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Canada This thesis is dedicated to my wife Tara for her companionship, intuition and enlightenment.
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES ...... vii
.. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... VIII
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ix
ABSTRACT...... -x
1.O INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1 The Marine Environment ...... -2 1.2 Marine Conservation ...... 3 1-3 International Initiatives ...... 6
2.0 THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO PlANNING MARINE CONSERVATION AREAS ...... 9
2.1 The Ecosystern Management Approach ...... 10
3.0 CANADIAN MARINE CONSERVATION INITIATIVES ...... -12
3.1 Regional Planning ...... -14 3.2 The National Marine Conservation Areas System Plan ...... 15 3.2.1 Creeting a National System of MCAs ...... 16 3.2.2 ldentifying Represntative Manne Areas ...... 16 3.2.3 Selecting Potential National Marine Conseivation Areas...... -18 3.2.4 Assessing NMCAs Feasibility ...... 19 4.0 THE BONAVISTA / NOTRE DAME BAYS STUDY AREA ...... 21
4.1 Study Area ...... 22 4.1 .1 Regional Divisions ...... 22 4.2 Cornmunity Profile ...... 24 4.2.1 Econorny...... -25 4.2.2 Development Issues...... -26 4.2.3 Leadership ...... 29 4.2.4 Communication Channels ...... 30
5.0 PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT...... 31
Why lnvolve the Public?...... 1 Public Involvement: From Consultation to Participation...... 32 5.2.1 Public Involvement: A Definition ...... 34 5.2.2 The Benefits of Public Involvement ...... 36 Stakeholder Inclusion and Accountability ...... 37 lnvolving the Community ...... 42 5.4.1 Utilization of Community Resources ...... 45 Cornmunity Stewardship and Partnerships ...... 46 5.5.1 Categories of Economic Benefit...... -50 The Future of Public lnvolvement ...... 53 Sumrnaty ...... 55
6.0 A METHODOLOGY FOR PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT ...... 56
6.1 The NMCASP Public Consultation Method ...... 56 6.2 Project Goals ...... 58 6.3 The Process: An Interactive Methodology...... 60 6.4 Location. Location. Location...... -61 6.5 Questions ...... 62 6.6 Survey ...... 64 6.6.1 Sarnple ...... 64 6.6.2 Results...... 65 6.6.3 Survey Findings...... 66 6.7 Benefitç and Advantages ...... -67
7.0 CONCLUSION ...... 68
APPENDIX A Maps; Regional Community Listing. Survey...... 71
APPENDIX B The National Marine Conservation Area Systern Program; The Oceans Act ...... -83
REFERENCES...... 98 LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES
Map 1 National Marine Conservation Area Natural Regions...... 72
Map 2 Atlantic Canada ...... -73
Map 3 Bonavista I Notre Dame ûays Study Area ...... 74
Map 4 Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Sub-Areas...... 75
Table 1 Regional Community Listing...... 76
vii MCA Manne Consewation Area
NMCA National Marine Conservation Area
NMCAS Natiomf Mafine Conse~ationArea System
NMCASP National Manne Conservation Area System Plan
TNNP Terra Nova National Park
RED0 Regional Economic Development Board
IMCO Intergovemmental Maritime Cornmittee Organization
IMO International Maritime Organization
lUCN International Union for the Consenration of Nature and NaturaI Resources
WCS World Conservation Strategy
UNESCO United Nations Education Site
DFO Department of Fisheries and Oceans
MPA Marine Proteded Area
TAGS The Atlantic Groundfish Strategy ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people who have helped in the formulation. research and supervision of this study: Prof. Susan Guppy of the Technical University of Nova Scotia; Mr. David McCreery. Senior Policy Advisor, Department of Canadian Heritage; and Ms. Trudy Taylor, Marine Consultant, Resource North. Their thoughts. editorial wmments and guidance through the duration of this study are much appreciated. ABSTRACT
This research involved an analysis of the Department of Canadian Heritage public involvement process for the proposed national marine conservation area of the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Study Area, on the east coast of the province of Newfoundland and Labradar.
The sources used in the examination induded a relevant literature review, interviews with actors in the national marine conservation areas system pmcess, and personal observations.
An interactive public involvement methodology was developed to facilitate public inclusion in the feasibility study process. Through the utilization of study area maps. photos. and associated questions administered by an assistant. respondents are invited to assume the role of planner, as they face the necessary decisions and abcations enwuntered in national manne conservation area planning.
It is hoped that the findings of this research. may serve as an alternative to contempurary means of public participation methods and. along with the proposed interactive public involvement methodology. will facilitate a suitable means for achieving the aspirations of the people and cornmunities of the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Area. and the goals of the Department of Canadian Heritage. Since its inception, the discipline of planning has evolved to adapt to the ever- changing economic, social, and political milieu in which the profession operates. From the infàncy of town planning principles to urban redevelopment. and the protection of land uses for future generations, the discipline has historically ken dominated by land use planning development issues. In the last twenty years, global concem for the environment has seen planners embarking on a new direction as preserverç of the natural landscape. Canada has been a world leader in this initiative with the establishment of nature sanctuanes across the nation realked through its system of national parks.
Recently, a new domain in the conservation field has found use for the advantages of long range planning. Conservation of the marine environment is now a globally recognized issue of concem. The manne ecusystern requires adequate conserWion and protective measures to preserve its physical. biological and socio-economic importance to both the global and local cornmunity. One of the federal govemment's responses to the requirement for a global systern of protection for the manne environment has been the establishment of a National Manne Conservation Areas Systems Plan (NMCASP).
Oœans regulate the world's climate and provide more oxygen than the rain forests. More than 70 per cent of our planet's surface is covered by water and our adivities inland make a difference to the heakh of the oceans. Over 60 per cent of the world's population lives within 100 kilometers of a coastline, and this number is continuing to grow. Yet, despite the importance of the oceans to every living being on the planet, they are often taken for granted. What we do inland can have an effect far away in the sea. By leaming about the oceans we can become better stewards. permitting the preservation of our marine heritage for future generations. The federal govemment of Canada has aded to protect the natural marine regions of our coasts through a national system of manne conservation areas. Marine conservation areas (MCAs) are an important planning tool for preserving Canada's oceanic hentage. Our coastline stretcties 244,000 km along the Atlantic, PaMc. and Arctic Oceans, making it the longest coastline of any country in the world. Eight of Canada's provinces and territones are coastal. The oceans have influenced our history. our culture and ouf nation's identity. Nowhere is this more tnie than in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador whose nigged beauty is bounded by the waters of the Atlantic ocean.
The Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada has embarked on a strategic national manne conservation areas system program to achieve the preservation of such natural environments. This initiative is an ambitious one, stretching from coast to coast ta coast, representing al1 of Canada's manne natural regions. A fundamental component of this plan is involvement of the puMic in itç fonriulation. feasibility, development and management.
Public participation has becorne a necessary constituent of many public, private. and corporate assessrnent processes. In many cases, the public has becorne overloaded with demands for ttieir opinions and time for participation. It is the prwnise of this thesis to examme these issues and propose an interactive methodology for public involvement for the Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Study Area of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador.
1.1 The Marine Environment
Man has plied the oceans depths for centuries in search of subsisteme, valuables, and known and unknown treasures. The oceans and their full compliment of fiora, fauna and exploitable resources remained unknown to the early seafarer, and some main so even to this day. Technology, however, has made what was once an unexplored vast frontier. with an inexhaustible storehouse af resources, attainable; and has thus enabled man to mach the sustainable limits of yet another ecosystem.
After World War II tedinologid advancement enabled man to tap into the ocean's potential for economic adivities, and the development of a number of oœan industries occurred rapidly. Modem factory ships that mught fish with methodical efkiency plied all the world's oceans . Supported by a burgeoning global population and rising average incarnes. the demand for high quality proteins more than tripled the world fish catch between 1950 - 70 (Lien 1985. p.3). Scientists, at the time, suggested that the wrld catch of fish couid rise from just over eigM kilograms per capita, to over 50 kilograrns per capita. However, by the late 1960s and early 1970s indications showed that all was not well. Yields from the world's bountiful oceans stabilized and then began to fali. Fish stock after fish stock began to show signs of collapse. As stocks collapsed, the mobile factory fleets simply moved to new ocean frontiers to harvest new species. By the early i970s it was clear that man's fisheries were overexploiting the sea and its fish resources. Today. the 1990s have brought the issue of world fish stock crises even doser to home with the Canadian govemments dedaration of the Northem Cod moratorium on the east waçt; a situation thought unimaginable only a mere fifty years ago.
1.2 Marine Consenration
The overestimation and over-exploitation of ocean resources is not confined to recent history however. ln the early part of this century, the whaling effort on fin. blue and humpback whales showed significant success. Catches proceeded to dedine with occasional bn'ef recoven'es after the World Wars. Global mncem over these declining catches eventually led to the establishment of The International Whaling Agreement in 1937. Albeit, there was lirnited reference to conservation in this agreement , and more concem for the regulation of whale oil prices. The lntemational Convention for the Regulation of Whaling occurred in 1946 and established the lntemational Whaling Commission. Thus began one of the first efforts at international control and management of the ocean.
The role of marine conservation areas (MCAs) is inextricably Iinked with the broader debate of marine conservation. There are currently two principal approaches to manne conservation which offer overlapping views on marine resources management and conservation that have dorninated the literature and conferenœ proceedings: the fint is the traditional. çectoral approach, the second is tenad the integrated management approach (Shackell 1995 p.152).
The sectoral approach is the older approach and consists of regulation and management of individual manne activities, such as commercial fishing by specialist agenues with varying degrees of co-ordination of regulation between different agencies. It is based on a concept of specialist agencies regulating activities or sectors of the economy such as fishing, transport. tourism, and mining. They are independent and each tends to regulate to maximize access to and use of one type of marine resource. In the pst, attempts at manne conservation have followed the same sectoral approach, using the terrestrial consenmtion mode1 of designating sites or areas for their special biological. aesthetic or heritage values as the manne equivalent of national parks. They were managed by specialist agencies that regulated to exclude virtually al1 activities.
There has been considerable dticism of this approach and three common reasuns offered for its failure. First, the "boundaries" of each sector's interests are detennined by political, historical, or economic reasons. so that each sector tends to manage small parts of a large ecosystern. and there is an assumption that borders or bamers can be created around marine areas and managed to exclude activities or impacts which ocwr outside. This ignores the ecological scale of the manne environment and the extent of eculogical linkages or wnnectnrrty, with consequent conservation implications.
Biological communities in the terrestrial environment tend to interact on or close tu the soi1 surface in a two dimensional manner over distances which can be rneasured in meters or perhaps kilometers. These communities can be charaderized by identifiable geographic features and it is easy to identify boundaries. These areas cmbe in the order of 100 to 1,000 square kilometers. In the marine environment the water column is a third dimension providing habitat for some communities. a transport rnechanisrn and a source of nourïshment. It can also ad as an efficient transport mechanism for pollutants. Because of tides. currents and river plumes, a body of water cm also move great distances, which can Vary seasonally. conneding areas and biological cornrnunities hundreds and even thousands of kilometers apart. Therefore, a manne community may be linked at vanous times, a manne community may cover an area of 1.000 to 100.000 square kilometen. the ecological boundaries may Vary or be difficult to identify and it may be Mile to try to isolate and designate a critical area.
Second, there is typically lime or no coordination between sectoral agencies, either within a govemment or between govemments. even where there are overlapping interests. Each punues management objectives with litüe or no consideration of the effects on other users or values. Without this coordination, it is difficult to identrfy and examine the &cts of one activity on another. Third, no mechanisms exist to make infonned decisions about acœss to and use of resources by competing sectors. Where such confiicts anse, political solutions are imposed which usually favor the interest group with the loudest voice or greatest economic clout. For manne conservation areas that exclude most activities, there is typically strong opposition which can prevent or delay establishment, or lead to MCAs which are so srnaIl as to be unable to achieve conservation objectives.
The integrated management approach involves the creation of small manne conservation areas which provide special protection for particularly valuable areas w-thin the broad areas which were subject to regulation of the first type or, in some cases, no regulation. This is in fact, the most common application of the concept of manne conservation areas. It is usually the first stage in manne conservation initiatives which go beyond fisheries restflctions, which limit gear, catches and effort.
A third, and more recent development that expands upon the integrated management approach invdves the establishment of a large. multiple use conservation area with an integrated management system providing levels of pTOfection that vary throughout the area. Ideally. this integration should extend to co-ordinated management of manne and terrestrial areas in the coastal zone and beyond. Unfortunately. in many circumstances the complexities of boundaries and cornpetition between govemments and govemment aqencies regarding jurisdictional responsibility effectively oredude this (Kelleher 1991_ p.5). It is this approach that has been adqted by the Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada for the national marine conservation amas svsterns plan. aie mqulations for which are surnmarized in chapter three. and describecl in detail in Appendix B.
1.3 lnternational Initiatives
The need to devise methods to manage and protect marine environments and resaurces becam apparent during the 1950's and eariy 1960's. Thus' the First World Conference on National Parks in 1962 considered the need for the protedion of coastal and marine amas. The development of pracücal reswnses to this need required development of a Iegal framework for addressing the swereignty and jurisdictional rights of nations to the seabed bepnd the customary three mile territorial sea. in 1958. the Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea were adooted. These included the Convention on the Continental Shelf. the Convention on the High Seas. the Convention on Fishing and the Convention on Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas. The High Seas Conventions fomed the basis for the establishment of the Intergovemmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) in 1959; later to become the International Maritime Organization (IMO). These organizations have kenengaged lamelv- - in developing and irnplementing measures for the control and prevention of pollution fram ships.
Between 1973 - 77, the Third United Nations Conference of the Law of the Sea enabled nations to take a number of measures. including those related to the regulation of fishing and the protection of living resources of the continental shelf. to a distance of 200 nautical miles from their national Iurisdictional baseline. This provided a legal basis upon which measum for the establishment of manne protected areas and the conservation of manne resources could be developed for areas beyond territorial seas (Kelleher 7 99 1. p. 7). In 1981. the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resaurces (IUCN) released a world-wide document entitled the World Conservation Strategy (WCS). This strategy deals with the notion of conservation of the world's living terrestrial and manne resources by management of these resourceç to ensure sustainabie development Tu reach this goal. there are three requirements which development must satisfy; these include: 1. maintaining essential ecological processes and life support systems; 2. preserving genetic diversity; and. 3. ensuring sustainable utilkation of species and ecosystems.
Marine conservation areas are not a new concept The first MCAs were established approximately sixty years ago. and currently there are afmost 1,300 marine protected areas around the world. MCAs have been established by a growing number of countries and have been actively promoted by a variety of organizations such as the United Nations Environment Program. IUCN, World Wildlife Fund and UNESCO. The world leader in establishing manne conservation areas is Australia with 303 MCAs, including the Great Barier Reef Manne Park, the largest MCA in the world.
MCAs have been established for a number of purposes: for hefping to preserve important fisheries, for protecting historical and cultural resources. for conducting scientific research, for preserving natural communities and freeing thern from exploitation. and for establishing parks for diving. By leaming from the experiences of the in temational community, Canada can facilitate the irnplementation of its own MCA program. in ternis of both the management of MCAs and the process of working alongside affected stakeholders. This is not to indicate however. that Canada's experience with MCAs is not unique; indeed. the wide regional diversity of Canada's natural marine environment demonstrates this characteristic. It is important to note that deviations from the "standard" manne conservation arealpark establishment praœss fkquently occur because each situation Mers, and the process that is adopted must reflect the involvement of al1 parties who are directly affeded (Kelleher 1991, p.60). Each proposed MCA under the National Manne Conservation Areas System Program will involve a difkrent set of biogeographic, regional. cultural and socio-ec=onomic characteristics that require an individualized approach and methodology. 2.0 THE SYSTEMS APf ROACtl TO PLANNING MARINE CONSERVATION AREAS
The most recent scientific approach for organizing material is called the systems approach. The mode of thought inherent in this approach is one of synthesis. That is, in problem solving, it recognizes the importance of analysis of separate issues, but stresses a complete view of al! the issues or "systems" that are involved. In other words, the systems approach is dedicated to putting things together through synthesis.
Unfortunately, most man-made systems for dealing with the environment have developed haphazardly. In the field of manne conservation, it is unfortunate that the whole view or holistic view has kenlargely overlooked in past initiatives. For example. wtien parks and reserves had been established in the past there has been a failure to consider how the surrounding region may affect the park, and vice versa. Similarly, people have not been considered as part of the natural system. except as park visitors or managers (IUCN 1991. p.27).
