Chinese Mohammedans. Author(S): John Anderson Source: the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol

Chinese Mohammedans. Author(s): John Anderson Source: The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 1 (1872), pp. 147-162 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2840950 . Accessed: 14/06/2014 18:10

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This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Discussion. 147

DISCUSSION. Dr. CHARNOOKsaid: Accordingto Dr. Pechey, the territoryof the Cornu blacks is oni the northbank of the Darling, fromits junction withthe Bogan to Toralie, which is about sixtymiles furtherdown the formerriver. He, Dr. Charnock,had comparedthe presentvoca- bulary withthat of the Woolner,spoken in North Adelaide, and also with Mr. Taplin's conmparativelist of words in seventeenlanguages spoken in Southern,Eastern, and Western Australia. The Cornu vocabularycontained a hundredand eighty-fivewords, the Woolner two hundred and thirty,Mr. Taplin's list only seventy-one. The words in the three vocabularies differedconsiderably. Only three Cornuwords agreed to any extentwith those in the Woolner: twenty- fourwords in the Cornu are found in some formor otherin one or moreof the languages in Mr. Taplin's list. Of these,seventeen agree with the languages spoken by the Marourasof the Lower Darling, niinewith those in Blanchewater,eight with the Adelaide and Moo- rundeetribes of South Australiarespectively, seven withthe tribesof Lake Kipperamana,six with that of the Narrinyeritribes, and four with the languagesof MoretonBay, northof Darling,Lake Macquarie, Parnkalla,and Swan River respectively. All the rest are under four. The two highest have an affinitywvith eleven, the lowest with only one language. The Cornuword prindah appeared to be used forboth thunderand bones. UnderParra-wortoo-the Milky Way-the author of the Vocabulary made the followingremark, "Supposed by the Cornu tribe to be another river,on the banks of whichafter death they rise again as white men. They point out places in the Milky Way whichrepresent part of the Darling as the native fishery,etc."; and under Butter-birruka-Magdalen Clouids-Dr. Pechey' says, " two old black women,who, for some misdeeds,were sent to the skies as a warning." Dr. Pechey gives a wordfor God (Coola-booro), and forDevil (Booree),which are not foundin the two othervocabularies. Under the wordfor " God", he says, '- I am not at all certainwhat is expressed by this word,except that it means the ' Master of all the Blacks and created things';of his good or evil attributesI am ignor- ant. In Corroborries,for rain,etc., this is the power they invokeor hope to appease"; and under the word forDevil, he says, " I am by no means sure that this is a pure Cornuword. The blacks are afraid to call the spiritsof evil by their names. The Papilio Erectheusis suipposedto followone of the evil spirits( Yan-ta-mucke-galh) about like a dog, and when the butterflyis seen, the evil spirit is not far off."

The followingpaper was thenread: CHINESE MOHAMMEDANS. By JOHN`ANDERSON, M.D., F.L.S., Indian Museum. THE earliestnotice of the introductionof Mohammedanisminto China reaches back as far as A.D. 757** Sutsung, the then reigningprince of the Gung dynasty,was hard pressed by a * Yule, " Cathay, and the Way thither." I regret I have not had an opportunityto consult this book.

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1418 JOHINANDERSON.-Chtinese Iohiamrnedatns. powerfulrebel, but, while in deep difficulties,an embassyfrom the Caliph Aboo Joffiral Mansoor,the founderof Bagdad, ac- companiedby auxiliarytroops, fortunately arrived to his assistance and enabled him to defeat the rebel. These auxiliaries, however,appear to have given him a good deal of trouble,for we findthat theypillaged the easterncapital Soyangand sacked Canton on theirway to embarkfor their homes. But theynever left China, for they discovered,on their arrival among their tradingfellow countrymen at this town,that theywere despised for theirhaving so long associatedwith a swine-eatinginfidel population. The reignof Tetsung,Sutsung's grandson, was nearlyas unset- tled,and therewas nothingto be heard of but insurrections,and he was forcedto augmenthis armyby a greatnumber of fresh troops,some of whichwere received fromthe Abbaside caliph, and to maintainwhich he had to double his taxes and impose one on tea. The accountgiven of China by the two Mohammedantravel- lers,Wahab and Abuzaid,*who arrivedat Canfu or Canton in the middleof the ninthcentury, would lead us to concludethat the countryhad long been resortedto by Arab teachers. Even in those earlytimes, the Arab commnunityof Canton was one of considerableimportance, for it had a judge or kadi appointed over it by the Emperorof China,and the Mohammedan,Jewish, and Parsee populationmassacred in 877 amountedto 120,000. It has been stated,thowever, but on what authorityI have not been able to discover,that the Arabs were acquainted with China even beforethis period,and that theyhad visited it by land as earlyas the reign of Walid (708), who sent an enmbassy with valuable presentsto the Emperorby way of Kasbgar. Mohammedanismwas littleknown among the Tartars before the time of ChengizKhan, but his conquestswere the means of introducinga considerableTurkish population of Oaijours and Toonganees into the provinces of Shensi and Kansu. The formertribe had abjured Buddhismabout two centuriesand a- halfbefore the conquestof China by the Tartars. The religious life,and indeed the individualityas a race of these new comers, was kept alive by the vigorousteaching and politicalintercourse that subsisted in these early times between China and their mothercountry, and otherMohammedan lands to the west. With this large increaseof Mohammedanpopulation to that alreadyintroduced by the Arab tradersand the contingentsof the Abbaside caliphs,it is not to be wonderedthat the distin- guishedtraveller, Marco Polo, was struck,when he visitedChina in 1271-1294, with the number of Mohammnedans.In his * "Ancient Accounts." t " Chinese Repository,"vol. iii, p. 109.

