The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, 13-002 Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo) INNER-RING SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION, , GEORGIA, USA

Dagmar B. Epsten, M.Arch.1

1 President, The Epsten Group, Inc., 303 Ferguson St., Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States, [email protected]

Keywords: urban, regeneration, LEED, mixed-use, transit, industrial, sprawl, USA

Summary This study analyzes developments that demonstrate alternatives to urban land growth (sprawl). Three recent projects in Atlanta, Georgia, USA, a mixed-use Brownfield development, a three-block campus expansion and the adaptive reuse of two street-level storefronts, are described in regard to their location, density, transportation options, and urban environmental benefits. All of these projects are seeking or have been awarded certification under the green building rating system LEED® (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design). Another commonality is described in the analysis: All three projects are located in the low-to-medium density ring encircling downtown. It is the inner-city ring of steel plants, railroad yards, fringe night-life and historically African-American commercial nodes; a ring which bridges the gap between the dense commercial core of downtown high-rise buildings and the sprawling outer ring of single-family houses. The author of this paper has coined the term “inner-ring” sustainable regeneration, describing redevelopment of underutilized properties, which roughly create a ring around downtown. The Atlanta findings also raise the issue as to what extent they might be manifestations of a national and perhaps international trend of sustainable, mixed-use regeneration of previously underutilized areas close to downtown, as the author has observed similar developments in other cities.

1. Introduction Atlanta has been identified as the city with the largest urban land growth (sprawl) of any city in the United States. This sprawl manifests itself by: - Development on previously undeveloped “greenfield” land: The Atlanta metro has grown by 1.5 million people in the last 20 years. From 1988 to 1998, nearly 768.93 square kilometers (km2) of forest in the Atlanta region were cleared. To date, no regulations are in effect to stop the urban growth. - Low density: Single-family home subdivisions dominate the development, interspersed with shopping malls and office parks, accessed by new highways and road systems. Atlanta has evolved into the least dense U.S. metropolitan area with only 3,538 persons per km2. - Long commutes in private vehicles: Public transportation is minimal and suitable employment frequently is not located near homes and schools, so long commutes in private vehicles are the norm. At 55 kilometers per day, Atlantans drive more than residents of any other city in the nation. - Environmental impacts on urban microclimate, air, and water: The microclimate is affected by the buildup of heat from paving and buildings, resulting in a heat island effect, with urban areas 1 to 5.5 degrees Celsius hotter than surrounding rural areas. Air quality suffers from vehicular exhaust. Streams and groundwater are polluted by urban stormwater run-off. In light of the continued sprawl, land developments that might show an alternative to this sprawl deserve a closer look. Such land development would likely need to be evaluated with the following criteria: - Location: Developed on previously developed land, to avoid development on "greenfield” land. - Density: Density higher than previously, to alleviate pressure of population growth on new land. - Transportation: Reduction of car commutes, through public transportation or mixed-use development. - Additional Urban Environmental Benefits: Less impact on urban microclimate, air, and water. In the following, three case studies that, upon first look, seem to meet these criteria are analyzed as to their characteristics, commonalities, and trend.

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2. Case Studies 2.1 Atlanta’s Atlantic Station® is one of the United States’ largest and most highly publicized mixed-use urban redevelopments.

Figure 1 View south from interstate highway with Atlantic Station’s 171 17th Street Building, a LEED Core & Shell Pilot Project, on the right. The new bridge (left) leads across the interstate to the buildings of Midtown. Atlanta's downtown is visible in the background. Photograph by The Epsten Group, Inc.

