Teknillinen Korkeakoulun Ympäristönsuojelun Laboratorion Julkaisu TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 Espoo 2003

Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Environmental Protection Publication Teknillinen korkeakoulun ympäristönsuojelun laboratorion julkaisu TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 Espoo 2003

DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICIPATORY INSTITUTIONS FOR REINDEER MANAGEMENT IN NORTHERN FINLAND: PRELIMINARY SYNTHESIS AND REPORT Janne Hukkinen (Helsinki University of Technology), Ludger Müller-Wille (McGill University), Hannu Heikkinen (Helsinki University of Technology)

European Commission’s 5th Framework Programme Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources project QLRT-1999-30745, RENMAN. The Challenges of Modernity for Reindeer Management: Integration and Sustainable Development in Europe’s Subarctic and Boreal Regions (2001-2004). Workpackage 1: Development of participatory institutions for reindeer management.

Helsinki University of Technology Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Laboratory of Environmental Protection

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Raportti on saatavissa myös osoitteessa www.hut.fi/Rakennus/Ymp>Julkaisut

Series editor: Henrik Bruun Layout: Satu Nevalainen Cover photo: Janne Hukkinen (calf marking at Lupposelkä, Lappi Reindeer Herding Co-operative, June 2002)

ISBN 951-22-6805-1 ISSN 1457-8654

Printed by Otamedia Oy Espoo 2003

TEHCNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICIPATORY INSTITUTIONS FOR REINDEER MANAGEMENT IN NORTHERN FINLAND: PRELIMINARY SYNTHESIS AND REPORT

Janne Hukkinen (Helsinki University of Technology) Ludger Müller-Wille (McGill University) Hannu Heikkinen (Helsinki University of Technology)

CONTENTS

PREFACE ……………………………………………………………………………. 5 I. PRELIMINARY SYNTHESIS: INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE IN REINDEER HERDING …………………………………………………………… 7 1. Objectives: development and design of policies ……………………………. 7 2. Integrative analytical approaches ………………………………………….. 10 3. Key findings …………………………………………………………………. 11 4. Policy recommendations ……………………………………………………. 12 5. Bibliography ………………………………………………………………… 19 II. SUMMARIES OF PROJECTS AND PUBLICATIONS ………………………… 21 1. Workshops on the future of reindeer management and participatory institutions ………………………………………………………………….. 21 2. Can the mosquito be heard in heaven? Reindeer herders’ analysis of changes in reindeer herding in Finland’s Lapland during the 20th century (Heikkinen et al. 2003) …………………………………………………….. 23 3. More initiative, fewer complaints: the views of finnish administration on the development of participatory institutions in reindeer management (Raitio & Heikkinen 2003) ………………………………………………… 25 4. Publications ………………………………………………………………… 27 III. LIST OF WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS (2001-2003) ……………………….. 29 IV. RESEARCH TEAM MEMBERS (2001-2004) ……………………………….. 30

TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 5

PREFACE

This report is a summary and preliminary synthesis of the work conducted under Work package 1 (WP 1) of the RENMAN project (‘The Challenges of Modernity for Reindeer Management: Integration and Sustainable Develop- ment in Europe´s Subarctic and Boreal Regions’). RENMAN is funded by the European Commission’s 5th Framework Programme ‘Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources’ during 2001-4. The objective of RENMAN is to create an open discussion forum for individuals who care about the future of reindeer management under the pressures of modernity. Open dialogue requires mutual trust and co-operation, both of which can be facilitated with appropriate institutions that are based on participation. The development of participatory institutions for reindeer management has been the task of Work package 1 of RENMAN. The leaders of WP 1 are professor Janne Hukkinen from the Laboratory of Environmental Protection at Hel- sinki University of Technology (HUT), Finland and professor Ludger Müller- Wille from the Department of Geography at McGill University, Canada. The members of the research team include Pekka Aikio (Sámi Parliament), Hannu Heikkinen (HUT), Outi Jääskö (Muotkatunturi Reindeer Herding Co- operative), Ari Laakso (University of Lapland), Hannu Magga (Lapland Reindeer Herding Co-operative), Satu Nevalainen (Kuivasalmi Reindeer Herding Co-operative), Kaisa Raitio (University of Joensuu) and Nina West (University of Lapland).

In the course of RENMAN, the HUT Laboratory of Environmental Protec- tion has published several reports on the challenges and opportunities of reindeer management in the Finnish society. Three reports summarize the results of annual workshops between reindeer herders, officials and researchers: ‘Reindeer herders speak out: Problems, decision-making opportunities and research needs in reindeer herding as seen by herders in the Province of Lapland, Finland’ (HUT Laboratory of Environmental Protection publication Technology, Society, Environment 1/2002), ‘The value of reindeer herding culture in Finland: Challenges for administration, management and control’ (Technology, Society, Environment 1/2003) and ‘The future of reindeer management: Report of the EU RENMAN project workshop in Kittilä, Finland, 13-15 August 2003’ (Technology, Society, Environment in press). In a report entitled ‘Can the mosquito be heard in heaven? Reindeer herders’ analysis of changes in reindeer herding in Finland’s Lapland during the 20th century’, three reindeer herders, Hannu Magga, Satu Nevalainen and Outi Jääskö, describe changes that reindeer management has undergone in their own co-operatives as a result of social and environmental disruptions (Tech- nology, Society, Environment 3/2003). Finally, in a report entitled ‘More initiative, fewer complaints: The views of Finnish administration on the development of participatory institutions in reindeer management’ (Technology, Society, Environment 4/2003), Kaisa Raitio from the University of Joensuu 6 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

and Hannu Heikkinen from HUT analyze expert interviews conducted during the RENMAN WP 1 on current problems and policy options in reindeer management.

The development of participatory institutions in WP 1 has taken place in the context of and in collaboration with nine other RENMAN WPs representing both social and natural sciences, and pooling together scientists from Bul- garia, Canada, Germany, Norway, Finland and Sweden. The other WPs have focused on comparing cultural and scientific knowledge on reindeer herding (WPs 2 and 3), transferring knowledge from Fennoscandia to Russia (WP 4), systems analysis of reindeer management in northernmost Europe (WP 5), remote sensing of reindeer herding practices (WP 6), the extent, produc- tivity and nutrition value of vegetation vital for reindeer (WPs 7 and 8) and the physical, microbiological and hygienic properties of soil and water in the reindeer herding area (WPs 9.0, 9.1, 9.2 and 10).

On behalf of the entire WP 1, we would like to thank all reindeer herders, officials and researchers who have helped us in the course of RENMAN for their trust and collaboration.

Otaniemi (Finland), Montréal (Canada) and Kiiminki (Finland)

Janne Hukkinen, Ludger Müller-Wille and Hannu Heikkinen TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 7

I. PRELIMINARY SYNTHESIS: INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE IN REINDEER HERDING

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) has been purpose Workpackage 1 (WP 1, Helsinki hailed as an icon in the past and present University of Technology) focused on the representing northern people and envi- inevitably ensuing institutional changes ronment. Whereas the Sámi, the aborigi- that are needed to cope with future chal- nal people of northernmost Europe, see it lenges in managing reindeer and its eco- as their thread of life both in cultural and system as well as maintaining distinct economic terms, the neighboring Finns to cultures and livelihoods. Institutions are the south have integrated this animal as here understood as the formal rules and another additional element into their informal codes of conduct that guide the emerging agricultural cycles (Figures 1 actions (in this case, those pertaining to and 2). Today, both these peoples in reindeer management) of individuals and Finland's reindeer herding region are un- organizations in a society (Hukkinen der considerable pressures for change 1999). internally and externally due to modernization and globalization processes. These current processes are accompanied by the 1. OBJECTIVES: DEVELOPMENT reindeer also having become an iconoclas- AND DESIGN OF POLICIES tic and emblematic symbol and an element of international image building for The projects in Workpackage 1 (WP 1) Finland globally. Finland as a country set as their major objective the develop- appears to be representative of the mythi- ment of participatory institutions, i.e., the cal North, world-wide tourism with Santa promotion of designs and negotiations of Claus and acolytes and, even, of Finnish policies for reindeer management that corporate business and products such as will have a direct impact on the local Finlandia Vodka or Nokia. conditions and on the prospects for secur-

ing an acceptable level of quality of life. Both worlds - the reindeer herders or The participatory expectations also in- owners and the Others - afford reindeer cluded the continuation of appropriate, quite different values, spaces and condi- locally developed management tools and tions for their existence. They are, in fact, regimes that will safeguard the continued worlds apart. The research projects under utilization of living resources, i.e. rein- the RENMAN program were designed to deer and vegetation under specific envi- delve deeply behind the existing discrep- ronmental conditions. Furthermore, the ancies. They were also aimed to obtain an maintenance of diverse cultural expres- understanding of the disagreements and sions and different approaches to liveli- conflicts over how, what for, in what ways hood were to be recognized and respected and for whom reindeer should be man- by these research endeavors. The goals aged in a limited geographic space with a were to be attained through the research diverse population and an increasing, team's direct involvement locally and wide-ranging interest in different re- through the application of adaptive and sources (Müller-Wille 2001). For that flexible research methodologies. 8 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