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOHN ANDERSON.-CIinese )Iohanrnedans. 149 descriptionof the people on the westernverge of Shensi,where the celebratedmart of Segui (the Selui of Pallas) was situated, on the way betweenTibet and Pekin, in his accountof the city of Signgan,the capital of the province,and of Karaian, part of YLian, he describesthe Mohammedansas forminga considerable part of the foreignpopulation, but does not offerany opinion as to when tlleywere introducedinto the empire. The positioiiwhich this religioussect had attained in China, duringhis time (the reign of Kublai Khan) was considerable, forPolo informsus that the provincialgovernments and magis- tracies were entrustedto the Tartars,Christians, and Moham- medans. The latter,however, misabused their trust so much that the Emperor,reflecting on the principlesof these accursed Saracens,forbade them to continuemany practices conjoined on them by their laws, This interdict,however, does not appear to have affectedtheir loyalty, for we find them prayingfor the welfareof the Great Khan on his birthdays,and some of their leading men,in accordancewith Chineseprinciples of religious toleration,were advanced to positionsof considerabletrust in the civil,military, and scientificdepartments of the empire. For mLany yearsthe Emperor'sfirst Minister of Finance was an Arab, and we find the invasionof Burmah,and the sieges of Signgan and Fautchingentrusted to Mohammedangenerals, and anotherof their sect advanced to the distinguishedoffice of Presidentof the MathematicalBoard. With facts like these,and others of a similarnature which mightbe adduced,we have ample evidence to show that they had gained a firmhold in manyparts of China by Marco Polo's time,more especially in the provincesof Shensi, Kansu, aitd Yunan. Ibn Batuta is our next authorityon the extentto whichthey had increasedabout the middle of the fourteenthcenitury. He reached China by sea, and states that in every large town lie found Moharnmedanswho were generallyrich inerchants,and that in all the provincesthere was a town for them,anid that each had usually a mosque,market, a cell for the poor, and sheikliI1 Islam, and that in some districtsthey were exceedingly numerous. Rusheedooddeen,the vizier of the Persian empire,in the early part of the fouirteenthcentury, particularises Yunan province, anidstates that the inhabitantswere all Mohamnmedans.* The Jesuitfathers who were in China aboutthe middleof the seventeenthcentury make frequentmention of the Mohammedan population. Lewis le Comte,twriting to the Lord Cardinalde * "Edinburgh Review," 1868, p. 359. t Le Comte, " I-List.of China," pp. 339, 3441.

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 150 JOHNANDERSON.--Chinese Mohammedans.

Bouillon (1680 A.D.), mentions that they had been about six hundred*years in the country,and that theywere never dis- turbedbecause theynever disturbed anyone else on the score of religion,but quietly enjoyed their libertywithout studyilng, to propagatetheir doctrine even by intermarriagesout of theirown kindred. At that time theywere not considerableenouglh for eithertheir number or wealthto have any such views,t and even in places where theywere most numerousand made the best figure,as in the provinces to the north,where theyhad been settled for manygenerations, and in some of the towns along the canal, where theyhad built high mosques differingentirely fromChinese ideas of architecture,they were still looked upon as of foreignextraction, and had frequentlybeen insultedby the Chinese. The oppressionto which theywere subjectedafter the second Tartarconquest began to showitself so earlyas the beginning,of the eighteenthcentury, when the populace in the city of Hang- chew,in the provinceof Huquang, upon some dislike taken at the indiscreetbehaviour of some of them,destroyed the mosques, notwithstandingall the enideavoursof the magistracyto prevent it. The earlier incident,however, about 1651, when theywere deprived by the Tartar Emperor-Shunchi of the high honours theyhad enjoyed fornearly three hundredyears, in connection with the tribunal of Mathematics,seems to have inaugurated that change of policy that drove the Mohammedansto open rebellionin afteryears. The firstof these occurredin 1765 or 1767, on the westernfrontier (Yunan ?), in the reign of Keen- ltng, and spread also to the province of Kansu. The rebels resisted the imperial forceswith great valour, but were ulti- matelysubdued. The Abbe Grosier,twriting after this event, but withoutrefer- ence to it, says that forsome tinmepast the Mohammnedansseem to have been moreparticularly attentive to the care of extending theirsect and propagatingtheir doctrine, a coursewhich appears to mneto have been forcedupon themin orderto enable themto withstandthe oppressionfromi which theywere evidentlysuffer- ing at the time the Abbe wrote. As the breach widened be- tweenthein and theirTartar governors-for they appear to have been always on good termswith the Chiinese-theybecame so exclusivethat theywould not sufferanyone to live amiongthem who did not attendmosque. The methodthey now resortedto to add to theirnumLber of the faithfulwas, not the rallyilngcry of the west,deen deen, but * Dui Halde, " China", vol. i, p. 678. t " Universal History", vol. iii, pp. 122-123. t Grosier," China," vol. ii, p. 270.