The application of the systerns approach to manne conservation areas involves consideration of the presenœ and effectç of industry. tourisrn, urbanization, and offshore uses, in addition to conservation objectives, and economic and political factors. The approach seeks to make national and provincial efforts comparable and compatible, and thus, fits well with the national manne conservation areas system strategy of the Department of Canadian Heritage. The Department wishes to seek active involvement of stakeholders in assisting them with the establishment of a NMCAS. The feasibility study for any proposed MCA will inevitably follow the guidelines as set out in the Guiding Principles and Operational Policies of the Department of Canadian Heritage. By ensuring that the public has input into the plan it is anticipated that many potential problems that conservation initiatives incurred in the past can be identifid and alleviated with the application of a unified systems approach. 2.1 The Ecosystem Management Approach
Managing the use of national matine conservation areas will be based on the "ecosystem management" concept. A notion similar to the systems approach involving the adoption of a holistic view of the natural environment. ensuring that decisions consider the dynamic and interactive nature of eaisystems. human activities within the ecosysterns. and their finite capaüty to recover from stress caused by human disturbanœs.
To be effective. ecosystem management must have a broad base of support. It requires understanding. and collaboration among ail those who directly use the area or who influence the ecological integnty of a marine conservation area by their activities in the surrounding hinterland. Forging strong partnerships is also important. particularly in research and environmental monitoring where user groups. universities, conservation organizations and the private sectar have much to contribute.
Ecosystern management rnust be based in science. Adequate baseline information about the physical, oœanographic and biological characteristics. and existing and potential uses of the conservation area is required to guide planning and management of the area and to develop public education programs. Monitoring is required to deted changes occumng in the manne environment and to detemine whether these are due to natural causes or to stress caused by hurnan activities.
To facilitate ecosystem management Parks Canada has devised the following guidelines to assist managers:
Measurable goals and management strategies will be fomulated for each national marine conservation area to ensure the protection and maintenance of its ecosystems. Where marine ecosystems. or components thereof, have been seriously degraded, Parks Canada will initiate restoration programs in cooperation with others agencies. When a marine species which spends part of its natural Iife cyde in a manne conservation area is adversely affected by human activities outside the area, Parks Canada will cooperate with Canadian and international regulatory agencies to promote its conservation throughout its range. Extirpated species that are native to the marine conservation area may be reintroduœd after research has shown that reintroduction is likely to succeed and that its probable effects are acceptable within the conservation area and the surrounding region. The introduction of exotic plants or animais into the wild in a manne conservation area not be pemitted. Federal environmental assessment and review legislation will be implemented in a conservation area in an exemplary fashion. Parks Canada will also review and comment upon environmental impact assessments for proposed developments that are near established. or potential marine conservation areas. Parks Canada will encourage understanding and cooperation in achieving manne conservation goals by participating in regional sea and coastal zone planning programs sponçored by other jurisdictions and interested parties. To promote sciencebased management. Parks Canada will work with others in compiling and analyzing baseline information on the physical, oceanographic and biological characteristics of the marine conservation area and surrounding lands, use of marine resources within this geographic area and their effects.
Through the application of these guidelines the Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada has developed a national system of manne conservation areas representative of the natural Canadian manne environment. The management and planning of which is to be a shared experience with the coastal communities in the selected areas. facilitated by a comprehensive feasibility assessment proœss, the core of which is public consultation. 3.0 CANADIAN MARINE CONSERVATlON INITIATIVES
Cumntly the Federal government has three fonal protected area programs. These are administered by Canadian Heritage (Parks Canada). Fisheries and Oceans and Environment Canada. The protected areas designated by each agency senre sornewhat different purposas, but each has conservation of the marine environment as a œntral focus.
The Department of Canadian Hentage is developing a system of protected areas that represent each of Canada's 29 manne naturai regions. The Canadian Heritage National Manne Conservation Areas Program has been in the process of establishing a number of NMCAs inciuding Gwaii Haanas on the Pacific Coast and Saguenay - St. Lawrence located at the conffuence of the Saguenay River and the St. Lawrence Estuary.
Environment Canada has three designations available for protecting ocean and land areas to conserve significant habitats and wildlife resources. All three designations have a focus on habitat for migratory birds. These protected areas include national wildlife areas, migratory bird sanduaries and, more recently, the developrnent of manne wildlife areas. All total&. they protect over 2.9 million hectares of critical wildlife habitat in coastal. estuary. and marine areas.
The Oceans Act will establish a third federal program for marine protected areas. These will be administered by DFO, which already has expeflence in establishing protected areas, niduding the recent designation of three whale sanduaries off Nova Scotia. In addition, a number of area closures to fishing activity have been established in order to pmtect spawning and juvenile concentrations of commercial species. Currently DFO has a public discussion paper in circulation for cornments and ctiticisrns regarding their initiatives in the field of manne proteded areas. Below is a short summary of the Oceans Act. for a more detailed analysis of the Oceans Act, please consult Appendix B.
As demonstrated, the Department of Canadian Heritage is not alone in its quest for sustainable marine conservation and protection. The federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) has also undergone. albeit more recently. initiatives to examine the viability of using conservation amas as a fisheries management tool. The release of a discussion paper in January of this year, An Appmach to the Establishment and Management of Manne Pmtected Areas Under the Oceans Act, estaMishes DFO's position on the subject and serves as the basis for preliminary discussion and comment. The newly enacted Oceans Act authorkes the Govemment of Canada to establish a "national systern of manne proteded areas",and to make regulations that allow marine protected areas (MPAs) to be designated, zoned, and closed ta certain activities (DFO 1997. p.3)
The passage of the Oceans Act reaffirms Canada's role as a world leader in oceans and marine resource management. confirming our country's rights and responsibilities regarding our three oceans. The Act promotes an understanding of the resources and opportunaies these oceans offer, yet always encourages a responsible, precautionary approach. It provides fat tfw integrated management of our oceans and ocean resources, through the aillaborative development and irnplernentation of a national oceans management strategy.
The federal programs have distinct but complementary purposes. It is incumbent on the federal agencies to coordinate their approach and to take aâvantage of shared objectives and resources, despite the fact that three programs are in different stages of development. This coordination will ensure Mciency in establishing protected areas that are complimentary, and wili also maxirnize protection of our oceans.
It is evident then, that the partnering process has been initiated at the federal level. where a steering cornmittee on MPAs has been created: The Manne Protected Areas Interdepartmental Cornmittee. The aims of this cornmittee are to develop a wmprehensive and complimentary systern of MPAs and to ensure that individual MPAs have a full range of support, expert advice and protection. This tevel of partnering will be refiected at the regional level, and at individual MPA sites. Other federal agencies such as the Department of Transport. Natural Resources Canada. and the Department of Defense will be approached in addresçing specific issues and in considering particular sites (DFO, 1997). The Canadian experience with our National Parks System has also resulted in a consideration for the economic development of traditional adivities. providing additional value from our parks. The NMCAS plan is no different. It is the intention of the Department of Canadian Hentage to develop the system with the full involvement of local communities and organizations in order for them to have a say in how developrnent occurs, and what role they can have to play in the management of the MCA once it is implemented. It is in this sense then that manne conservation areas have a potential role to play in regional planning; an important issue in the provincial planning for Newfoundland with a recently established new system of 20 economic development zones.
In 1994 the govemments of Canada and Newfoundland established a task force to address the diredion of local economic developrnent in the province. A task force recommendation that 20 regional economic zones be established was accepted by both govemments. Regional Economic Development Boards (REDB) have five main objectives:
1. To take a leadership role in the development and implementation of zona1 strategic economic plans. 2. Coordinate business development support through community based development support through community based and govemment organizations in the zone. 3. Provide support to organizations and communities in the zone. 4. Cwrdinate al1 -ai and econmic initRtives relating to regional econornic development in the zone. 5. Promote public participation and community education.
In addition. the emphasis for board activities is on public consultation for every decision it makes, including stakeholder representation. Given the tems of reference that the new REDBs have, they are seen as essential stakeholders in the development of an NMCA for the Bonavista 1 Notre Dame Bays Area. It is vital for proper regional development to develop a relationship between the management of protected areas. Protected areas may be accepteci in regional plans. they may be defended. and the setting up of protected areas or parks may be part of the national policy; but there still is a requirernent for newly created protected areas to be part of the thinking and strategy of a regional plan when that plan is prepared.
3.2 The National Marine Conservation Ares Systern Plan
This section indudes a synopsis of the policies and guidelines of the national manne conservation areas system program, outlining its intentions. goals. and requirernents as they relate to the establishment of an NMCA in the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Study Area. A cornplete description of the NMCASP policies and zoning guidelines cm be found in Appendix B.
It is the goal of national manne conservation areas to: Represent the divenity of our nation's marine ecoçysterns; Maintain marine ecological processes and life support systems; Preserve biodiversrty; Serve as "models" of sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem; Facilitate and encourage marine research and ecological monitoring; Protect depleted, vulnerable. threatened. or endangered species and populations and preserve habitats considered critical to the survival of these species; Protect and maintain areas critical to the survival of these species; and Provide interpretation of manne areas for the purposes of conservation. education and tourisrn (Canadian Heritage 1995, p. 8).
3.2.1 Creating a National Systern of MCAS
Sedion 1.0 of the National Manne Parks Policy (1986) outlines the general procedures that guide the identification. seledion. and establishment of national manne parks. There are five main steps in national manne park establishment: (1) ldentifying representative marine areas (2) Selecting a potential marine park (3) Assessing manne park feasibility (4) Negotiating a new national marine park agreement (5) Estabiishing the new national manne park in legislation
The Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Study Area entered the feasibiiity stage of the process in the spring of 1997. Initial meetings with the public and area stakeholders are a key component of this study and will be explored in more detail in chapter five. A proposed interactive methodology for public involvement will be explained in chapter six and the Department of Canadian Heritage method will be examined in chapter seven.
3.2.2 ldentifying Representative Marine Areas
The development of the 1986 National Marine Parks Policy by the Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada was the result of redefining a number of classification schemes to rnodify them to satisfactonly adapt to the mean ecosystems of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and to the Great Lakes.
The first step in identifying marine areas representative of the natural Canadian manne environment is the preparation of a regional analysis study. This study systematically summarizes the region's biological and oœanographic features, and wltural themes, and identifies candidate manne areas which encornpass a high diversity of key regional characteristics and which exhibit a high degree of naturalness. Based on a review of the published Iiterature and unpublished research information. the study is usually cornpiled by a consulting fimi under contract. Also included in the study are discussions and intewiews with individuals familiar with the study region.
The second part of the regional analysis study involves completion of a field reconnaissance of the candidate representative areas and preparation of a field trip report summarizing the findings of the consultant's report. field obsenmtions and concluding with recommendations cancerning which area(s) the Department of Canadian Heritage should punue for future manne park establishment.
To guide the developrnent of a systern of national marine parks representative of the full range of the biological and oceanographic variation found in Canada's manne environments. the Canadian Parks Service has pioneered the use of a broad-scale. hierarchical system of biogeographic units or "marine regions". Each marine region is relatively homogenous in ternis of climate. seabed geology. ocean currents, water mass characteristics (temperature and salinity) , sea ice distribution, coastal landforms, manne plants, seabirds and marine marnrnals, or wntains recumng patterns of these characteristics. The goal is to establish a national manne park within each manne region (Appendix A, Map 1. p.72) so that al1 parks together represent the whole.
The development of a biogeographic classification which is suitable for planning a system of marine protected areas is more dificult to develop than for their terrestrial counterparis. There are several reasons for this. First of all. manne ecosystems are not as well understood as their land counterparts. Also. their shifting nature over space-time makes them difficult to classify and map. As Dunbar (1951) notes:
"It is simple, in the marine envimnment, to propose a cn'ten'on for the delimitation not only of the Arctic fmm the subadc, but also of the subarctic from the boreal or temperate. It is not always so simple to establish at any specific moment where the lines of delimitation lie. Furthemore, it should be remembered that the Iine of delimitation fluctuates. probably to some extent seasonally and certainly over the long- range time scale. "And ecosystem boundary shifts are more rapid at sea than on land". .. although al1 biogeographicalzones change geographically with time. marine zones change more rapidly than zones on land. because the faunal response to changes in cumnt patterns and temperatures is immediate, and in the case of planktonic foms the envimnment cames the biota with it, their boundanes may well shiit considembly over periods of a few years. " This classification proces has enabled the Department of Canadian Heritage to identify 29 natural manne regions across the country that are representative of the Canadian natural marine environment. The Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Study Area was identified as one of the possible representative areas for the Newfoundland Shelf region.
3.2.3 Selecüng Potential National Marine Conservation Areas
Once identified, representative manne areas in a region are subject to further studies and consultations are undertaken to select one of the areas as a potential marine park.
A wide range of variables is considered when companng possible areas for selection. Variables in the process indude. but are not lirnited to: Quality of regional representation Occurrence of exœptional natural features Presence of cultural hentage features Provincial or territorial govemment priorities Potential for marine interpretation and marine-based recreational act ivities Cornpeting incompatible uses of the areas manne resources Actual and potential upstream threats to the manne environment Location of other protected marine or coastal areas Ownenhip of the seabed and coastal lands The implications of abonginal daims and treaties The degree of national and local public support
Due to most of these qualifications being met by the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays area, the region was selected as a potential MCA area to represent the Newfoundland Shelf in the NMCASP. At this stage a national marine park proposal is prepared as the basis for a detailed feasibility assesment, incfuding public consultations. The factors listed in Step 2 are now studied in greater detail, usually with the direct involvement of the provincial or temtarial govemment. and in consultation with representatives of local communities. As well, possible boundaries of the potential national manne park are drawn.
If the assessrnent demonstrates that a marine park is feasible and there is strong public support for its establishment, the federal and provincial I territorial govemrnents may decide to proceed with the negotiation of a park agreement. If a national marine park is not a feasible option, other representative marine areas within the region will be considered. It has been the experienœ of the Canadian Parks Service that the successfui creation of a national manne park requires four elements:
1. Comprehensive planning work prior to the initiation of public consultations. 2. The support of the large majority of local residents and resource users who will be affecteci by the proposed marine park 3. Strong political support at al1 levels of govemment. and: 4. Adequate funding to complete the pmcess and provide for the park's subsequent planning and development.
Of course, a necesçary fifth element lies in the support of other management agencies which will be involved in the cooperative management of the marine park following its establishment (Kelleher 1991, p.63).
It is this process this thesis proposes to explore. As in integral part of the Department of Canadian Heritage guidelines for NMCA establishment public consultation w-ll be the focus of chapter five. An examination of why public participation is necessary, how it became a neceçsdy and a discussion of the benet% of public involvement, and the disadvantages of not "going public" will be analyzed.
Canadian govemment initiatives are underway to protect and preserve the manne environment from degradation, exploitation and to prevent the destruction of sensitive. unique ecosystems. Federal departments in conjunction with regional initiatives and non-govemment organizations are setting aside representative areas of Our landsmpe and marine environment for the purposes of ecosystem preservation, scientific study and enjoyment for al1 Canadians. From coast to coast to coast examples of our natural heritage are being preserved for the benefit of present and future generations through various programs at all levels of organization. 4.0 THE BONAVISTA / NOTRE DAME BAYS STUDY AREA
Atlantic Canada consists of the four eastem Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island. and Newfoundland and Labrador (Appendix A, Map 2. p.73). The most easterly and naturally unspoiled of these king the island of Newfoundland. Histo~cally.the Atlantic provinces have ken natural resource based econornies. largely exporting raw matetials to central and western Canada, and the worfd.
Today. king the region of Canada most dependent upon federal transfer payments, the Atlantic provinces are exploring new initiatives in ecotourism and technology based industries. Fisheries and fish proœssing industries employ about 120,000 Canadians, are worth about $3 billion and support over 1.000 east coast communities. Home to a people versed in overcoming adversity. the east coast has cuitivated both regional and interprovincial cultures unique to each province. Because development along the coastline has not yet evolved to a scale comparable with the rest of the country's coastal areas, the Atlantic coast provides the Department of Canadian Heritage with an ample manne landscape for the establishment of MCAs.
One of the most valuable resources of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador is its natural environment and associated wildlife. The east cuast of the island of Newfoundland is a prime example of where such a natural ecosystem exists. One of the first areas in the province discovered by Europeans 500 hundred yearç ago. the east coast is home to numerous beautiful vistas, scenic inlets. a variety of manne and terrestrial wildlife, and was once home to a people who lived off the bounty of the resources of the area as a way of life. centuries before the first permanent settlements amved. 4.1 Study Acea
Situated on the east coast of the island of Newfoundland, approximately 200 kilometen from the capital of St. John's. the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays area was first populated by the now extinct Beothuk tndians for centuries pnor to discovery by John Cabot in 1497. Since as eatiy as the mid 1600s Bonavista Bay was seasunally populsted by English fishers who harvested the coastal waters for the once pfentiful cod stocks.