Fig. 1: Municipalities in northern Finland Fig. 2: The home reindeer co-operatives of herders participating in the RENMAN-WP 1 workshops (2001-2003)

N:O Reindeer Co-operative 19 Syväjärvi 40 Mäntyjärvi 21 Lappi 41 Kuukas 1 Paistunturi 22 Kemin-Sompio 42 Alakitka 2 Kaldoaivi 23 Pohjois-Salla 43 Akanlahti 3 Näätämö 24 Salla 44 Hossa-Irni 4 Muddusjärvi 25 Hirvasniemi 45 Kallioluoma 5 Vätsäri 26 Pyhä-Kallio 46 Oivanki 6 Paatsjoki 27 Vanttaus 47 Jokijärvi 7 Ivalo 28 Poikajärvi 48 Taivalkoski 8 Hammastunturi 29 Lohijärvi 49 Pudasjärvi 9 Sallivaara 30 Palojärvi 50 Oijärvi 10 Muotkatunturi 31 Orajärvi 51 Pudasjärven-Livo 11 Näkkälä 32 Kolari 52 Pintamo 12 Käsivarsi 33 Jääskö 53 Kiiminki 13 Muonio 34 Narkaus 54 Kollaja 14 Kyrö 35 Niemelä 55 Ikonen 15 Kuivasalmi 36 Timisjärvi 56 Näljänkä 16 Alakylä 37 Tolva 57 Halla 17 Sattasniemi 38 Posion-Livo 18 Oraniemi 39 Isosydänmaa TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 9

For the three-year research period (2001- stances. It evolved into a blend of experi- 2003) WP 1 was continuously present in ences from cultural anthropology, human the Finnish reindeer management area geography, sociology and studies in envi- through its locally employed researchers ronmental management and protection; who are permanent residents and mem- the research team's practices were based bers (herders or owners) of three different on sound ethical principles for the con- reindeer herding co-operatives. Further- duct of research. WP 1 chose Participa- more, team members (cf. List under IV.) tory Action Research (PAR) as the major spent a considerable length of time in a approach and methodological tool to large number of co-operatives and else- overcome the still existing barrier be- where conducting 45 formal interviews tween scientists and practitioners (‘stake- with key experts, participating in reindeer holders’) who are, in fact, the experts in herding activities throughout all seasons, reindeer management (Müller-Wille & making site visits and observations and Hukkinen 1999). In that respect it is of engaging in intense discourses. Further paramount importance that practitioners local continuity and relations were estab- are equally involved in the formulation of lished through three workshops that were research problems and in the preparation held as the project's major focus in two of grant applications right from the con- different locations in August of each pro- ception of projects. ject year. These workshops had participation of almost 30 people each. In all 52 The key point in the PAR methodology is people (12 women, 40 men) participated that research is based on equal partner- in these workshops; 29 active reindeer ship negotiated between the experts (rein- herders or owners from 18 co-operatives deer herders) and the external scientists (among them six women), eight adminis- (RENMAN), allowing both to experience trators and politicians and 15 researchers and practice each other's worlds, be it in (also from other RENMAN projects) be- reindeer management or science. Fur- came part of this social process (cf. List thermore, research questions are driven under III.). Next to the research team, and formulated from within the commu- the continuity of the reindeer herders’ nity concerned in conjunction with scien- involvement was maintained by six of tific methods to hone the problems, ar- them being present and engaged in all guments, and ensuing research results in three workshops. cooperation with all engaged parties. This approach stresses direct communication, These activities raised the level of public an atmosphere of open exchange, flexibil- awareness among herders, administrators ity and mobility in research actions, solu- and researchers locally, regionally and tion to personnel issues, and appropriate nationally. The aim to maintain fair re- ways for publications (cf. Hall 1979; Hie- gional and professional representation bert 1999). All these points were carried and participation of the various interests out in a co-operative fashion. Further- in reindeer management was largely more, the local variations in cultural and achieved, if not to full satisfaction (for linguistic expressions - Sámi and Finnish example, with respect to gender balance - were respected. For example, we and higher involvement of civil servants). stressed the use of native languages rather than accepting the established role The participatory research methodology of English as the scientific lingua franca, was adapted to local and regional circum- which often is exclusive to ‘stakeholders’. 10 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

2. INTEGRATIVE ANALYTICAL The questions posed in the formal inter- APPROACHES views with herders and administrators (managers, civil servants) were formu- In the WP 1 projects, the main integra- lated by the research team with input tive and interdisciplinary analytical ap- from both herders and administrators. proaches consisted of the workshops as a One of the interviewers was both a rein- social process. In addition, structured deer herder and member of the research interviews and their systematic analysis, team. The questionnaire thus represented and regional studies on changes in rein- a cross-section of issues around the mod- deer management were carried out by the ernization of reindeer management draw- team members, four of whom who were ing from interdisciplinary and intercul- also local practitioners. tural experiences.

The three workshops were used as tools The regional studies conducted in three for integrating opinions and statements of reindeer herding co-operatives were based different parties. Through their participa- directly on the expertise of practitioners tion in the workshops, the different par- who analyzed and reflected upon the ties could formulate issues and concerns, changes that had occurred in their own research questions and, finally, recom- reindeer herding communities during the mendations for the development of effec- second half of the 20th century. These tive participatory institutions in reindeer practitioners have broad expertise and management. This procedure made cer- detailed knowledge of both social and tain that the diverse approaches to rein- natural components of their environment, deer management were defined by the which they brought to bear in their exten- inside and not by the researchers from the sive treatises. outside. The stages in the procedure were as follows. WP 1 also facilitated an open discussion among social scientists, natural scientists - Participation in workshops (working and practitioners by organizing working groups and plenary sessions); meetings and site visits for all workpackages within the RENMAN research pro- - compilation of minutes prepared by gram. These events contributed to a bet- the research team for comments and ter understanding of each party's ap- revisions; first complete draft; proaches, goals, concepts and working - circulation of draft to all partici- methods. Moreover, joint site visits were pants for comments, statements and organized under the guidance and control revisions; of reindeer herders in their own reindeer herding co-operatives. The ensuing dis- - editing of final report based on cussions stressed the role of ethics as an feedback respecting the diversity of integral element in the conduct of re- comments and voices; search including permission, consent and - publication and distribution of re- partnership. Still, despite the good inten- ports to all participants and specifi- tions, these meetings did not lead to a cally identified clienteles (e.g. all deeper integration of research practices reindeer households throughout the among the workpackages. Rather, some Finnish reindeer herding region). limited progress was achieved by ac- knowledging the conceptual and methodo- TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 11