2.1.1 Location The project is located on previously developed land, close to , approximately three kilometers north of its core, and is approximately one kilometer west of Atlanta’s northern downtown area called Midtown. The site is separated from Midtown by an interstate highway. 2.1.2 Density Atlantic Station is the largest Brownfield redevelopment in the United States, located on the former site of a highly polluting steel plant, . The plant first came to life in 1901 and grew until after World War II, when its utility diminished and employment dropped. In 1998, when Jacoby Development purchased the property, the site was still covered with coal mountains and obsolete industrial production and warehouse facilities. It took 12,000 truckloads to remove the contaminated soil. Station redevelopment project, on a 0.56 square kilometer site, will feature 1.1 million square meters of residences, offices, retail, hotels, and restaurants, with 4.45 hectares of open space. To date, it is partially developed, with a 21-story office tower, a mall/entertainment complex with residential lofts on the upper floors, townhouses, multi-story residential buildings and a large furniture store. Anticipated density at build-out is over 14,000 m2 per hectare, a major increase over the industrial density of the 1990s. 2.1.3 Transportation In addition to its contamination, location was an obstacle for redevelopment of the site. Close to downtown, the triangular site, bounded by an interstate highway, a railroad line and a low-density residential area, was strangely isolated from traffic arteries and the rest of the city. The developers succeeded in obtaining the City of Atlanta's support for a new access to the interstate highway and a new bridge across it, connecting Atlantic Station to Midtown; however, they had to meet certain conditions under a federal program. The federal program, Project XL, required the developer to commit to environmental improvements that would minimize pollution by private vehicle transportation. This commitment resulted in a comprehensive transportation plan, which includes a shuttle crossing the new interstate bridge to an existing Midtown commuter train station, approximately 0.8 kilometers from the development. This plan also includes a vanpool program, preferred parking for carpools, bicycle storage facilities, and special event shuttles. The mixed-use development will likely reduce car trips as it offers various residential choices, employment options, a shopping and entertainment mall, and easy access to Midtown across the new interstate bridge. 2.1.4 Additional Urban Environmental Benefits As part of the federal program, green building certification for some or all of the buildings on the site was discussed. The developer expressed interest in voluntarily following ®the guidelines of the green building rating system Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED ), a program developed by the U.S. The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo)

Green Building Council. The federal “green bonds” program, enacted in 2004 to encourage energy-efficiency in new buildings, offers financing with tax exempt loans to some of those who achieve certifications. The Epsten Group was the LEED Consultant for the first completed office tower, 171 17th Street, and submitted the project to the LEED for Core and Shell (LEED-CS) Pilot Program. Through the LEED-CS Pilot Program, additional environmental objectives were set for the building, including for energy performance, water savings, indoor environmental quality, and material conservation, as well as for the site design in immediate vicinity of the buildings. Inspired by an available LEED point, the roof of 171 17th Street was covered with a light-colored heat- reflecting roofing membrane that helps alleviate the urban heat island effect. In addition, most parking is located in shared covered parking decks, a measure that also reduces the urban heat island effect.

2.3 Technology Square Georgia Institute of Technology's mixed-use development Technology Square is built on three city blocks and includes the Management Building with the College of Management and the campus bookstore, a continuing education facility, an administrative building, a privately operated hotel and conference center, privately leased street-level retail spaces, and a parking deck. 2.3.1 Location Atlanta's technical university, Georgia Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as “Georgia Tech”) had long been eyeing this property, approximately two kilometers north of downtown, in the southern portion of Midtown. The city’s north-south highway separates the university campus from this site and other downtown- Midtown areas. Only an existing bridge, to be widened to accommodate a pedestrian plaza and alternative transportation lanes, connects the property to the traditional Georgia Tech campus. Otherwise, the area is well connected to the street grid of downtown and Midtown.

Figure 2 Aerial view of Technology Square, with Management Building in the foreground left, hotel and conference center and continuing education building on right, and parking deck and an administrative building to right rear. Street from left to right in foreground leads to bridge on right and across interstate to Georgia Tech campus. Interstate highway from right to upper left leads to downtown Atlanta, visible at upper left corner of image. Photograph by Aerial Innovations.

2.3.2 Density Previous buildings on these three city blocks had been demolished years earlier, after the neighborhood's once thriving business district economically collapsed in the 1960s. Since then, this area was used for parking lots serving remote office buildings and a fringe night-life industry. When Georgia Tech decided to purchase the three blocks, the land was covered by cracked asphalt paving and foundation walls; all that was left of value was some mid-size street trees. The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo)