Today. the Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays area remains the idyllic, serene landscape that enraptured the hearts of the first English and Irish settlers. Home to approximately~30.000residents distributed in just over 100 comrnunities. Bonavista Bay also harbors the waters of Tena Nova National Park; one of two national parks in the province.
In accordance with the NMCASP guidelines of identifying natural marine areas representative of the Canadian manne environment, the Bonavista f Notre Dame Bays Area was seleded as king representative of the Newfoundland Shelf region. This conclusion was based on the area's biological and oceanographic features, cultural themes, and high level of diversity of key regional characteristics of the east coast of Newfoundland.
4.1.1 Regional Divisions
The proposed national marine conservation area for the Newfoundland Shelf area will border coastal comrnunities of the east coast of Newfoundland from Bonavista. Bonavista Bay in the south, ta Fortune Harbor, Notre Dame Bay to the noNi (Appendix A. Map 3. p.72). This area encompasses approxirnately 90 Municipalities and Local Service Districts (LSD's are non-incorporated communities). The number of individual communities total over 130 and range in population from 35 to 3,848; giving a total study area population of approxirnately 62,000. Due to the large geographic distance involved. and a number of cornmunities accessible only by ferry. the study area has been divided into six regions (Appendix A, Table 1, p.76). Regionality was determined by considering a number of factors. Comrnunities that nomally grouped together on issues of cornmon concem were identified and kept in the same region (Resource 1996. p.2). Transportation travel times were also considered and factored in as applicable criteria for grouping Fogo and Change Islands together as region SN. For similar reasons, St. Brendan's was added to the Eastport Peninsula rather Vian Bonavista NoNi due to the feny docking at Burnside. A conscious effort was made to keep travel time between the two geographical extremes of any region to a maximum of 1-1-5 hours. This ensured that transportation would not be a hindrance in preventing individuals from attending meetings. This was especially relevant where meetings ocair in the winter months when weather and road conditions can prove to be unpredictable at best, and subject to change on an hourly basis.
Therefore. based on the aforementioned factors, the study area of Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays has been divided into the followi-ng six regions.
Bonavista South- communities from Bonavista to Port Blandford Eastport Peninsula- wmmunities on the Eastport Peninsula. Charlottetown, Glovertown and the island of St. Brendan's. Kittiwake Coast- communities from Garnbo to Freden'ckton and the sub-region of Gander Bay including the communities from Davidsville to Port Albert. Fogo Island 1 Change Islands- cornmunities on both Fogo and Change Islands. Notre Dame Bay East- cornmunities on Twillingate and New World Island and along Notre Dame Bay to the LeMsporte Area. Notre Dame Bay West- communities frorn Noms Am North to Fortune Harbor.
(For a complete Regional Cornmunity Listing please see Appendix A. p.76) 4.2 Community Profile
The east coast of Newfoundland provides a general example of how English speaking settlement patterns in the provinœ developed from the mid 1i"" œntury. Settlement was first begun at the headlands to harvest the marine resources, and later spreading towards the heads of the bays as the demand and exploitation of the forests and farming lands increased. Early Newfoundland settlers' livelihood followed a seasonal and weather dependent discemible pattern.
Fishing, mainly of cod, occurred dunng the penod of mid-May to mid-November when weather conditions were favorable and the fish had migrated to inshore waters. Wood-working, including boat and schooner building, was generally carried out during the winter months from mid-November to early March. Sealing activities mn from January to mid-May; thus completing a years activities. The dependence that these early settiers had on the ocean and its resources explains their settlement patterns along the coast, a characteristic that remains to this day. Unfortunately however, this status is today threatened by a collapse of the northem fish stocks and a govemrnent imped moratorium on the commercial fishery. The result has been the loss of a livelihood, mmrnunities in transition, and the graduai disappearance of a way of life.
The dernographics of the east coast is similar to most areas of Atlantic Canada, characterized by a population that is aging and decreasing. A substantial number of the communities in the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays area had a population peak in the late 1800s ta 1900s. In recent yean, even those communities which had maintained an increasing or constant population have seen the effects of the northem cod gmundfish moratorium. People are leaving the fishery and young adults are leaving their communities, and often the province in search of employment. In a provinœ with a population of just under 570.000 out-migration has becorne an al1 too cornmon fèature of the demographic pattern. 4.2.1 Economy
The economic base for most of the coastal communities in this study area is lirnited. The majority are bas& on one or two main industries; of which the predominant one was the fishery. The second industry varies from forestry, mining, and the sewice sector, depending on the geographical area, but is usually smaller in scale than the fshery. This has produced a situation in which one of the biggest challenges facing these communities is economic development. The following is a regional synopsis of the major industries in the area.
Gander is a major service center for the comrnunities located around the Kittiwake Coast. Many residents dong the coast commute to work in Gander. Any changes in the econorny of Gander, especially with the Canadian Forces Base and the International Airport, will have an impact on these coastal communities. The Abitibi-Ptice pulp and paper miIl in Grand Falls-Windsor serves a similar function for many communities along the Bay of Exploits. Many people in these cummunities either cornmute to work at the mill, or in one of the many spin-off industries associated with the industry. The Beothic Fish Processon plant in Valleyfield is the major employer for the area from Valleyfield to Newtown. During peak production time in the summer of 1995 and 1996, the plant employed over 1,000 workers. The Fogo Island Co-op is a major employer on Fogo Island, operating two fish processing plants on the island. Lewisporte Wholesalers and Manne Atlantic are the main employers for the Lewisporte area. The loss of this industry with the movement of operations to the St. Anthony area will evidently take with it a sizable portion of employment From the area. In general. the fishing industry is still a major trade for many, despite a significant decrease in the numbers of people involved compared to that of the late 1980s. There are a smafl number of fishers with licenses for the new crab fishery. The crab fishery has been very lucrative in the past couple of years, resulting in high cornpetition between fishers to obtain any new licenses which may be issued. Other fisheries indude the seal, capelin, lump, and herring fisheries. Any combination of these fisheries in recent years however, is still less than the groundfish fishery of the past decade. The tourism industry is a grdng industry in the region. Operators. however, am struggling to maintain a livelihood during a very short season. A large portion of the residents in these coastal communities are now. due to economic necessity, involved in the service industries. Mostly located in the major centen of Grand Falls-Windsor, Clarenville. Lewisporte, Twillingate. and Bonavista. For many this involves a daily cornmute to work outside of their communities. The aquaculture industry is also increasing in the region. The protected inlets and coves of the northern portion of Bonavista Bay and areas of Notre Dame Bay are showing promising signs for successful locations of marine fans.
The econorny of the region is characterized by centers and geographic pockets of large scale employrnent. often employing non-residents. intenpersed with areas of localized smaller scale industries. The coastal nature of the region. produced fishing as the dominant industry until 1992 when the federally irnposed northem cod moratorium resulted in a corn plete shutdown of the groundfishery. Today. fishers subsist on seasonal supplementary fisheries and govemrnent assistance prograrns which are over budget and scheduled to end in the near future. New initiatives in fish farming and the tourism sectors do hofd promise however. for those inclined to pursue an alternate lifestyle than what has traditionally been the livelihood of many Newfoundlanders.
4.2.2 Oevelopment Issues
Despite the wide geographical separations and cultural variations that exist behnreen regions of the study area. there are cornmon issues of concert for all. The following is a çampling of relevant issues of interest for many people living in the study area. and indeed. the entire province.
The collapse of the groundfishery forced the federal govemment to impose a moratorium in July 1992 on the northem cod, effectively forcing upwards of 27
20.000 people out of work. The fishery and plant workers who qualifieci. were given employment adjustments othewise known as The Atlantic Groundfish Strategy (TAGS). This program has undergone many changes since its inception with new categories for qualifications. the result of which has resulted in repercussions on a variety of fronts. For everyone in the fishery it is viewed as another way for the government to remove them from the fishery and is a contributhg fador to the general mistrust of govemment. For those who do not meet the qualifications, it is a stniggle to justify their livelihood. or serves as the final cal1 for abandoning their community in search of employment elsewhere. Many people outside the industry see it as favoriüsm to one sector which is not matched when other industries face uncertainty. or complete collapse. For the communities in general. it has led to tensions, stressed social interactions, and a breakdown in community spM. Since the 1980s aquaculture has seen a steady increase in success stories in the area, with many facilities including salmon and mussel fanning presently operating and numerous other sites undergoing investigation of feasibility. The cost of set-up has been an obstacle to overcorne in the past, but a ment initiative by the provincial Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture will place a new emphasis on the aquaculture industry in the province (Resource 1996). The closure of the groundfishery has meant a push towards the identification and harvesting of new marine species such as crab and sea urchins. This has led to a concem that these newly exploiteci species may be over-fished. and cornpetition as many fishers apply for a lirnited nurnber of licenses. The tourism industry has been one of the few industries continuously showing an increase in the past few yean. The diffiarlty however. lies in developing an industry that is mainly seasonal. Efforts are becoming more evident as tounsrn operators open markets for winter and off-season visitors. Economic developments occurring in other parts of the province are felt in the study area. The construction of the Hibemia oil mega-project at Bull Am, Trinity Bay has been a boon to the region employing many as tradespersons and laborers aver the pst five years. There is a reluctance however to believe that projects such as Hibemia. Voiseyts Bay, and Terra Nova, will produce more than a few jobs. Cuts in federal transfer payments to the province have had a large impact in these coastal communities. There are concems as hospital beds close, and funding to education is cut. The cfosure of cornmunity colleges in towns such as Lewisporte and Gander has forced many students to travel to attain a post secondary education, not to mention the los of the employment and related spin-off effects from the institutions. A Provincial Govemment referendurn on education in the fall of 1995 has met mixed reaction in the region. The Lewisporte area was one of the strongest regions in support of the denominational system. The proposed schooling and busing systems for the new education system has caused cancan in the entire region. Road conditions and snow cieanng services in the region. especially in the areas of Fogo and Change Islands. St. Brendan's. Twillingate and New World Island. as they are serviced by soft surface roads. The upgrading of these roads to hatd surface is another lobbying issue for these communities. The ferry serviœ to the island communities on Fogo, Change, and Cottel Islands is a concern, especially during the vvinter months when ica conditions can prevent ferry serviœ for weeks. The decision by longtirne employer Manne Atlantic to pull its Labrador coastal boat operations from Lewisporte to St. Anthony met with strong opposition. Lewisporte was a major distribution center for the Labrador mast and employed many individuels with local whoiesale companies. A sentinel fishery was begun in the summer of 1995. A number of fishers perfonn test fisheries in spectfic locations for certain species. They record the abundance, size and age for xientific purposes. It is seen as a way in which fishers can contribute to fisheries science and take an active role in the management process. As such the sentinel fishery is welcomed by most fishers. In the past two years there has been a suspected resurgence of cod stocks in the bays by both fishers and non-fishers. This comes at a time when a food fishery is pemitted elsewhere in Atlantic Canada. but not in the province of Newfoundfand and Labrador. There has been mixed reaction to the presence of this bay stock species. Some believe 1 is these stocks that will rebuild the groundfishery, and therefore must be left undisturbed. Others are of the opinion that people in the province shouid be permitteci to harvest a food fishery like their counterparts in the remainder of Atlantic Canada. especially in the presence of large bay stocks.
Concerns for the development and even the continuation of many communities is a definite reality in the region. Not unlike other coastal communities in the Atiantic provinces, the toms of Bonavista and Notre Dame Bays find themselves considering alternatives to a traditional way of life that has existed for over 200 years. Many short terni projects including govemment assistance and mega construction projects are filling the void, but what is required is a substantive rneans of providing long terrn employment and hence, permanence of communities, that today find themselves in a state of uncertainty as to what the future holds.
4.2.3 Leadership
The population base of the communities surrounding the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Study Area can be rnisleading as to the ievel of organization which exists in the respective mmmunities. Two decades ago the majority of organizations were community ofiented and curnmunity based. They usually consistecl of groups which were, and still are, involved in projects that related specfically to their specific community. Although these groups are still active and useful, their context and ternis of referenœ are evolving. Communities are realiu'ng that they must not compete against each other, but work together for rnutual wmmunity and regional improvements.
Commonly. in many communities the same members who sit on several cornmittees and are active in organizations, are ofien the busiest people in the community whose time is lirnited. Ironically, these dedicated people who devote much of their free time volunteering on community development committees are criticized by members of their community who choose not to be involved (Resource 1996). It is therefore probable that any new project, including discussions on the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Study Area. will be carefully considered by said mernbers to ensure that their time is not king wasted on a fnvolous project
Another important consideration is the organization of these committees. Some cornmittees which will be an important stakeholder in a proposed NMCA rnay also encompass a region which does not border the study area. In some instances. the spokesperson of a cornmittee may live outside the area. This should not be a problem if the concerns of those who live along the border of the NMCA are taken into consideration.
4.2.4 Communication Channels
Despite its isolation as an island, unconnected from the rest of mainland Canada, but for feny and air linkages. the province of Newfoundland has welcomed the technological communication revolution of the past decade with open amis. There is virtually no region in the province that is without access to cellular phone and intemet technology. It is these advanœs in telecommunications that have came to be such neceççary requirernents for communicating in a province wrought w'th immense geographic bamers to communications. The numerous bays, inlets and coastal settlement pattern have resulted in enormous travel times for movement among regions. In addition to these technological changes, many communities within the study area still rely on such traditional means of communicating as the church bulletin. the local newspaper and radio stations. The influence of the church in a community is still very much a part of the weekly activities of many outports. The church remains a gathering place for the community and a medium for the exchange of ideas and current events. 5.0 PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
An inherent component of the national marine conservation areas system program is the involvement, participation, and consultation of stakeholders and the general public in the feasibility process. While the Department of Canadian Heritage has specifc expectations of how such an endeavor may develop, as detailed in chapter 7. it is a topic worthy of further in-depth examination. SpecHÏcally as to its origins and development over the past 40 years. various processes for irnplementation, and the benefits realized through its utilization.
5.1 Why lnvolve the Public?
Where people are dependent on their adjacent marine resources for their livelihoods, the establishment of an MCA is likely to have a significant impact on their lives and, inevitably, results in a reaction from the community. The challenge to managers of MCAs is to channel this response into support for the project. lnvolving the community can ducethe conflict which often anses in MCA establishment where the best sites for consewation are also the most economically valuable; this is a definite factor for the Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays area.
Whenever something new, large. or different is proposed in or near a community it anbe expected that the public will be concemeci. Concerns will be even greater if the project or activity is located close to their places of residence or affects their livelihoods. Even relatively common activaies which an organization does not see as a problem itself can cause cancern amongst the public when it has not been infomed and personal concems have not kenaddressed. Given the high profile of environmental issues and the concem for health. safety and quality of life inherent in most cornmunities. there wiil almost certainly be public concem if developments are located near people. or near areas that their economies are centered around. lnvolving the public in the process as soon as possible is pertinent to obtaining their support for an initiative. Then maintaining it throughout the duration of the project becornes possible with stakeholder involvement and cornmunity support.
5.2 Public Involvement: From Consultation to Participation
Public involvement in decision making is not new, nor is it a passing fad. Likewise public participation is not a North American creation. Although its western ongins are linked to the nse of democracy and citizens' relationships to the Athenian state. its antecedents are much older and more vaned. forming the basis for decision making in many ancient and contemporary indigenous çocieties. The current practiœ of public involvernent is, in many ways. the byproduct of a cross-fertilization of populist ideas, the information revolution and widespread disenchantment with a society where neither industry nor elected offcials appear to act "in the public interest". Although it is very difficult to ascertain a definite beginning, some analysts believe that community development and participation "just happened". with the initiative coming from the people. Sometimes. however, the impetus for involvernent came from govemment, through such things as the Farm Radio Forum in Canada and community development programs (Draper 1978).
