153 interesting sites for scientific purposes and has classified them by scientific disciplines such as geochemistry and geology, seismology, meteorology, and exobiology (see Figure 6-9 and Figure 6-10). The proximity of these sites has also been taken into consideration for Mars NOW habitat site selection.

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Figure 6-9: Eastern Sites of Mars for Scientific Exploration (NASA, 1995b)

Figure 6-10: Western Sites of Mars for Scientific Exploration (NASA, 1995b)

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6.2. Selection of Proposed Habitation Regions

6.2.1. Process

The method to determine a suitable habitation region employs an image-overlay technique. For identifying the suitable region for habitats, all information in the form of data and maps mentioned in the previous sections is overlapped using this technique; the result is shown in the following map in Figure 6-11. Possible sites for successful initial habitats on Mars are also indicated on the map; however it is inferred that only one location on Mars satisfies all the discussed conditions and falls under the preferred region between the 25⁰N and 25⁰S latitudes, which also supports the high pressure range. This region is highlighted close to the Valles Marineris valley.

Figure 6-11: Mars NOW Overlaid Map

Overplayed Map on Figure 6-11 combines previously shown maps containing temperature, pressure, water equivalent hydrogen abundance, hydrated minerals, topography, local magnetic field, mineral- Ferric oxide and dust maps. The most preferred region is marked encircled close to the Valles Marineris valley region.

The selected sites in Figure 6.12 are located within the Ophir Chasma region of the Valles Marineris valley (288°E, 4°S). It is a canyon, approximately 200 km long, which forms the northern-most part of the Valles Marineris system. As Figure 6.13 indicates, in certain parts close to the center of the chasma, the depth drops to 6 km relative to the surrounding high-walled cliffs.

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Figure 6-12: Mars NOW Selected Regions under the Ophir Chasma (Google, 2014)

Figure 6-13: Elevation of Ophir Chasma Region (ESA, 2004b)

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Figure 6-14: The Location 288°E 4°S Close to the Center of Ophir Chasma (ESA, 2004b)

Figure 6-15: Perspective View of Ophir Chasma - East to West (ESA, 2004a)

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6.2.2. Characteristics of Proposed Sites

The Mars NOW proposed sites are shown in Fig 6.16 and 6.17. They provide favorable conditions for both landing and habitat. The elevation in these regions ranges between 0 and -8 km. This region falls within the tropical zone and is close to the equator, thus having warmer temperatures. The sites contain higher pressures than the planetary average, and the range of available water-equivalent hydrogen abundance is approximately 6-12% and contains evidences of hydrated minerals. Therefore, the availability of water is high and loss of water from the surface can be minimal due to low elevation and rough topography. The crustal magnetism values are higher in magnitude in these regions which can at least partially protect the habitats from harmful radiation.

This region also contains comparatively less dust. There is a presence of sulphates, poly-hydrated surfaces, and mineral oxides. These minerals are observed in the regions called “mineral bowls” in Ophir Mensa. The proximity of useful in-situ resources is important for any settlement on Mars to be sustainable, as materials such as ceramics and bricks can be created by the initial settlers. This region also has silicates from which fiberglass can be manufactured; alternative materials which can made from these minerals are polyester and nylon, spun basalt, recycled aluminum, iron, and steel from iron carbonyl process (Mackenzie, 2010). The scientific sites 141 (Hebes Chasma- Exobilogy site), 54 (Candor-Rover/sample return site), 22 (Candor mensa-Rover/sample return) and 72 (Candor Chasma II-penetrator site) are close to the selected sites for exploration (NASA, 1995a).

Figure 6-16: Region of SITE 1 (285.74°E 3.84°S) (Mars Space flight faculty, 2010)

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Figure 6-17: Region of SITE 2 (289.26°E 3.39 S) (High resolution Imaging science Experiment n.d.)

The habitats should be created along the slopes of the valley (see Figure 6-17), similar to hillside settlements, where the habitable zone of the settlement can partially be underneath the regolith along the slope. This would help to protect the settlers by acting as a shelter against harmful radiation effects. This location can also protect the habitat partially from local dust storms in the future, when the settlements are formed partially inside the slopes of the valley. The site should not be over loose regolith and should be located where landslides are minimal. The landing site should be chosen within a range of 5-10 km so that humans can be transported to the habitat site even using a unpressurized rover. Though there are enough flat lands available in the valley for a landing, it can also happen above the valley; thus the site should not be too deep within the valley for ease of access. Future settlements will be able to expand along the slopes either vertically projecting out or horizontally aligning with the slopes.

6.3. Conclusion

The habitation site selection process employed in this chapter is based on an image-overlay technique. Although the analysis was intended to be performed with high precision, not all maps used in the study were comparatively accurate in terms of scale and data. Therefore, the results presented in this chapter should be interpreted with care, and it should be noted that the selected region was assigned an arbitrary boundary, which can cover a larger or smaller area in reality.

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It should also be noted that the proposed habitation region in this chapter is chosen as a result of the analysis in which certain particular maps are used, and each single map represents a specific characteristic. As explained in the beginning of the chapter, these maps were selected and sorted according to their effect on sustainability for a one-way mission on Mars. Any modification, the use of an additional map, or the choice to not use one of the current maps, can lead to different results. The NASA report on “Resource Utilization and Site Selection for a Self-Sufficient Martian Outpost” uses a similar technique, but considers only maps of subsurface ice, atmospheric pressure, thermal inertia, geothermal energy, and outflow channels for site identification. As a comparison, the site selection process in this report consists of an overlay of 10 maps and involves more than 10 conditions for identifying possible habitat sites. The resulting site in the region of Valles Marineris also correlates and exists in close proximity to the proposed site of Mars Homestead Project which considers developing a scientific settlement. This reinforces the credibility of Mars NOW’s selection process and the proposed location for the habitation sites.

Approaches other than the image-overlay technique can also be effectively implemented for the determination of optimal habitat locations, and other sites could also be identified by adopting different techniques.

It should be noted that the proposed locations in this study are specific to one-way Mars missions, where the selection is primarily focused on safety, survival conditions, and shelter for initial establishment of the habitat, and plans for it to transform into a sustainable long term settlement. Over a period, this site may expand and many more sites can be created. The preferred sites can also differ according to the development of technology as more precise information could be obtained in the future and be used to refine the Mars NOW findings.

The next chapter will examine the sustainability of habitation units according to their constructional and architectural parameters.

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7. HABITAT COMPARISON AND EVALUATION

7.1. Introduction

Once the habitation site is determined, the next step is the establishment of the habitat. From a one-way mission perspective, the robustness and reliability of the habitat is crucial, as the settlement will initiate and expand synchronously with the habitation modules.

The basic requirements for a human habitat can be described as follows:

 it must be an environment which supports basic human needs;  it must be safe (against radiation, Martian atmosphere, dust, and harsh temperatures); and  it must be large enough to offer necessary communal and personal space to the crew.

The initial habitat modules have to be sent and made operational before the crew’s arrival, to make sure that the habitat will be ready to host the crew immediately after landing. Once the initial settlers are set up in the temporary habitat, the process of building the larger and sustainable habitat can be initiated.

7.2. Initial Habitat

For the start-up phase of the mission, three different options exist for setting up the habitation modules. These are inflatable, hard-shell, and hybrid.

Table 7-1 compares the hard-shell and inflatable approaches based on a 2009 NASA study, shown in Figure 7-1.

Table 7-1: Available Options for Habitat by Characteristic (NASA, 2009) Hard-shell (Monolithic Habitat with 2 Inflatable habitat1 Drop-Locks with 1 Suit Lock) Mass ~ 12,975 kg < 12,975 kg Volume ~ 197.73 m³ ~ 197.73 m³ Power 10.3 kW Crew size 4 4 • Resistant against radiation and Martian • Lightweight design winds • Existing design available Advantages • Existing design available • Low transportation volume • Automatically-deployable • Reusable • Modular, more sophisticated design • Cannot survive a longer-duration • High mass Disadvantages mission • More difficult to transport • Need human interaction to deploy 1Data based on a comparison made with the NASA hard-shell habitat design, thanks to the characteristics of an inflatable habitat.

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Figure 7-1: Hard-Shell Habitat (left) and Hybrid Habitat (right) (NASA)

While the hard-shell option provides a good resistance against both radiation and dust, the two major environmental challenges on Mars, the inflatable module is more practical to transport.