logical divides that continue to exist Union which issues binding directives. The among social sciences and natural sci- opportunities for change need to be pur- ences, with the reindeer herders very sued constructively through a process of much caught in the middle. establishing public awareness of overarching issues. Open fora such as the workshops mentioned above rally herders 3. KEY FINDINGS around socio-political and cultural initiatives leading to actions and changes. The 3.1 Participatory institutions emphasis in institutional restructuring must be on participation, local power and Obstacles for new designs and negotia- control in order to attain results that se- tions of participatory institutions in rein- cure and enhance reindeer management. deer management were identified in the This overall conclusion does not surprise still existing entrenched divisions between us in light of earlier studies on the pre- reindeer herders and central bureaucra- requisites of sustainable governance of cies, such as the National Reindeer Herd- natural resources (Berkes and Folke ers’ Association (Paliskuntain yhdistys, 1998; Gunderson et al. 1995; Hanna et PY) funded by the Ministry of Agriculture al. 1996). and Forestry (maa- ja metsätalousminis- teriö, MMM). Misguided images and ig- 3.2 Quality of life norance related to reindeer matters seem to be the cause to this uneasy situation. Reindeer herding in Finland in the early Furthermore, issues touch upon the choice 2000s represents a livelihood and style of of management tools, policies and re- life for some 800 to 1 000 families who gimes. Moreover, there lingers an en- rely on a stock of around 200 000 rein- demic distrust among the parties involved deer for part of their income each year. in reindeer management, be they herders, The difficulties to maintain an acceptable administrators or scientists. The prevail- quality of life are manifold because herding hierarchy of institutional structures ers and owners need to engage in a multi- also continues to support a certain degree tude of tasks in order to make ends meet of rigidity, inflexibility and conservatism in circumstances of limited growth. Fur- that hampers initiatives, creativity and thermore, management practices vary thus progression on all levels from local, from place to place dependent on envi- regional, national and to international or ronmental and socio-economic conditions. European. The diversity of management practices Current informal or formal institutions within the reindeer herding co-operatives need to redefine their positions and rela- in northern Finland should be better rep- tionships between the local and the inter- resented in current Reindeer Herding national levels. These institutions are the Law. The three regional zones which are informal but socially and economically insufficiently identified in the current leg- important ‘siida’ or ‘tokkakunta’ (herding islation are, from north to south, (1) the unit), the formal ‘paliskunta’ (herding co- Sámi Home Region with its Sámi man- operative), PY (association with central agement patterns within the boreal and management tasks), MMM (ministry es- tundra ecosystem, (2) Finnish reindeer tablishing national policies for reindeer herding within the boreal forest, (3) rein- management), and, finally, the European deer keeping as an element of Finnish 12 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

agriculture. Each zone has its own unique concepts need to be scrutinized in their potentials. However, the zones have to be content and validity in order to attain given more explicit individual attention to socio-economic equity for the ‘stake- enhance their conditions and opportuni- holders’ in reindeer management (for ties. At the same time, there are similari- general discussions cf. Hanna & Jentoft ties among the two northern zones that 1996: 47-50; Hukkinen 2001). could lead to cooperation and integration. Still, there is a prevalent tendency today Reindeer herding represents one of the to level off ‘reindeer herding’ as being the prime opportunities to develop co- same in all areas. Even in Norway and management practices for the utilization Sweden the label ‘Norwegian’ and ‘Swed- of ‘common pool resources' (CPR) which ish’ reindeer management is applied de- are the pastures, mainly public lands. spite the fact that the Sámi have the right Herders themselves are the very 'stake- to reindeer herding practices with some holders' to observe and understand the specific exceptions. conditions of pastures for the use by reindeer. They are also the people who suffer Obstacles to securing an acceptable qual- most directly from the misuse of the CPR ity of life for communities in the reindeer or benefit from its sustainable use. Hence herding area can be seen in the general the herders are the people who possess suspicion and prejudice prevailing on the the efficient and rather inexpensive means national level among the general public to manage CPR because they have strong and in administration. The position of motivations to attain modes of sustain- MMM on reindeer management is clear: able use (for detailed discussions of CPR the ecosystem cannot sustain more pres- cf. Mackean 1996: 223-224, 228-229; sure by reindeer grazing and management Ostrom et al 1994: 301-304, 319-329; practices. Thus the number of reindeer Ruckelshaus 1998: xii-xiii). has to be decreased through quota, resulting in fewer and fewer reindeer owners. Quotas on ownership curtail the economic 4. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS feasibility for small-scale owners. The following summary includes four sets Opportunities need to be pursued to of policy recommendation. First, we will strengthen the concept of ‘livelihood’ articulate points of negotiation for im- (incl. culture and language) as encom- proving local conditions and quality of life passing reindeer management and not among reindeer herders, as presented by confuse it with profit-making commercial reindeer herders themselves in the work- enterprises based on free-market economy shops. Second, we will outline a set of and its inherent system of competition. In institutional and organizational recom- this context, concepts which their propa- mendations for improving the reindeer gators argue for on scientific grounds, management regime, as synthesized by such as ‘overgrazing’, ‘pasture capacity’, the WP 1 research team. Third, we will ‘ecologically sustainable reindeer man- recommend ways of improving the inte- agement’, and/or ‘quota system’, carry gration of knowledge sets between scien- considerable political clout with decision- tists and practitioners in reindeer man- makers whose policies have a direct im- agement. Finally, we suggest how mean- pact on local reindeer herding communi- ingful partnerships in reindeer research ties and the herders' income level. These could be facilitated in the future. TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 13

4.1 Points of negotiation for open tundra; furthermore, the type of improving local conditions other land uses and their relationship and quality of life for with reindeer herding differ markedly reindeer herders from zone to zone; - strengthening the legal base for rein- The following points represent a cross- deer herding livelihood (incl. gather- section of recommendations and proposals ing, fishing, hunting, tourism and that have emerged from the workshops. stewardship of the land); They are not based on consensus, thus they include divergent views and contra- - securing cultural and linguistic ex- dictions. pressions for both Sámi and Finns in reindeer management; - Legal and socio-economic strengthening of existing institutional - levels of subsidies need to be adapted structures that support local initia- to the regional variations in the costs tives; incurred by reindeer herding.

- negotiating co-management regimes 4.2 Recommendations for to strengthen local and regional in- improving the reindeer volvement and cooperation (e.g. Land management regime Use Council);

- co-management regimes need to ob- During our research we have observed tain powers to restrict economic ac- that many reindeer researchers and offi- tivities, such as unbridled tourist ac- cials hold the mistaken assumption that tivities in herding areas, if they be- reindeer herding in Finland is a self- come harmful to the local population; sustaining, low-intensity management - there is an urgency in the Sámi system, which really requires just modest Home Region to forge understanding, monitoring of a few general indicators trust and cooperation among reindeer (such as the number of reindeer) because herding co-operatives, municipalities, of its considerable self-correcting capac- Sámi Parliament and Metsähallitus ity. In fact reindeer management takes (Finnish Forest and Park Service) place in an ecosystem under intensive with respect to development plans human domination and often has the and policies (e. g., forestry policy, characteristics of a high reliability zoning practices); management system (van Eeten and Roe 2003; Hukkinen 1999). Modern reindeer - transfer responsibility of reindeer and management takes place in an ecosystem general resource management and intensively dominated by a variety of hu- utilization to the Sámi Parliament in man activities that compete with reindeer the Sámi Home Region; herding, including forestry, tourism and - recognize and allow for the differ- hydropower. Furthermore, modern rein- ences within the Finnish reindeer deer management has over the past five herding region when policies and de- decades been forced to make fundamen- velopment plans are considered; the tal, quick and reliable adaptations to a southern agriculturally based rein- number of external events imposed by deer owners pursue different prac- modernity and globalization, including tices compared with Sámi herders in reservoirs, forestry practices, tourism, the northern timberline forests or and slaughterhouses. Since reindeer man- 14 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