The world wars, great depression, along wwth the rapid nse of the consumer society, mass education, and the media of the 1950s and 60s,were al1 conttibuting factors to the demand for greater participation in decision making according to Creighton (1984). Whereas the events of the first half of the century greatly increased govemment's influence over people's lives. widespread education and greater access to information through a varïety of media created a newly critical population. While the children of the postwar period were taught that their feelings were important, they were king depersonalized by mass education. Similarly, although the media effectively spread news and information. the vision of the global village king created was cold and impersonal. Nat only were individuals changing, but govemment institutions were evolving as well. Local wmmunities were king supplanted by impersonal urban œnters. Govemment was becoming more centralized and bureaucratie, extending its influence over poples' lives. The media served to advertise the mistakes of govemment, the perception of government as acting in the best interests of those it served was steadily being eroded. This erosion was further enhanced by the rise of the consumer and environmental movements wbich held agencies and corporations accountable to the consumer, and exposeci the piffills of technological development dnven solely by economic wnsiderations. For the first time in history. when poverty, oppression and environmental degradation in a western worid of apparent plenty provoked anger, fnistration. and direct action by a rninority, millions of people had access to the images and reacted. The public appeared to possess a conscience that govemment and industry seemed to lack. The culmination of these factors contributed to the demand for a more participatory democracy.
In Canada, public involvement efforts concentrated on alleviating the effects of poverty and oppression, but with less violence and racial tension than in the United States (Draper 1978). Often issues had no geographic boundaries. making it difficult to define the stakeholders. People becarne linked rather than communities. The legitimisation of public involvement as part of the decision making process came as a pragmatic defense against the power of the public. and as a reaction to increasingly complex issues. Whereas at one time. a project was undertaken if it was economically feasible, now a whole range of factors had to be cunsidered, from social impacts to effects on wildlife (Connor 1985). Neither scientific nor technological speaalization could guarantee a solution to a problem. In order to avoid conflict, decision rnakers were often forced to take the public's opinions into account, or suffer the consequenœs. Particularfy where the decision had environmental repercussions or great economic impact, people banded together to oppose both big business and govemment. Methods such as sit-ins, tree-huggings. product boycotts. and litigation forced decision makers to listen and pay attention to the demands of the public. 5-2.1 Public Involvement: A Definition
The rapid n'se in influence of public involvement has led to some confusion surounding the definition of public involvement. Part of this confusion is the result of the tendency to use the ternis public involvement, consultation, and participation interchangeably, with no recognition of the subtle and not-sesubtle differences between each term.
Public involvement is a methodology for involving the public in the decision- making process of an organization. This can be brought about through either consultation or participation. the key dïerence kingthe degree to which those involved in the process are able to influence. share, or control the decision making (World Bank 1993). While consultation includes education, information sharing, and negotiaüon, the goal being better decision making by the organization consulting the public, participation actually brings the public into the decision making procass. Typically, public involvernent has focused prirnarily on consulting the public, with no options for greater involvement. The process has relied heavily on education and information sharing. However, a growing number of organizations have begun experimenting with public involvement in the fonof joint planning and delegated authority, where the public actually controls and directs the process and the ultimate results. This is part of the process Parks Canada proposes to employ in the feasibility study phase for the Bonavista i Notre Dame Bays Study Area.
Many provincial planning acts do not go far enough to involve the public in their decision making processes. While both the Provincial Planing Ads of Newfoundland and Labrador and Nova Scotia have clauses that cal1 for public consultations. the degree of participation required and order in which it is sought varies widely.
In Nova Scotia. provincial Planning Act requirements cal1 for a public hearing &fore an application is considered. Advertisements are placed in local paperç calling for submissions of concem which are then included in the agenda and raised at the hearing. Regardless of subrnissions received from the public the heanng proœeds as scheduled and any rnernber of the public who wishes to raise an issue rnay do sa at that time.
The issue of public consultation is given even less respect by the Newfoundland and Labrador Planning Act, where legal requirements for public participation are limited to placing an advettisement in local papers of areas affected two weeks pfior to a decision, notifying the public of the province's consideration of an issue or amendment. Ta which Mensubmissions of contest or protest must be received by the governrnent or an authorized subsidiary for a public meeting to occur in order to hear the conœm(s). The irony of this situation is the public does not have to be consulted until after consideration of amendments or adoptions have taken place by the respective council or municipality. In addition, if no written submissions are received before the deadline. the public hearing is usually canceled under the assumption that there is no one interested or objectionable ta the issue under consideration. Thus. bamng anyone who may have missed the advertisement or developed an objection after the deadline; their opportunity to be heard is pradically nonexistent. However antiquated. the Act is up for review in the fonn of a discussion paper outlining proposed revisions and seeking public input, as was done in Nova Scotia in 1995.
These examples serve to demonstrate how little attention was paid to public concerns in the past and, in some instances how. governments continue to ignore the people whom they represent. The message from the public is clear: we will not be left out of the decision making process. What is not so clear is which groups make up this newly awakened public, and how to involve them. In chapter six, I will suggest an interactive proposal for public involvement in the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Study Area. 5.2.2 The Benefm of Public fnvolvement
From the point of view of the decision maker public involvement mn help achieve input from the public to avoid countless problems, including conflicts with a public that has not been consulted, or unforeseen situations arising from inaccurate information; the public may hold information or aeative solutions not yet considered by those charged with making the decision. In the end, the cost of a badly informed decision could far outweigh the cost of involving the public. From the public's perspective, king consulted generates cornmitment to an issue while increasing confidence in and lending credibihty to an organization that is open about their plans. As a general rule, most decision making processes benefit from some degree of public involvement Public consultation and participation can help avert confrontation between organizations and affected groups. and can achieve a higher level of local support for the decisions reached during al1 phases of planning, development, and implementation. Public involvement can help improve project planning and decision making by an organization as well as help resolve problems resulting from ongoing operations in a community. By working with the public, an organization cm identify concerns and resolve them before they escalate into major problerns. It can reduœ opposition to a project and lead to more efficient and effective planning, thereby reduung the likelihood of costly delays or project cancellation. lnvolvement can infom and educate the public about proposais and their potential consequences and create channels for the type of open. honest two-way communication which can help avoid worst-case confrontations. It can help to obtain information for the organization's development that only those who live and work in the community or region can effecüvely provide. This special. local or indigenous knowledge can help in the planning and management of projects. When properly designed and implemented, a proceçs involving the public education in decision making cm raise the level of community cornmitment to a project, and establish a sense of ownership that can help communities create positive developmental impacts (Vanclay 1995 p.240). It is important to realize that many of the benefits of involvement are long tem. The process is an investrnent with a wide range of risks, costs, and benefits. While the initial public involvement costs may seem high. there are considerable benefits that an effective public involvement program rnay have in the long tem. Public involvement is not, however, a panacea; the unpredictability of human behavior means that problems rnay develop, despite the best of plans and intentions.
5.3 Stakeholder Inclusion and Accountability
A recent trend in public processes is the focus on stakeholder representation or mufti-stakeholder processes. Representatives of public interest groups are usually invited to discuss and negotiate key issues and recommendations. or even to take responsibility for implementing results. In sorne cases, this process works exceptionally well, however. in other cases. it is unclear whether these stakeholders represent their organizations, a number of organizations or only thernselves. Of even greater conœm is whether they actually cornmuniate the results of their discussions and negotiations with their own mernbenhip(s). Organizations undertaking public involvement processes need to realize that stakeholder processes are one technique in the broader public involvement process. Contrary to what sorne organizations see as hype and others as pressure, stakeholder processes are not public processes. A stakeholder process is only one part of a larger public process. If an organization bases its actions totally on a stakeholder process. there is strong likelihood that the general public will want to know why it was not consulted before a decision was reached. The public and interest groups may even tum to the courts or elected officiais to block implementation. lnvolving stakeholders does not remove the need ta involve other groups throughout the public process. No one group represents ail of the interests.
Approaches to parks development in many countries. including Canada, are coming to acknowledge the importance of public consultation and participation of those affected by park development. The process by which Parks Canada hopes to establish marine conservation areas in Canada is nonetheless. essentially top- down and enter-out That is, prospective sites are identified by Parks staff using biophysical characteristics as the primary criteria of selection. Only after the process is under way would agency staff cunsult affeded people and, even then. the likely goal of such consultation would be to sort through and fine tune what are essentially govemment designed and managed initiatives (Shackell 1995, p.205). Such an approach may succeed for offshore locations and for areas that are characterized by relatively low andor easily controlled levels of resource use. However. the situation tends to be very different when dealing with manne areas that are used intensively, especially when such use has a long history. Many coastal areas in Canada, particularly in the Atlantic provinces. are characterized by this kind of situation. It is within the rich and diverse coasbl zone regions that conservation is perhaps the greatest priority, yet faces the greatest challenge.
Pnor to the anival of the industrial society. cornmunities living near manne resources used them and often depended on them for food and other materÏals. Deterioration of these resourœs could therefore be quickly recognized. This direct dependenœ on the sea has now disappeared in many areas and with it the community's sensitivity to the consequenees of resource damage and depletion. In subsistence cultures. resource deterioration may still be felt but the community lacks the rneans to deal with it. in the face of outside commercial pressures and increasing population. Population growth. technological change. commercialization and loss of community çontrol over resources have led to widespread destruction of traditional marine tenure systems. Traditional management practices often involved regulating use of particular sites. and efforts like the NMCAS plan are now being employed to incorporate these practices into modem MCA management. Even in areas where such practices have been lost for many yearç, or are not known to have existed, community involvement can result in the development of a similar sense of responsibility and concern for a marine and coastal area. Marine and coastal resources and the communities that use these Vary tremendously ftom place to place and change over tirne. While govemrnent agencies have a very limited ability to manage such complexity, the knowledge. skills and social arrangements found in coastal communities are often adapted on a local -le to cope with just such complexity. In fact, these social adaptations are what defines a comrnunity's local culture and make it distinct. As such. wuking with cornmunities on their own tens can benefit the proponent, while strengthening local social and cultural identity. Yet. ironically, rather than view the diverse social and cultural conditions found in coastal communities as potential assets or resourœs. they have instead largely kenconstnied as obstacles to rational planning and development in maritime regions around the worid. The widespread and persistent failure of govemment agencies to enforce cornpliance with fisherks regulations is a case in point. Fisheries, and manne environments, in general, are assumed to be free to be exploited by anyone. This assumption makes management the responsibility of govemment. In some cases. particularly with offshore manne resources, access is relatively unrestncted and govemments play a strong management mie. However. a variety of studies in recent yean have demonstrated that in many coastal and neanhore areas fisheries have historically and. in many cases, continue to be subject to varying degrees of local, self-regulated management. these findings are encouraging fisheries management agencies to experiment with a variety of novel cooperative arrangements involving local resources users and communities (Shackell 1995, p.206).
Marine conservation areas development is moving in a similar direction as well. Well-intentioned govemment policies that have sought in the past to protect important ecological areas and to improve marine resource conservation, in general, have done so by strengthening govemment authority and responsibility. Unfortunately, these policies have had the unintended consequence of slowly undermining the local social mechanisms that could provide a rneans for regulating access and otheMnse managing manne resources. They have also concomitantly devalued local knowiedge and responsibility. It is important to recognize this fact because conservationists are now fighting against a strong tide if they assume they can effectively enlist local communities in cooperative management arrangements without fint changing the adversarial context that decades of centralized government policy has helped mate. In short, if we want local fishers and other members of coastal communities to play an important role in management. then the very relationship that govemment has towards these groups has to be transformed.
The type of community using or adjacent to an MCA has an important bearing on the way community involvement develops. At one extreme, local people may be predominantly subsistence-level fishers. At the opposite extreme, there may be a diverse array of interests: commercial and recreational, as well as subsistence, fishenen; yachtsmen, marine owners and people servicing the sailing industry; tourists and tourist operaton, both national and international; those involved in agriculture. industry, transport and other coastal adivities; and. in some cases, residents who live on the coast pimarily for its scenic value. An MCA will impinge on the interests of these people in widely different ways. The Parks Canada National Marine Conservation Areas Policy recognizes the need for flexibility from region to region. Resourœ use ocairs along al1 of Canada's coasts. but is particularly intensive in Atlantic Canada. In this respect. the concept of 'twilderness" is not strictly applicable to many parts of Atlantic Canada's coastal environment. This tradition of resource use in Atlantic Canada makes Parks Canada's job more cornplex. Parks Canada recognizes that marine parks will only be estaMished if they have local comrnunrty support. One of the main components for the establishment of a national system of marine conservation areas is the input of localized stakeholders in the feasibility study, creation and management of such areas. As technically only the second study area to date to undergo the feasibility assessrnent stage as proclaimed by the Minister of Canadian Heritage on Febniary 28. 1997, the Bonavista I Notre Darne Bays Study Area has the advantage of benefiting from previous experience with fostering new management techniques in marine conservation.
This has certainly been reflected in the agency's experience with a proposed manne park for the West Ides area in the Bay of Fundy near the Maine-New Brunswick border. The area, because of its natural productivity and oceanographic patterns, is a site of great natural heritage and also the location of an established commercial fishery and, more recently, aquaculture industry. It does not take much foresight to understand that these different uses of the area could be a source of conflict. Unfortunately. the process which Parks Canada followed in attempting to establish a manne conservation area in the West Mes dramatically compounded the potential for conflict.
The West Mes was identified as a potential MCA through an intemal process based on its natural heritage value. The firçt study, a resource inventory, submitted to Parks Canada in 1976 confitmed its status as the preferred location for an MCA in the Bay of Fundy. The first round of public participation began in 1984. yet by that point public reaction had changed from quiet gmmbiing to vocal opposition. The local fishing industry was especially opposed. As of 1997 the West Mes MCA proposal remains stalled, yet nonetheless, the Department of Canadian Heritage still has interest in establishing an MCA in the region.
The West Isles experienœ was chamcterized by a lack of trust and comrnunity participation in the eariy years. While fisheries management in Atlantic Canada provides few examples of a govemment agency working closely with the fishing industry. several recent initiatives involving cooperation between Department of Fisheries and Ocean's scientists and fishers may ofter some instruction. One of the major problems in the area of fisheries research and management is the poor relationship between scientists and fishers. In part, this is the result of a management structure which pas managers and scientists against fishers. The adversarial relationship is further compounded by the fact that scientists and fishers speak a dflerent language and operate on different assurnptions. Recent initiatives, such as the lobster V-notching program in Bonavista Bay (Taylor, 1996), are trying to transfomi this relationship into one where scientists, MCA planners and managers, and fishers wmmunicate and cooperate.
The project involved the 'V-notching" of spawning lobsten in the area. which proved to be very successful in lirnited application. Fishen were invited ta participate in the experiment whereby they themselves took control over the stocks by protedng the spawning lobsten by clipping their tail and throwing them back to allow them to reach maturity and spawn. lnterest was generated in areas outside the selected experimental area as results of increased stocks were released. This process effectively gave the fishers direct control over management of the stocks upon which their Iivelihood is so dependent. Thus, removing the management of enforcement and cornpliance from the hands of the Department of Fisheties and Oceans, and empowering the major stakeholders with the ability to detemine how their own actions determine how management of the resource proceed. It is a similar kind of ernpowerment that Parks Canada hopto accomplish with the feasibility study phase of the Bonavista 1 Notre Dame Bays Area. By encouraging stakeholderç to participate in the decision making process, Parks Canada is enabling stakeholden to decide where and how a national manne conservation area can potentially proceed in their region.
5.4 lnvolving the Comrnunity
There has been increasing interest in recent years in community-basml management of natural resources or, where the govemment is responsible for management, in public participation. Community involvement can range from autonomous management by the comrnunity to some form of shared responsibility with federal agencies. This trend was in part stimulateci by the World Conservation Strategy which, in promoting the link between conservation and development, represented a major change hmthe rigid preservationist attitude of many early conservationists. Early protected areas were usually set up by government agencies with the intention of keeping people out. On land this is at least theoretically possible with fenœs and bamers; it is also possible to move people out of a planned protected area. However, as population pressure and demand for land and resources has increased, this philosophy has berne inappropriate and increasingly difficult and expensive to implement. Hence, in many countries there has been a growing emphasis on involving local people at some, if not all. levels of protected area establishment and management.
The recognition of a need for an MCA often cornes from outside the comrnunity. for example from a local conservation organization or scientist aware of the biological significance of an area. In Britain, the rapid growth of recreational scuba-diving in the 1970s gave rise to mnœm among conservationists that fragile nearshore marine communities could be damaged and led to the of Voluntary Manne Nature Reserves. In the Philippines, scientists identified potential sites for community-bas& reserves, and then initiated an educational program to introduce the concept of manne reserves to the local people (Gubbay 1995. p.71). In the case of statutory MCAS, local people can play an important role in stimulating govemment adion If the initiative cornes from the government, consultation with the local community at the eariiest possible stage w'll enhance the likelihood of success with the projed. This is a salient feature of the NMCAS plan. the initial phase of which is expected by the Department of Canadian Heritage to take approximately 18 months to complete.