An alternative option to these is the hybrid design, which employs both the modules brought from Earth and in-situ resources on Mars. This approach is previously proposed for a Moon settlement (Cesaretti, Dini, De Kestelier, Colla, & Pambaguian, 2014), but the Mars NOW team propose its use on Mars, since this approach counteracts most of the disadvantages of the other two methods. The base of the architecture can consist of a combination of hard-shell and inflatable modules. This combined unit should be brought to Mars in the preparation phase, before the arrival of the first crew. Once the crew arrives on the planet, they will deploy the large inflatable unit of the habitat. As an alternative, the full deployment of the habitat can be performed by robots sent ahead of the crew. The third step will involve a rover carrying a 3D printer to collect Martian regolith and print it to cover the inflatable part of the habitat. The construction steps to this habitat are shown in Figure 7-2. The walls must be thick enough to provide radiation protection; possibly one to two meters wide. A sample structural design of the walls is shown in Figure 7-3.

Figure 7-2: Steps to the Construction of the Hybrid Habitat (Cesaretti et al., 2014)

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Figure 7-3: Structure of the Habitat Walls (Cesaretti et al., 2014)

The hybrid habitat model has several advantages:

 it has a lifetime of ten years;  it protects the crew and the equipment from radiation;  it provides good thermal insulation; and  it protects the habitat against vibrations.

However, the hybrid method is more costly than the aforementioned hard-shell and inflatable methods, and high-level technology will be necessary to construct the structure. This technology will require transportation of additional equipment to Mars, such as 3D printers, regolith collectors, etc. (Cesaretti et al., 2014). However, the total mass of a hybrid structure will be less than that of a hard- shell habitat brought and assembled on Mars. Therefore, this alternative proves best for addressing the variety of human requirements in Martian conditions, and to last through the preparation process of the long term habitat.

7.3. Long Term Habitat

On a long term basis, bringing all necessary structural materials for the construction of the habitat from Earth would take too much time and effort, and will increase the cost of the mission significantly. While it had been proposed in the previous section to print the initial habitat using Martian regolith around an inflatable module, this hybrid approach would not be sustainable enough for a long term settlement. In the long run, using the in-situ resources more extensively will be required for a more durable structure, and different construction techniques and technologies must be implemented and practiced that use the Martian regolith as their primary element. Furthermore, long term habitation units can, in fact should, be constructed as part of the planet itself by digging out Martian soil or using already existing natural cavities such as lava tubes.

Four different solutions for long term habitation are investigated and compared in Table 7-2: Tunnel outpost, terrace village, crater city, and tubular town (Kozicka, 2008). Those solutions are illustrated on Figure 7-4.

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Table 7-2: Alternatives for Long Term Habitat (Kozicka, 2008) Structures Tunnel Outpost Terrace Village Crater City Tubular Town Description Dug on a slope of a Dug on the slope of Entire crater “Inflatable tubular mountain; windows a mountain; high protected by a modules partly made of an resistant multilayer transparent roof hidden under the inflatable material, membrane; ladders ground” (Kozicka, allowing sunlight to that allow 2008) enter the habitat movement between stages Feasibility Low feasibility Moderate feasibility Low feasibility Moderate feasibility Cost Moderate cost Moderate cost High cost Moderate cost Power High power needed Low power needed Low power needed High power needed Advantages No extra periscope- Provide natural light Concentrated Possibility of like windows to the habitat; can volume; wind- transparent needed; protection be even safer by shielded modules (used for against radiation; having individual agriculture) good isolation; no roof for each stage need of high quantity of material Disadvantages Not wind-shielded Need of a large roof Possible only for Need of extra or deeper small craters (need periscope-like construction of a large roof) windows; need of high radiation protection for the non-buried part

(a) Tunnel Post (b) Terrace

(c) Crater (d) Tubular town Figure 7-4: Proposed Structures (Kozicka, 2008)

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Both tunnel outpost and tubular town would imply bringing modules from the Earth. Crater city would constraint the site selection procedure, and will be a complex, risky and expensive solution. The second option, terrace village, seems to be the best alternative, considering the technical feasibility and architecture. Using the second option would reduce the cost and launch mass, since it will only necessitate carrying lightweight materials instead of massive components.

One other concern regarding the design of the habitat will be the maintenance of the atmosphere inside the habitat. This will not pose a problem for the initial temporary units, as the hard-shell and inflatable structures are strong enough to resist the high forces due to the pressurized environment. However, the permanent habitat will possibly be dug out of the Martian soil, so the walls will have to be thick enough to resist the pressure difference. Again, the terrace option is a strong habitat, able to withstand this engineering challenge.

Another option similar to the crater solution is to create a dome made of a plastic such as Kevlar, which has a good resistance/mass ratio. It would thus reduce the cost of the mission. Moreover, this structure could have some further advantages: having a transparent dome allows light inside the habitat. Since the average temperature on the surface of Mars is lower than that on Earth, this method could be used to heat the inside of the habitat. However, this structure, compared to the other options, will be more expensive despite saving power (Zubrin & Wagner, 1997), and also will require continuous maintenance against failures.

Another option, that was not presented above, is the use of lava tubes. This option consists of developing a habitat inside tubes created by lava flow. Since these tubes are located underground, the regolith can protect the crew against radiation. However, this option has several drawbacks: first, windows and illumination by natural light is impossible underground, which may have long term psychological effects, as discussed below. Also, this design is high-risk, as lava tubes are naturally unstable. Building a habitat inside the lava tubes requires preparation and reinforcing the walls, a task that may require bringing equipment and materials from Earth, thereby increasing the cost of the mission.

7.4. Psychological and Physiological Assessment

When designing scientific habitats, technical characteristics are often the first aspects to be considered. However, this report aims to concentrate on long-duration sustainable human habitation on Mars. Therefore, the proposed approaches for both the initial and long term habitats should be analyzed according to different psychological and physiological requirements, in order to ensure the safety and well-being of the crew.

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7.4.1. Psychological Effects

The duration of a Martian day (24.5 hours) is not drastically different from the duration of a day on Earth, so the human settlement will be able to hold the natural circadian rhythm, the organization of the day based on daylight and night, without a need for a major change. Even though the amount of sunlight is not similar to that received on Earth, the day/night changes can still offer some support to the settlers if they choose to hold their normal sleep and awake cycles.

It has been found that for windowless offices people report less job satisfaction and have less interest in their jobs, and they tend to be more negative about their working conditions (Finnegan & Solomon, 1981). In Antarctic missions, windows in the habitat and working environment were found to be a great stress reliever. It is also stated by Richard Haines, originator of the Window Dimensions, that windows serve so many important psychological needs that they should be incorporated in outer space habitats (McKay et al., 1991).

For example, it has been shown that plants have a positive effect on astronauts, as assessed in the ISS (see Figure 7-5). Overall, having various plants as a reminder of the Earth’s environment can influence the settlers in a positive way.

Figure 7-5: Sergei Zalyotin Examining Plants in the Lada Growth Chamber (NASA)

Another psychological aspect of the habitat that can have a negative effect on the crew is confinement and isolation. Indeed, as experienced on the ISS, a closed environment can lead to conflicts between the crewmembers and affect the well-being of the entire crew. Living space will be shared, and the lack of privacy is likely to lead to conflicts. Furthermore, even if the crew undergoes a selection process which includes psychological elements, living in a remote and isolated area will have some level of consequences.

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Similarly, the astronauts aboard the ISS are exposed to a constant level of noise due to the continuous operation of several mechanical systems, and this is reported to be an important phenomenon that affects the crew’s wellbeing. The early crews on Mars will possibly suffer from a similar issue, as their living environment will also be compact and full of noisy equipment that will be running continuously. Design of the long term habitats should address this problem, for example by placing the support equipment away from the living units.

The lack of regular and immediate communication with Earth can also affect the crew’s psychological state. In a one-way mission, the crew will be away from their family and friends for an indefinite period of time, in a hostile, confined environment. Communication means in the habitat should be established and keep running so as to not allow lack of communication between the crew, as well as between Mars and Earth. The habitat needs to be as user-friendly and comfortable as possible in order to help the crew cope with these issues. If it is not well designed, the habitat can have severe negative effects on the crew, who will undoubtedly be under stress due to the pressures and demands of the mission.

The sustainability of the long term habitation units will be directly related to the design and capability to meet the psychological demands of the settlers, including ergonomics, personal space, and communication; this will be most effective if undertaken by an interdisciplinary team of technical and architectural experts.

7.4.2. Physiological Effects: Radiation

Among several physiological effects associated with living on Mars, radiation is one of the least understood and possibly the most dangerous. Since humans began exploring space, exposure to ionizing radiation has been an obstacle as it can pose a significant biological risk.

The two main types of ionizing radiation which pose a threat are:

 solar particle events (SPE); and  galactic cosmic radiation (GCR).