Georgia Tech’s land acquisition and subsequent development constituted a catalyst for further private development. This area of Midtown has become one of the fastest growing intown areas in America, now with a development density of more than 23,000 m2 per hectare. 2.3.3 Transportation Georgia Tech’s vision embraced ample alternative transportation choices. Besides being close to public bus stops and a public commuter train, Technology Square is connected to the campus and the commuter train with Georgia Tech shuttles, modeled after the trolleys of early 20th century Atlanta. They are powered by compressed natural gas, and are free and open to the public. The development is also bicycle-friendly, with numerous bike racks along the sidewalks and with showers for bicyclists in the Management Building. The parking deck, shared by the functions in all three-city blocks, offers a limited number of spaces. Carpool and van spaces are located in preferential locations and come with discounted parking permits. Mixed-use is now predominant in this area of town. The Management Building itself has a 350-seat auditorium, frequently used for lectures by the Atlanta community, a campus bookstore with many general- interest books, and restaurants and a coffee house. Neighborhood buildings comprise high-technology businesses as well as mid-rise residential development, typically with street-level retail. 2.3.4 Additional Urban Environmental Benefits Georgia Tech decided early on that it was interested in showcasing its commitment to sustainability by pursuing a LEED certification with the most prominent component of Technology Square, the Management Building. With The Epsten Group as LEED Consultant and using LEED for New Construction (LEED-NC) Version 2.0, the Management Building project achieved a LEED Silver certification in August 2003, before the building opened to students in September of 2003. LEED encouraged some changes that would otherwise not have been implemented. Also, some of these changes were incorporated in other components of Technology Square. A white heat-reflecting roof now covers all buildings, a departure from Georgia Tech‘s previous standard of dark two-ply modified bitumen roofs. This reduction of the heat island effect is aided by the development’s parking deck. Other urban benefits incorporated into the project resulted in LEED points, but were conceived as part of the design, not to comply with LEED objectives. For instance, despite its urban zoning, the project has plenty of open space due to the building’s reduced footprint, courtyard, and wide tree-lined sidewalks. While all the trees on the site were newly planted, the original mid-size street trees were assessed and, as suitable, carefully transplanted to the Georgia Tech campus. Georgia Tech transplanted 28 of the 36 trees, saving money that would have been spent on campus trees in the process. This creative and sustainable solution earned the Management Building one of its four LEED Innovation points. In addition to the Management Building’s LEED Silver certification, Technology Square received several planning and architectural awards, including being recognized as the most pedestrian-friendly new development in metro Atlanta by Atlanta’s Pedestrians Educating Drivers on Safety (PEDS).

2.4 Edgewood Offices and Auburn/Edgewood Redevelopment The small Edgewood Offices project is the adaptive reuse of a one-story building with two storefronts, located on a traditionally African-American commercial street just starting with a wave of redevelopment. The 260 m2 building, on a property with only 324 m2, was once a liquor store and briefly a merchandise store for the 1996 Summer Olympic Games. After a complete re-design under historic district guidelines, the building will provide office space for The Epsten Group and other leaseable space.

Figure 3 Computer model showing the two storefronts of The Edgewood Offices in the Auburn/Edgewood redevelopment area. The addition to the left storefront is shown in the left rear of the image (separated from existing structure by a courtyard). Image by The Epsten Group, Inc.

The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo)