The need for marine protected areas has been recognized comparatively recently, and the potential for conflict between local people and MCA establishment became apparent very quickly. The characteristics of the sea mean that marine resources cannot be fendoff; furthemore. in many parts of the worid they are wnsidered to be available to everyone. Many MCAs have therefore been set up as multiple-use areas; zoning for different activities is commonplaœ as provided for in the national mafine conservation areas system program policies of the Department of Canadian Heritage.
The need to protect manne habitats or ecosystems is a commonly agreed upon goal. Yet, the means by which to afford protection and the process by which to obtain these means remains amtroversial. Traditionally. in terrestrial contexts, protective actions have most often been stimulated and invoked by govemmental agencies. Menthrough the impetus and work of agency biologists and staff. govemmental agencies have moved to set aside areas such as parks or ecological reserves to protect various species or habitats. The main goal of these actions is to achieve protection by imposing regulations or laws which are designed to prevent hamful uses or reduce negative impacts. At present, the process of identifying pmtected areas most often begins with scientific inventory. By having the scientific inventory lead the proœss and then dictating the protedive actions to be taken in a "top dawn" fashion. this traditional approach fails to adequately address the human element of habitat protection. This is a resident characteristic in the national manne conservation areas system plan and Parks Canada needs to be cognizant of this feature when embarking on the feasibility phase of MCA assesment. Through the ernployment of public involvement proposais, as described in chapter six. the effects of this feature can be minirnired; if not entireiy eliminated. Conservation is not solely a scienüfic issue. Conservation has evolved through four distinct phases of development: legislative, biological, ecological and ~ollogiToday, conservation is essentially a matter of managing people. The solution to some conservation pmblems, therefore rests neither with the çcientists nor govemment oficials, but with a citizenry educated in environmental problem solving. Taken from this perspective. habitat protection cornes not only through the establishment of regulations but equally importantly, through a public educated in making wise environmental decisions. Lasting, on-going protection is best achieved by developing environmentally responsible behaviors or use patterns amongst the area users through education, personal involvement and by establishing "public" value for the habitat or ecosystem to be protected. The process by which conservation areas are established must therefore support the dual goals of protective regulations and public education. To achieve these goals. a new process-oriented partnership mode1 for habitat protection which operates from the "bottom-up" is required.
Community involvement in MCA management can reinstate the idea of marine resources as "common property". This terni is used for resources that are wllectively owned by a comrnunity. in contrast to "apen access" resources which are open to exploitation by any individual or group. Coastal communities in many countries had. and in some cases still have, customary laws or unwntten regulations to prevent individuals rnaximizing their pnvate gains at the expense of community interests. In such cases. for example the province of Newfoundland. where traditions and customary fishing practices. have in the past, led to sustainable use of the resuurce. Whether this sustainable management was intentional or indirectly achieved is uncertain. To succeed one needs to develop local confidence, local support and local pride in heritage. Such pride. plus wise management. could lead to political prestige; and prestige to a key role for protected environments in regional planning. 5.4.1 ütilizaüon of Community Resources
Studies or projects often require sensitivity to local issues, politics and other concems. Too often research tearns do not have good local contacts or choose not to utilize local resources. Noone knows the issues of a community, region or organization better than those from within. However, there is otten the need for external expertise to assist in identifying these issues, establishing acceptable methodologies and approaches and developing or training the local research team for all phases of the work. By involving locals in as much of the NMCASP as possible a community or regionally-based approach can result in a very supportive atmosphere, achieving positive boy-in to the process as well as excellent quantitative and qualitative data king generated.
The following are issues of concern involving local field researchers that require consideration before embarking on any public involvement process:
It is realistic to involve local field researchers in al1 aspects of a study from development of approaches and methodologies to analyzing, documenting and presenting study results; Use of local researchers will provide participants a greater reason to support or 'buy intonthe results; Involving local researcherr requires good training programs for interviewers. interpreters or researchers in the pretesting process is ideal as it screens interviewers while testing the study instruments and methodology; The coordinatorltrainer must monitor progress of al1 field staff closely throughout the study process. This is critical to the success of the work. The use of local researchers begins to build local expertise which can be tapped by other agencies working in the cornrnunity (DFO, Environment Canada, etc.); A debriefing session is essential on completion of local researchefs involvement. Besides providing recognition, key patterns and trends not document4 in the process becorne visible. These can influence study results as they illustrate why individuals respond in a particular manner. On a local research team, it is almost aiways tnie that one or more individuals surface as an appropriate coordinator for the local crisis management duties which need immediate response. The organization, community or region should be provided with the results of the study. It pays dividends; and The use of local interviewers can reduce costs and provide invaluable 'local knowledge" and data of€enunattainable through the use of outsiders.
A final concem is the need to balance extemal and intemal resources. There are innumerable instances of projects and studies undertaken by local groups who do not have the expertise to establish study guidelines, develop methodologies and strategies or implement the required work sa that the results will stand up to scnitiny. Their work is then discounted as imlevant because it is based on poor research rnethodologies and lacks rigorous research controls. Opposing this are those studies undertaken by an extemal team. While the research approaches and methodologies may be excellent. there is offen a lack of understanding and sensitivity to issues faced in the community or region. It would appear that a balance between the management of quantitative and qualitative data and the control of costs and the identification and sensitivrty to organizational and cornmunity issues. politics and concerns. can be achieved.
5.5 Community Stewardship and Partnerships
The concept of partnering is a necessary driving force in order for the NMCA program to be successful. Stakeholder information. cooperation, and ongoing support is key in creating and managing MCAs. Cooperation and coordination between interested parties and Parks Canada is required to ensure efFiciency and to avoid duplication of effort. It has been said that environmental management is most effective when implemented by those who have the most to lose and the most to gain from the management of the environment. This is particulariy tnie for marine users. By considering their interests early in the pmcess. areas of constraint and potential conflict can be identified and negotiated where appropriate. The number of interested parties, like the divemty of interests and uses, will Vary with sites, regional needs and attitudes and valued resources. The degree of involvement and responsibility of interested parties will depend on the purpose of the MCA and its geographic location. Partnering arrangements in an MCA Program w.ll often involve difTerent groups and interests. Some of these groups could include coastal communities, the fishing industry, aquaculturists, aboriginal organizations. conservationists, ocean industries, and federal, provincial and municipal govemments. An advantage of establishing effective partnering arrangements with the fishing and shipping community is improved ampliance with MCA regulations.
Conflicts are inevitable when dealing with complex issues and allocating scarce resources. lntemal and extemal conflicts which cannot be avoided must be reçolved expediently. and in a fashion which leaves delicate relationships intact. Reconciling expectations very early in the planning process avMç many conflicts. A common Mure focus enables stakeholders to recognize that their differences are insignificant compared to their comrnon objectives and values. Soon after their formation, multi-stakeholder organizations leam the value of intemal and extemal communications (Shackell 1995 p. 199). By cammunicating what they plan to do, what they are doing. and what they have done. multi- stakeholder organizations avoid many canflids. Conflicts are further avoided through consensus decision making and by empowering the client (the public) to drive the process. To tmly serve their clients, multi-stakeholder organizations have become advocates of informed decision making, and discourage others fmrn taking positions on issues before evaluating al1 relevant information. In addition, recognizing and celebrating the contributions and achievements of others go a long way in avoiding confiicts.
Effective cbnflict resolution is dependent upon the strength of working relationships and the cdlective people skills of stakeholders. As stakeholders work together, they gain an understanding and respect for one another. Many stakeholders are not proœss oriented. Their needs must be addressed early in the proceçç. Shared principles and cornmon goals combined with accepted and understood confiict resolution rnethodologies are essential tools (Shackell 1995, p.199).
Success in protecting the marine environment via established marine conservation areas depends not just on govemment support and the local management organizations; but also the reaction and involvement of the local population. The following are four goals for involving the public to make them feel that they are very much a part of the conservation area. so that they share the mmmitment of the administration.
1. To provide for a better understanding of the objectives and work of the MCA. 2. To create good links between the MCA and local cornmunities by direct involvement. 3. To form new links between the local cornrnunity and the areas outside the MCA. 4. To produce new devalopment models. to experiment using thern and to ensure the results of expenments are publicized and influence further action (Council 1987, p.25). lnvolving the public in the process of establishing marine conservation areas is a critical elernent in the educational strategy. It is cornmonly assumed that conservation action can be brought about by presenting people with information about animals or environments and the problems which confront thern. This assumption is based on the premise that knowledge influences attitude which in tum influences behavior. However, behaviors of people regarding the environment are often not consistent with their knowledge. The assumption that action evolves naturally from knowledge is erroneous (Shackell 1995 p.237). Motivation is a critically important factor in environmentally responsible behavior. Unlike the process of protecting areas through regulations which relies upon "policing" to extemally motivate people, protection through public value for an environment depends upon intnnsically motivated individuals. There must be something about the action or issue itself that is so important to the individual that it becomes a reward in itself. Reçearctt by Kelsey, Nightingale. and Solin (Shackell, ed. 1995) into why people feel motivated to behave responsibly toward the environment reveals the importance of three personality factors: 1. Locus of control, 2. Attitude, 3. Personal responsibility.
Locus of control refers to an person's perception of whether or not he or she has the ability to bnng about change through his or her own behavior. The concept is based on the belief that some people do not attempt to bring about change because they believe change to be in the hands of otherç. People with an intemal locus of control believe that their actions are likely to have an impact and are therefore more likely to have a desire to take action.
A critically important factor affecting motivation is attitude. Positive attitudes toward the environment and toward environmental conservation contribute to a person's desire to take action. Modeling can be one of the most effective educational techniques for developing positive attitudes towards conservation and the environment. Modeling is a psychological concept that involves learning through example. Modeling relies on asdating behaviors with people who are respected or liked. Positive examples, or success stories. represent a specific and effective fonn of modeling. Descriptions of successful efforts by ordinary people to bnng about environmental change can help other people to see possibilities rather than inevitabilities. They help people build more adequate models about environmental problems and their roles in addressing them. Leaming about environmental issues, their complexity. urgency and importance is overwhelrning. While acknowledging the gravity and urgency of environmental issues. succes stories can provide the imagery and the inspiration people need to take action.
Personal responsibility refers to encouraging citizens to take action and become pemnally involved in the conservation of their marine environrnent. Empowering the people who Iive alongside the environrnent with the ability to protect it, encourages local pride and confidence in people that they can adually make a differenœ. A difference evident in the increased abundance of local marine wildlife stocks. as resulted in the lobster V-Notching program of Bonavista Bay (Taylor 1997). Locally controlled enforcement allows the self-policing of local fishers, as well as, visitors from outside the area. Enabling management to evolve from within the area, rather than dictating control through a bureaucracy from outside the region. leads to local support for the project.
5.5.1 Categories of Economic Benefit
As with most things. combining econornic benefits with conservation seems to be a matter of ingenuity, but in reality they are natural associates. There are three methods m which economic benefrt can be demonstrated by direct result of community involvernent in marine conservation areas.
The first category is the direct benefits deriveci from the MCA. Things such as commercial fisheries licensing and catches, tourism dollars spent in the area and employment directly related to the MCA's operation.
The second benefit concerns man's work with nature - added value. Conservation of species habitat for example presewes the ecosystem frorn which both commercial hawesten and the faunal life benefit from. Such value adding measures are valuable. but not enough people know what is being achieved and what could be done. It is particularly important that economic benefits should be strongly demonstrated. It is also important that the MCA administration be in fim control of the enterprise, for both the value, and the dangers of tourism must be understood and be an integral part of area management. One of the great potential strengths of MCAs is if the administration has the will and the organization to ensure development is of the right kind and at the right level; as is the case wi-th the National Manne Conservation Area System Policy of the Department of Canadian Heritage. By such measures the yield of potential spin- ofFs will be sustainable and local people can have a vested interest in good management and conservation. The area will be both dependent on its environment; and the environment in tum dependent on sound ecological management. Thus, ecology and econorny work in harmony for the good of al1 concerned (Council 1987. p.47).
Permanence is the last economic benefit. An asset mat lasts. permanence. or stability, is tmly sustainable. and increases consideratily in value as the yearç pass - as has been wefi demonstrated by protected areas world wide conserved well in the past and now highly valued for that very reason (Australia's Great Bamer Reef Marine Park). Areas that can develop an atrnosphere of successful marine protection, and demonstrate support from both managers and the local community. are seen as stable. permanent fixtures of the area.
Community involvement cm have important benefits for both the local people and the protected area. Sharing of econornic benefits from the MCA can inuease income for local people, for example from user fees and visitor facilities. lmproved employrnent opportunities may anse both in and outside the MCA, through the growth of sewices such as hotels and restaurants. A successful MCA may resuit in irnproved yields in local fisharies; one of the initiatives for DFO's involvement in establishing a MCA program. Although not dependent on community involvement per se, such benefïts can have an enonous impact where the communw is involved. Important ingredients of cbrnmunity involvement are incentives and sanctions that will influence the behavior of individuals who live in or depend on an area. For MCA managers, carnmunity involvement cm facilitate enforcement of regulations, as local people will understand and accept their purpose more readily. The community can assist or even be responsible for enforcement, thus reducing costs to government agencies.
What has emerged from the various previous MCA initiatives attempted. such as the West Isles. Bay of Fundy experience. is a recognition of the need for a different approach that fosten a different kind of relationship between conservation agencies and the coastal communities with whom they hopto collaborate. The following five general pnnciples as outlined by Walters and Butler (Shackell 1995 ed. p.209) are inherent cornponents in any new approach: 1. Local coastal residents must be adive participants. from the eadiest, and at each successive stage. in the decision making processes that lead to the establishment and operation of a marine conservation area. This will ensure that local needs and conœms are considered. Equally important. local residents have to hlthat the important decisions are. in part. their decisions. in order for them to develop the sense of responsibility and commitment that is needed to sustain long-terni support for such initiatives. 2. Conservation agencies must also be willing to rnake strong, long terni commitments to communities that they collaborate with, as is the case in Terra Nova National Park. which has a long standing relationship of goodwill with the surrounding communities of the area. The failure of extemal agencies to follow through with their promises and commitments is a potentially serious problem and one that commonly interferes with such cooperative endeavors. Govemments can strengthen their own and the local cooperator's confidence and commitment by, for example, making CO-managementagreements fomalized and legal to protect the rights and interests of the mperating parties. 3. Observable benefits from the conservation initiative such as increased resource yields. tourism, or outside recognition. will reinforce a local community's comrnitment to the activity. In cases where the cost to the camrnunity is potentially high, considerable protection of key historic and ecalogical sites has tourist value. Likewise, if it is demonstrated that moderate sized reserves enhanœ local fisheries, then fishers will likely be willing to cooperate in their establishment and management. 4. Non-govemrnent intermediary individuals and organizations can play an important catalytic and perhaps a long terni fundional role in the collaborative process. Third parties like universities, non-profit NGO1sand private consultants can be contracted by govemment or other pflvate sources to do the initial kg- work and build the govemment-cummunity linkages required; as has been initiated in the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Study Area. 5. Each prospective mperative venture must be considered on a caseby-case basis. Just as no two places are identical in their biological and historic conservation potential, so too will every local cornmunity differ in ternis of its social and ewnomic suitability. In general, it makes obvious sense to invest in sites where both the conservation and çoci-oeconomic opportunities are high. But, there is no single model for cooperative coastal conservation. It can take many different foms involving different arrays of local actors, varying degrees of local participation, and different goals. Matworks in one location may not be suitable for another.
The recognition of such requirements have been acknowledged by the Department of Canadian Heritage. at least in theory, through the Guiding Principles and Operational Policies guidelines. What remains is to see these evolve in practice. The Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays study area provides us with an opportunity for application.
5.6 The Future of Public Involvement
Public involvement is indeed not a fad or a fashionable, politically correct practice. In both the public and private sector, public involvement processes have been abused, and publics have misinterpreted consultative processes to be something more than they are. These have plaœd into question the validity of the public involvement mechanisms. However, the evolution of public and curporate institutions in society has created a lasting place for public involvement in decision making, one that is being confirmeci each thea successful consultation takes place. The public today is more infomed about issues that affect it than ever before. Information and communications technology play a substantial role in creating an educated public. and in conveying the demands of the public to those who are rnaking the decisions. Specialized interest groups are more agile, more easily rnobilized, and frequently poses technical information which is superior to that of decision maken. Therefore, in dealing with a public which is increasingly more aware, there are often very good reasons to seek the participation of the public in decisions which affect them.