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the freeuse of theirwealth in purchasingchildren, whom they circumcisedand educated as Mohammedans. In the fright- ful famine which devastated the province of Quang-ting,in 1790, theypurchased ten thousand childrenfrom poor parents compelledby necessityreadily to partwith them; and thesethey educated,and as they grew up provided wives for,and gave them houses,and even formedwhole villages of these bought converts.*This systemis still prevalentin Yunan and Ghad, numerousinstances of it being broughtunder my noticewhile at Momien,the mostwesterly stronghold of the Panthays. The native officerin chargeof the police guard,a most rigid Mohammedan,was accomipaniedby his Burmesewife, and owing to his intimateacquaintance with the ceremonialdetails of their religion,was in great vogue among the Panthays. He was childless,and accordinglya little Chinese girl,who had been latelypurchased from poor parents,was made a Mohammedan and given him as an heir,as one of the most appropriategifts theycould think of makingin returnfor the many prayers he had offeredup forthem in theirmosq-ue.t (Gutzlafftmentions that duringhis residencein China (1825- 1832) theyhad severalmosques in Che Keang,Pi chi le, Shensi, and Kansu, but that,as theyhad occasionallyjoined the rebels of Turkistan,the goverlnmentviewed themnwith a jealous eye. Nevertheless,some of their community w\iere in officesof high trust. Notwithstandinigthe great distance they live fromthe native coun- tryof the prophet,Gutzlaff informs us thatmany of themr made pilgrimagesto Mecca, and returnedwith Arabian manuscripts and wonderfulstories about the graveof Mohammed;that a few could readArabic imperfectly, and perhapsrepeat the firstSura;

* Du Halde, vol. i, p. 678. t Yunan appears to have been the scene of almost incessant insurrection from1817 to 1834, whollyattributable, in all probability,to the Mohamme- dans. The firstrebellion lasted from1817 to 1818. when the rebels seem to have had some organisation, for they attacked the capital, in which the Chinese commanderhad shut himselfup. A force,however, cominin to his assistance, he routed the rebels, who sought refuge among the tribes on the western frontier,leaving their leader in the hands of the Imperialists. A proclamationwas issued, promisingthe tribes protectionif they discoun- tenanced the rebels, and threatening them with destruction if they har- boured them. The Pekin gazettes notice a disturbance on the western frontierof Yunan in 1826, and another in the followingyear. A more serious revolt broke out in the saime quarter in 1828, and the leader had an imperial seal engraved, under which he published mlanifestoeson the frontierand Cochin China,inviting people to join his standard. This rebellion, however,was also suppressed. The Governorof Yunan quelled another revolt in 1826, aindagain in 1834, and the gazettes contain notices of other disturbances in the province. In none of these documents,however, is it stated that these rebellions were due to the Mohammedans,although it is highlyprobable that theywere.-" Chinese Repository",vol. iv, p. 490, et seq. + Gutzlaff's" China", vol. ii, pp. 199-200.

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 152 JOHNANDERSON.-Chinese Aohagnmedans. that theywere by no means bigoted or proselytising,or scru- pulous in the ancestralrites and veneratingConfucius. In the presentcentury they appear to have increasedmore rapidlyin Yunan than in any otherprovince to the north,and the populationappears to be possessed of considerabletrading enterprise. Caravans from Yunan visit Mandalay regularly once a-year,and Colonel Burney*relates that in 1831 almost the whole of the Chinese traders to that city were Moham- medans,a circumstancethat struckhim as veryextraordinary. The fewonly who importedhams were not Mohammedans,all the rest were regular Mohammedansrefusing to eat with the Burmese, and killing their meat accordingto Mohammriedan rites. Several of themi,he relates,could read a little Arabic, and one in a loud chantingvoice read a passage to him from some religious book in that language. They could, however, give him no accountof the time when,or the mannerin which, theywere convertedto the faith. The firstdetailed account of the Mohammedansof Yunan who have given rise to these remarkswas communicatedby Major-GeneralFytche,t on informationpartly supplied by Major Sladen, the iResidentat the Court of Mandalay,and procured by General Fytche himselffrom a fewPanthay traders he had met at Moulmein. This communicationhas since been the subject of an able articlein the EdinburghReviewt on Western China,in whichthe facts in General Fytche'spaper have been reproducedand commentedon. Two accountsof the origin of the Mohammedans were given, one derivedfrom Chinese, and the otherfrom Panthay sources. The formerhas about it all the air of circumstantiality,but the latter is overladenwith the mythicaland orientaltrappings of a religious tradition,but when divested of these it appears to be identical,to all practical purposes,with the Chinese narrative which may be brieflystated as follows:-About one tho4sand years ago a rebellionthreatened the safetyof the governmentof the reigningEmperor Oung Loshau, who sent forassistance to a Mohammedanking, called Razee, or Khazee, who governedthe countriesto the east of China. The appeal was successful,and a body of ten thousandfighting men was despatchedto his aid, and the rebellionwas quelled. A new difficultynow presented itself,as to the disposal of the contingent,which was much reduced in numbers,and because the membersof it refusedto returnto theirown country,as theyhad learnedthat theywould be despisedon theirreturn, on accountof theirlong associatioin * " Gleanings of Science", vol. iii, p. 184. t "As. Soc. Proc ", 1867, p. 176. 1 " Edinburgh Review", cxxvii,p. 357.