2.4.1 Location The Edgewood Offices is located approximately two kilometers east of downtown Atlanta, at the eastern end of the Auburn/Edgewood district. Though The Edgewood Offices is a very small project, it provides insight into the larger urban redevelopment phenomenon along Edgewood Avenue and the better-known parallel street, Auburn Avenue. This area, known as the Martin Luther King Historic District, houses two major tourist attractions, the famous civil right leader’s birth home and tomb, and was the hub of the United States’ Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 60s. Despite the draw of this national landmark, the area fell into economic hardship and visual disrepair, and, for decades, several properties remained abandoned or underutilized. Within approximately the last five years, the residential loft movement swept through the area, and nearby warehouses were redeveloped. Within the last year, public housing projects were torn down and replaced with mixed-income multi-family residential buildings. The new higher-income residents are generating a demand for restaurants and shops. This rejuvenation of the Auburn/Edgewood district serves as a catalyst for the Edgewood Offices project and other smaller projects in the area. The Edgewood Offices is just one of several owner- and developer-driven projects in this part of town. Collectively, all these projects generate a revitalization effort and an urban benefit. A publicly funded workshop in 2004 recognized this effort, resulting in some planning recommendations. In the present and in the near future, the economic base of nearby residents alone is unlikely to support retail functions along the entire length of the Edgewood and Auburn avenues in the district; therefore, planners discussed other uses such as offices and additional residential buildings. Also, a large attraction such as an entertainment complex is being considered, to bring people in from other parts of the city. The area’s revitalization will include some replacement of existing buildings and some infill on empty parcels. With historic design guidelines in place, it is expected that many existing buildings will be renovated. Overall, urban regeneration of this district will likely alleviate pressure on suburban areas. There is some concern that some low-income residents may be displaced by the replacement of fully subsidized housing with only partially subsidized residential buildings. However, the new residential developments are denser than the earlier housing and overall, the population in the area is actually increasing. In conjunction with other similar developments, the housing replacement will likely offset some of the sprawl. 2.4.2 Density The one-story Edgewood Offices project will achieve additional density not through an added story, which would be structurally difficult on the historic building, but through a one-story addition in the rear yard. Thus, there is a minor increase in density for this property. In the Auburn/Edgewood district, a density of approximately two stories prevails, with some taller infill development from the 1950s and 60s. New development in the last three to four years is four or more stories. The area will likely be denser on average than before. The planning workshop in 2004 recommended the following additional infill or replacement development for what was called the Auburn Avenue/Eastside partial district: 90 townhomes, 1,130 multi-family housing units (rental and for sale), 1,040 student housing beds, 148,600 m2 of new office space, 32,500 m2 of new retail and entertainment space, 16,600 m2 of live/work units, and 7,500 new parking spaces. 2.4.3 Transportation The Edgewood Offices are less than 0.8 kilometers from a subway station. Several bus lines serve the area, including one along Edgewood Avenue. In addition, a loop bus serving the district (“eastside circulator’) from the station was discussed as part of the planning workshop recommendations. With residential development close-by, and with planning goals for the commercial Auburn/Edgewood district, the area could become truly mixed-use. Major functions lacking are large-scale grocery stores and malls, which can be found approximately three kilometers north or three kilometers east. Pedestrian circulation and bicycle trips are likely. Streetscape improvements are planned along both of the Auburn and Edgewood avenues, which will likely include bicycle stands. Current parking is very limited, and even though the planning workshop recommended the creation of additional parking, alternative transportation options likely will remain attractive. The Edgewood Offices has no off-street parking; thus, occupants and visitors will have to park along Edgewood Avenue or other streets. 2.4.4 Additional Urban Environmental Benefits The Edgewood Offices is LEED registered due to the interest of the owners, one of them the author, and of the future occupants, the author’s architectural-engineering office, which provides LEED Consulting. The building will serve as a sustainable design showcase to visitors and the community. Of the many environmental features to be implemented in the building, urban benefits are derived from the planned new white roofing and vegetated roofing, both of which reduce the urban heat island effect. Also, current storm The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo) water management will be improved by water collection in a cistern, for outdoor irrigation and potential in- door water use.

3. Analysis of Commonalities 3.1 Relation to Downtown Atlanta All three case studies are located within two to three kilometers from the Atlanta’s downtown central business district, with its high-rise office buildings and hotels. They are located in areas that were previously underutilized and only recently shifted into the focus of redevelopment.