Govemments across the globe are undergoing a fundamental change in their orientation to the business of governing. Pressured by the sheer enormity of the task of goveming, they are moving away from large bureaucratie delivery structures toward smaller-scale policy-oriented roles. Govemments are now becoming more focused upon clients instead of the bureaucracy, upon outcames instead of inputs, and upon persuasion instead of commands (Vanclay 1995 p.242). To be successful in these strategie., the public rnust be involved. Wdh downsizing and fiattened organizations. govemments must rely more heavily on public input to generate public policy. Greater empowement of communities and more articulate interest groups require that govemments be more sensitive to the needs of the public. Therefore. public involvernent is now an increasingly important cbrnponent of public policy, and a cbrnponent which is recognized for its positive contribution.
We are witnessing a slow change in the role that the public plays in the decisions that affect thern toward greater involvement in decisions of al1 sorts. Govemments are moving rapidly toward greater public participation in the development of public policy both for reasons of necessity and because they are being pressureci to do so. Many funding organizations, including the World Bank. are now requiring inclusion of public consultation as a contingency in project development. Such a mandate cannot be ignored &y corporations. countries, or other lending institutions. The inevitable conclusion is that in the very near Mure, public involvement will affect an even braader field than it does currently. The implication is that the public, in the broadest sense. has gained a voice in matters that affect it. What was once described as a grassroots rnovement is rapidly becoming the basis for the way that governrnent and industry conduct their day- to-day business when faced with proposais or situations that might be seen as contentious.
In the private sector, whether for the reasons of strategic success, reduced irnplementation costs, or developing a positive corporate image, public involvement has an expanding role in the future of corporate decisions. However, the greatest guarantee of a continuing growth of public involvement is the public itself. Having once been allowed in to participate in decision making, it is difficult to stand on the sidelines the next time. If the public is not invited to participate, people will demand it. As societies and peoples becorne more infomed about their environments and organize into more cornplex structures, the current demand by the public to be involved in decision making will continue to increase. People expect and demand to be more involved. They live with the consequences of decisions and expect to share and be responsible for making them. To be successful in meeting these demands, organizations will need to be more proadive, and less readive. They will need to find a cornmon language. to leam to listen, and to consider and incorporate what is king said. But most of all. they will need to leam that if it is well organized, open and honest. public involvement can be more than just a means to an end. It can be an end in itself. a permanent dialogue that will benefit the organization for yean to corne.
Public participation grew out of a social conscience for the environment, and the rnanner in which people saw their lives king manipulated by govemment and corporations. Assisted by the technology of the media people became better educated about the methods utilized to conduct business and development, and began to question some of these methods that were proving to be of benefit to few, while at the expense of many.
Organizations eventually saw the advantages of consulting the public and involving them in the decision rnaking process. While public participation was at first a tool of the corporations, governrnents too, realized the advantages and implemented public consultation methods as policy for a variety of processes including environmental assesment and other sensitive, high profile topics of public concem.
The Department of Canadian Heritage has developed guidelines and operational policies for the development and implementation of a national system of manne conservation areas, in which. public consultâtion is key. I have chosen to pursue this prernise one step further by encouraging not just public consultation or participation. but public involvement. Empowenng the public to feel that they are actively involved in the design and management of an NMCA that directly affects their daily Iives is a crucial component to its success. 6.0 A METHODOLOGY FOR PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
Considering the literature review and theory presented in the previous chapter, it is clear that a distinction must be made between consultation and involvement. For an undertaking such as an NMCA for the Bonavista/Notre Dame Bays area to be realized, not only an informed community is prerequisite, but also an included one.
Whenever one embarks upon a public consultation exercise, exactly who the target audience is influences the technique to be utilized. After careful consideration of the community profile, I make the following suggestions for achieving Parks Canada guidelines for public involvernent in the feasibility stage of the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Study Area. The proposal described in this chapter has been devised in accordance with the community objectives in conjunction with fitting methods for public involvement to realize the goals of the NMCASP.
Prior to describing the proposed methodology, an examination of the Parks Canada method for public consultation is appropriate to provide an understanding and a basis for rny proposal. As I will demonstrate, there are adrnitted weaknesses in both proposals, but characteristics of each can complement one another as well. First, a brief analysis of the Parks Canada approach to public consultation in the BonavistdNotre Dame Bays region.
6.1 The NMCASP Public Consultation Method
The goal of the public consultation portion of the feasibility assessment in the NMCA process, is to conduct a community lad public assessment of the suitability of establishing a national marine conservation strategy in the Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Study Area. The procedure to be followed is an adaptation of methods used to undertake social impact assessments. The social impact assessment process involves five steps including: 1. Profiling the cornmunity affected; 2. Projecting the future of the community with or without the project; 3. Assessing the anticipated changes; 4. Evaluating the importance of each effect, and; 5. Mitigating the negative effects while optimizing the positive ones. Mixed in this process are two important additional initiatives that will contribute to fulfilling the Department of Canadian Heritage requirements for assessment of public feasibility. First, the community will work with government officials to define what a national marine conservation area might be for their region. Parks Canada's policy describes what a national marine conservation area is supposed to be. It will be necessary to develop concepts on how it might be applied to the Bonavista 1 Notre Dame Bays Study Area. The second additional approach is to consult with the residents of the study area and other interested parties to determine the degree of support for national marine conservation areas and the concepts that have been developed through this process.
A tenet of this process is that the fundamental responsibility of governments to govem will not change. The process is intended to support that premise by providing people who have a direct interest in, or concem for the results of a decision, to have a voice in that decision making process. It will be these concemed citizens who will be given an opportunity to shape how a national marine conservation area might best be established in their area, and whether there is sufficient public support for its development.
The optimum situation will be one where al1 or most of the community and govemmental objectives coincide. In the final analysis, decisions will have to be made by the community of interested persons and by govemments. The first is to determine whether there is, or there is not sufficient public support to establish a national marine conservation area in the Bonavista 1 Notre Dame Bays Study Area. If the response is positive, there may also be certain recommendations that people want decision-makers to take into account in shaping its implementation. Recognizing that the model is not a govemment creation it will be necessary for govemments to accept what is being proposed. If there is not sufficient support from the public or govemment then it will be necessary to look elsewhere. The added danger of attracting only the most vocal stakeholders, while alienating other, but nonetheless important members of society exists with the utilization of traditional consultative methods. The interactive methodology explained in the following sections serves as a means to elicit that sometimes unheard opinion, and fills in the gaps that the Parks Canada strategy may leave.
What is required is an innovative method to involve the stakeholders and the public to detenine how they want to steer the development of their resources, and their communities as they enter the 21st century. In order to achieve this goal, the approach must include al1 the necessary components of a successful public involvement strategy, while attracting and rnaintaining the community's interest during both the initial stages and throughout the projects duration. It is believed, by the author, that the interactive approach suggested below successfully meets these criteria of involving the community, and exceeds the expectations of public involvement for the Department of Canadian Heritage by directly involving them in the planning process of the NMCA for the Bonavista I Notre Dame Bays Area.
6.2 Project Goals
Considering the guidelines and expectations of the Parks Canada proposal; and in conjunction with the theories, facts and recommendations for public involvement in the previous chapter, I have developed a set of goals for public involvement in the Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Area that I feel not only meet the aspirations of the people and communities of the area, but exceed them for the benefit of al1 concemed. Crucial to this process, however, is direct involvement, not simply consultation, of the very people whom the proposed NMCA will most directly affect; the fishers. Stakeholders who are dependent on the waters that the proposed NMCA boundaries encompass are key players in the process. They are knowledgeable, repositories of information who have a wealth of experience that would be beneficial at this early stage of the process. The revealing of this knowledge in a non-threatening and respectful manner for the people and the comrnunity is the goal of this proposal.
Taking into consideration the wide geographic boundaries of the area, and the required travel distances among communities. I have suggested a multiphase process that visits a variety of communities central to each subarea identified in the community profile. At each study site, an evaluation should be done of the local issues of concem, who the major players are, and of course al1 other relevant features that are applicable to any community profile examination. It is important to remember that each place will be somewhat different than the last in terrns of its social structure and levels of communication. I feel it is important to also give the people an opportunity to fil1 the role of planner for the proposed NMCA for the Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Study Area. The development of the interactive rnethodology incorporates questions, tools and techniques that planners and managers themselves must ask and provide solutions to for the area. The development of policy and guidelines for its implementation must adhere to the aspirations and goals of the community. The methodology explained in section 6.3 suggests a rnethod for realizing this information for future reference and consultation: a virtual hardcopy of the thoughts, ideas and aspirations of the community.
To accomplish the above stated goals for the project an interactive approach that involved the participant actively in the management decisions of a national marine conservation area was developed. Due to the spatial aspect of the nature of the project (boundaries, zoning, etc.), respondents would be required to appreciate, visualize and consider the relationships between different activities and uses, in both the terrestrial and marine context across the entire region. Limiting the scope of research to just the proposed boundaries of the study area did not take into consideration other uses and activities that occurred outside these boundaries, but yet, whose effects could easily be felt in the study area due to the mobile nature of marine boundaries. The approach utilized by Parks Canada should be one that is of interest to a11 of the population of the study area no matter what age, gender, career, or ability. A manne conservation area is intended to provide preservation of the natural environment for present and future generations, and as such, deserves to receive input frorn al1 segments of the population. Bearing this in mind, in conjunction with geographical constraints upon transportation and isolation, a multi-phase public involvement process is recommended. Dividing the study area into seven main centers for public involvement should adequately allow access to the process for the majority of the population, while also considering temporal and fiscal project restrictions inherent in any such endeavor. The towns of Clarenville, Gander, Glovertown, Lewisporte, Bonavista, Fogo, and Wesleyville have been identified as locations to facilitate this means (Appendix A, Map 3, p.72). These locations rnake access to the process available to any community in the study area and to those just outside the boundaries, within a 50 km radius.
6.3 The Process: An Interactive Methodology
The goal of this proposai for public involvement is to move public consultation away from a passive role to become an active communicative medium between MCA policy managers and stakeholders. To devise a set of plausible future zones and uses that could result from probable policy directives, and to evaluate ways of portraying a potential NMCA for the region as an effective conservation initiative. In order to accommodate al1 possible stakeholders the methodology suggested does not require respondents to have facility in writing or speaking; yet is challenging, but enjoyable. To satisfy these requirements, a methodology was developed which would: 1. Elicit spatial and visual responses 2. Enable participation by a wide range of people; especially those who might nonally avoid participation. 3. Engage people's attention and imagination in a way that was both ambitious and pleasant. The proposal involves an open house styled interactive display that encourages participants to become actively involved in the planning process. Large scale color maps of the proposed affected areas would be mounted on displays indicating the geographical area they represent. In addition, aerial photographs of the communities in the region would accompany these maps for people to orient themselves by identifying with sites familiar to them. Respondents would be encouraged to identify areas that are of importance to them; where they live, work, play, and areas that they enjoy visiting. To facilitate this, participants would be provided with markers and stickers to place on a mylar overlay; thus equipping each respondent with their own personal planning worksheet. This would not only achieve the result of tangible ideas and opinions for the planner, but would also give insight to, and enable them to follow the thought processes of participants, as they addressed questions put to them in order to understand their reactions, and the reasons that they gave for their answers.
The purpose of this endeavor is to try to understand the people's "image" of their surroundings by analyzing spontaneous expressions of their desires, tastes, frustrations, and attachments as recorded on the maps. The aim of this exercise is to try to allow for a medium to bridge the gap between the study of cornmunity participation and the study of "image" of the environment. Its simple methodology appeals to people of al1 ages and levels of education. Although directed by questions about the maps and the NMCA planning process, respondents are otherwise free to use their knowledge and imaginations spontaneously, and in a way that does not necessitate reading or writing, or even speaking. The result will be a stimulating and enjoyable interactive experience in an unthreatening atmosphere.
6.4 Location, Location, Location
To provide for optimum sampling without actively recruiting a representative sample, it is suggested that a local maIl or other large, highly public structure be selected for housing the survey. Malls or shopping centers are known as high traffic areas and also provide for light and protection frorn inclernent weather. The activity can easily be seen by passersby, and the area will be large enough to allow for spectator observation without causing an obstruction to the process. In addition, benches or seats can be made available for those who may wish to sit. Conducting the survey inside a separate building isolated frorn the public milieu, such as a church hall or empty building, would most likely involve having to entice people in to participate. Shopping centres are the recommended due in large to their ability to attract residents of the region dependent upon the automobile for transportation to more urbanized centres. In many of the communities in the study area. this dependency upon vehicular means of transport is determined by the geography of coastal settlement. Dependency upon motorized transport is not a lifestyle choice, but a matter of necessity in the BonavistafNotre Dame Bays area. Additionally, in order to alert people who may not be in the malkhopping center at the scheduled time to notice the survey, advertisements can be placed in the local paper, and news releases sent to the media.
6.5 Questions
In addition to engaging respondents wlh an active mapping exercise, accompanying questions designed to stimulate their intuition about their cornmunity, surroundings; and of course, manne environment, will be administered.
The first questions should be directed to orient and familiarize the participant with the area on the particular map/photo. Further questions should deal with the planning and zoning issues of the proposed NMCA. Issues such as how they feel fisheries should be managed, and zoning designations administered should be identified on the map by the participant. The following are possible sample questions for the proposed public involvement process:
General: indicate where you currently live. what is your age and how long have you lived in the area? have you had any previous knowledge of the NMCA program? have you been involved in a public consultation process before? indicate where you work, or have worked most recently. indicate places where you travel to or visit at least once per year. indicate an area that you would like to see preserved in its natural state. identify a region that you feel is a recreational boating area. identify an area that you feel has commercial fishing as its main activity.
Management and Zoning: would you be supportive of temporal zoning restrictions for fisheries in your area? would you be supportive of vertical zoning restrictions in your area? identify an area where you would like to see pre-moratorium fisheries practices continued. identify an area where you would like to see moratorium fisheries practices continued. indicate an area where you would like to see some type of fisheries management implemented, and specify what type of restriction. would you be interested in becoming more involved in marine conservation for your area?
Profile: what major changes have you seen in your region in the past decade? would you like to see Terra Nova National Park boundaries extended? do you feel marine conservation is an important issue for the area? would you like to have more control over how fisheries are managed in your area? on a scale of 1-10, how would you rate the natural area in which you live? do you believe the tourism potential in your area is a benefit to the community? do you feel marine conservation initiatives could be of benefit to your community? what type of uses would you like to see in an NMCA? Questions similar to those previously indicated should be administered to the respondent with the aid of an assistant, preferably a consultant familiar with working with the public, the NMCAS process and the local areas displayed on the maps. The role of the assistant is to guide the participant through the survey, administer the questions, write on the mylar any additional information, cornments, opinions, and ideas that emerged as the respondent debates aloud with himherself, or discusses responses with family or friends as part of a group. The assistants should not advise the participant or put any constraints on their responses, but should offer answers to professionaVtechnicaI questions regarding current landmarine use practices.
6.6 Suwey
A practical test of the proposed interactive methodology was performed via a mailout survey. A sample of stakeholders in the region was chosen as the test group. lncluded in the mailout was a cover letter outlining the request for responses, and a three page suivey including an explanation of the project, a list of potential questions to be used in the methodology and a response fom for respondents to indicate their thoughts, comments and criticisrns of the proposal. A copy of the original survey package can be found in Appendix A page 79 Each respondent was given the sunrey package and requested to retum the response form in the enclosed starnped, addressed envelope at their earliest convenience. Respondents were encouraged to contact the author should they have any questions or concems at the telephone numbers and address provided in the cover letter. A total of 40 suiveys were distributed throughout the BonavistdNotre Dame Bays study area during the rnonth of July 1997.
6.6.1 Sample
The survey sample was selected non-randomly from a list of contacts provided by Resource North Consultants to obtain a regional coverage of potential respondents. Of the 40 surveys distributed, 14 were retumed completed as requested. resulting in a 35% retum. Overall, a satisfactory response for a mailout survey. Possible reasons for the failure of the remaining 26 surveys to be returned may include but not be limited to disinterest on behalf of the recipient, complacency that others will respond, or a belief that their opinion is unimportant.
6.6.2 Results
Based on the 14 surveys returned, the overall consensus found respondents approving of the proposed approach, but concems were raised about the effectiveness that their input would have on what is perceived as simply another govemment requirement for consulting the public with no real intention of considering or implementing their ideas or suggestions.
In particular, questions #19, #20 and #21 (Appendix A, p. 81) were given the most strongly favorable responses. Specifically, question #19 asked respondents if they would like to have more control over how fisheries are managed in their area. Overwhelmingly al1 suweyed indicated a strong yes to the query. Grassroots involvement in fisheries management is viewed as an integral component of any new conservation measures that place additional restrictions on traditional harvesting methods. Question #21 inquired as to whether respondents were interested in becoming personally involved in marine conservation for their area. Such personal involvement is a positive sign that stakeholders desire an active role in any development that affects their source of livelihood.