On Earth, humans have less concern over this radiation because they are shielded by the planet’s atmosphere and magnetic field. However, there are industries, in which the workers are exposed to similar types of radiation to a certain extent, therefore the radiation exposure limits for humans are well-known. According to studies of NASA and other space agencies, annual and career exposure limits for radiation is 50 centi-Sievert (cSv) and 100 centi-Sievert, respectively (Rapp, 2006b).

Data on the exact nature of exposure to GCR and SPEs on humans has been limited. However, due to human space exploration taking place within the shielding of low-Earth orbit, exposure to similar radiation has given insight into the biological dangers. These are mainly a weakened immune response, cataract development, and increase of cancer (McPhee, 2009).

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Unlike Earth, Mars does not have a global magnetic field and its atmosphere is considerably less dense than that of Earth (ISU, 1991). Due to this, it is expected that exposure to radiation will be significantly higher than on Earth. The recent measurements gathered by the Mars Curiosity rover confirms that exposure to radiation for a period of 500 days will result in an equivalent dose amounted to 300 mSv. While the dose will fluctuate throughout the year, especially due to solar activity, the dose is assumed to average out to this amount (Hassler, 2014). Should this be the case, the career exposure limits will be exceeded in six years as measured on Earth, or roughly three years as measured on the Martian surface. It is obvious that this problem should be addressed before any human settlement is initiated on Mars, and most probably the solution method would be radiation shielding in habitat design.

Following the recommendations of the habitat site selection (see Section 6), the location of the settlement should be at a low elevation, within a local magnetic field. Studies have shown that the Martian atmosphere could have a shielding effectiveness of approximately 30% and the lower elevation location would maximize this effectiveness (Rapp, 2006b). The presence of the local magnetic field will also contribute to natural radiation shielding.

The following section explains the habitat shielding strategy which can be used to counteract the physiological effect of radiation for a long term human settlement on Mars. It is the belief of the Mars NOW team that a variety of shielding practices should be in place to ensure a sustainable, reliable, and redundant radiation protection system.

7.4.3. Choice of Primary Construction Material

Traditionally, the majority of spacecraft structures have been composed of aluminum, however many studies suggest that this may not provide much in the way of radiation protection (Rapp, 2006b). As can be seen from the graph in Figure 7-6, there are a variety of materials which have been considered as shielding material for human habitats. The graph shows the shielding effectiveness with respect to both material thickness and composition.

Figure 7-6: Material Density vs Radiation Dose Equivalent (Rapp, 2006b)

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It is important to note that, it may not be possible to use the most effective shielding material just considering the previous figure. Some materials can be more difficult to machine or manufacture, or be heavy which will increase the launch costs. Using water, for example, would be highly luxurious considering its scarcity on Mars.

One interesting factor about shielding is that, it is not the thickness of material which provides the most effective shielding, but rather the presence of hydrogen inside the material. High hydrogen density materials have been seen to provide more radiation shielding. Additionally, they are often more lightweight, therefore allowing for easier transport between the Earth and Mars. As can be seen in Figure 7-7, polyethylene provides better radiation protection for both SPEs and GCR.

Figure 7-7: Material Density vs Dose Equivalent for SPE and GCR (Rapp, 2006b)

There would be many advantages if polyethylene, or a similar plastic, is used to build the habitats. There is ample experience in machining this material and the lightweight property of this material, compared to aluminum, would make launch and transportation from Earth to Mars less massive and thus more inexpensive.

In this scope, the Mars NOW team proposes utilization of lightweight, high yield stress plastic materials such as high-density polyethylene, for the construction of the Martian habitats.

As the settlement continues to develop and expand, moving toward a self-sustainable society, there will be a growing desire to construct structures on Mars, using in-situ materials. However, due to a lack of biological and geological activity on Mars, the presence of organic compounds is thought to be non-existent. For this reason, later structures will have to be made of different materials than polyethylene. For example, magnesium oxide, which is a component used in making cement, has been confirmed in several samples of Martian regolith and could be used for construction when the settlement has reached to the required stage of technological ability (ISU, 2009).

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Passive Radiation Shielding The use of materials to block incoming radiation is known as passive radiation shielding. It has often been suggested to use the existing regolith to provide radiation protection for Martian habitats. While the shielding properties of regolith have not been fully tested or examined, covering a habitat with this material could provide structural stability, reduce exposure to dust storms, and perhaps provide radiation protection. Several methods of collecting and depositing the regolith exist, but the most fitting method would be the one which is the least technologically dependent. The simplest solution would involve minimizing the surface area of the settlement which would be exposed to the environment. As discussed previously, locating the habitats into the side of a cliff face may be a good solution.

More innovative and exotic approaches exist and as technology develops, these approaches could be more viable options. One such example is the use of glues or liquid plastics incorporated into the regolith deposit process. These materials could be formed from the regolith and deposited onto the habitats providing additional structure and shielding.

There would be many applications of utilizing such materials and technology. High-strength ceramic material could be created to form hard-shell structures. Viscous and semi-solid polymers and plastics could be used to provide a “self-healing” quality to the structures, sealing gaps as they are discovered.

Building upon psychological considerations of habitats in an earlier section of this chapter, the installation of windows would be important for long term settlements. Covering the settlement with regolith would obviously preclude this option, but as technology develops, glass and plastics could be created which could be used on the surface of the habitat for both radiation protection and psychological support of the settlers.

Active Radiation Shielding Active radiation shielding is a concept which has long been proposed but only recently under development which involves the creation of electromagnetic fields to deflect or trap incoming radiation. The process works to duplicate the shielding properties as witnessed through Earth’s geomagnetic field, however on a much smaller scale.

Such a system would create a local, controllable magnetic field which could work to deflect incoming radiation. This method has not been fully developed or tested, and unfortunately technological development in this area is quite low. Additionally, such a system would be difficult to operate and maintain, at least during the initial stages of settling Mars. Nevertheless, as the settlement continues to develop and expand, active radiation shielding could provide flexibility in habitat construction and transportation/movement on Mars.

The configuration of the active radiation shield depends on the structure to be protected. Current work is being done to protect a cylindrical habitat in deep space via six coils creating identical and complementary magnetic fields.

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Figure 7-8: Active Radiation Shielding Configuration for Spacecraft Habitat (Westover et al., 2012)

Considering the fact that the habitats may not require protection from all directions depending on the selected site location, a single coil above the habitat may be sufficient for protection. In the case of the settlement’s placement at the base of a canyon, additional coils would be placed at the peak in order to maximize shield effectiveness.

Simulations and tests have demonstrated that active radiation shielding may provide sufficient radiation protection; however the mass, power, and technological development required for this system is well beyond what is currently capable on the Red Planet. As human space exploration is developed, this system will likely be tested for deep space exploration and could be developed for settling Mars. While the technology requires much development, such a system could allow high level of flexibility of habitat design in the future Martian settlement and could shield larger areas more efficiently.

In summary, the human settlement should be located into the hillside, possibly in the base of a canyon. The early structures of the settlement should be constructed from, or coated with, a strong, hydrogen-dense material such as high-density polyethylene, with later structures being constructed using in-situ regolith. This regolith could possibly be used to develop ceramics, and other construction materials. Finally, further developments in active radiation shielding and construction technologies could yield more effective shielding configurations. All of these strategies will work to reduce the radiation levels to acceptable amounts but a combination of approaches will yield a redundant and reliable system.

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7.4.4. Physiological Effects: Reduced Gravity

The second major physiological effect is reduced gravity. Indeed, the varied gravitational environments represent one of the most drastic challenges the crew will have to face while traveling from Earth to Mars and upon arrival on Mars. The Earth to Mars travel phase is much more challenging, as with present-day technology, the crew is expected to be exposed to microgravity conditions for a period of around six months. Microgravity has been proven to have various physiological consequences: bone and muscle loss, fluid shifts, and sensory-motors issues (Clément, 2011). Therefore, artificial gravity and countermeasures are a major requirement for the crew’s well- being during the spaceflight phase.

Since the crew may not be fit enough to be transported to the pre-constructed habitats as soon as they land on the planet, the transfer vehicle should also serve as a short term habitat module. Currently, after the return to Earth from the ISS, the astronauts needs much assistance and extended rehabilitation, even with the countermeasures employed in microgravity. The crew of a one-way mission to Mars will have similar problems in adapting to gravity conditions after their six month spaceflight.

Rotating the transfer vehicle or part of the vehicle is a feasible method to produce some measure of artificial gravity. However, the Coriolis force induced by rotating the vehicle can be irritating for some of the crew, especially if the radius of the vehicle is not large enough and the living compartments are not designed ergonomically (Clément & Bukley, 2007). Therefore, a rotating transfer vehicle must be large enough to counteract these side effects.