3.2 Historic Reasons for Underutilization of Industrial and Commercial Areas Close to Downtown The fact that these areas of redevelopment lie in such close proximity to the dense high-rise development of Atlanta’s downtown, but have been underutilized up to this date, justifies a closer look at the historic development of the land use in the city of Atlanta. Atlanta was founded in 1837 as a railroad city at the junction of an east-west and a north-south line. Early development consisted of a trade-based community, soon including manufacturing as the basis of income and growth. Structures and yards related to trade and manufacturing, mostly consisting of warehouses and manufacturing plants, were built around the inner city. In this inner city, administrative functions required office buildings, and banks; along with retail stores, eating and drinking establishments, hotels and nighttime entertainment. These functions soon created a vital downtown core. While early residences were part of this downtown core, increased growth and activity downtown made families yearn for more tranquil surroundings. With the development of the streetcar, one could leave the core, get past the warehouses and manufacturing plants, and settle in previously undeveloped, less expensive land. Increased growth and population pressure led to new suburbs, further new suburbs, and today’s sprawling metropolitan area. Additional new business core and manufacturing centers have sprung up in various locations of the metropolitan area. Also, the old downtown has steadily been renewed, now with new office and hotel , conference centers and night-time entertainment geared to conference visitors. The early suburbs of the 1910s and 1920s have been rediscovered and have been lovingly restored, though they are seeing increased pressure for bigger replacement houses. Between the early historic suburbs and the dense commercial downtown, the old warehouses and manufacturing plants remained for years; they only started to be discovered for higher-use development approximately 15 years ago. Previously zoned and valued as industrial property, many of these buildings have since been renovated for residential and mixed-use functions, typically leaving some of the now fashionable industrial “chic” intact. What industrial and commercial areas close to downtown have in common is that they are part of a ring that winds its way between the high-rise downtown area and the residential neighborhoods. While this ring may be interrupted by ribbons of higher development, highways, and residential areas, the ring can identified on the Atlanta city map, and continues to offer unique possibilities for a sustainable urban regeneration.

3.3 Sustainability and LEED in the U.S. and Atlanta Sustainable development was defined in 1987 by the United Nations “Brundtland” Commission as development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. In the United States, sustainable development has been strongly influenced by the U.S. Green Building Council and its green building rating system, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). This point-based system leads to four potential award levels, and serves as a tool for keeping the design and construction team accountable and organized toward the implementation of environmental objectives. The system is voluntary for private developers, who typically adopt the system for marketing reasons. Several public entities have adopted it as their standard in order to set responsible examples for private developments. Both public and private entities tend to be interested in operational savings achieved by meeting the rating systems standards for energy savings, water savings, and healthier, more productive interior work environments. Recognizing the sprawl, lack of density, and limited transportation options -- other than by private vehicle -- in American cities, LEED awards points for developing previously developed land, developing in areas with an actual density or (by the time the project is occupied) an anticipated density of greater than 14,000 m2 per hectare, and by encouraging public transportation, bicycle use, and limited parking. LEED certification would be an easier choice for those that develop with these goals in mind. LEED also gives points for measures that reduce the urban heat island effect. Covered parking and light- colored site surfaces are fairly easily implemented in urban developments that already plan for parking decks in order to maximize parking on limited land. Light-colored roofs are not more expensive than dark roofs and have other desirable benefits; not only do they minimize the heat island effect; they also keep the building interior cooler. The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo)

As of March 2005, only five buildings in Atlanta are LEED certified, including the Management Building at Technology Square. Several other buildings intend LEED certification, such as the other two projects discussed in this paper, but as an approximation, the total number is less than 20.

3.4 Sustainable Inner-Ring Development in Atlanta The historically underutilized industrial and commercial properties, located in an indefinite ring around downtown, are good candidates for development, coined herein “inner-ring development”. Their location, increased density, transportation options, and potential other urban environmental benefits also make them good candidates for a sustainable development, and a green building rating such as a LEED certification. While suburban development continues to sprawl, there appears to be some focus on redevelopment of areas that are close to Atlanta’s downtown and potentially underutilized. Developers that are more interested in intown property are rediscovering underutilized light industrial and low-density commercial properties; they initiate residential redevelopment and other uses related to the new influx of higher-income residents. While the last couple of decades have seen adaptive reuse of existing industrial and commercial buildings, the trend emerging in the last two to three years is the infill and potentially teardown and rebuilding of inner-ring properties. The anticipated results are new mixed-use, medium-density developments of multi-story residential and commercial buildings, which meet many criteria for sustainable development, such as those of LEED.

Figure 4 Proposal for a new transit system, which uses abandoned rail lines that previously served industrial areas. Atlantic Station, Technology Square, and The Edgewood Offices are the inner ring that encircles downtown. Text and Graphic Edits by The Epsten Group, Image by Ryan Gravel, Friends of the Belt Line.