Finally, as was to be expected, 100% of retums emphatically sounded that their natural area is a place like no other; one which they would trade for no other. The natural beauty of the Bonavistahiotre Dame Bays region has a wealth of potential that local residents are recognizing can both be developed in a rnanner to serve as a viable alternative to traditional uses. while preserving the pristine environment. 6.6.3 Sunrey Findings
Based on the results received from the sunrey, the following conclusions confirm the hypothesized stakeholder response of public consultation pnor to ernbarking on such an application. There exists a definite need for manne conservation information dissemination and education in the study area. In order for genuine, infoned responses and opinions from stakeholders and the public to be ascertained they must first have a solid understanding of the principles upon which manne conservation is based. In addition, fine distinctions between manne consetvation areas and manne parks need to be clarified. There appears to be a misconception that manne conservation ultimately means the restriction of traditional marine practices; widely viewed as an undesirable condition for a region heavily dependent upon natural manne resources. Clarifying such misunderstandings by supplying those affected with the proper means to make an informed decision will ultimately be of benefit to al1 concemed.
This survey is not meant to stand alone or as an indication of the opinions of al1 stakeholders in the Bonavista/Notre Dame Bays area. It would, however, provide more validity for the study area if combined and compared with previous and future studies performed by Parks Canada and extemal consultants on their behalf. one of the limiting factors on the author during the writing of this thesis was time constraints for completion. Combined with the vast geographical distribution of the affected communities in the study area, a mailout survey was chosen. To provide a more persona1 approach as to stakeholders reactions, a small scale roundtable discussion could aid in the clarification of information. This suwey setved to act as a general idea of the regions feelings towards the idea of an NMCA and as a test for the language utilized by the author in the formation of the test questions. In light of these short-comings, this proposal does, however, offer insight into area resident opinions as solicited by an unbiased and impartial source. 6.7 Benefits and Advantages
The use of the suggested interactive methodology in Canadian Heritage's public consultation phase of the feasibility study for the Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Study Area will be of benefit to al1 concerned by acting as a medium for allowing effective public involvement in the NMCAS process. It will enable participants to express their views on the proposed establishment of a national manne conseivation area in their region. They will have an opportunity to demonstrate to govemment how they feel about past practices of fisheries management and the planningkiting of large developments. They will have the added benefit of not only expressing their concems for their communities verbally to a govemment representative, but also having them recorded in writing as well. The interaction between stakeholders, and representatives of the NMCAS process will foster an improved relationship accomplished by the synergy created as stakeholders and the public alike try on the role of planner and experience an inside view of the decision making process. This newfound appreciation will hopefully lead to a desire to offer more assistance to national marine conservation area planners and managers to aid in the avoidment of making mistakes; should the plan to proceed with MCA establishment be approved.
The Department of Canadian Heritage has the opportunity to meet with communities face to face in the areas that will be most affected by their proposed plans. They also, will have the occasion to delve inside the community and get a real feel for how 1 operates, what its concems are, and its aspirations for the future. The interactive methodology enables MCA planners not only to have a one way exchange of information as is the case in many public consultation exercises, but to engage themselves in a two way exchange of information as both parties share their knowledge and concems. As for the marine environment, it can only benefit from such a process as those who use its resources, and those who plan its use corne together in a meeting of minds focused on a common goal; resource conservation and community preservation. 7.0 CONCLUSION
A public involvement methodology similar to the aforementioned example would provide an interesting and interactive approach for the Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada to suivey the stakeholders in the proposed NMCA study area of Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays. However, this proposal is not meant to, nor should it, stand alone. In conjunction with the interactive survey, other methods of public involvernent should be employed including telephone interviews, open houses, and news releases.
A major cornplaint received from people in a community, region or organization who have spent tirne, usually on a voluntary basis, in assisting with a particular study, is that they seldom if ever, see the results. Using local participants, both formal and informal feedback processes can be achieved with only a minimal cost to the agency. The benefits include clarification of unclear results, cooperation of the community or organization in future work and often, but not always, positive response in a public hearing process. These benefits, often overlooked in the hurry to complete the work, frequently create great difficukies for future researchers who want to work in the cornmunity or organization.
It is feit that the interactive approach does indeed fit with the aspirations of the Department of Canadian Heritage for public involvement. Discussions with representatives of the department have indicated that a key component of the feasibility study for an NMCA in the region is that it must test principles and policies of manne conservation and Canadian Heritage guidelines for the establishment of NMCAs against the aspirations of the affected communities (McCreery 1997). This interactive methodology achieves these goals by providing a platforrn for the mating of community ideologies and Park Canada initiatives.
In addition, the Department of Canadian Heritage feels it is imperative to have the local people involved in the process, especially the fishers who are the major stakeholders. It is anticipated to have at least 50% of any cornmittees for public consultation composed of fishers. The ultimate goal is to have the local people active in and assume responsibility for marine conservation in their region (McCreery 1997). Through the identification of issues important to the local people such as boundaries, accessibility, and waterfront access, Parks Canada can devise appropriate policies to fit with the aspirations of the stakeholders. The contrary to these initiatives would be for the govemment to develop the policy and deliver it to the people without their input; a practice that, in the past, has proven ineffective time and time again. It is anticipated for the feasibility study to take approxirnately 24 months for completion. The public consultation portion is expected to take about 18 months from commencement to realization. After the public involvement phase the federal govemment plans on taking 2-3 months for analysis and a further 6 months for negotiations with provincial and local govemments and others to reach an agreement in principle. It is predicted that by eariy next century federal legislation regarding the Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Study Area will be enacted; thereby establishing Canada's fourth national marine conservation area.
The establishment of marine conservation areas in Canada is in the infancy of a potentially long terni, viable planning process. Through the use of a variety of interdisciplinary tools the development of a national system of marine conservation areas can be an attainable achievement. However, in the longer terni, the policy and legislative framework for marine protected areas in Canada must be continued and improved upon. In addition to regional initiatives such as the Arctic Marine Conservation Strategy, there is now a comprehensive policy framework recognizing the interconnectedness of the marine environment and the strong influence of terrestrial coastal areas. Legislation specifically conceived for the designation of marine protected areas now exists with the establishment of the National Marine Conservation Areas Systern Program. Furthermore. work has continued on establishing coordinated management and legislative processes for allocating conservation responsibilities and rights of use and access among those who rely on the manne environment. In other words, the joumey to realizing an equivalent to land use planning, that is, a zoning framework within which marine protected areas would play a particular role in contributing to an overall pattern of environmental stewardship has been embarked upon. There can be no doubt of the role of protected areas. They exist to protect nature and scenery and can provide for its enjoyment. They provide an important foi1 to urban living and have a special value for research. They are an ecological reservoir. At a time when so many resources are over-exploited, when considerable areas are urbanized, protected areas remain a sustainable natural resource of divenity; permanent, for future generations to enjoy (Council 1987, p.9). With the employment of public involvement initiatives that actively enlist the affected communities and value their aspirations, Parks Canada can develop a system of NMCAs that are not only supported in theory by the population, but are partially managed by the people who live within their boundaries. Appendix A
,4 1 MAP 3 Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Study Area 1 Bonavista / Notre Dame Bays Sub-Areas TABLE 1 REGIONAL COMMUNIN LISTING
Amherst Cove 6toomfield Bonavista Brooklyn Bunyan's Cove Cannings Cove Charleston Duntara Jamestown Keels King's Cove Knight's Cove Lethbridge Musg ravetown Newman's Cove Open Hall Plate Cove East Plate Cove West Port Blandford Portland Princeton Red CIiff Southem Bay Stock Cove Summewille Sweet Bay Tickfe Cove Winter Brook
East~ortPeninsula
Birchy Cove Burnside Charlottetown Culls Harbor Eastport G lovertown Happy Adventure St. Brendan's St. Chads Salvage Sandringham Sandy Cove Saunders Cove Traytown Kittiwake Coast
Aspen Cave Badgefs Quay Brookfwld Cape Freels Carmanville Centreville Deadman's Bay Dover Gambo Frederickton Greensponct Ftare Bay lndian Bay Ladle Cove Lumsden Musgrave Harbor Newtown Noggin Cove Pool's Island Templeman Trinity Valleyfield Wareham Wesleyville
Gander Bay Sub-Reqion I Clarkes Head Davidsville Dormans Cove Gander Bay Homvood Main Point Port Albert Rodgers Cove Stoneville Victoria Cove Win9 Point
Foao lsland / Chancle lsland
Barr'd Wahr Change Islands Deep Bay Fogo Island Harbor Joe Batts Am Little Seldom Sandy Cove Seldom Shoal Bay Stag Harbor Titting Notre Dame Bay East
Back Harbor Baytona Bayview Birchy Bay Boyd's Cove Bridgeport Brown's Am Campbellton Carter's Cove Chanceport Cobb's Am Comfort Cove Cottlesville Cotrell's Cove Crow Head Durrell Embree Fair Banks Hayward Cove Hem-ng Neck Hiilgrade lndian Cove Laurenceton Lewisporte Little Burnt Bay Little Harbor Loon Bay Memtt's Harbor Michael's Harbor Moreton's Harbor Newstead Newville Pike's Arm Purcell's Harbor Stanhope Surnmerford Tizzard's Harbor Toogoad Am Twillingate Valley Pond Village Cove Virgin Am VVifd Cove
Notre Dame Bav West
Botwoad Fortune Harbor Noms Am Noms AmNorth Northern Am Peterville Phillips Head Point of Bay Raffling Brook David K. Lane 20 Symonds Ave. St. John's, NF AlE 3A3 June 30, 1997
Dear Sir/Madam: My name is David Lane. originally from St. John's. I am a graduate student from the Technical University of Nova Scotia completing my thesis for an Urban and Rural Planning Degree. I am seeking your input in assessing ways of involving the public in the decisionnaking proœss. My thesis work involves the development of a public involvernent rnethodology for cunsufting stakeholders in the region who may be affecteci by a proposed Manne Conservation Area.
Parks Canada has begun consultations in the region with the public seeking their input and providing information about the National Manne Conservation Area Program. The goal of my research is to provide for an alternative to traditional public involvement rnethodç. As part of this concept. I invite you to participate in evaluating my work by taking a few minutes to comment on my ideas and questions on the following two pages.
Your comments. responses and concerns are greatly valued and will be held in the strictest confidence by the author. I have enclosed a stamped self-addressed envelope for your retums. Please take a few minutes ta read over my proposa! and comment on it on the enclosed form. Should you have any questions regarding this request please do not hesitate to contact me at any of the following numbers:
Work: Ph. (709)834-8050 Fax (709)8344770
Home: Ph-/Fax(902) 492-3292
Yours very truly,
David K. Lane The goal of this proposal for public involvement is to move puMic consulMion away from a passive role to an active communicative medium between policy planners and residents and users of the marine environment (stakeholders). And to evaluate ways of portraying a potential NMCA for the region as an effective conservative initiative.
The purpose of this study is ta try ta understand the people's "image" of their surroundings by anaiyang their initial reacüons, measured by their desires, tastes, fruçtraüans, and attachments as recordeci in a mapping exercise. It is a simple method, appealing to people of al! ages and levels of education. Although direct4 by questions about the maps and the NMCA planning process, respondents are otherwise free to use their knowledge and imaginations spantaneously, and in a way that does not require reading or miüng, or even speaking. The resuit will be a stimulating and enjoyabfe expeflence in an unthreatening atrnosphere.
To satisfy these requirernents, a simple Modwas developed which would requife spatial and visual responses, enaMe participation by a wide range of people, and to engage people's attention and imagination in a way that was botti arnbitious and pleasant.
The proposa1 involves an open house styleci interâct'ive display that encourages participants to becorne actively involved in the planning proœss. Large =le color maps of the proposed affeded areas would be mounted on dispfays. Aenal photographs of the cornmunities in the region would accornpany these maps for people to orient thernselves &y identifying with sites famîliar to them. Respondents would be enwuraged to idenûfy areas that are of importance to them: where they live, work, play and arws th& they enjoy vîsiting. TO facilitate this, participants would be provided with markers and stickers to place on a transparent overlay; thus equipping each respondent with their own personal planning worksheet.
In addition to engaging respondents with an active mapping exercise, accompanying questions designed to stimufate their intuition about their comrnunrty, surmundings; and of course, manne environment, will be adrninistered.
"The Questions"
Tbe questions are to orient and familiarize the participant with the area on the particular map/photo, and to seek their input in helping create a plan for a potential marine consendon afea that benefits al1 mncemed.
I ask you to simply read over the following questions to yourseif and ariyone you care to share them with and evaluate how wiBing you would be in answering them in the previously describecl sœnaiio. Following the sarnpk questions is a page for yoor wmments and a few short questions which I ask that you fil1 out and return to me in the encfosed sbmped self-addressed envelope. "Sam~leQuestions" Please read these sarnple questrons over, and answer the quesbbns on the followrilg page 1. Indicate where you cunentiy live on the map. 2. How long have you fived in the area? 3. Have you had any previous knowledge of the NMCA (National Mafine Conservation Area) program? 4. Have you ken involved in a public cons~onprocess before? 5. lndicate where you work, or have worked most recenlly. 6. lndicate places where you travel to or visit at least once per year. 7. Indicate an area that you would like to see presewed in its natural state. 8. ldentify a region that you feel is a recreational bo&ng area. 9. Idem an area that you feel has commercial fishing as its main activity. 10.Would you be supportive of temporal zoning re~~cüonsfor fisheries in your afea? (Le.: restnktions on harvesting during spawning season)
11 .WouJd you be supportive of vertid zonhg reshidians in your area? (ie: no fishing below the surface of the water, but on-surface activities, Le.: boating allowed).
17- ldentrfy an area where you would like to see premoatorium fishenes practices continued. 13. ldentify an area where you would like to see moratorium fishefies practices
14- lndicafe an area where you would Iike to see some type of fishenes management implemented. and specify what type of restriction. 15. What type of uses would you like to see in an NMCA? (ie: fishing, boating, etc.) 16. Do you believe the tourism potential in your area is a ben& to the community? 17. What major changes have you seen in your region in the past decade? 18. Do you feel marine conservation is an important issue for the area? 19. Would you like to have more control over how fishenes are managed in your area? 20. On a sde of Y -1 0, how would you rate the natuml area in which you live? 21 .Would you be interested in becoming more involved in marine conservation for your area? 22. Do you feel manne conservation initiatives could be of ben- to your wmmuniti, '%ur Comments Pieasel"
What Commun@ do you /ive in:
1. Would you be uncornfortable answering any of the questions? If so why? (Please indi'cate by number.)
2. Are there questions that you feel should not be included in the survey? If sa why?
3. Are there questions that you would like to see added to the suwey?
4. What are your thoughts about the author's proposed scenario for seekjng public input?
5. Please add any further comments or criticisms you may have about public involvement, the author's proposed sœnario, the ample questions or manne conservation.
PIease retum this page in the stamped seiKaddressedenvelope enclosed ASAP. Thanksl Your responses are greatly appreciated! Appendix B THE NATIONAL MARINE CONSERVATION AREAS SYSTEM PLAN
The following is an explanation of the policies and guidelines of the national manne consewation areas system program, outlining its intentions, goals, and requirements.
Goals It is the goal of national manne conservation areas to: represent the diversity of our nation's marine ecosystems; maintain manne ecological processes and life support systems; preçerve biodiversity; serve as "models" of sustainable utilkation of species and ecosystem; facilitate and encourage marine research and ecological monitoring; protect depleted, vulnerable. threatened, or endangered species and populations and preserve habitats considered critical to the survival of these species; protect and maintain areas cntical to the survival of these species; and provide interpretation of marine areas for the purposes of conservation. educafion and tounsm (Canadian Heritage 1995, p. 8).
Creating a National System of MCAs Section 1.0 of the National Marine Parks Policy (1986) outlines the general procedures that guide the identification, selection, and establishment of national manne parks. There are five main steps in national manne park establishment: (1) ldentifying representative marine areas (2) Selecting a potential manne park (3) Assessing manne park feasibility (4) Negotiating a new national manne park agreement (5) Establishing the new national manne park in legislation ldentifying Representative Manne Areas The development of the 1986 National Manne Parks Policy by the Department of Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada was the result of re-defining a number of classification schemes to modify them to satisfactorily adapt to the ocean ecosystems of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and to the Great Lakes.