Creating artificial gravity on the transfer vehicle would require too much power and mass, therefore, other countermeasures to microgravity can be employed, such as extended exercise regimens, dedicated nutrition and vitamins, and specialized equipment (see Figure 7-9). These methods have already been proven to be at least partially effective aboard long term spaceflights on the ISS and further advancement in this area will be important to counteract some or all effects of microgravity on the human body.

Once the crew arrives on Mars, the negative effects of reduced gravity switch to a different phase. On Mars, the gravity level is 0.38g: higher than the travel phase, but lower than the gravity on Earth. This gravity level would be enough for the humans to move around as they are accustomed to on Earth, however the long term effects of reduced gravity should be further studied. Figure 7-9: Dr. Robert Thirsk Using A Specialized Treadmill Aboard ISS (NASA)

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7.5. Conclusion

As discussed in the previous sections, the Mars NOW team proposes the initial habitat for Mars settlement to be a hybrid, a combination of a hard-shell and inflatable structure, which will protect the settlers against radiation and mechanical impacts due to its 3D printed regolith cover. The permanent subsurface habitat can be constructed on a cliff face, which can provide natural protection for the settlers, or alternately based on the terrace model, which can provide the settlement with natural heat and light, thereby decreasing the power requirements.

The aim of Mars NOW team is not to propose unique solutions for initial and long term habitation on Mars, but rather to show that various interconnected technical, architectural, psychological, and physiological considerations exist and must be addressed in order to come up with a sustainable solution for the design of Martian habitation units. Furthermore, Martian environmental constraints also influence the characteristics and designs of the habitat and must be taken into consideration. These various requirements make up an interconnected framework that is complex and must be addressed methodically for mission success.

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8. GOVERNANCE

8.1. Introduction

Most people are appalled at the idea of settling permanently on Mars. When we cannot create a peaceful, egalitarian society on Earth, when thousands die every day from a lack of food and water, is not going to Mars an outrageous plan? Should not we first solve the problems on Earth before heading out to other worlds? Is not the money better spent on humanitarian efforts rather than “pointless fantasy”?

Humans have lived in societies for thousands of years, but it is only recently that the size of governed groups has massively increased. Governance systems have changed very little for hundreds of years and have not taken into account the changing nature of society and technology. Rather, they have simply grown in size to cater to a larger population. A part of the social problems in contemporary societies can be linked to ineffective governance. Even if our technology were state-of-the-art, if our governance systems do not represent and respond to societal needs, then human civilization is destined to fail.

Solving current problems requires that governance systems adapt to change, and effectively deliver goods and services to satisfy the ever-evolving basic needs of citizens. Our existing governance models are not prone to adaptation or experimentation due to the inertia created by their inured character as well as a lack of impetus or inspiration to develop new models. And here is where a young Mars settlement can prove to be invaluable.

In order to maintain a settlement on Mars, technology alone is not sufficient. Due to the physical differences between Mars and Earth, a permanent Martian settlement will force us to develop innovative systems of governance which specifically focuses on the necessities of the Martian settlers. Although such systems will be tailored to life on Mars and the Martian environment, in the longer run, they could also be adapted to Earth as social spin-offs or at least inspire societies on Earth.

The Martian environment is harsh and unforgiving, and represents a constant threat to life. Then why do thousands of people seem to want to risk body and mind to settle on Mars (MarsOne, 2013)? Unfettered by the baggage and history of Earth - the violence, hatred, prejudices, wars, and troubles - Mars is seen by most people as a fresh start, both personally, and for our civilization.

As described in the previous chapters, while initially dependent upon Earth for resupply, in the later stages of the settlement, full self-sustainability is expected. Due to the prospective isolation between Mars and Earth communities, it is very likely that Martian settlers will be required and be willing to govern themselves with increasing degrees of independence from Earth as they progress. The future of humanity on Mars will largely depend upon this independent organization and governance; indeed, this is required if the main goal of the settlement is to be reached, namely to promote survival of human civilization.

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In its broadest sense, governance refers to the processes that make an organization function. It is the complete description of all the rules inherent in a government, which make the provision of factors essential for society possible (Government of New Zealand, 2011; UN, 2014). Such a description however would be out of scope for this report. The Mars NOW team will focus its attention on a few selected topics of governance that we feel will be most beneficial to the reader. Our goal is not to provide a complete solution but to shine the spotlight on governance systems on Mars. We believe that any serious attempt at establishing a Martian settlement will be greatly enhanced if enough attention is given to understanding the processes and tools of governance required for the irreproachable functioning of a Martian settlement.

8.2. Framework

Any discussion of Mars governance at present is necessarily a discussion of future governance. In this respect, the Mars NOW team has decided to guide its thinking within the interdisciplinary framework of Futures Studies proposed by Professor James Dator from the University of Hawaii. In a seminal paper, Dator describes his four images of the futures: (Dator & Bezold, 1981)

 Continued Growth: mostly an extrapolation of existing trends in economic and social development; “growth oriented, opportunity filled, technologically progressive, upwardly mobile, (…) science guided, rich, leisure-filled, abundant, and liberal society” (p.127 Bezold, 2009);  Societal Collapse: a society where major negative events, such as climate change, overpopulation, prolonged war, volcanic eruptions, asteroid impacts, deadly pandemics, but also political and administrative ineptitude, have widespread consequences on the structure and function of global society. These consequences would set the development of a global civilization back by hundreds of years.  A Conserver Society: in this view, growth is perceived as negative due to the intrinsically limited nature of Earth’s resources. Continued growth is a sure path to societal collapse and therefore, managed shrinkage and zero growth should be pursued.  A Transformational Society: a major technological or geopolitical change brings about a new arrangement of societal values, which drive further development.

A human Mars settlement could be envisaged under any of the four futures types or their combinations, albeit some scenarios appear more likely than others. In an effort to keep our discussion relevant, we have chosen to focus on a future’s scenario of “continued growth” in this chapter. This is because “societal collapse” and “conserver society” describe resource-poor futures, in which any major technological development seems less likely. In the continued growth scenario, humanity has found solutions to the big issues currently facing us, such as climate change and our dependence on fossil fuels. The methods used for overcoming these obstacles might include elements of a transformational nature, such as the exploitation of space resources and renewable forms of energy. In order for this future to materialize, great financial and political investment is required on a global scale. Elites must guide scientific and technological development to the point where achieving our goals for Martian settlement become the next logical step in a series of evolutionary steps.

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8.3. Assumptions and Drivers for a Martian Settlement

The development of governance for a Martian settlement requires making certain additional assumptions beyond those mentioned in Chapter 1. Presented below are assumptions relevant to establishing a relatively realistic approach to settling the Red Planet:

 The prime driver for settling Mars is survival and evolution of the species, achieved through the establishment of a self-sustainable human presence on Mars. Self-sustainable here means that humans on Mars will be able to manufacture all the necessary ingredients for civilization, including other humans. This is done in order to preserve civilization from Earth- wide calamities, and to initiate the multi-planetary development phase. A secondary motivation might be a direct economic benefit (from Martian services: television programs, scientific services etc.) since trade from Mars to Earth will not be relevant for quite some time.  Considering the phases defined for the mission in the Introduction, no Mars-based governance structure is proposed during the “Start-Up” phase. Governance will initiate in the “Pre-Sustainable Phase”, where spaceship-style, more authoritarian governance structure is envisaged. A gradual transition will occur towards a freer form for the “Self- Sustainable Phase”.  The settlement and the project will be international, but more cohesive in character than the ISS: crew selection will be more uniform, and generally improved legal framework and liability regime will be required. During the self-sustainability phase, more diversity in culture will be encouraged.  We assume the mission will be government-funded and operated, with a possibility for private participation in the services sphere (public private partnerships).

8.4. Impact of International Cooperation

Owing to the very large costs of one-way Mars missions as well as the significance of this initiative for the humankind, the Mars NOW team assumes that any Mars settlement effort is going to be an international endeavor.

For several decades, the space sector has been an area of successful international cooperation, as evidenced by the Apollo-Soyuz project and more recently the International Space Station (ISS). The multinational ISS program has attracted praise, among other things, as “the most complex cooperative scientific and engineering project in history” (Porter, 2014). The governance structure of the ISS is organized through a series of inter-governmental agreements which give disproportionate control to NASA, the program initiator (Fukushima, 2008), and while successful in its purpose, it is a known fact that the program suffers from issues, such as conflict resolution. If these issues remain unsolved they could be critical for a Mars settlement. Therefore, while the culture of cooperation developed for the ISS program could be a base model to a Martian settlement effort, a conceptual shift will be necessary.