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOHN ANDEIRSON.-Chinese1Ifohamnzedans. 153 with a swine-eatingpopulation. They were,therefore, sent to the provinceof Yunran,where they settled and became peaceful subjectsof the Chinese empire. With these factsbefore us, our firstendeavour is to idelntify the dynastyin whichthese eventsare said to have occurred,but a difficultymeets us in the veryoutset of the inquiry,for the first part of the so-calledEmperor's name is not that of any Chinese dynastywe know of,and the difficultyincreases when we come to the name itself,for there is no name in historyof an emperor called Loshan. We findourselves in equal perplexitywhen we attemptto locate the King of Razu or Khazu. I am, therefore, inclined to suspect that General Fytche's informanthad little acquaintancewith theirearly history, a suspicionwhich is fully borneout by the informationI receivedfrom Susakon and the Hadji at Momien,*which has this to recommendit, that it agrees with therecords of the Chinese dynasties,as given by Du Halde and otherJesuit fathers, whose nmaterials,I suppose, were derived fromthe Imperialchronicles. My informantsstated that theirforefathers came fromArabia to China a thousandyears ago, in the reignof the EmperorTung- Hwone-tsung,who had senthis chiefminister, Kanzu, to Seejoog- met to imploreaid against the rebel Unloshan,and that they numberedthree thousand men.t When we comparethe leading facts in this statementwith Du Halde's lnarrativeof tlheGung dynasty,to which Hwonetsung belonged,we cannotfail to be struckwith the remarkableagree- mentbetween the two accounts,although the historianof China makes no allusionwhatever to the employmentof an Arab con- tingentin the suppressionof the rebellion. Du Halde writesthe name of the EmperorTung-hion-tsung, but thesimilarity to Gung-hwoine-tsungis so greatthat we cannot question their identity,especially when we considerthenm in conijunctionwith the events recordedby the historianand my informants.The formierrecords that Hion-tsung was a princeof singulartemperance and zeal forthe public good,but that,in the last fourteenyears of his reign,the Empirewas disturbedby an insurrectionwhich had been raised by a foreignprince, Ngaun- * I may state that I took the precaution to write all my questions,and to have them translated into Chinese; and that each question had its answer writtenopposite to it; and that the answer was foundedsolely on the ori- ginal questions, which were put pointedly: e.g., In the reign of what emperor did the Panthays arrive in China ? Ans., In the reign of Tung-hwonetsung. t Major Sladen obtained, unknown to me, a short document,giving an account of the introductionof the Mohammedans into China, agreeingo,in everyparticujlar with the above account,which I procnredquite independent of Major Sladen, or any printeddocument, and directfrom the Governorand Hadji. VOL. I. AI

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 154 JOHN ANDERSON.-ChineseMohannedans. loshan,to whom he had entrustedthe commandof his army. This traitormade himselfmaster of a greatpart of the north,ancd ultimatelyrouted the Imperial army; and a companyof robbers, enlcouragedby thesedisasters, also attackedit, and compelledthe Emperorto seek safetyin the provinceof Sechuen. Afterhis retreat,Sotsung, his son,took possessionof the government,al- thoughhis fatherwas still alive; and, with the aid of his prime minister,Ko-tsui-i, he dispersedthe robbers,restored public tran- quillity,bringinlg his fatherback fromSechuen to his palace. Ngau-loshan,however, does not appear to have been quelled,for we are informedthat he looted the palace of Chang-ngau. In the end,his treacheryto his king did not go unpunished,for he perishedby the hand of his own son. If therecan be littledifference of opinionabouit the similarity of Hion-tsungand Hwone-tsung,there must surelybe quite as littleregarding the identity between Ngau-loshan and Un-loshan, the only rebel of this name in Chinesehistory. With these facts beforeus, it seems probable that General Fytche's Oung-loshanwas the rebel and not the emperor,and that the certain king Razu, or Khazu, was the prime minister Kanzu. The circumstancealso that Ngau-loshan'sinsurrection is mentionedby Du Halde as having been protractedinto the reignof Sutsung is indisputableevidence that the incidentre- lated to me by the Mohammedansat Momienis the same as the one givenby Yule in his workon Cathay. Althoughmy informants stated that theirforefathers had come in the firstinstance fromArabia, they mentioned,with equal clearness,that theyhad come to Yunan fromthe provincesof Shensi and Kansu, about one hundredand fiftyyears ago, a circumstancewhich would make us doubt the purityof their boastedArab descent,for the wholeweight of historicalevidence is to provethat these two provincesderived the greaterpart, if not the whole,of theirMohammedan population from the tide of Turkish conquest which overranthe northernprovinces of China. We have,however, Marco Polo's and Ruisheedooddeen's authorityfor the existenceof a large Mohammedanpopulation in Yunan in the thirteenthand fourteenthcenturies, four hundred and fortyyears beforethe date assigned by my informantsfor theirarrival in the province. We are led, therefore,to suppose thatthe ranksof the originalMohammedan population in Yunan, whichmay have been of Arab descent,were augmented about the beginningof the eighteenthcentury by a number of Turkish Mohammedansfrom the northernprovinces of Kansu and Shensi, that the twoelements rapidly analgamated, and thattheir fusion was so completethat theirrespective traditions became as much blendedtocether as the races themselves.