The first step in identifying marine areas representative of the natural Canadian marine environment is the preparation of a regional analysis study. This study systematically summarizes the region's biological and oceanographic features. and cultural themes, and identifies candidate marine areas which encompass a high diversity of key regional characteristics and which exhibit a high degree of naturalness. Based on a review of the published literature and unpublished research information, the study is uswlly cornpileci by a consulting firm under contract. Also included in the study are discussions and interviews with individuals familiar with the study region.
The second part of the regional analysis study involves completion of a field reconnaissance of the candidate representative areas and preparation of a field trip report summarizing the findings of the consultant's report, field observations and concluding with recornmendations conceming which area(s) the Department of Canadian Hentage should pursue for future marine park establishment.
Ta guide the development of a system of national marine parks representative of the full range of the biological and oceanographic variation found in Canada's marine environrnents, the Canadian Parks Service has pioneered the use of a broad-sale, hierarchical system of biogeographic units or "manne regions". Each manne region is relatively homogenous in terms of climate, seabed geology, ocean currents. water mascharacteristics (temperature and salinity), sea ice distribution, cuastal landforms, marine plants, seabirds and marine marnmals. or contains recurring patterns of these characteristics
Selecting Potential National Marine Conservation Areas Once identified, representative marine areas in a region are subject to further studies and consultations are undertaken to select one of the areas as a potential manne park. A wide range of variables is considered when comparing possible areas for selection. Variables in the process include. but are not lirnited to: quality of regional representation occurrence of exceptional naturai features presenœ of cultural heritage features provincial or temtonal govemrnent pnonties potential for manne interpretation and marine-bas4 recreational activities competing incompatible uses of the areas manne resources actual and potential upstream threats to the manne environment location of other proteded marine or coastal areas ownership of the seabed and wastal lands the implications of aboriginal daims and treaties the degree of national and local public support.
Assessing NMCAs Feasibility At this stage a national manne park proposal is prepared as the basis for a detailed feasibility assessment. including public consultations. The factors listed in Step 2 are now studied in greater detail, usually with the direct involvement of the provincial or territorial govemment. and in consultation with representatives of local comrnunities. As well. possible boundaries of the potential national manne park are drawn.
If the assessment demonstrates that a marine park is feasible and there is strong public support for its establishment. the federal and provincial I territorial governrnents may decide to proceed with the negotiation of a par) 1. Cornprehensive planning work prior to the initiation of public mnsultations. 2. The support of the large majority of local residents and resource users who will be affecteci by the proposed marine park 3. Strong political support at al1 Ievels of govemment. and: 4. Adequate funding to complete the proces and provide for the park's subsequent planning and development. Negotiating a New National Park Agreement In order for federal legislation to apply, it is a constitutional requirement that al1 national manne park lands be federal propeity. If jurisdiction of the seabed is within the provincial domain, a federal-provincial agreement is negotiated stipulating the ternis and conditions under which the province transfers administration and control of the coastal lands, islands and seabed to the federal govemment for national park purposes. Where some of the lands are subject to a comprehensive land daim by aboriginal people, a new national park can be established as part of a negotiated daim settlement, or a national park "reserve" can be created pending the reçolution of the outstanding daim. New park agreements cover many different topics depending on the circumstances. Some of the subjects included are: final park boundanes management of fisheries and marine transportation cost-sharing for land acquisition timing of the land transfer conditions under which traditional harvesting of renewable resources can continue co-operation in park planning and management regional integration economic benefits Establishing NMCAs in Legislation Once the responsible parties have agreed to create a new marine park and the lands are under the administration and control of the federal government. the proposed new national marine park must be formally established by legislation of the Parliament of Canada so that the National Parks Act will apply. In the case of a national marine park reserve. the Act applies but the status of the area is subject to the final resoluüon of the aboriginal claim. The goal of a national marine conservation area management plan is to provide for sustainable use of the area consistent with the need to maintain the structure and function of marine ecosystems. The plan provides guidance to manne conservation area managers and users about the day-to-day management and use of the area. It also outlines how the Minister responsible for Parks Canada proposes to conserve the areats resources in keeping with the provisions of the National Patks Act Management planning is an iterative process: plans must be prepared within five yean of the area's proclamation and be reviewed and amended as necesary every five years thereafter. Sinœ planning decisions are inevitably based on incomplete knowledge of the area's resoums, plans will always lean to the side of caution when prescribing reasonable levels of use. However, through continuing cooperative and inter-disciplinary approach, information about the physical. biological and socio-economic characteristics of the area wil l be compiled and interpreted to avoid uncertainty in decision-making. National Marine Consenration Area Zoning Zoning is an essential part of the national manne conservation area management plan. Its main purposes are to define and map the different levels of protection and use that will occur in the manne consenmtion area and to separate the potentially conflicting human activities. Zoning rnust be comprehensive. but also as simple as possible to ensure it can be readily understood by the public, and be translated into management actions and regulations that are easy to cumply with and enforce. To avoid unnecessary regulation of human activities. each zone will have clear and justifiable objectives. The three proposed marine conservation zones refiect a continuum of protection and use. Different levels of protection and use will be permittecl in each zone, or at difFerent times. Temporal and vertical zoning rnay provide flexibility and objectivtty in hamonking use. For example, temporal zoning could prohibit visitor access to, or commercial fishing near, a particular fish spawning ground. seabird wlony or male calving area during the reproductive season but, allow it throughout other, less restrictive pefiods. Depending on the factors involved, the time span rnay be long ten. seasonal, cyclical or even diumal. Vertical zoning rnay also be appropriate in some situations where, for example, certain benthic species or habitats require absolute protection wtiile fishing, transportation or recreational uses continue at or near the surface of the water column. In some cases, environmentally or culturally sensitive sites rnay require special management. but do not fit the zoning designations listed below. Management plans will include the guidelines necessary for the protection and use of such sites. In other cases. a manne conservation area rnay encompass an existing protected area where the degree of protection and use allowed does not correspond precisely to the national manne conservation area zoning definitions. In this situation, where the existing protected area contributes to the overall purpose and objectives of the conservation area. it rnay be designated as a special use zone to ensure its function and identity rernain intact. The national manne conservation area zoning systern will apply to al1 land and water areas of national manne consewation areas, and will state the specific protection and use objectives of each designated zone. The Department of Canadian Hentage will monitor the degree to which those objectives are king achieved and assess the validity of the designation during the review of the management plan. The zoning provisions outlined below are subject to change as Parks Canada acquires planning and management expetience in several manne conservation area. Also. an alternative zoning systern rnay be recommended for a national manne conservation area during the feasibility study. Zone 1: Preservation- Areas will be considered for Zone I designation when their management objectives involve proteding: 1- habitats deerned critical to the suwival and maintenance of depleted. vulnerable. threatened or endangered specks; 2. habitats of more common species and communities that are particularly sensitive to human disturbances; 3. unique or ktexamples of a natural feature; 4. cultural resources of national historic significance. or of historïc significance: or, 5. areas considered important for long-terni environmental monitoring or ecological research. In Zone 1 areas, renewable resource harvesting will not be permitted. Visitor use wîllnot nomally be allowed but in certain cases. where the public education benefits are high, provisions may be made for limited and closely supervised visitor access. Permanent facilities w.11 not be pennitted. unless they are essential for public safety or the protection of natural features. Zone II: Natual Environment- Areas will be considered for Zone II designation when their management objectives involve: 1. creating a buffer zone around Zone I areas in order to enhance protection of its special habitat features; 2. protecting highly representative areas that provide opportunities for non-consumptive recreational use and public education in as natural a setting as possible; and. 3. conducting environmental monitoring and research projects in which public education is an integral part of the study program. In Zone II areas. renewable resource harvesting activities, including recreational hunting and fishing wi-Il be prohibited. Research, public education and low intensity outdoor recreation will be permitted. Where practical and safe. the use of non-mototized transportation would be encouraged. Only minimal facility development would be allowed. Zone III: Conservation- Areas be considered for Zone III designation when their management objectives involve: 1. renewable resource harvesting activities, aquaculture and marine transportation; or 2. providing opportunities for a broad spectrum of outdoor recreation and public education activities. In Zone III areas, provision will be made for reasonable use consistent with maintaining the structure and function of marine ecosystems. Hunting may be pemitted in designated areas on a conseivative basis, subject to ongoing population assessrnents and visitor safety ooncems. permanent facilities for consewation area administration, public education. visitor services and accommodation would be allowed. Zones of a manne conservation area may be subject to temporary access or use restrictions when specific components or functions of a manne ecosystem require additional protection. These temporary zoning restrictions may be seasonal. cycfical, diumal, or combinations thereof, as warranted. Vertical zoning may be used to provide more protection to natural or cultural resources at or near the sea floor while recreational. transportation or near-surface fishing activities continue above. Changes to an area's zoning, including provisions for temporal and vertical zoning, will only be made following public notice and public participation in the decision. Establishing and maintaining a core of Zone 1 and II areas will be an essential feature of al1 national marine consewation areas. Protection and Cornpliance Parks Canada will implement appropriate regulations under the National Pa& Act or other statutes in accordance with management and zoning decisions set out in the approved conservation area management plan. In cooperation with other law enforcement agencies, Parks Canada will monitor complianœ with the marine conservation area regulations that have been implemented to protect marine ecosystems, maintain the public peaœ and protect life and property. Strict enforcement action will be taken to detect and stop illegal activities such as poaching. The public will be consulted in the development of regulations applicable to marine conservation areas, and visitors will be made aware of the rationale for such regulations. Under the National Parks Act, Parliament must approve new pipeline or submarine mble nghts of way through a national manne conservation area. while the Govemor in Council retains authonty to alter existing rights of way. The Minister will recornmend that new or aitered corridors be authorized only where it is demonstrated that, relative to alternative routes or modes, a new or altered route: 1. will provide significant economic advantages; and 2. will not significantly increase damage or long-terni risk to the area's marine envitonment. All such proposais will be subject to the Federal Environmental Assessrnent and Review Process and must be constnicted and operated sa as to satisfy ail environmentai impact mitigation measures that have been agreed upon. Fishing and Aquaculture Fishing is an appropriate activity in Zone III areas, subject to protecting the conservation area's ecosystems. to maintaining viable stocks, and to attaining the purpose and objectives of the manne conservation area. Aquaculture rnay be pemitted in Zone III areas if it does not impair the structure and function of the marine conservation area's ecosystems. and does not conflict with other fisheries. navigation, manne outdoor recreation and public education activities. Fishing and aquaculture closures in Zone I and II areas and changes to fishing and aquaculture practices in Zone III areas will be agreed to between Parks Canada. the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) and. where applicable. provincial agencies in consultation with the fishing industry. at the time of establishment of a manne cansewation area, and reviewed during management planning. Fisheries in national manne conservation areas will be regulated under the provisions of the Fishedes Act. Other statutes rnay also be used to provide additional protection to manne ecosystems. Fisheries in manne conservation areas will be managed in accordance with fisheries management plans established by DFO. Parks Canada will participate in the negotiation of these plans to secure the protection of marine ecosystems in and around manne conservation areas. Parks Canada will work cooperatively with DFO and the fishing industry to minimize indiscriminate methods of fishing, and the use of gear that is destructive to the sea bed within a conservation area. Shore based support facilities for fishing will be permitted in Zone III areas if operated in a rnanner that does not conflict with the purpose and objectives of the conservation area. Parks Canada may contribute to the cost of relocating or upgrading existing facilities that are incompatible with the area's purpose and objectives. Expansion and improvernent will require approval by Parks Canada, DFO and other involved federal or provincial I territorial agencies. Proposais to introduce any new fishery into a marine conservation area, including aquaculture. not agreed to at the time the conservation area was established, will be considered during the management planning proœss. These proposais will be subject to the pnor cornpletion of stock assessrnent and environmental impact studies. Marine Transportation Transportation, navigation and aids to navigation, and the operation of pleasure craft in manne conservation areas will be regulated under the Canada Shipping Act and other applicable legislation and regulations. The routing of new transportation corridors within manne conservation areas will be considered dunng the management planning process, and will take into account the need for essential services. such as femes and northem supply routes. Vessel access to, and movement within, marine conservation areas will be managed in conformity with conservation area objectives and the area's zoning plan in a rnanner that will: 1. circumvent areas frequented by threatened or endangered species and their habitats; 2. provide the public with opportunities to understand and enjoy the consewation area; 3. ensure public safety 4. minimize confiict between corn mercial and recreational uses. Traditional Abonginal and other fisherperson's rights of manne access, including over-ice transportation, will be recognized, subject to the requirement of protecfing fish and wildlife. including marine mamrnals, and habitat important to their well-king . Public Issues Parks Canada has an important leadership role in manne environmental educational. Its interpretation and public education prograrns are intended to promote the developrnent of an envimnrnental consciousness in al1 Canadians and a Mllingness to take persona1 and collective action to better protect and maintain the marine environment. Through interpretation programs, Parks Canada challenges visitors to develop a better understanding and appreciation of the area's manne heritage and the issues affecting it and the surrounding region. Through public education prograrns, and in cooperation with others, Parks Canada hopes to foster a stronger environmental ethic among al1 Canadians and to broaden support for marine conservation. including the establishment of marine conservation areas and other marine protected areas. These pmgrams will also promote the wise use and stewardship of marine resources by local people and visitors. Only recreational activities that are compatible with the long-tenn protection of the manne conservation area and that allow visitors to enjoy the manne environment for what it is and on its own ternis will be encouraged. Visitors will be encouraged to develop the knowledge. skills and camaraderie required to visit manne conservation areas safely with minimal disturbance to the environment and to develop an appreciation and respect for local traditions and ways of Iife. In responding to visitorç needs for services, facilities and access to manne conservation areas, Parks Canada must act with care and imagination. Their provision will depend on the sensitivity of a particular environment to human impact. Manne conservation areas offer rare and outstanding opportunities ta experience and leam about Canada's manne hentage. They cannot. however, accommodate every kind of service and facility requested by the public. The difficulües of access and movement within marine areas make it essential that services and facilities be designed to allow for sak contact with the water. Management of Visitor Activities The Visitor Activity Management Proces will be used to match visitor interests with specific educational and outdwr recreation opportunities detemined for each marine conservation area through the management plan. Parks Canada will encourage those outdoor recreational uses of a marine conservation area that broaden visitor understanding and appreciation of the natural environment. and that cause minimal disturbance to the environment. wildlife and local life styles. In providing opportunities for outdoor recreation, Parks Canada will take into account the different needs of visitors depending on their age, physical capabilaies and levels of skili and knowledge to function safely in the marine environment. Parks Canada will encourage the private sector and non- govemment organizations to provide skills and knowledge development programs to increase visitor understanding and enjoyment of the marine conservation areas. As new or modified foms of outdoor recreation emerge. each will be assessed for its appropnateness nationally before consideration in the management planning proœss. Individual management plans will then specify the types and ranges of both new and existing appropriate outdoor recreation activities and their supporting facilities. Parks Canada will also review its national directives periodically ta ensure that new forms of outdoor recreation are adequately considered. THE OCEANS ACT According to Canada's Oceans Act a manne protected area is: "An area of the sea that tbrms part of the intemal waters of Canada, the territorial sea of Canada or the exclusive economic zone of Canada and has been designated under this section 135. (f)] 1lr special protection... " The Oceans Act received Royal Assent in the House of Commons on Decernber 18, 1996. lt was first recommended in May of 1994 in a report submitted to the Prime Minister by the National Adviçory Board on Scienœ and Technology. In January of that year DFO's Minister distributed a paper for public discussion, outlining the department's vision for oceans management. and consultations with stakeholders were conducted. The Oceans Act was developed and introduced in the House of Comrnons in June 1995. The Oceans Act can be divided into three parts: 1. Recognizing Canada's Oceans Jurisdiction, 2. Oceans Management Strategy, and; 3. Consolidation of Federal Responsibilities for Canada's Oceans. Recognizing Canada's Oceans Jurisdiction Like al1 countries, Canada's territory extends 12 nautical miles from the low water mark along the coast (the Territorial Sea). The Oceans Act establishes a Contiguous Zone extending 12 nautical miles fmm the outer edge of the Territorial Sea, that allows Canada to prevent and take action with respect to offenses committed on Canadian territory relating to customs, sanitary, fiscal, and immigration laws. The Oceans Act also establishes an Exclusive Economic Zone, extending 200 nautical miles adjacent to Canada. This is different than the 200-mile Fishing Zone already in existence, which relates solely to fishedes management. Canada's nghts and responsibilities within the Exclusive Economic Zone allow us to explore, exploit and conserve living and non-living natural resources. Canada also has the reçponsibility and jurisdiction to protect the manne environment. regulate scientific research and control offshore structures in this zone. Oceans Management Strategy The Oceans Act provides the legal frarnework for the irnplernentation of an Ocean Management Strategy. 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