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The presence of an international “founding entity”, particularly during the initial phases of the mission, will be critical for achieving the long term goal of self-sustainability of a Martian settlement. This entity must ideally transcend national divides and embrace a culture of transnationalism, equality, and cooperation. Within such an entity, a unique cultural identity could emerge which is more than the pure sum of its various national components.

As already described in chapter 3, the Mars NOW team proposes the creation of an “Outer Space Administration” as the founding entity, which will be particularly active during the early phases of the mission. This body will provide legal, executive, and conflict resolution elements of governance, as well as oversee any potential commercial activities. Such an entity would effectively contain characteristics of both inter-governmental organizations and of international advocacy networks (Keck & Sikkink, 1999). The element of international advocacy is proposed because of the publicly-funded and long term nature of a project such as Martian settlement. This element would provide flexibility and leverage the multitude of space advocates in already established global networks, such as the International Space University network.

An initial Mars settlement, established and backed by such an entity, would have the necessary cultural elements to evolve and become a true offshoot of global human civilization. As the settlement approaches the self-sustainability phase, the influence of the founding Outer Space Administration will begin to diminish. The development of a distinct Martian culture, dependent on the Mars environment, will be the major driver in the emergence of a truly Martian form of governance.

8.5. Spectrum of Governance Systems

As mentioned earlier, successful governance is what would make a Mars settlement appealing. The success of the form will rely on its compatibility with the environment, and it being adaptable, quick, efficient, and responsive to the settlement’s needs.

The spectrum of traditional governance systems can be conceptualized as a continuum between two extremes of decision-making process at the level of individuals.

One extreme is represented by a complete lack of outside influence on a person’s life choices. This type was the natural state during humanity’s evolutionary history, when communities were small and their members could make decisions for themselves and solve issues via direct face-to-face communication. An example of a modern incarnation of this approach is direct democracy.

The other extreme is a system in which there is a complete lack of individual autonomy and the majority of important decisions concerning an individual are made by an external power, outside of the individual’s control. Such systems have been envisaged by science fiction authors and unfortunately regimes rooted in this approach exist today in some so-called “rogue states”.

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Between these two extremes, there is a continuum of systems where power is allocated in various degrees to the individual or to an outside agent, and different governance systems can thus be described as allowing for more or less personal freedom.

Different styles would be appropriate at different stages of a Martian settlement’s development. It is easy to imagine how in the Pre-Settlement phase, the settlement will lean towards less free (“authoritarian”) forms of government, in which most power will be in the hands of a leader appointed by the mission sponsors. As the number of settlers increases, a shift will occur towards “freer” styles of governance (“democratic”), in which individual self-determination will play an increasingly important role (see Figure 8-1). However, given the constraints of the Martian environment, it is difficult to imagine societies like those of Earth, at least not in the near future.

Figure 8-1: Styles of Governance Over Time

It is important to note that the spectrum described in the above paragraphs is based on traditional Earth governance systems. But Mars is different and there is no reason to believe Earth-like systems should be imposed on Mars. Everything will be built from scratch, then why not governance systems? Our thoughts are Earth-bound while our aspirations are not.

8.6. Policies

Historically, power struggles, either between people and governments, or within governments, have been an inevitable problem for every administration. Although polyphony is a fundamental element of participatory governance structures, the rules which define the power distribution among the community should be set carefully in advance. This section aims to address some of the important policies, which should be taken into consideration for establishing a trouble-free governance structure on Mars.

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8.6.1. Resource Management

On Mars, resources are scarce and harder to come by. Things we take for granted on Earth, such as air, water, food, electricity, and personal space is not available naturally, nor could be produced by the settlers individually. Rather, production facilities for these precious commodities should be established, and produce them for common use of the community. Resource allocation will therefore play a key role in Martian politics, and whatever mechanism controls resource allocation, will necessarily also wield political power in the community. Untimely and insufficient supply of resources will have drastic and immediate effects, particularly during the pre-sustainable phase of the settlement. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to design effective policies and systems for generation and distribution of vital commodities.

Moreover, on Earth, if the government is negligent in providing basic amenities, there are various other ways that the community can access these resources. However, this will be simply impossible on Mars until the settlement is self-sustainable. Therefore, the importance of a good governance system cannot be stressed enough; it could make or break the concept of this off-Earth settlement.

How should resources be distributed? A mathematical analysis of reasons for societal collapse has found that to avoid collapse,

 resources should be distributed in an equitable fashion; and  per capita rate of depletion of resources must be reduced to sustainable levels (to allow for generation or regeneration) (Motesharrei, Rivas, & Kalnay, 2014)

The Mars NOW team has framed its suggestions on the basis of the abovementioned objectives.

For the earlier phases of a Mars settlement, where the community will be dependent on resupply missions for their survival, the ISS can serve as a good analog, since it receives supplies from Earth at regular intervals. The resources on ISS, which is a partnership project of the United States, Russia, Japan, Europe, and Canada, are provided in various amounts by its contributing nations. Aboard the station, there exist four modules belonging to United States, Russia, Europe, and Japan, which are docked and interconnected. However, different modules have their own systems, and each nation operates its own transportation vehicle for cargo delivery to the Station. Table 8-1 gives a brief overview of distribution of resource supplies aboard ISS.

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Table 8-1: Resource Supply on ISS Resource Characteristics aboard ISS Air Oxygen generators exist in different modules of the various nations Food Refrigerated and canned goods sent from Earth by different countries Water Water is recycled now. Earlier, water supply for the American and Russian segments was different (Space Safety Magazine, 2011) Habitation Each module is governed under the laws of the nation that owns it (shelter) Communication Each country uses its own protocols and frequencies (different communication systems). Transportation Transportation between Earth and ISS was supplied by different spacecraft (Shuttle and Soyuz) belonging to different nations until recently. At the moment, the Russian Soyuz spacecraft is the only means of crew transportation, whereas cargo delivery is performed by different ships like Progress (Russia), Dragon (US), Cygnus (US), ATV (Europe) and HTV (Japan).

The astronauts aboard ISS are a part of an international project, thus they act as emissaries of humankind. On the other hand, despite being in space, the ISS crews are still integrally connected to their nations, nationalities and thus, bound by their corresponding laws.

It is our team’s observation that, the practices in a Mars settlement should be different than the current practices at ISS in certain aspects:

 The prime objective of ISS program is to perform scientific experiments and maintain human presence in space. On Mars, however, survival of humankind will be the foremost goal. The prime objective of the program will be permanent settlement of humankind off-Earth.  On ISS, resources are separated among individuals and nations wherever possible. On Mars, separation of resources would not only be impractical, but also might create conflicts among the settlers.  On ISS, the functioning of the crew is heavily scheduled by the mission planners on the ground. The astronauts are not assigned a decision-making function; rather, they mostly follow instructions from ground control. On the other hand, even in its initial stages, the Mars settlement will have to take its own decisions and not wait for instructions from Earth. Thus, it is advisable to have a governance structure and clear policies to avoid conflict.

On Earth, when there is demand, the production must increase. Since production rates are usually fixed or have minimum leeway, this puts a huge strain when there is a sudden increase in demand and the system cannot cope with it. However on Mars, shortage of several resources can be fatal, therefore it should be essential that even peak demands will always be met by the supply. This will force the community to have an “inventory-based” resource management system, which is “economically infeasible” for traditional supply-chain practices. Moreover, to avoid any problems due to environmental limitations, resources that will be needed on Mars should be determined and transported before the settlers’ arrival on the planet. In summary, the resource management system should be fundamentally different from the applied methods on Earth, and therefore should be newly created and developed.

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It is our team’s reasoning that the production and distribution of the following fundamental resources on Mars is critical, and the planning and orchestration of these operations should be a major function of the Mars government:

Air and Water Production and Distribution: Besides resupply from Earth, air and water can both be produced on Mars by in-situ methods. Nevertheless, they would not be unlimited resources and policies need to be in place to ensure equitable nominal supply and emergency supply. Since the size of the settlement will be small to begin with, people will be living within a small radius. However, once habitation is dispersed to a larger region, the common generation and distribution system for both entities can be established.

Food Production: Food supplies from Earth will be significant during the early phase, but on-site production can be available in longer-run with technological advancements. Similar to air and water, there will be a need for the effective production and distribution of food. Each settlement member would have undergone extensive medical testing on Earth and detailed medical information on each individual would be available. As every person’s nutrition needs and metabolic rates are different, such information, along with types of tasks scheduled, could be used to calculate food allocation. This not only reduces wastage but ensures optimum work efficiency.