Connected to this observable trend of inner-ring development, there is notable public discussion in Atlanta of a transit system that would connect those underutilized areas and contribute to their further development. The proposal takes advantage of four rail lines that were built after the American Civil War, before the older suburbs. The intention was to expand the industrial base of the city and to connect the industrial properties at the edge of downtown. This proposed transit line forms a rough circle around downtown and will connect to the subway system at four points. While there have been several earlier proposals for reusing some of these railroads, the current proposal has generated much interest. It is going through a public comment period, includes a proposal for public parks along the rail lines, and suggests the creation of a tax allocation district to generate funding. The transit system would also likely contribute to transportation and density goals for developments in its proximity which like the projects presented in this paper, might aspire to be examples of sustainable development and perhaps also pursue LEED objectives. While the case studies presented in this paper are not directly located along this beltline loop, they would likely gain some additional benefits from their general proximity; especially as two other line routings (such The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo) as the "C” loop) are discussed in conjunction with the beltline, which might provide a rail link leading to the Atlantic Station project. The main difference between the inner-ring as understood by the author and that of the beltline concept is that the author defines the ring as a closer ring around the actual downtown. This ring includes Technology Square which is just north of downtown, and, with some looser definition, also stretches up to Atlantic Station; the beltline draws the ring where the industrial properties are north of Midtown, north of Atlantic Station, and in general using a larger ring around downtown. Thus, the author’s closer inner-ring is actually more of a wide band which starts at the very edge of downtown and includes areas like the Technology Square property, which was not a traditional industrial site but an underutilized commercial area due to neighborhood blight. The outer edge of the author’s wide band extends all the way to the residential neighborhoods and includes the beltline.

3.5 Sustainable Inner-Ring Development in the U.S. and Other Countries While inner-ring development has been observed to some detail in Atlanta, inner-ring development has not been much discussed as potentially being part of a coherent movement in the United States. As industrial and secondary commercial developments in other cities have likely followed geographic, topographic, and transportation patterns, such as rivers, lakes, and valleys, it is conceivable that one would discover redevelopment patterns linked to the city’s original development. The overriding similarity, however, would likely be that older industrial areas would be close to the historic downtown. Other areas close to downtown, not necessarily of industrial land use, might also have been blighted. It is likely that a ring would emerge of underutilized areas around the downtown core that is somewhat underutilized or has recently been discovered for development. Development of industrial property including warehouses has been observed by the author in other cities of the United States, including Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania, USA), Portland (Oregon, USA), and New York (New York, USA). Indeed, a more comprehensive analysis might find a global trend of regeneration of urban industrial and otherwise underutilized areas, in close proximity of and loosely surrounding historic downtown areas.

4. Conclusions While former industrial and otherwise underutilized commercial areas do not always form an exact ring around a downtown, they tend to be located along the edge of a historic city core and might form a loose ring between downtown and the residential areas. They were usually passed over by early and later residential development, and then were or are rediscovered. They offer opportunities for reducing sprawl, with higher density mixed-use development served by public transportation. The U.S. green building rating system LEED encourages this redevelopment by awarding points for location, increased density, transportation options, and other urban environmental benefits likely achievable with these developments. As cities study the pattern of redevelopment of underutilized property, they may find that seemingly isolated points of redevelopment weave new development patterns that could be encouraged with mixed-use zoning and alternative transportation options, for a sustainable city life.

References Central Atlanta Progress, The Atlanta Downtown Improvement District, The City of Atlanta, et al. 2003, December 11th Workshop Results Presentation. Chapman, Liz. 2004, Transforming a Neighborhood. Environmental Design + Construction, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 68-71. City of Atlanta. 1999, Atlantic Steel Brownfield Redevelopment Plan & Reallocation District. City of Atlanta Department of Planning, Development, and Neighborhood Conservation, Bureau of Planning. 2001, District Two Rail Corridor Inventory & Assessment. The Epsten Group. 2004, 171 17th Street at the Atlantic Station® Development Case Study. The Epsten Group. 2003, The Management Building: Technology Square Case Study. Hairston, Julie B. 2005, Beltline proposal at a crossroads. The Atlanta Journal Constitution, Vol. 57, No. 52, pp. C1 & C5. Metro Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA). 2004, Atlanta Inner Core Transit Feasibility Study: Refined.