agement in Finnish Lapland bears the carrying capacities, that is, under carry- marks of a high reliability management ing capacities that depend on alternative system, the notion of reliable ecosystem assumptions of what the future social and management has much to offer to im- ecological context of reindeer manage- prove reindeer management. The promise ment will be. The bandwidth approach of reliable management for reindeer herd- enables dynamic reindeer management ing can be articulated in terms of the fol- because bandwidths are inevitably lowing recommendations. breached or exceeded at some points of the operation -- precisely because they 4.2.1 Guide reindeer management with have to be dynamically updated in light of dynamic sustainability bandwidths empirical, real-time management experi- instead of fixed carrying capacity ence. EU regulations for slaughterhouses, indicators for example, are avoided in many alternative ways. Reindeer can be slaughtered at There are already signs that reindeer the culling site if it is for ‘home consump- management will in the future be more tion,’ but the meat can nonetheless end up and more guided by sustainability indica- in the informal market. Some reindeer tors. However, currently applied indica- herders are avoiding the EU-regulated tors assume that fixed carrying capacities slaughtering legitimately by direct sales can be determined for the ecosystems to customers (cf. Jodha 1996: 215-218; within which reindeer management takes Baden1998: 60-61). place. This is an untenable assumption in real-time sustainability management. In- 4.2.2 Address incompatibilities dicators that assume fixed carrying ca- between reindeer quotas and pacities are simply not operational in meat markets modern reindeer management, which is characterized by numerous just-in-time Reindeer meat markets currently operate operations with high reliability require- in an informational asymmetry created by ments, such as tightly scheduled calf the combination of quota regulation by marking and culling with airplane assis- the state and price fixing by a few large tance, EU-regulated slaughtering with meat purchasers. The state (i.e., the tightly scheduled veterinary inspection, MMM, PY and the Fish and Game Re- part-time herders with other jobs to han- search Institute) publicizes the actual dle, and fewer and fewer herders to man- numbers of reindeer, the maximum al- age it all. To set fixed targets for any of lowable numbers of reindeer and the these aspects of the complex reindeer number of reindeer that have to be management system would make it un- slaughtered per co-operative well in ad- manageable. vance of the slaughtering season. Rein- deer meat is purchased by a few large A more effective way of managing the meat processors who therefore have full just-in-time and reliability requirements information of the number, weight and is by bandwidths, since all of the above- age of reindeer to be slaughtered each mentioned just-in-time and reliability fea- year. The result of the uneasy combina- tures act as de facto or de jure band- tion of planned and market economy is widths for management. Bandwidth man- downward price fixing by the meat pur- agement permits the consideration of chasers. management implications under bounded TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 15

Several remedies come to mind. The most key element of reliable reindeer manage- obvious solution would be to declare all ment, because it essentially provides in- reindeer statistics and quotas confiden- structions for management actions in tial. Alternatively, following the planned ’impossible‘ situations, often based on economy model, the state should commit experience gained from analogous his- itself to securing an agreed-upon income torical situations. Formal recognition of for reindeer herders regardless of the local management expertise also creates meat price. In the third alternative, the a self-reinforcing cognitive-institutional market economy model, reindeer quotas path dependency: governance of a local would be turned into marketable com- ecosystem by a community that lives modities. In such a system, a co-operative within and depends on that ecosystem that slaughtered less than the allowable reinforces local expertise, which in turn amount would have assets to sell in the reinforces the governance system (cf. quota market, whereas a co-operative Johda 1996: 215-218; Mckean 1996: that slaughtered more than the allowable 228-229; Ostrom et al 1994: 323-324; amount would have to purchase addi- Heikkinen 2002: 197, 313-320; Hukki- tional quotas in the quota market. The nen 1999; Hukkinen in press). fourth alternative would follow the advise given by many reindeer herders during 4.2.4 Bring government researchers the workshops and scrap the quota sys- together with reindeer herders to tem altogether and replace it with local make decisions on reindeer self-regulation. The rationale here is that management in the field given the reindeer herders’ tradition in self-regulation under the old siida system, Relying on local expertise alone is not given their intimate knowledge of pasture enough in modern reindeer management. conditions and given their inherent inter- Bringing the MMM scientists and plan- est in maintaining a viable livelihood in ners with their satellite images, field the long run, local determination of measurements and other scientific infor- slaughtering schedules would be the best mation into the field with reindeer herd- way of securing sustainable reindeer ers would have the capacity to improve herding. reindeer management operations. Today, however, the profession is polarized into 4.2.3 Regard reindeer herders as opposing camps, where reindeer herders managers of a high reliability perceive the state ecologists, planners ecosystem and officials as ideologically opposed to the livelihood of reindeer management, The critical periods of reindeer manage- and the ecologists, planners and officials ment, such as culling, differ in no signifi- see the reindeer herders as a backward cant way from any other just-in-time op- community unreceptive to modern man- eration with high reliability requirements. agement ideas. We suggest that for the During such periods, reindeer herders dynamic reindeer management goals, or become the equivalents of real-time con- bandwidths, to be specified, intensive col- trol room operators, whose cognitive laboration and communication will be models about reindeer herding activities required among diverse experts, including are based on cumulative experience with reindeer herders, scientists, and officials. northern ecosystems and cultures. This Bandwidths thus constitute a novel cumulative experiential knowledge is a ’knowledge management interface‘ be- 16 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

tween pragmatic and scientific knowledge 4.2.6 Redefine strategic coalitions on the ecosystem (cf. Ostrom et al 1994: of interest groups in reindeer 328-329; Hanna & Jentoft 1996: 47-50; management Heikkinen 2002: 332-333; Hukkinen 2003; Hukkinen in press). In any rapidly changing livelihood, one can expect to see a marked contrast be- 4.2.5 Conduct gaming exercises over tween how the livelihood is formally insti- reindeer management utilizing the tuted and organized to manage itself and cognitive models of a wide how the livelihood is in fact being man- range of experts aged daily in informal practices. The tension between the formal ways of doing Gaming exercises are one way of imple- things and the informal ways found to be menting the two earlier recommenda- practical in the face of real-time man- tions. There needs to be a formal proce- agement contingencies also holds the dure by which the equivalent of a ’control seeds of institutional and managerial in- room‘ for reliable reindeer management is novation (Heikkinen 2002: 232-234; created and by which the various stake- Hukkinen 1999; Hanna & Jentoft 1996: holders of reindeer management are 47-50). Such is the case with reindeer brought together. Gaming exercises be- herding in Lapland. Reindeer herding and tween reindeer herders, officials and sci- endangered predator protection are in entists would simulate in a realistic set- public discussion often assumed to have ting the organizational and cognitive conflicting interests and are consequently processes taking place in actual real-time separated organizationally under public decision making during critical events administration. Yet there are voices in the such as calf separation or culling. During reindeer herding community who feel that gaming exercises, the significance of with the right incentives predator control complex systemic linkages, important would fit well with reindeer management. path dependencies and critical events in Just as there is a price per head of rein- reindeer management operations could be deer, there could be a price per head of explored by permitting a diverse group of predator, and the overall management of experts to participate in simulated real- both predators and reindeer could be time decision making in the same control handed over to the reindeer herders. In room. Consideration of options and justi- fact, reindeer herders and environmental- fication of real-time decisions would be ists have already found each other in a based on a wide variety of models, rang- political coalition over another environ- ing from verbally articulated experiential mental issue, namely, that of protecting models to more formalized computer Lapland’s old growth forests, which en- models (van Eeten and Roe 2003; Hukki- sure a crucial winter feed for reindeer, nen in press; Ostrom et al 1994: 75-97). tree lichen. The workshops organized under RENMAN WP 1 are the first experiment The latter example illustrates another with such gaming in reindeer manage- tension between formal and informal ar- ment. Future exercises should have influ- rangements. The prime target of the criti- ential mandates from the reindeer man- cism by environmentalists and reindeer agement administration at MMM, includ- herders against the cutting of old forests ing precise agendas to resolve specific is the Finnish Park and Forest Service, an reindeer management issues. agency of the MMM formally responsible TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 17