Power Production and Distribution: All technological systems require power to operate which will be the cornerstone of the Mars settlement. The critical life support systems need a steady supply of energy and any interruptions would be fatal to crew members. Assuming automated power regulation, every electrical system will receive the required amount of power. Prior to any increase of equipment and/or people, the availability of adequate energy production has to be certified.

Construction and Maintenance of Habitats: Habitation units with necessary life-support functions are another critical element of the Martian community. A key variation from Earth would be the fact that habitat space would always be greater than or equal to the number of people. People would be sent to Mars only after habitats are constructed. This ensures adequate living space for all the settlers. Assuming an international mission, the habitat space cannot be the property of any Earth nation and all the settlers would have equal freedom of access. All the habitats would be under the same authority and the same rules and guidelines applicable to all of them.

Communication and Surface Transportation: Two of the most important services on Mars would be communication and transportation. Unlike on Earth, they are not a luxury, but a necessity. Communication equipment would be available to all settlers while the surface transportation (rovers) access would have to be controlled; maybe on a need-to basis or a reservation system.

Over time, the population on Mars will increase and the people will become less and less dependent on Earth for their supplies. Most commodities for everyday use would be manufactured on Mars and the settlement would reach the point of self-sustainability. But just like any country on Earth, imported goods would be a part of life on Mars. The major difference in the self-sustainable phase will be the presence of a governing body that will formulate the policies. Whether it is a form of democracy or some other type of government, there should surely be a scheme for distribution of goods and services.

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8.6.2. Freedom of Information

Today, we live in the “information age”, where the speed and reach of communication technology has revolutionized our world. Along with the great benefits of free flow of information, questions have been raised about control, national security and world peace (Google Inc., 2012). The internet is the biggest, most powerful, and only non-centralized network that has the ability to change the fate of nations (O’Donnell, 2011).

It is assumed that Mars will have a similar planet-wide communication network. A large fraction of people’s life would be spent indoors; inside habitats with pressurized atmospheres and life-support systems. Face-to-face meetings would probably be reduced and the easiest means of communication would be electronic. Control over such a network would provide significant power.

Possessing and monopolizing information was always an effective method adopted by the ruling class to maintain their privilege and control over people. The arrival of the information age has already shaken this situation fundamentally. The more transparent the government and its policy-making, the less unfair will be the society with less social conflict.

The Mars NOW team therefore suggests a Fully Transparent Information Policy (FTIP) from the beginning. Current information technology has already made it possible for anyone to access information anywhere, anytime. People can exchange information very easily within the community.

But, two controversial issues emerge from the FTIP:

 how to distinguish and protect private information from becoming public information; and  how to deal with abnormal ideas disseminating within the community.

Privacy is very important for an individual’s psychological well-being, especially for someone in isolated, confined environments as on Mars. In the initial period of the Mars settlement, the living area will be very limited, similarly to the environment on ISS. The FTIP must respect the privacy of everyone and not violate it accidentally or intentionally.

In a totally transparent information environment, good or normal information will flow along with some other inappropriate or abnormal information. Hostile ideas will damage the integrity of any community and create panic and conflict among people. But withholding or censoring the information might jeopardize the spirit of the FTIP. Any potentially inappropriate information could easily be submitted into a public forum for discussion. The community will make the decision whether or not to withhold or delete the information.

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8.6.3. Conflict Management

In his book “A Good Book, In Theory: A Guide to Theoretical Thinking”, Alan Sears considers that “societies are defined by inequality that produces conflict, rather than [that] which produces order and consensus (Sears, 2005). This conflict created by inequality can only be overcome through a fundamental transformation of the existing relations in the society, and is productive of new social relations. It is hard to change the fundamental relations and structures in the national and international society and make it more equal.

When the Mars settlement finally becomes self-sustainable, hundreds of people will live and work on Mars. They need methods to improve the prosperity of the settlement and resolve conflicts. Except for the normal legal method to solve the conflict issues on Mars, the other effective way is to decrease the inequalities among people. The best policy for the government on Mars is to provide basic services like air, food, water, shelter, medical care, education and thus, eliminate inequalities.

If there is more than one settlement on Mars, then potential conflicts among them will exist. As long as all of the organization of different settlement adapts the similar structure and policy, the odds of the conflicts between them will be very small.

8.6.4. Religion

Religion has always been a controversial and sensitive topic on Earth. A society on Mars will also need to deal with religious issues. Forbidding religion in a Mars settlement is not only impossible but also a poor idea. In the hard situation and harsh environment of Mars, religion could act as a spiritual sustenance that will bring comfort to people and support them during tough times. Religious activities in private space and private time are definitely acceptable.

However religious activities in public space can easily cause conflicts in the settlement. At this point, the transparent information policy of the Mars society should come into play and people should be able to discuss everything in the e-government structure. Then, any religious issues can also be discussed by everyone and the final decision made by majority consensus.

8.7. Crime and Deviant Behavior on Mars

On Earth, non-conformers are hunted, discriminated against, viewed differently, punished harshly (in some cases), and rehabilitated poorly (in most cases)! A Mars settlement should not have discrimination of any sort. How then, will deviants be controlled? One proposal is to create structures that encourage positive behavior and make it hard to perform wrong deeds (Dator, 2012). Not just physical structures but social ones as well. Mars is a place where it could be easy to do the wrong thing but the consequences of such actions would be disastrous. The catastrophic nature of the consequences might themselves act as barriers to any wrongdoing. For example, most people believe that there will be a reduction in violence and the use of traditional weapons since it would pose a much higher risk to self and community than on Earth. These “Mars barriers” and the stress on equality could be strong incentives for most people to act peacefully and not indulge in destructive activities.

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8.8. Emergencies and Disaster Mitigation

Similar to the practices on Earth, effective governance is the key element of successful emergency care and disaster mitigation. For a settlement that would be perilously close to paralysis or failure this function will even be more critical. The settlement would possibly be extremely vulnerable in its early phases; slight perturbations to normal operations could have an effect on the ultimate long term success of the mission.

Table 8-2 highlights some of the disaster and emergency scenarios that were identified as having the largest potential for negative effects on a Mars settlement. Even with extensive risk mitigation efforts, disasters may still occur. The settlement should have clear procedures drawn up that can be followed in the event of different emergencies. Regardless of the solidity of settlement, the settlers should be able to handle the situation with autonomy, without any aid of decision-making from Earth.

8.9. Conclusion

In the recently growing interest regarding one-way missions to Mars, there has been a lot of talk about new technologies in propulsion, power, habitats, life-support systems, etc. More technically minded individuals sometimes overlook the issues of governance of a Martian settlement. They assume that governance will be the last issue to be tackled once all the technological problems have been resolved.

In this chapter we have framed our discussion using principles of futures studies, implying a continuous growth scenario with possible elements of a transformative society. To achieve this, a global desire for growth and prosperity in the spirit of cooperation and mutual benefit must be developed and maintained for a long period of time. Within such a global environment, the necessary organizational structures, namely the proposed Outer Space Administration, together with its own cultural elements can arise, which will guarantee financial stability to the Martian settlers.

Great care must be taken when designing one-way missions concerning the impact of the design on the governance structure of the community. Design choices should be implemented which physically determine settler’s behaviors, instead of relying on individual conscience. Attention should be particularly focused to policies which control the potentially most divisive elements, namely access to basic commodities (air, food, water and shelter) and also telecommunications, conflict resolution and religion.

Governance is tied to, and influences, the normal functioning of any community, and especially one as extreme as a Martian settlement. Governance systems should be therefore developed in parallel with other aspects of the settlement if we expect to be successful in settling Mars. Mars is the chance for us to innovate, collaborate and create a better tomorrow.

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Table 8-2: Disaster Scenarios and their Mitigations Scenario Explanation Mitigation

Near Mars Similar to risks on Earth, an  Expand terrestrial NEO tracking networks to Objects asteroid, comet, or any other include specific Mars threat monitoring and (NMO) large object that hit Mars would evaluation devastate the settlement. Mars has a tenuous atmosphere compared to Earth, and so the risks are even greater.

Disease Illness or disease that reaches  Rigorous quarantine and infection control pandemic pandemic levels would have a procedures on vehicles sent to Mars large effect on settlement  Close monitoring of health of settlement productivity, particularly at early crew stages. If key personnel were  Clearly defined quarantine and treatment affected, other disasters could procedures occur due to non-completion of  Cross-training among whole population of key activities. key activities necessary for running key processes of the settlement Severe solar Solar flares and coronal mass  Situate vital equipment in heavily shielded weather ejections (CME) could have a areas, making use of local magnetically dual effect on a Mars shielded zones if possible. settlement; both electronic  Create shielded zones (safe heavens) for equipment and the human times of high radiation levels such as during a population would be affected. solar storm. ie: highly shielded habitation zones or caves. Failure of If one of these four systems  Make each system multiple times redundant. power were to fail, the settlement  Diversify production of each resource as production; would fail. Over time, food, much as possible. Multiple locations used for food, water, water, and oxygen would food, water, and oxygen production will or oxygen become fully produced on Mars. reduce risk from single events. supply It is at this stage where failure of  Keep large amount of inventory of resources these systems would have the even during a self-sufficient phase greatest effect.