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And here I cannot avoid remarkingthat the origin of the originalMohanimedan population of Yunan and otherprovinces, leaving out of sightfor the presentSutsung's contingent, as it is usuiallyaccounted for,viz., on the theorythat it percolatedin fromthe sea-board,seems to be a one-sidedexplanation, when we rememberthat the NestorianChristians had found their way overlandto the provinceof Shensi as earlyas A.D. 636. The circumstancethat it has neverbeen claimed forthe Nestorian Christians,that theynecessarily percolated into China fromthe sea-board,seems to militateagainst such a claim being put for- ward exclusivelyon behalf of the Mohammedans;for what the Nestorian Christiansachieved could also be accomplishedby the devoteesof the prophet. With regardto the originof the Yunan Mohammedains,the merecircumstance that the morelearned among,them, such as tha Hadjis, knew a littleArabic, appears a frailbasis on which to rest theirclaim to an Arab descent,the moreespecially as it has to be shown that the Mohammedansof the northernprovinces are not quite as familiarwith this langiuageas their southernco-religionists. The greatcharm Arabic has to these people is bound up in the circumstancethat the prophetspoke it, and thatit is the one in whichall thereligious books brought back by theirpilgrims are written. The circumstancethat these Mohammedansof Yunan claim kindredwith those of Kansu and Shensi,is one which seems destinedto exercise a powerfulinfluence on the futuLreof the Chineseempire, and the presentcourse of eventspoints in the directionof the establishmentof a Mohammedanmonarchy which will comprisethe provincesof Yunan, Sechuen, Shensi, and Kansu. This contingencywas forciblysuggested to me fromthe facts I gatheredwhile at Momien. The whole of the provinceof Yunan, we may say,has been conqueredby the Mo- hammedans,who werethen turning their attention to the southern portionof the provinceof Sechuen,which theyhad pre- vioiislyoverran, about six monthsbefore the visit of Col. Larel in 1861. The northernportion of the provincewas devastatedby Mohammedanrebels from Shensi and Kansu in the earlypart of 1868. The Toonganeerebellion in Dzungaria is so intimatelybound up with Russian interestsin CentralAsia, that we may look for its suppressionby that power. We come now to speak in detail of the Yunanese Mohamme- dans. The terniPanthay, applied to themby the Burmrese,and adopted by the English,means simplyMohammedan. On the authorityof General Fytche,they are knownto the Chinese as Quiayzay,which the writerin the EdinbitorghRevieTV conjectures M 2

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 156 JOHN ANDERSON.-UhineseMoharnmedans. to be ideniticalwith Hoai-hoai,the genericterm applied by the Chinese to all Mohammedans. On looking into the subject,I findthat tlhereare two Chinesewords very similar in sound,but withentirely different mearnings-Quayzse and Hoaizse, and that the use of the firstas applied to the Mohammedansis incorrect. Quayzse nmeansa foreigner,and is not used when speaking of them,whereas Hoaizse is constantlyapplied. Beforethe rebellion Hoai-lioai was the termin use, but now in rebel districts theyare only knownas Hoaizse,the affixzse meaning independent of Chineseauthority. It is thesame terminationthat occurs in Mautzse,Tibetan; Tatzse,Tartar; and Miaoutzse,all of which are independenttribes, and are indicatedas suchby the terminal syllablezse. \ The rebellionin Yunan seemsto havebeen brought about solely by the oppressionto which the Mohammedaniswere subjected by their rulers. Riots occurred,in which the mosques of the Mohammedanswere despoiled; and this roused theirreligious hate,and ultimatelyled to the completedestruction of nearly everyBuddhistic temple in Yunan. As the rebellionspread, the Chinese townsand villages were pillaged,and indiscrinminateslaughter overtook the male population,the women being spared to ministerto the passionsof a brutal undisciplinedmob, while the unresistingchildren were eagerlypreserved to be educatedas Mussulmans. The desolateand ruinedvillages between Nantin and Momien, -andthe almostunbroken line of desertedtowns and hamletsen- circlingthe once smilingand busy valley of the lattercity, are incontrovertibleevidence of the relentlessferocity with which the Panthays prosecutedthe rebellion. They met with little directresistance from the Imperial Government,although twice the Chinese officialsin the province,with a remnantof ad- herents,were graduallydriven fromthe high fertilevalleys, to seek refugein the smallerand moreinaccessible ones, among the mountains,to which in time theywere followedby other ad- herentsof the Imperial cause. As years passed on, and the Panthaysextended their power throughout the principalvalleys, a constantguerilla warfare was maintainedbetween them and the Chinese officials,whom the Panthays now style robber chiefs,from the circumstancethat theytake any opportunityto pillage Panthayvillages, petty tradersand caravans,and even make raids to the very walls of Momien. Prominentamong these called dacoit leaders is the famouschief Seesetai,who till lately had his fortressat Mauphoo,half way betweeniMuangla and Naritin,and Sowquangfang,who has his strongholdstill nearerMornieli. The hatredthat exists betweenthese two chiefs and the Panthays is constantlymaking itself felt in raids that