for protecting the sustainability of Finnish mands of real-time reindeer management forests. Here a worthwhile institutional and often against expected political alle- experiment would be to regard reindeer giances. herders as comprehensive natural resource managers at the local level. In 4.2.7 Determine networks of addition to reindeer management, they reliability at different scales that could become local representatives of the enable differentiated management- Ministry of and assume the duties of strategies for reindeer herders predator control and forest management. This recommendation follows from the The third example of the mismatch be- complexity of institutions and interest tween formal and informal arrangements groups in reindeer management. The re- is the relationship between reindeer man- sult of this complexity is that often the agement and agriculture. The MMM, high reliability networks do not follow the supported by the common agricultural scales or divisions of existing organiza- policy of the European Union, treats rein- tions. Take what is probably the most deer herding largely as a special kind of significant administrative unit from the livestock agriculture, and has crafted its point of view of day-to-day reindeer man- regulations and subsidies for the liveli- agement, namely, the reindeer herding co- hood analogously to those in place for operative. Many reindeer herders perceive agriculture. Most reindeer herders are the boundaries of the co-operative as hin- insulted by the analogy and perceive drances to sensible reindeer management. themselves as a unique type of livelihood In many northern co-operatives, for ex- worthy of regulatory treatment tailored to ample, landscape differences such as fells their particular needs. Our analysis indi- versus rocky forests, or cultural differ- cates that the reality is more diversified ences such as Sámi versus Finnish cul- than this. In southern Lapland, reindeer ture, have resulted in subdivisions in herd- management has evolved into a livelihood ing practices (‘tokkakunta’ in Finnish or in which relatively small domesticated ‘siida’ in Sámi). In contrast, many co- herds often co-exist with and even assume operatives in southern Lapland experience agriculture. In northern Lapland, reindeer the need to collaborate intensively across management is much more based on graz- the boundaries of co-operatives, particu- ing by semi-domesticated animals in rela- larly during the critical periods of calf tively large herds. Consequently, it would marking and culling. The result is that the make sense to develop reindeer manage- high reliability networks of reindeer herd- ment policies that take into account this ing break the assumed organizational geographical diversification. It would also scales both downscale and upscale: often make sense to formally strengthen the de large co-operatives in fact function as a facto coalition between reindeer herders set of smaller herd communities that may in southern Lapland and farmers in the actually collaborate more with herd rest of Finland. communities in neighboring co-operatives than ones within their own co-operative, The described coalitions result from the and smaller co-operatives in fact collabo- complexity of informal institutions and rate to the extent of constituting a much practices in reindeer management. It is larger co-operative. also evident that those coalitions shift constantly, in accordance with the de- 18 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

4.3 Integration of knowledge sets Between RENMAN and policy makers. Interaction between WP 1 researchers From the point of view of WP 1, the key and the reindeer administration in interfaces for improving knowledge inte- Finland was very positive. Despite under- gration in the RENMAN project are as lying historical tensions between officials, follows: researchers and herders, the workshops were perceived by all parties to be a posi- Between WP 1 researchers and reindeer tive step to the right direction. The work- herders. Integration was achieved in the shop process should be continued and WP 1 research projects through the given policy making powers. The impact premise of equal partnership between of RENMAN at the level of EU policies scientists and practitioners. This was remains to be seen. practiced by organizing joint meetings and workshops, employing reindeer herd- Between RENMAN and other research ers as researchers and by preparing co- groups. In recognition of the need to authored publications. By encouraging share information on ongoing socio- these types of partnerships, local initia- cultural reindeer research in Finland, WP tives, responsibility as well as real power 1 asked the Thule Institute of the Univer- positions, locally based reindeer herding sity of Oulu to organize a workshop on the practices (e.g. co-management regimes) topic in February 2002. Ten ongoing re- would achieve a more efficient, holistic, search projects in Finland were presented, inexpensive, accurate and fair approach followed by a discussion of possible col- to the management of common resource laboration. The seminar provided the par- pools in comparison with the existing sec- ticipants with key background informa- toral style, which is more cumbersome tion that has helped them pursue research and less equitable. Reindeer and pastures synergies and avoid overlapping work. are part of the social capital that herders and owners need to redefine to secure its Among RENMAN WPs. Integration future. among the WPs has taken place at the annual Project Coordination Committee Between other WPs and reindeer herders. meetings and through numerous informal To facilitate the RENMAN objective of contacts between RENMAN researchers. equal partnership and collaboration be- Despite occasional difficulties in integra- tween researchers and reindeer herders, tion, which have been due to lack of re- WP 1 organized a seminar on participa- sources for extensive translations from tory research ethics in Vuotso in 2001 for Finnish to English and differences in re- all RENMAN WPs, with a key note pres- search approaches, the RENMAN has by entation by a Sámi and a researcher, and large been a very successful multi- Anni-Siiri Länsman. The seminar con- disciplinary research project with a clear cluded with an agreement that all problem-oriented focus. To facilitate a RENMAN researchers will contact the more inter-disciplinary research ap- co-operative prior to any field visits. Con- proach, future projects should invest contact persons were also identified. Apart siderable resources in adequate pre- from a few unannounced field visits, the project discussions to agree on the inte- agreement was by and large followed. gration of research paradigms and approaches.

TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 19

Among RENMAN WP 1 researchers. WP 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 has been extremely successful in integrating its researchers in intensive discus- Baden John A. 1998: A Primer for the sions on substantial research issues, de- Management of Common-Pool Re- spite the large geographical distances sources and Public Goods. Manag- between individual researchers. Annual ing the Commons. (Eds.) John A. workshops have provided opportunities for Baden and Douglas S. Noonan. 2 mutual brainstorming, and each workshop nd. Ed. Indiana University Press, report is the result of intensive collabora- Bloomington, IN tive editing. Collaborative workshops, Berkes, Fikret and Carl Folke, eds 1998: brainstorming sessions, co-authoring and Linking Social and Ecological Sys- co-editing have proven to be fruitful tems. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- modes of knowledge integration that can versity Press be emulated elsewhere as well. Gunderson, Lance H., C.S. Holling and Stephen S. Light, eds 1995: Barri- 4.4 Partnerships in research ers and Bridges to the Renewal of Ecosystems and Institutions. New This relation was achieved through the York, NY: Columbia University application of PAR. The approach needs Press to be applied consistently throughout and Hall B L 1979: Participatory research: beyond projects to attain the goal of fair an approach for change. Conver- equity in research and science: gence 8, 2: 24-33 Hanna, Susan S., Carl Folke and Karl- - any grant application needs to be Göran Mäler 1996: Rights to Na- conceived by both scientists and ture. Washington, DC: Island Press practitioners jointly from its incep- Hanna, Susan S & Sven Jentoft 1996: tion to allow for meshing of ideas Human Use of Natural Environ- leading to sound research with ap- ment: An Overview of Social and propriate results for policy devel- Economic Dimension. Rights to Na- opment; ture. Ecological, Economic, Cul- - any co-management structure tural, and Political Principles of In- needs to have the decision-making stitutions for the Environment. powers to shape the future of rein- (Eds.) Susan S Hannan, Carl deer management; any feeling of Folke, Karl-Göran Mäler. Island an illusionary 'theater of democ- Press, Washinton, DC racy' needs to be avoided; this Heikkinen, Hannu 2002: Sopeutumisen would only widen the gap between mallit. Poronhoidon adaptaatio practitioners and managing jälkiteolliseen toimintaympäristöön administrators and lead to Suomen läntisellä poronhoitoal- opposite results in this process. ueella 1980 – 2000 (Models of Ad- aptation - Adaptation of Reindeer Herding to the Postindustrial En- vironment in the Western Finnish Reindeer Herding area 1980 - 2000), in Finnish. Doctoral disser- tation, University of Oulu. SKS, Helsinki. 369 p 20 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