Loss of Such a situation will be  The first crews to arrive at the settlement contact with particularly critical during the should have access to all technologies Earth early stages of the settlement necessary for basic survival for first 26 due to reliance on supplies and months. coordination  Clear contingency plans should be put in place to deal with such events  Clear scenarios should be planned and trained for where the settlement would be authorized to operate autonomously

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9. OUTREACH AND EDUCATION

9.1. Introduction

A one-way mission to Mars will likely be the most expensive program ever undertaken, covering millions of kilometers, and lasting generations before a sustainable settlement is established. For a successful outcome, resources from all aspects of human society will be required: human resources, funding, advanced technology from all disciplines, determination, and most of all - patience, which is essential to conquer possible obstacles and potential failures. Like great generals have in the past, to achieve victory in the future we must inspire humans on Earth and have their unconditional and sustained support.

9.2. Outreach Rationale

Livingston (2005) states that there are four main arguments against public spending on space programs:

 money should be spent on more important projects to benefit people on Earth;  there are too many problems on Earth that should be solved before people think about space;  people cannot be trusted with safeguarding the space environment after the way they have treated the Earth’s environment; and,  space spin-off technology does not apply to individuals.

These four arguments serve as barriers that must be overcome in order to convince skeptical members of the public about the benefits of human space exploration. No one would wish his or her taxes to be spent on a mission that would require terrestrial support for generations, without a clear understanding of its potential for success and benefits to Earth.

This demonstrates an absolute necessity for a centrally-administered outreach campaign in a one-way mission to Mars. The first and most important task is to let people know why humanity should go to Mars and understand why governments, in partnership with private industry, should invest billions of dollars on an uninhabited planet, located millions of kilometers away. An outreach campaign is essential to promote public awareness, understanding, and appreciation for one-way Mars missions and their contributions to society. The mission will undoubtedly need support in various ways by global taxpayers. To persuade people from different regions, cultures, and religions to accept one-way Mars missions, the outreach campaign needs to be designed with an emphasis on the consideration of these diverse groups of people.

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An effective outreach campaign is at the core of achieving a sustainable one-way mission settlement; to attract the attention of all generations and spur the next generation’s enthusiasm for the mission is essential. It is not expected that every citizen on Earth will be eager to be part of the mission, but it should be ensured that people’s interest in Mars does not fade away as time passes. In time, our children will inherit our enthusiasm about Mars; effect outreach ensures a sustainable human resource for Mars, and presents the main challenge to the outreach campaign:

"Keeping a wide global audience interested in and excited by a long-duration Mars mission."

9.3. Outreach Activities

In order to gain support and trust, an outreach campaign must engage the public using a variety of methods. Interactive methods have been identified as most effective in marketing space activities (Dittmar, 2006), and the Mars NOW team supports the idea of utilizing these methods heavily for the outreach campaign. More traditional media, such as television, print, and internet should also be used in tandem to support major events.

9.3.1. Interactive Games – “Life on Mars”

Video and strategic computer games can offer a simulation of life on Mars to the general public, in particular younger audiences. One successful example is Kerbal Space Program, a videogame where players create and manage their own space program (Squad, 2014). This game has a large following within the active and enthusiastic community that spans a wide age range. The popularity and potential for outreach of the game has lead NASA to collaborate with the game developer. An asteroid redirect mission will be added to the game, mirroring a mission that is currently being planned by NASA (Tach, 2014). This collaboration shows the opportunity for interactive outreach using video games, a medium that should be seriously considered for future space outreach initiatives.

A videogame proposed by the Mars NOW team for supporting outreach activities is titled “Life on Mars.” It would offer a gateway for the general public to interact with the mission at various stages. "Life on Mars" would be continuously updated as the Mars NOW mission progresses. Each major mission milestone, such as crew selection, training, launch, landing, and settlement progression would be greeted by an update to the game, allowing members of the public to play along Figure 9-1: Artist's Rendition of an Engaged Audience with the mission. These updates would Member serve to keep up interest levels over the duration of the mission. In the game, the public will be able to interact with rovers and robots on Mars. Simulations of remote operation of rovers on Mars would also be provided.

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9.3.2. Short-Term Public Analogs

Marketing one-way missions to Mars is a long process, and it is crucial to involve social media during the course of the entire mission. Furthermore, social space gatherings for not only space enthusiasts, but for the general public are essential. To simulate the ultimate goal, the Mars NOW team proposes the concept of international public analog missions. Groups of people would be invited to spend short amounts of time in Mars analog habitats or environments to become familiar with the experience of the crew on the mission. Social short term analogs can play a valuable role in marketing one-way missions as well as improving the public awareness of the anticipated social environment on Mars.

9.3.3. Media

A successful marketing scheme has to take into consideration the diversity in generations, cultures, and even religion. Hollywood movies, TV series, and even cartoons around the world can target various generations of the public. They can also provide an educational scheme and promote the settlement of Mars.

9.3.4. Design Your Mars

Besides the traditional outreach activities already mentioned, the Mars NOW team proposes another interactive scheme: “Design Your Mars”. Design Your Mars is a program that allows professionals from different backgrounds to communicate with each other around the world to achieve a common goal. The knowledge will then be shared with the public to prepare various designs of non-critical components for the Mars settlement. To inspire the public, the Mars NOW team would attempt to get the public involved in designing their future and show that they are an important part of future Mars missions. In outsourcing the design and other minor decisions regarding some components of the mission would positively influence the public and the Mars campaign.

9.3.5. Milestone Events

Major high-visibility events that can be attended or seen by large quantities of people should coincide with major mission milestones. For special occasions such as traditional major holidays, joint celebrations between Earth and Mars communities can be arranged. The objective of these events would be to attempt to communicate mission progress and keep interest in the mission at a consistent level. It should be expected for interest to ebb between more noticeable events such as launch and landing on Mars. However, public interest should not be allowed to drop completely, and these events will serve to create peaks of interest among the public.

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9.4. Educational Activities

Educational programs represent the long term vision of the outreach initiative. The long term nature of the one-way missions proposed by the Mars NOW is mirrored in the educational program that can be deployed over a period of decades and evolves along with the mission. The aim of the educational activities would be to generate interest in a wide range of technical fields, in order to create a high-tech, skilled, and productive future workforce required by the space industry.

The global Mars NOW outreach organization would lobby for educational programs to promote Mars as a mandatory part of academics, and to be implemented throughout public education systems. In addition to the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) subjects to be promoted, the Mars NOW team proposes the addition of a fifth area, Arts, to make STEAM, as advocated by the project ‘Space and STEM’ (ISU, 2012). The addition of Arts to STEM means the inclusion of a creative element, which in turn provides greater stimulus for innovation.

Educational activities should cover both formal and informal educational methods. Formal methods include lessons taught in schools and universities. Since a Mars settlement would require special expertise as well as an interdisciplinary background for its citizens, particular schools can be in charge to educate potential future settlers, from a very early age, as well as the personnel who will support the settlement from Earth. Informal methods take place outside of a classroom, in museums and other public places, and do not necessarily have a defined curriculum, rather complement formal education. When used together, these methods will enable a broad section of society to be reached.

9.5. Outreach and Marketing an Affordable Mission

The general perception of spaceflight among the public is that it constitutes huge expenditures which uses money that could be spent on solving terrestrial problems. In reality, government money budgeted for space activities is comparatively small to other budgetary areas, and the figures describing the benefits of space to Earth are well-documented. Space activities can offer positive socio-economic returns for countries with both large space programs and smaller, more specialized, space programs (OECD, 2011).

The Mars Generation Survey (Explore Mars, 2013), a poll gauging the support of space exploration in the USA, discovered that in general, that respondents indicated a belief that NASA spending accounted for 2.43% of the federal budget. In reality, NASA’s budget in FY2011 was just 0.5% of the federal budget. With this knowledge, respondents were then asked if they supported doubling NASA’s proportion of the budget to 1%, to enable funding initiatives such as missions to Mars. In response, 75% reacted positively to this proposal, highlighting the acceptability of larger spending on space if the mission was deemed high importance.