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOHNANDERSON.-ChineSe Y[ohacmrnedans. 157 have effectuallyparalysed trade, reduced the cultivationof the valleysto the lowest ebb compatiblewith the small wants of a miserablyimpoverished population. At Momienand its neighbourhood,and fromwhat we observed in the Shan States,it is evidentthat the furyof the Mahomme- dans was ultimatelydirected against the Buddhistictemples and monasteries;and I may safely say, frompersonal observation and informationgained at Momien,that veryfew escaped destruction. The Shans, although theydid not side with either party,were not exempt,and theirtemnples and theplaces of their' Trawkursas well, were looted,and eitherburnt or razed to the- ground. While mentioningthe Shans, it may be as well to state that it does not appear that eitherthey or the Kakhyars ever joined. or gave any assistanceto the Panthaysduring the heightof the rebellion,for the sympathiesof theirpeople are entirelyon the side of the Chinese,and it is only withinithe last two yearsthat the Shan States,in the Suindaand ilatha valleys,and the Kak- hyars on the neighbouringhills, have given in their adherence to the Panthaycause, and agreedto pay tributeto theminstead of to the Chinese. The rebellionwas still active while we were at Momien,and the capitalof the provincefell to the insurgentsduring our residence among them. If the account they furnishedus of the takingof thatgreat city, Yunan, is to be reliedupon, it was con- ductedwith the utmostmoderation, and suggeststhe hope that the Panthaysare beginningto realise that their positionin the provinceis so farestablished that it is both politic and expedi- ent forthem to gain the favourableopinion of the people by a just considerationfor the conquered,and a laudable moderation. Vigoroushostilities were being carriedon on the road between Momien and Yungchau,which was quite impassible; forout of three messengerswith despatchesfrom Tali, two were killed,. and the otherescaped with greatdifficulty. In orderthat thereinay be no misconceptionas to the position of the Panthays in such outlying districtsas Momien,I will brieflydescribe affairsas we foundthem in that city,which is about a hundredand twentymiles fromthe Burmesefrontier- During ourresidence two thousandmen, -under the commandof the chiefmilitary officer, marched against a bodyof Chinesewho were threateningthe Panthay town of Kayto, about thirtymiles, north-westof Momien,and three hundredof the ears of the latterwere secured as indisputablevouchers of the victorythey had gained. Moreover,fifteen executions took place duringi,the forty-sixdays we were there; and thirtymules that weregrazinig oil a hill-side close to the city were carriedoff by a body of

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Chinese,before the eyes of a Panthayarmed guard in chargeof them; and, moreover,so great is the insecurityof life,that we were not allowed to go beyondhalf a mile fromthe city without the protectionof an arnmedescort, under the chargeof a respon- sible Panthay officer. Beforethe fall of the capital,the districtin its neighbourhood had been the scene of great devastation and bloodshed. One hundredvillages, besides all those betweenBonuyin and Chank- ho, and thirty-seventowns and cities were captured,and it is significantlystated in the proclamationfrom which I derive these particulars,that the inhabitantsof those that tendered theirsuibmission were spared,leaving us to inferthat thosewho resistedwere eitherput to the sword,or perishedin the flames of their buirninghomesteads. Twenty-onethousand are stated to have been killed,and it is also mentionedthat fortytowns were taken and destroyed,that three hundred personswere burnt to death,and that there were innumerablekilled and woundedbesides. The Panthayswere then opposed by fiftyor sixty thousand Imperial troops,who had succeeded in retakingthe townsof Wootee and Sawsee; but it is evidentfrom the whole tenour of the document,that the Chinesewere unable to contendagainst them,and the surrenderof Yunan cityby its officialswas a tell- ing recognition,on the part of the inhabitants,of the inevitable progressof the Mahommedans. The fighting,however, at this time,1867-8, was not confined to the Momienand Yunan districts,for Mr. Cooperinforms me that while he was at Weeree,on the leftbank of the Cambodia, in the northof the province,in July,1868, that the Panthays and Chinese were engaged in active hostilitiesat Jseegooshan and Leejanfu,almost on its extremenorthern outskirt. During the same monthI learned at Momien that the Mahommedans had spreadinto theneighbouring province of Sechuen,into which theyhad formerlymade a raid, along with the Miaoutzia, so far back as 1860. On that occasionthey crossedthe riverat Ping- shan. The Panthayshave spread as faras Theta in the south of the province,four or fivedays' march to the northof Kyaingyungqyu, on the Cambodia,so that the whole of Yunan is in open rebellion; and as this is not an event of yesterdayor to-day,but has existed forthe last fiftyyears and even beforethis, I leave it to those interestedin the schemefor opening up a trade between China and Burmah,via Yunan, to formtheir own conclusionsas to its practicabilityin the presentunsettled conditionof the country. With referenceto the i-nternalaffairs of the Panthays,it is