Hiebert Walter and David Swan 1999: Mckean Margaret A 1996: Common- Positively fit: a case study in com- Property Regimes as a Solution to munity development and the role of Problems of Scale and Linkage. participatory action research. Rights to Nature. Ecological, Eco- Community Development Journal nomic, Cultural, and Political Prin- 34. 4: 356-364 ciples of Institutions for the Envi- Hukkinen Janne 1999: Institutions in ronment. (Eds.) Susan S. Hannan, Environmental Management. Con- Carl Folke, Karl-Göran Mäler. Is- structing Mental Models and Sus- land Press, Washington, DC tainability. London & New York, Müller-Wille Ludger 2001: From rein- Routledge deer stew to pizza: the displacement Hukkinen Janne 2001: Eco-efficiency as of local food resources in Sápmi, abandonment of nature. Ecological northernmost Europe. Fennia 179, Economics 38: 311-315 1: 89-96 Hukkinen, Janne 2003: From groundless Müller-Wille Ludger and Janne Hukkinen universalism to grounded general- 1999: Human environmental inter- ism: Improving ecological economic actions in Upper Lapland, Finland: indicators of human-environmental development of participatory re- interaction. Ecological Economics search strategies. Acta Borealia 16, 44: 11-27 2: 43-61 Hukkinen, J. (in press): Sustainability Ruckelshaus William D 1998: Foreword. indicators for anticipating the fick- Managing the Commons and Com- leness of human-environmental in- munity. Pacific Northwest People, teraction. Clean Technologies and Salmon, Rivers, and Sea. Managing Environmental Policy the Commons. (Eds.) John A Baden Jodha Narpat S 1996: Property Rights and Douglas S Noonan. 2 nd. Ed. and Development. Rights to Nature. Indiana University Press, Blooming- Ecological, Economic, Cultural, and ton, IN. Political Principles of Institutions Ostrom Elinor, Gardner Roy, Walker for the Environment. (Eds.) Susan S James 1994: Rules, Games, & Hannan, Carl Folke, Karl-Göran Common-Pool Resources. The Uni- Mäler. Island Press, Washington, versity of Michigan Press, Ann Ar- DC bor, MI

TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 21

II. SUMMARIES OF PROJECTS AND PUBLICATIONS

1. WORKSHOPS ON THE FUTURE Co-operative (7), where most of the on- OF REINDEER MANAGEMENT site studies were conducted, and from 10 other co-operatives (11) distributed from AND PARTICIPATORY INSTI- south to north. The names of reindeer TUTIONS herders had been suggested through a variety of sources (personal contacts, Workpackage 1 organized a series of known public figures, interviewees). A three workshops as a forum for the requirement was that people played an formulation of problem areas, concerns active role in reindeer management within and issues as well as recommendations their own co-operative or on the regional and scenarios for reindeer herding level. management. Next to logistics and amenities for the participants the The workshop’s deliberations in working research team provided for the groups and plenaries established items documentation of this process through an that were put together as check lists and interactive exchange of ideas and texts. were repeated for each area such as (a) Each workshop’s results were published identifiable problems, (b) proposed rec- and widely distributed. These reports have ommendations and, finally, (c) urgent served as a base for further research, dis- research needs. The areas on the checklist cussions and debates around the future of covered in sequence (1) administration, reindeer management in northern (2) institutions, (3) continuation of liveli- F inland. hood, (4) cultural dimensions and (5) en- 1.1 Workshop 1, vironmental problems. Each section in- Tankavaara, Vuotso, cluded a range of detailed items with ex- 24 to 26 August 2001 planations.

Reindeer Herders Speak Out. Problems, The workshop’s report was widely distrib- decision-making opportunities and re- uted in reindeer management circles but search needs in reindeer herding as seen also to all 1 800 reindeer herding house- by herders in the Province of Lapland, holds whose list was made accessible Finland (Hukkinen et al 2002) through the National Association of Rein- deer Herding Co-operatives. The ensuing The first workshop brought together 27 discussions between reindeer herders and people, researchers (9, all from the research team led to the preparation RENMAN) and reindeer herders (18) who of the second workshop which created a came from the Lappi Reindeer Herding focus on specific themes to be dealt with.

22 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

1.2 Workshop 2, 1.3 Workshop 3, Levi Lappi Village, Kittilä, Levi Lappi Village, Kittilä, 23 to 25 August 2002 13 to 15 August 2003

The value of reindeer herding culture in The future of reindeer management (Heik- Finland. Challenges for administration, kinen et al in press) management and control. (Hukkinen et al 2003) The third and final workshop became the crucial threshold for the process of par- The second workshop expanded the range ticipatory action research which was the of participants by inviting reindeer herd- principle behind this open-ended social ers, administrators and politicians as well process. The actors, i.e. the participants as researchers from outside the (incl, the research team of WP 1), had RENMAN research programs. In all 32 the outcome in their hands. This time the people joined this workshop: 19 reindeer number of participants was 28 with 13 herders from 16 co-operatives: 10 from reindeer herders from 12 co-operatives, 6 the Sámi Home Region (8 co-operatives), from the Sámi Home Region (5 co- 6 from the central regions (5) and 3 from operatives), 4 from the central area (4) the southern fringe (3): there were 2 re- and 3 from the south (3), 9 researchers (3 gional administrators and 1 politician as from outside RENMAN) and 6 adminis- well as 10 researchers (incl. RENMAN) trators from the national, ministerial and and organizers. regional levels.

The thematic topics covered following The results of this series of workshops will areas: (1) society’s role in solutions for lead to the formulation of visions, scenar- reindeer herding’s problems, (2) the con- ios and recommendations that are flict between community and market grounded in the final discussions and the forces, (3) relations with other land use review of the documents by all partici- practices, (4) reindeer numbers and pas- pants. It is quite apparent that the opin- ture conditions, (5) subsidies and com- ions and voices were not unanimous. Nei- pensations in reindeer herding, (6) the ther was it the objective to achieve con- position of the National Association of sensus - an impossibility. Rather, the re- Reindeer Co-operatives, (7) central sults are seen as a contribution to the administration in reindeer herding, (8) continuation of very much needed discus- the European Union and central slaughter sions on the future of reindeer herding. facilities, and (9) research, expertise and The report is currently under review and planning. will be ready for publication by early 2004. Each item was thoroughly discussed in working groups and plenary sessions and resulted in an extended report identifying in detail each problem area by formulat- ing proposal that were prepared for the third workshop. This report was distributed to all participants, reindeer co- operatives, administrators and researchers. TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 23

2. CAN THE MOSQUITO BE 2.1 Losses and adaptations in rein- HEARD IN HEAVEN? REINDEER deer herding in the Lappi Reindeer Herding Co-operative due to HERDERS’ ANALYSIS OF CHANGES considerable environmental IN REINDEER HERDING IN changes since the 1950s FINLAND’S LAPLAND DURING (Magga 2003) THE 20TH CENTURY (HEIKKINEN ET AL. 2003) This report is divided into three major sections. In the first, the author discusses The objective of the regional studies on the historical development of reindeer recent historical changes in reindeer herd- herding and related livelihoods such as ing practices was to obtain a detailed hunting, fishing, berry gathering, hay- insight into varying local processes as dairy agriculture and handicraft. In addi- seen by the practitioners themselves who tion, he provides a detailed analysis of the participated fully in these processes. All activities that have shaped reindeer herd- three authors of the following studies are ing practices: summer calf marking, fod- involved in reindeer management and der provisions (hay, leaves, etc.), herding related livelihoods based on local renew- work, round-ups, book keeping (live and able resources. All three own reindeer and slaughter animals), pasture assessment have been active politically in their local and conditions, fences, settlement pat- communities shaping changes to policies, terns and infrastructure. In the second economic development and social affairs. section, environmental changes and deg- None of the authors is a trained re- radation are analyzed in relation to the searcher or academic. Thus these trea- encroachment of industrial forestry and tises break conventional academic bor- major hydro-electric developments since ders by drawing directly from life experi- the 1950s which have resulted in dis- ences within the communities which are placement of people and their homes and translated into the structured framework the loss of pasture to reindeer herding. of a systematic study of changes in rein- The more recent impact of large-scale deer herding during the 20th century. The tourism and recreation is highlighted as authors’ tasks were formidable knowing well. Lastly, the author discusses the con- that their presentations would be scruti- temporary developments in reindeer herd- nized along any other scientific writing ing that copes with the integration of coming out of the RENMAN research modern technology and financial, admin- program. The results show the wealth of istrative and legal demands as well as detail and the analytical skills that the social changes in the small communities practitioner exudes working with situa- of reindeer herders. tions in real life and making constant decisions for the well-being of the community and the animals. 24 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