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Affordability is key in proposals for human missions to Mars, and it is particularly applicable to one- way missions. A recent workshop, Affording Human Exploration of Mars, put forward the following definition of an "affordable program" (Carberry, 2014):

“A strategy that enables success within a budget and timeframe justified by the importance of mission goals.”

The major mission goal discussed in this report, a self-sustainable settlement of Mars, is an important goal that will increase the chances of human survival. The budget required by the Mars NOW team’s one-way strategy can easily fit into this definition of an affordable program.

The workshop also came to the conclusion that this approach would require international, governmental, and private sector partnerships (Carberry, 2014). This is a key approach proposed by the Mars NOW team: the ability to generate the necessary funding and technology required for the mission. A global partnership would also provide a large talent pool for the selection of professionals and bring stability to the mission. In this international partnership scheme, each contributing country must see each other as cooperating participants, rather than leaders and followers.

Outreach can also be given to government, industry, and academia as part of a lobbying campaign to support the realization of the mission. The global outreach network proposed by the Mars NOW team, with a coherent and constant communication stream, would be tasked with:

 commissioning an international survey to gauge the support for one-way missions to Mars in the same vein as the Mars Generation Survey;  ensuring that governments are aware of the importance to keep space budgets stable at the minimum;  communicating the benefits of the mission to potential stakeholders; and,  communicating to stakeholders the benefits of a closely integrated global partnership in delivering the mission.

9.6. Outreach Organization Structure

To organize an effective outreach campaign, an organizational framework is required. Given the global nature of the mission, a worldwide outreach campaign structure is necessary. For a one-way mission particularly, a well-organized campaign with worldwide events is vital. In addition, the Mars NOW team proposes a collaborative approach, whereby existing space outreach experts can be consulted in the creation of a new entity.

Broadly, the outreach organization should:

 collaborate with space outreach experts and organizations, and educational institutions;  leverage an international network to create coherent, high visibility events worldwide; and  become the focus for world space activities.

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The Mars NOW Literature Review (2013) identified many space outreach programs worldwide, where the majority had national or regional focuses. For one-way missions with global cooperation, a single worldwide outreach organization and campaign is critical. The Mars NOW team’s proposed organizational model will use a centralized team that coordinates activities to local teams spread around the globe. This will prevent duplication of effort, allow easier monitoring of success of the campaign, and ensure a single message to be spread.

The Mars NOW team advocates the use of local outreach offices in every major area involved in the mission. This approach is required, as a coherent campaign is necessary worldwide; local organizers will be used to coordinate outreach and ensure a consistent message. Figure 9-2 shows the proposed worldwide locations of the outreach teams. Their locations correspond to the major space agencies who are partners in ISECG (2013). Two additional local teams will be created in areas that are not currently represented in ISECG: South America, and Africa.

Figure 9-2: Outreach Campaign Local Offices Locations

These teams will work together, coordinated by the central mission organization, to plan and implement outreach activities. They will:

 execute all events planned by the central outreach team;  educate the public on the one-way mission concept;  promote the one-way mission to the public;  endeavor to increase enthusiasm about the mission and inspire the public; and,  develop networks of space advocates and professionals who can spread the message further.

The Mars NOW team proposes that representatives of the one-way Mars mission should work closely with existing space outreach organizations, such as World Space Week and Yuri’s Night. Their expertise will enable a clear and coherent campaign to be developed around a worldwide network of outreach.

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9.7. Conclusion

Outreach is an important tool used to spread enthusiasm and information about the mission. In the case of a one-way mission with global cooperation, a well-planned and well-executed campaign is essential.

The Mars NOW team has suggested interactive methods, including a one-way Mars video game and short-term public analogs, due to the proven effectiveness of interactive outreach methods. In addition, outreach and marketing methods to be used with governments and other mission stakeholders are proposed to highlight the potential for affordability of the mission, under the Explore Mars workshop's definition of affordability. A long term educational program is also suggested, with the inclusion of Arts in the traditional STEM model, creating STEAM. Finally, an organizational structure for the outreach organization was proposed.

Table 9-1 summarizes the top three innovative activities proposed by the Mars NOW team that will run in parallel with the traditional outreach methods that were also discussed in this chapter. These activities are interactive and therefore effective for raising interest, awareness, and education of the public. The activities are ranked based on the ease and order of implementation and execution.

Table 9-1: Mars NOW Outreach Activities Ranking Ranking Outreach Activity Objective Audience Interaction Public Awareness/ 1 Life on Mars game General Public Medium Secondary Source of Income 2 Public Mars Analog Education of the Public General Public High Continued Public Professionals/ 3 Design Your Mars Awareness/Outsourcing of Very High General Public Designs

106 International Space University, MSS 2014 Mars NOW CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

10. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Traveling to Mars one-way is not only possible, but also essential. Whether now, or in the near future, humanity must endeavor to extend its reach beyond the Earth if it is to have any hope of survival on any great time scale.

One-way missions to Mars and Mars settlement are tantalizing ideas that have revived public interest in space exploration. However, the space community has thus far directed little critical scrutiny to the topic. The Mars NOW team set out not only to analyze the issues and offer solutions to the problems of a one-way mission, but to stimulate debate and remove any possible stigma that such a topic is science fiction. The issues we discussed – not only technological but societal, financial, and ethical – are not insurmountable. With clear understanding of the challenges, and a global cooperation in the pursuit of their solutions, a one-way mission is one that can be seriously considered.

A sustainability model was used to frame this report; the three areas of economic, environmental, and social sustainability comprise this model. The sustainability of the one-way mission is the key indicator of the long term success of the settlement. In achieving sustainability in these three areas, the Mars NOW team did not perform a full analysis of all possible topics. Instead, key areas were selected, which the team felt created the biggest barriers and had the least amount of research conducted. This report also does not set out to propose a mission timeline or a roadmap, but instead represents a resource for those planning exploration strategies. This report is intended to feed into planning activities as a reference for mission challenges, with a long term perspective.

It is within the background discussed in the preceding section that the Mars NOW team set out to analyze selected topics within this uncharted field of inquiry. The following is a summary of our recommendations presented throughout this report:

 One-way mission should be conducted after successful human return missions have proven necessary technologies for travelling, landing and living on Mars. The commitment for support from Earth for a Mars settlement will prove beneficial for all of humankind, as it will foster economic development and international cooperation.

 The settlement of currently open issues in space law concerning planetary protection, space property rights, and the very legality of sending people on one-way missions is recommended before we seriously consider developing one-way Mars missions. The creation of an international legal regime for the management of Martian resources and conflict resolution is also proposed. This legal regime could then form the basis for an international entity that would develop, run, and sustain the one-way missions in a culture of transnationalism, equality, and cooperation. These principles are deemed important since they will lead to the emergence of a unique culture within the proposed entity. This culture would be transported to Mars, and guarantee long term stability to the settlement.

International Space University, MSS 2014 107 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Mars NOW

 For selecting the first Martian settlers, this report proposes a conservative approach based on current state of the art crew selection and training practices developed for the ISS. We also recognize the relevance of Mars analog simulations and recommend that the practices developed so far be incorporated in the training program. Special consideration should be given to the psychological aspects of training.

 For the purpose of this report, a well-established approach was used to identify a location for a Martian settlement. The proposed location is situated in the Ophir Chasma region, which appears to be well suited for supporting a long term Mars settlement. This finding might represent a step towards a consensus for a permanent Mars settlement site.

 Based on an analysis of current literature, the Mars NOW team proposes a hybrid habitat for initial Mars settlement. This is a combination of a hard-shell and inflatable structure, which would protect the settlers against radiation and mechanical impacts due to its 3D printed regolith cover. The first members of the settlement will use it while the permanent settlement is built in the valley walls.

 Great care must be taken when designing one-way missions concerning the impact of the design on the governance structure of the settlement. Attention should be particularly focused to policies that control the potentially most divisive elements, namely access to basic commodities (air, food, water and shelter) and also telecommunications, conflict resolution policies, and religion.

 The Mars NOW team has identified continued public interest as a necessary requirement for supporting a Mars settlement initiative. We have proposed in this report an organizational structure for an outreach organization, which would run globally and highlight the potential for affordability of the mission.

The Mars NOW team intends this report to highlight the unique issues that must be solved for a one- way mission to be successful. More importantly, solutions and recommendations are given to these issues. It is the hope of our team that this report finds its way into the hands of global space leaders and decision-makers, and that they find it useful as a source of information regarding the difficulties inherent in settling on Mars. Following the analysis of all areas present in this report, the presence of so many challenges should only serve to inspire. The challenges can be met, and soon. The Mars NOW team hopes that next generation of space industry professionals will work to implement the recommendations contained in this report. It is imperative for the survival of humanity that we begin planning now.

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