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JOHN ANDERSON.-ChinTeSeMohctmmedans. 159 nowwell knownthat a Hadji, Ma Yussa by nlaine,was elected a few years ago to the responsibleposition of king,and that he holds his court at Talifu. He is known to the Maahominedans as Sooleymann,and to the Chineseas Tuwintsen. Four military and four civil officers,or what the Chinese call mandarinsof the firstclass, are associatedwith him in the government;and the formerhave certaindistricts allotted to them,but anymatter of importanceis referredto Talifu,where the King,has the ad- vice of his Civil Counsel of Four. The governorshipof Tengyechew(Momien) is the most im- portant.Its holderwears the officialrobes of a Chinesenmilitary mandarinof the firstclass, and keeps up a show of state in a small palace withinthe city,which was almostentirely destroyed at the outbreakof the rebellionin 1853. Tasakon,the presentgovernor, is alwaysattended by a number of militaryofficers, all youngmen devotedto his service. As in tlle case of the othergovernors, he is supremein all matterscivil and military,but the commandof the troopsat Momienis entrustedto an officerwith the title of Thazayinhyee. All criminalsand personssuspected of Chinese sympathiesare broughtbefore the governorfor judgmient, and Ihissentences are carriedinto effectby the militarywho have chargeof the prison. If the sentenceis capital,the uncompassionedcriminal, with his hands tied behind his back, is at once led to the outskirtsof the bazaar by a small escort,with music and bannersflying, and is made to kneel by the side of the road,and has his head struck offby one swoop of the executioner'sdah, and is then buriedon the spot. If taken in the act of dacoity,he is executedwith- out any trial,and the ghastlyhead is usually hung up by the side of the gate of the cityas a terrorto evil-doers. The male portionof the Panthaypopulation is almostexclu- sivelymilitary, and resideswithin the city. A constantwatch is keptfrom guardhouses over the gates,two of whichhave been built up forgreater safety; and the bazaar outside,in whichthe Chinesepopulation which has given in its adherenceto thePan- thay cause resides,is also enclosed by a low brickwall, with a numberof gates,that are closed at dark,and under the care of sentinels. It does not require any verylengthened observation or inquiry,and, indeed,a few days' residence at Moiniensuffice to impressone with the factthat the governmentis entirelyin the hands of the soldiery;that the hold the Panthayahave on the districtis still so precariousthat theyare liable to be attacked at any moment,and that the feelingamong the Chinesetraders and merchants,and ofthe peasantrygenerally, is uinfavourableto them.

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The Panthays at Momien are generallywell-made, athletic men,of moderateheight, and all are fair-skinned,with slightly oblique eyes,and high cheek-bones,with a cast of countenance quite distinctfrom the Chinese. Their generaltype of face re- called to me those one meetswith among the traderswho came down to Calcutta fromBokhara and Herat. They usually wear a moustache,but pull out,in Chinese fashion,all the rest of the hair on theirfaces. The Hadji at Nantin,however, went unshaven in true Mo- hammedanstyle. The hair of theirheads is usually allowed to growlong behind, and is coiled in the foldsof theirample white turbans,which project outwards, nearly on a line with the shoul- der. They wear the Chinesejacket and shorttrousers, and have the lower part of the leg, above the ankle,bandaged with blue cloth in the same way as the Shans. A bright,orange-yellow waistband,in whichtlley usually carrya silver-mounteddagger, and Chinese cloth shoes complete the costume. Their women dressafter the fashionof their Chinese sisters,and any I have seen of the betterclasses had small feet. The governorhas fourwives, who are carefullyexcluded from public gaze. He is fullysix feet threeinches in height,and of commanidingappearance. His face and hands are very dark, fiom-exposure, but the generalcolour of his skin is quite as fair as the fairestChinese. He has the oblique eye, his lips are h-eavyand ratherprotuberant, while his face is a decided oval, with high cheek-bones. His hands are large,and his foreheadis small and retreating,.He may be said to be the hero of a hundred fights,and his numerousscars are speakingproofs of his courage. A deep indentationbetween his eyes markswhere he was hit by a spentbullet, a roundhard thiing like a small marble over his ribs,and another,in one arin, are two other gunshot wvotunds.Scars on his legs and armstestify to hand in hand en- counterswith the formidabledah. He is quiet, self-possessed, witha determinedwill, sound sense,and greatnatural dignity of bearing,and he at once impressesone as being a man bornto command. The Panthaysprofess to be strictobservers of the laws of the Prophet,and abstain,as a rule,from strong drink, tobacco, and opium; but on one occasion,when we were feastedby the Tah- sayinhyee,he drank with us out of a largejug containinga pe- culiar but pleasantwarm preparation of spirit,and keptthe bowl circulatingtill we had drained it to the dregs. My curiosity promptedme to examine these,and I was rewardedwith the unpleasant discoverythat theywere largelycomiposed of small pieces of porkfat and walnuts. Our host had a particulargoAt for the beverage,and, I suppose,with mormewisdom than we, was carefulto avoid any inlquiriesinto its comiposition.