2.2 Alta vita - the impact of envi- 2.3 The impact of environmental ronmental change on traditional pressures on reindeer herding in the livelihoods in Lomajärvi Paadar-Muotkatunturi Reindeer (Nevalainen 2003) Herding Co-operative (Jääskö 2003) The author tells the story of her own community which spans just more than 100 The author provides an account of the years or five generations of existence in historical events in the reindeer co- the boreal forest of Finnish Lapland. The operative since 1945. She divides the number of inhabitants hovered between 3 period up to the early 2000s into four and 27 during that period with a peak in eras highlighting particular characteris- 1950 and a current population of 9 in tics for each one. The first period is the three households. The story of the Loma- ‘old time’ from 1945 to 1963 when rein- järvi families is one of expanding into the deer herding practices were still very forests by hunting, fishing and hay-dairy much localized and closely tied to the farming (cattle, sheep, goats), and environment in a self-sufficient way. This carving out a niche supplemented by was followed by a period of rapid mod- acquiring reindeer. Herding, in fact, was ernization and mechanization from 1964 a new activity to be learned by becoming to 1973, which began with the introduc- integrated into the local herding co- tion of the snowmobile and ended with the operative and participating in the regular oil energy crisis. From 1973 to 1994 the herding activities. The 1950s brought co-operative experienced boom and bust changes to the infrastructure and intro- cycles which were caused by difficult eco- duced forestry which competed with rein- nomic times resulting in people seeking deer herding over space and pasture. By work elsewhere and by the Finnish Park the early 2000s adaptations have oc- and Forest Service beginning its felling curred by reindeer owners keeping their campaign in the region. All this had a reindeer fenced in over longer periods considerable impact on the co-operative’s during the seasons and feeding them addi- success in reindeer management. The au- tional fodder. Today, with seven reindeer thor lets the latest period begin in 1994 owners and a stock between 180 and 250 when the co-operative started actively to animals, reindeer herding still plays a pursue the case against the forest authori- defining and major role in the life of this ties’ felling policies and activities detri- small community. mental to reindeer herding. With some limited success the co-operative revital- ized its energies focusing on sound management practices in reindeer herding that would provide the community with a base to secure an acceptable standard of living.

TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 25

3. MORE INITIATIVE, FEWER were more positive toward feeding of the COMPLAINTS: THE VIEWS OF reindeer than the other respondents. This view was based on the idea that reindeer FINNISH ADMINISTRATION herding needs to be modernised. Repre- ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF sentatives of municipalities saw feeding PARTICIPATORY INSTITUTIONS and fodder farming as a way to IN REINDEER MANAGEMENT strengthen and widen the local economy (RAITIO & HEIKKINEN 2003) as a whole.

The purpose of the study was to analyse Despite the fairly broadly supported goal, the views of reindeer herding administra- there was no common view found regard- tion concerning the development of par- ing the reasons for the challenges, nor the ticipatory institutions. Also their views on needed solutions. The views differed con- the challenges and needs in current herd- siderably also among representatives of ing were studied. The data consists of 25 the same organisation. The views can be semi-structured thematic interviews, placed on a continuum, in which one end which were carried out in the state ad- represents the idea that the internal ministration at the central and regional choices made by the herders as well as levels, as well as in municipalities and their lack of professionalism cause the other relevant administrative organisa- challenges for the occupation. This view tions of reindeer herding. These include was common to representatives of the the Sámi Parliament, the Association for MMM and Metsähallitus (Forest and Reindeer Herding Co-operatives, Forest Park Service). The representatives of the and Park Service (Metsähallitus) and Sámi Parliament, the Association for Finnish Fisheries and Game Research Reindeer Herding Co-operatives and the Institute. The views of the interviewees municipalities formed the other end of the were compared with those of the reindeer continuum. They emphasised the role of herders based on data collected in the competing land users and political deci- RENMAN project. sion-making process as a whole, which create the challenges in the first place. The 25 interviews show that the represen- Consequently, the latter emphasised as a tatives of the various administrative or- solution the need for a stronger position ganisations share a common goal for for reindeer herding over other land-uses reindeer management: to promote rein- in crucial pastures. That would enable deer herding which is based on natural reindeer herding to be based on natural pastures (as opposed to feeding) and pastures also in the future. The subsidies which provides the herders employment were recommended to be targeted toward and income. From this perspective, two supporting young beginners and the work main challenges were identified: (1) the (herding) itself, instead the amount of scarcity or poor condition of the pastures animals. In contrast, the former consid- and (2) weak profitability of herding as ered current land use regulations suffi- an occupation. The latter was most often cient and emphasised the need for herders understood as the consequence of the to take initiative and to develop their pro- former. This view correlates well with the fession at the local level. The views of the one presented by reindeer herders them- regional state administration fell in be- selves. However, it should be noted that tween these two extremes. the representatives of the municipalities 26 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

The differing views of the problems and 2) The best way to overcome this cures were related to views about the na- problem is to develop more holistic ture of reindeer herding in general: those approaches instead of or in addi- putting more emphasis on the responsibil- tion to the current sectoral ap- ity of the herders themselves saw reindeer proaches; herding primarily as an economic activity 3) Lack of knowledge is not the only (herding as occupation). Those with a problem. For example, local ad- broader view of the causes also empha- ministration seems to know very sised the cultural and social importance well the circumstances and argu- of reindeer herding in addition to its eco- ments of reindeer herders, yet mu- nomic role (herding as a livelihood and a nicipalities are responsible for the way of life). When addressing the chal- zoning decisions that benefit com- lenges shared by most interviewees (and peting land uses at the expense of the herders themselves), it is important to reindeer herding. Economic pres- clarify whether reindeer management is sures persuade the local level to considered to be purely an economic ac- find new, more productive and tivity or also a unique and endangered short-term means to utilize the way of life and culture. The answer is natural environment, instead of likely to influence considerably the strate- the less profitable traditional live- gies with which the problems are tackled. lihoods. It is an open question whether the local administration favors reindeer feeding because it From the perspective of developing par- provides them with a means to ticipatory institutions for reindeer herding prioritize tourism, forestry, min- the challenge is that the central state ad- ing, turf production and other ministration in Finland sees little or no more economic modes of produc- need for self-improvement. Instead, they tion, or whether they have an hon- consider the currently existing institutions est aim to improve the productiv- as satisfactory. In contrast, the regional ity of reindeer herding. state administrators as well as municipal authorities did consider the current sys- 4) The gap between each level of ad- tem as being too top-down. They criticised ministration and the local level also central administration for weak or reindeer herders could be nar- obsolete communication with the other rowed down by developing a) co- levels of administration as well as with management practices, b) infor- the reindeer herders themselves. mation flow between different levels of administration, c) more ho- To summarize: listic analysis of current situations and d) legal reforms to get rein- 1) The main cause of conflict between deer herding more stable rights the administration and the herders and position towards competitive lies in how each party defines the forms of land use. causes and consequences behind the problems of modern reindeer herding;

TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 27

4. PUBLICATIONS (2003) Porohoitokulttuurin arvo Suomessa. Haasteet hallinnolle, oh- Heikkinen, Hannu (ed.) (2003) Kuuluuko jaukselle ja valvonnalle. Helsinki sääsken ääni taivaaseen? Poromies- University of Technology Labora- ten analyysi poronhoidon murrok- tory of Environmental Protection sista Suomen Lapissa 1900-luvulla. Publication 1/2003, 44 pp Helsinki University of Technology Jääskö, Outi (2003) Ympäristöpaineiden Laboratory of Environmental Pro- vaikutukset Paadarin - Muotkatun- tection Publication 3/2003, 128 pp turin paliskunnan poronhoitoon. Heikkinen, Hannu, Janne Hukkinen, Outi Helsinki University of Technology Jääskö, Ari Laakso, Ludger Müller- Laboratory of Environmental Pro- Wille, Satu Nevalainen, Kaisa tection Publication 3/2003: 105- Raitio, Nina West, eds (in press) 128 Poronhoidon tulevaisuus. Helsinki Magga, Hannu (2003) Poronhoidon me- University of Technology Labora- netykset ja sopeuttaminen suuriin tory of Environmental Protection ympäristömuutoksiin Lapin palis- Publication kunnassa 1950-luvulta lähtien. Hel- Hukkinen, Janne, Ludger Müller-Wille sinki University of Technology and Hannu Heikkinen (in press) De- Laboratory of Environmental Pro- velopment of participatory institu- tection Publication 3/2003: 11-78 tions for reindeer management in Nevalainen, Satu (2003) Alta vita - ym- northern Finland. Preliminary syn- päristön muutosten vaikutuksista thesis and report. Helsinki Univer- perinteisiin elinkeinoihin Loma- sity of Technology Laboratory of järvellä. Helsinki University of Environmental Protection Publica- Technology Laboratory of Environ- tion mental Protection Publication Hukkinen, Janne, Outi Jääskö, Ari La- 3/2003: 79-103 akso, Ludger Müller-Wille, Kaisa Raitio, Kaisa and Hannu Heikkinen Raitio (eds.) (2002) Poromiehet pu- (2003) Enemmän oma- huvat. Poronhoidon ongelmat, rat- aloitteisuutta, vähemmän valitusta. kaisumahdollisuudet ja tutkimus- Hallinnon näkemyksiä poronhoidon tarpeet Suomen Lapissa poromi- osallistumiseen perustuvien insti- esten näkokulmasta. Helsinki Uni- tuutioiden kehittämisestä. Helsinki versity of Technology Laboratory of University of Technology Labora- Environmental Protection Publica- tory of Environmental Protection tion 1/2002, 37 pp Publication 4/2003, 48 pp Hukkinen, Janne, Outi Jääskö, Ari La- akso, Ludger Müller-Wille, Satu Nevalainen, Kaisa Raitio (eds.)

28 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003

III. LIST OF WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS (2001-2003)

Total: 52 people

Reindeer herders / owners (29) (name, reindeer herding co-operative, place of residence)

Aikio, Pekka (Lappi, Sodankylä) Artijeff, Tarja (Ivalo, Nellim) Hannula, Marjatta (Kemi-Sompio, Kuosku) Hetta, Ari (Lappi, Vuotso) Jääskö, Outi (Muotkatunturi, Angeli; RENMAN WP1) Kantola, Jaakko (Alakylä, Helppi) Kyrö, Reijo (Kyrö, Rattama) Länsman, Jari Heikki (Galdoaivi, Utsjoki) Länsman, Vieno (Galdoaivi, Nuorgam) Magga, Erkki (Lappi, Vuotso) Magga, Hannu (Lappi, Vuotso; RENMAN WP1) Magga, J. Antti (Näkkälä, Nunnanen) Maijala, Juhani (Oraniemi, Sodankylä) Mattus, Petri (Hammastunturi, Ivalo) Morottaja, Antti (Muddusjärvi, Inari) Nevalainen, Pekka (Kuivasalmi, Lomajärvi) Nevalainen, Satu (Kuivasalmi, Lomajärvi; RENMAN WP1) Nikula, Esko (Hammastunturi, Inari) Näkkäläjärvi, Iisko (Käsivarsi, Karesuvanto) Paldan, Antero (Pohjois-Salla, Salla) Pokuri, Osmo (Lappi, Vuotso;RENMAN WP1) Ristimella, Taisto (Muonio, Äkäslompolo) Ruokamo, Timo (Timisjärvi, Karjalaisenniemi) Sainmaa, Martti (Palojärvi, Pessalompolo) Sieppi, Oula (Lappi, Vuotso) Tornensis, Juha (Käsivarsi, Kilpisjärvi) Tornensis, Eeva-Sisko (Käsivarsi, Kilpisjärvi) Vehkaoja, Mikko (Kiiminki, Yli-Kiiminki) Äärelä, Sakari (Lappi, Vuotso)

Civil servants / politicians (8)

Alanko, Keijo (Lapin TE-keskus, Rovaniemi) Filppa, Jouni (Paliskuntain yhdistys, Rovaniemi) Helle, Eero (Finnish Game and Fish Research Institute, Helsinki) Kankaanpää, Sakari (Urho Kekkosen National Park, Tankavaara) Osara, Matti (Ministry of the Environment, Helsinki) Tennilä, Esko Juhani (Member of Parliament) Tolvi, Timo (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry) Viik, Pertti (Paliskuntain yhdistys, Rovaniemi) TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 6/2003 29

Researchers (15)

1) External (5)

Koivulehto, Marjatta (Espoo) Länsman, Anni-Siiri (University of Lapland) Ruotsala, Helena (University of Turku) Sipilä, Pekka (Oulu) Tuisku, Tuula (University of Oulu)

2) RENMAN (10)

Other workpackages (4) Forbes, Bruce (University of Lapland) Heikkilä, Lydia (University of Lapland) Helle, Timo (Finnish Forest Research Institute) Kitti, Heidi (University of Oulu)

Workpackage 1 (6 [+ 4 under herders])

Heikkinen, Hannu (Helsinki University of Technology) Hukkinen, Janne (Helsinki University of Technology) Laakso, Ari (University of Lapland) Müller-Wille, Ludger (McGill University, Canada) Raitio, Kaisa (University of Joensuu) West, Nina (University of Lapland)

IV. RESEARCH TEAM MEMBERS - WORKPACKAGE 1 (2001-2004)

Aikio, Pekka (Sámi Parliament in Finland; Lappi Reindeer Herding Co- operative) Heikkinen, Hannu (Helsinki University of Technology) Hukkinen, Janne (Helsinki University of Technology; principal investigator) Jääskö, Outi (Muotkatunturi Reindeer Herding Co-operative) Laakso, Ari (University of Lapland) Magga, Hannu (Lappi Reindeer Herding Co-operative) Müller-Wille, Ludger (McGill University, Canada; co-investigator) Nevalainen, Satu (Kuivasalmi Reindeer Herding Co-operative) Pokuri, Osmo (Lappi Reindeer Herding Co-operative) Raitio, Kaisa (University of Joensuu) West, Nina (University of Lapland)

Helsinki University of Technology Laboratory of Environmental Protection Teknillisen korkeakoulun ympäristönsuojelun laboratorio

Researchers at the Laboratory

Janne Hukkinen, PhD, Professor, [email protected] Henrik Bruun, PhD, Senior researcher, [email protected] Hannu Heikkinen, PhD, Post-doc researcher, [email protected] Richard Langlais, PhD, Senior researcher, [email protected] Maria Höyssä, MA, Researchers, PhD-student, [email protected] Nina Janasik, MA, Researchers, PhD-student, [email protected] Mikko Rask, MA, Researchers, PhD-student, [email protected] Olli Salmi, MSc, Researchers, PhD-student, [email protected] Martti Timonen, MSc, Researchers, PhD-student Aino Toppinen, MSc, Researchers, PhD-student, [email protected] Marja Luotola, PhD, Docent, Finnish Environment Institute, [email protected]

Research Projects at the Laboratory

Barents, Ecological Modernization in the Barents Euro-Arctic Region through Insti- tutional and Technological Innovations, 1999-2002. Funding: Academy of Finland.

PROB, In Search of Process-Based Regional Development Policy, 2001-2002. Fun- ding: Nordic Council of Ministers.

SCulBio 2000, Socio-cultural Dimensions of Technological Change: The Case of Fin- nish Biotechnology, 2000-2004. Funding: Academy of Finland.

RENMAN, The Challenges of Modernity for Reindeer Management: Integration and Sustainable Development in Europe’s Subarctic and Boreal Regions, Development o f Participatory Institutions for Reindeer Management, 2000-2004. Funding: The Euro- pean Union.

ManTra, Managing Transepistemic Innovation Processes, 2002-2003. Funding: Tekes National Technology Agency.

ANALOG, Analogy as an Analytical Approach to Industrial Ecology and Ecosystem Management, 2003-2006. Funding: Academy of Finland.

ISBN 951-22-6805-1 ISSN 1457-8654