Developmental Science 12:6 (2009), pp 825–830 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00918.x
DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE REVIEW Executive functions in adolescence: inferences from brain and behavior Eveline A. Crone
Department of Developmental Psychology, Leiden University, The Netherlands
Abstract
Despite the advances in understanding cognitive improvements in executive function in adolescence, much less is known about the influence of affective and social modulators on executive function and the biological underpinnings of these functions and sensitivities. Here, recent behavioral and neuroscientific studies are summarized that have used different approaches (cognition, emotion, individual differences and training) in the study of adolescent executive functions. The combination of these different approaches gives new insight into this complex transitional phase in life, and marks adolescence as not only a period of vulnerabilities, but also great opportunities in terms of training possibilities and interventions.
Introduction how these changes in cognitive, emotional and social behavior are linked to brain development. Adolescence is a highly important transition phase Longitudinal research examining changes in brain between childhood and adulthood, marked by structure over development within individuals has shown significant physical, social, cognitive and emotional that cortical white matter increases approximately linearly changes (Dahl & Gunner, 2009; Steinberg, Albert, with age throughout childhood and adolescence, and Cauffman, Banich, Graham & Woolard, 2008). The differs little across regions (Gogtay, Giedd, Lusk, onset of adolescence is characterized by the start of Hayashi, Greenstein, Vaituzis, Nugent, Herman, Clasen, pubertal maturation around the age of 10 years, during Toga, Rapoport & Thompson, 2004; Sowell, Thompson, which children undergo rapid physical growth and Leonard, Welcome, Kan & Toga, 2004). In contrast, experience the onset of sexual maturation (Shirtcliff, cortical gray matter, which reflects neuronal density and Dahl & Pollak, 2009). One of the most salient the number of connections between neurons, follows an characterizations of adolescence is a steady increase in inverted-U shape over development, peaking at different executive functioning; during adolescence children ages depending on the region. Therefore, gray matter loss increasingly master the ability to control their thoughts is considered an index of the time-course of maturation and actions to make them consistent with internal goals. of a region (Sowell et al., 2004). In the last decade, Executive functions are thought to be central to human considerable progress has been made in identifying the cognition, and therefore adolescence can be seen as a neural correlates of age-related change in executive period of significant cognitive advancements. function. A number of brain imaging studies in recent However, around the same time as the start of pubertal years have been conducted using event-related potentials maturation, adolescents become increasingly self- (ERPs: a method to measure brain potentials from the conscious, they get involved in risky and sometimes scalp) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI: reckless behavior and they become increasingly sensitive a safe and non-invasive brain imaging technique) which to the opinions and evaluations of others (Steinberg, 2005). have identified neural correlates of age-related im- Thus, adolescence is an age of advantages (improvements provement in executive function. In this article, I in executive function), but also sensitivities (such as will review several highly interesting and promising vulnerability to risk-taking and social evaluation). studies, some of which have recently been published in Despite these well-known developmental transitions, Developmental Science. These studies highlight the the neural substrates that support these developmental important interplay between studying changes in behavior changes in cognitive, emotional and social behavior are under various experimental conditions. Subsequently, those still largely unknown. A fundamental question in current changes that show largest developmental differences are research on child and adolescent development concerns related to changes in brain function in a specific
Address for correspondence: Eveline A. Crone, Leiden University, Department of Developmental Psychology, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333AK Leiden, The Netherlands; e-mail: [email protected]