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Beforethe rebellionthey had a mosque built in a stylequLite distinctfrom the Chinese,and, I suppose, afterplans brought home by theirHadjis. Now, however,the prayersare said in a buildingthoroughly Chinese in all its details,and in the verses fromthe Koran writtenin Chinese,we had evidencethat Arabic is not very generally cultivated; indeed, there was only one Hadji at Momienwho made any pretensionsto know it so as to be able to speak it. The presenceof our Jemadharwas a greatgodsend to the Pan- thays,and the demand for his servicesat the mosque was so great that he entirelylost the use of his voice,to the grievous disappointmentof the celestial Mohamnmedans.He frequently lamentedto me the laxitythat prevailed amongthem, and my niativedoctor held themin supremecontempt, and used to assert that theywere no Mohammedans. Theywere full, however, of kindnessto theirfellow religionists in the guard,without distinction,and did everythingfor their comfort. On our departure,a fewof the officersaccompanied us nearlya mile fromthe city,and wept bitterlyas we leftthem, and our last sightof Momienembraced these tender-hearted men anxiouslylooking after us fromthe spot on whichwe had parted fromthem. I will referto onlytwo otheraspects ofthe Panthay character, which are encouragingto thinkof, when we contemplatethe pos- sibilitythat they may ultimatelybecome a distinct power in Asia; strangeto say,born on the verysoil of the most exclusive and conservativepeople that the worldhas ever seen. I referto theirstrict honesty in all tradingtransactions, to theirabilities as traders,and to the keen appreciationthey appear to have of the benefitswhich are likely to accrue to themnfrom commercial intercoursewith othernations. Their honestyrequires no 'com- ment;but to illustratetheir consideration for traders, I maymen- tion that I was informedby a Chinamanwho was travellingin the northof Yunan duringthe rebellion,that a large caravan on its way to EasternTibet had occasionto pass wherethe Panthay and Chinese forceswere opposed,and, as my informantput it, the Mohammedangeneral desisted for a day fromattacking his adversary,in orderthat the caravanmight safely pass. He men- tionedas well thatthe Mohammedan mandarins, in thoseportioiis of the northof the provincewhich have had occasionalperiods of peace, are not nearlyso much dreaded by the merchantsas the Imperial ones,and that theyfeel themselves.safe frominordi- nate extortionwhenever they reach theirjurisdiction. The Panthays speak Chinese,and, as a rule,know no other language,and, if the accoLntwe have given of those foundin Yuuan is correct,we have the remnarkablefact of a race of Arab

This content downloaded from 195.34.79.174 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 18:10:44 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 162 Discussion. anidTurkish descent speaking Chinese, we need hardlysay to the entireexclusion of themother tongues of those races.

DIsCUSSION.

Dr. CHARNOCK said the author of the paper seemed to be opinion thatthe Mohammedansof China came direct from Arabia. Someof them,however, might have entered through India and Burmah,or by wayof Independent Turkestan, or Tibet. In thetenth century, the Tibetansembraced Islamism for twenty-fiveyears. Mr.Anderson referredto JenghizKhan and the Uigurs,who, by-the-bye, were the base of the OttomanTurks. Theiroriginal habitat was Khamilor Hami in ChineseTurkestan. OtherMohammedans may have come fromthe seaboard. The Arabs,without doubt, had intercoursewith Chinaas earlyas the firsthalf of the fifthcentury. Theyformerly traded to a portcalled Zeitutn,which Klaproth thought to be the samewith Tsze thung. Hencethe Arabs are said to havebrought the olive,called in Arabiczeitan. It mayhave beenthe port now called Lien-tchoo-fou,in the Gulf of Tonquin. The Mohammedansof China did not understandArabic, and therewas no copyof the Kuranin Chinese. It was probablethat in each towna priestwas able to repeata fewlines of tho Kurin, which was all that was necessaryto carryon thereligious services. It was thesame with the Buddhists. The serviceswere performed in the Fin dialect,which was quite unintelligibleto the followersof thefaith. The wordmandarin was not Chinese. Suicha wordcould not be formedin that language. It was an appellationgiven by the Portugueseto officerscalled by the Chinesekhwan. A gooddeal of informationas to theintercourse betweenthe Arabs and Chinesewould be foundin the voyagesof Ibn Batuta and FatherOdoric, for which Colonel Yule's workon Cathaymight be consulted. Mr. Wade,Dr. A. Camlpbell,and Mr. Hyde Clarke,also joined in the discussion.

Mr. EDWARD CHARLESWORTHexhibited a -collection of Anti- quities fromMexico. Mr. J. McK. HUGHES exhibiteda stone implementfound in the bed of the Elwy, near Pont-yl-allt-Goch,North Wales. The meetingthen separated.

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